KINESIOLOGIASLOVENICA 1995; 2 (1) 11-16 1 1 THE CONSTRUalON OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SPORI Moica Doupo•a* KONSTRUKCIJA RAZLIK MED SPOLOMA ABSTRACT When women's sport is discussed on an academic level, among experts there are, asa rule, no major disagreements. But when we get feedback informa- tion from families, the problem of women, be it mother or daughter, is not just a practical problem. Many issues aboutwomen in sport arise. The much wanted sport-oriented family becomes questio- nable. Why? Social conditions have reached such a stage that it is necessary to talk about women's sport with more determination and on a broader scale, than just aboutsport in the family. Key words: gender, game, playfulness, culture, phy- sical education, top-sport • Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia IZVLEČEK Kadar razprava o ženskem športu teče na akadem- ski ravni, med strokovnjaki praviloma ni večjih navzkrižij. Ko pa dobimo povratno informacijo iz družin, se kaže problematika ženske, najsi gre za mater ali hčer, več kot praktičen problem.VOdpirajo se namreč vprašanja o ženskah v športu . Zeljena, k športu orientirana družina postane vprašljiva. Zakaj? Družbene razmere so danes dosegle tisto točko, ko je o ženskem športu potrebno odločneje sprego- voriti, in to širše, kot le v okviru športa v družini . Ključne besede: spol, igra, igrivost, kultura, športna vzgoja, vrhunski šport 12 HUMAN PLAYFULNESS, THE FOUNDATION OF HUMAN CULTURE Games - playfulness existed even befare man and his culture, includingsport culture, thus it is its base. In every developmental phase of human existence, at least on the level of every human's conception, it needed at least three preconditions: freedom, re- laxation and absence of fear (7). These are, w ithout doubt, general values strived for in every demo cra- tic society. Absence of these values in individual so- cial environments, means a restriction of games in connection with creativity and depends mainly on the inner strength of man to create the two far him- self and far his inner world. Every game is chiefly something unrestricted - free. A child or an animal play because playing presents satisfaction. With an adult, the game wh ich gives satisfaction also be- comes a need. Playfulness presents a phenomenon by wh ich Homo Sapiens differs from ali other ani- mal species. Younganimals are more similarto a hu- man than the adultones: they are playfu l (7). Adult animals also allow themselves playfulness while fandling their young. But with animals, playfulness soon passes, w hile humans remain more or less play- ful ali their lives. When speaking of games- playing, we mean that function of a living being that cannot be completely defined, either biologically or logi- cal ly. It contai ns someth i ng that gives essence, mean- i ng to life. Playing is a self-sufficient activity, which, outside itself, has no goal, there is no separation ac- cording to gender, or race o r education ... there is only d ivision accordi ng to playing- playful ness, cre- ativity. GENDER EQUALITY IN SPORT The problem women face in ali areas of their parti- cipation, and so also in sport, varies, but has, in some cultures and civil isation trends- if notsimilar reasons and solutions then far certain, similar manifestations. O nly the ways in which women experience and per- ceive these problems are different. The starting point far solving them should be: although people are different, they can be equal. And what does equality in sport mean? Equality can be defined in the sense of free choice. Women in sport should not be dealt with separately, but in connection, in con- text with some other sides of their lives. Equality in sport signifies a conviction that women have a right to engage in sport, that they believe in success and achieve it bycontributingwomen values into the or- ganisation and legitimacy of these values. In industrial society the difference between the sex- es is less evident, but all the more subtle. This being Mojca Doupona THE CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SPORT a fact because, through t irne, certain stereotypes have formed about the concept of the role of the sex- es, weli known prejudices and view-points that be- came deeply rooted in human consciousness. Man's supremacy is also in today's society quite marked, chiefly in spheres of social power and influence. Today we have reached a phase of development where it is generally accepted that female problems in sport exist. But already in searching far reasons, opinions of scientists vary. Major disagreements are manifest in two views. Some experts advocate the thesis that the causes for these differences should be looked for in biological and genetic diversity of the sexes, whi le others state that the differences are the product of social and cultural policies - thus artifi- cially formed. Usually the basic statement that the naturality of eve- ry d ivision originates from the biological differences of the sexes. Differences between sport education of boys and gi rls, their participation and perfor- mance, were often explained by the ideas of natu- ra!, biological difference. Explanations based on bi- ological determ inants were thus subject to many academic discussions. It is clearer and clearer that psychological differences between boys and girls, men and women, are seen as "natura! " and "in- evitable" and not created by society or cultural ly re- produced. Nowadays much evidence exists that de- nies the general suppositions and academic "truths" about the physical or natural sexual differences. Much space is left for critical reflections on the true relevancy of sexual differences in sports and sports education. But we must not accept the view that the existence of stereotypes is predetermined and the resu It of the consensus on the roles of girls and boys. It is illogical and erroneous to try and demonstrate that just because relatively more men than women show aggressive and competitive behaviour, these characteristics are typical far the male sex. It is a mis- take to treat as "natural " ali that is usual, because "natural" (biologically) in one cu lture does not ne- cessarily mean "natural " in another culture, or, dif- ferently, what is "biological" or "natural" varies from culture to culture in such a way that even the cate- gory of sex (gender) is determined by culture. The difference of the two sexes regarding demonstra- tions of aggression and competitiveness can be ex- plained as being the resu lt of social and cul tu ral ex- perience, asa part of a process that is begun at birth. When bom, children are of male or female sex but they do not have male or female identities. But as they are bom into a social world, where sexual dif- ferences present the reality of everyday life, children quickly choose their sex. Gender has to do with an- Mojca Doupona THE CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SPORT ticipated behaviour which is based on an uniform concept of sex character. In social analyses on sport the most popular manner of explaining how individuals assume gender iden- tity, is the conceptof socialisation. Even school is not only an academic experience of institutional life. Routines and rituals shape significant social habits that communicate the basic knowledge abouta cul- ture. By identifying the influence and power of ideologies related to gender and the development of girl sport education, it is possible to understand the role played by sporteducation in the institutionalisation of gender. Gender cannot be understood only asa demonstration of behaviour and ideas of certain in- dividuals, as, in girl sport education, gender is insti- tutionalised and transferred through the praxis of daily instruction. In frame of girl sporteducation, the structural analysis, supported mostly by historical evidence, is relevant. The historical analysis con- tributes to a better understanding of the relations be- tween gender and sporteducation of girls as it shows thatwomanhood is nota fixed and constantcatego- ry, but has to be understood asa social and historical construction. OVERPOWER OF MENTAL STEREOTYPES IN LAW REALISATION In the past "gymnastics" was man's domain, meant only for boys, performed (led) by male gym teach- ers. Only as late as the end of the 19. century did "gymnastics" become possible for girls, for which most of the credit is due to A. Spiess (3). In school physical education, from the very beginning, in Slovenia as well as elsewhere in Europe, boys and male teachers dominated and women, or rather girls, were included only very slowly. Physical edu- cation (gymnastics), at the beginning of the 20. cen- tu ry had the character of a "skill", a subject that was not "scientific in nature". It stili held last place asa school subject, which shows the importance as- cribed to it. Gymnastics and free exercises, which were for long the basis of sport education, stressed female ele- gance and sufficed for the then existing demands for good behaviour. Physical exercises were adapted to the fairer sex, as there was a general opinion that male capacity (efficiency) differs from female. Due to this view women performed mainly easy and ele- gant movements. For physical education the first post-waryears meant a socio-political, ideal, contextual and methodical 13 de~ermination. The main socio-political starting point of phys1cal education was quantity, which meant that physical education had to be ensured to a_ll schooling chi ldren with the aim to increase phy- s1cal, work and defence abilities. The pedagogical aim of gymnastic instruction was to accustom pupils to everyday meaningful exerci- ses of the body as well as to understand order and discipline. The new educational plan mainly stressed the concern for the health and safety of pupils. lnterests and inclinations of pupils were also consi- dered. Emphasis was given to activity, to the im- provement of personal achievements and to the overcoming of fatigue in exercises, and not so much to the formal execution of tasks. In 1953, by a decree on compulsory 8-year school- ing, the number of physical education lessons was increased (8) and a certain improvementshowed al- so in greater importance given to the autonomy of women as personalities. But the utilitarian view of physical education stili dominated. In this viewthere was no trace of a search for playfulness, relaxation, satisfaction, search for new worlds of experience through this activity. Even the goals changed only so much that they were not subordinate only to the in- terests of a certain social community (state), butalso considered women's personal characteristics. The resolution of the federal assembly then stressed ali the mentioned components of socialistic physi- cal e~ucation in the formation of a wholesome per- sonal1ty. Word was about the humanistic and self- management adjustment of the wholesome perso- nality to the general social development (1 ). In official sources, no difference between the phy- sical education of boys or girls cou ld be noticed. The central aim of girl's sport education regarding the "greatest task for a woman" - the continuation of the race - was stili creating a physically and mentally sound female sex. Physical activity was supposed to "strengthen" women for the fight for jobs, as well as forenduringthe strain at home and atwork, the ide- al being a working woman who could carry ali the burdens. Often women performed the same physi- cal work as men, participated in work brigades, etc. Sport began to be a means of striving for the real isa- tion of socialism. With the help of physical activity, women were given the right to demonstrate strength, endurance and courage. At first, the study of gymnastics was left to coinci- dental teachers. The decree allowed the teachi ng of this subject without proper education or professio- nal exams defined by the government. The situation 14 changed after 18 71, when it was necessary to create a newvocation-the gymnastics teacher - due to the compulsory introduction of gymnastics into se- condaryschools and colleges. In 1873, the universi- ty cared far the education of gymnastics teachers. In Graz (Austria), a two-year course was introduced, and there were some Slovenes among its students. 49 graduates, who successfully passed (from 1873 to 1914) are stili known, of which 7 were women (6). The first high school far physical culture was faund- ed in Berlin in 1920 (3). 1 n 1946, a govern ment decree was passed far the es- tabl ish ment of the Institute of Physical Culture, the fallowing year a three-year study was introduced instead of the one-year. The next step was made in 1953, when the Institute of Physical Culture was faunded in Ljubljana and was, three years later, re- named to the Higher School of Physical Culture (6). In the Socialist Republic of Slovenia, we lagged well behind other republics of farmer Yugoslavia in this process, as many institutions did not fallow the de- velopment trends. In the beginning, there really were only few female teachers, nor was there any great eagerness far the profession of physical educa- tion teacher. But neither the research nor the pro- fession had any notion aboutthe changingstructure as well as about its own demands that sti li obstruc- ted the participation of women in sport education. This led to a peculiar discrepancy between theory and practice of sport cadre institutions. REFLECTION OF THE ATAVISMS OF THE PAST In Slovenia the hierarchical principles are apparent in sport education teaching. Female teachers in- struct mostly in elementary school, while male teachers dominate in secondary schools. The hier- archy is even more evidentat university level, where, although there are more female students than male, sport is taught mostly by male teachers. Female teachers should instruct girls far the reason that women can transfer knowledge that is nearer to thei r anatomical structure than men. In this way, female students grasp this knowledge faster and more pro- faundly. But this theory does not hold out, the least at the university level. Evidently even the profession bends under the hierarchy of the sexes. It is a known fact, that in accordance with the education level, pay increases. In our case, the university is the highest level of education and such is also the level of pres- tige as well as the fee of its teachers, opposite to those at elementary or secondary level. In accordance to the supposition thatgenerally look- ing, more women teach in school than men, there is Mojca Doupona THE CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SPORT also an increase in the number of girls wishing to study at the Faculty of Sport. As all universities, also the Faculty of Sport, only a certain number of stu- dents can enrol according to certain criteria. These are the exam results and motor abi l ities. The specifics of the entrance exam demands a special re- su It processing and this also includes evaluation ac- cordingto gender. 60%ofthecandidatesenlisted in the end are male and only 40% female, although more girls wanted to study than boys. This ratio of enrolment ensures that the needs of the educational system, in which 75% of the graduates find employment, are covered. Female graduates mostoften find jobs in schools, only a small percent in recreational institutions, whi le they hardly ever get jobs in the coaching profession. Male graduates look fcir jobs in coaching, recreation or in private prac- tice, while they avoid teaching in school because this work is notsocially prestigious. Often they speculate and teach, far example, in secondary school whi le at the same tirne work as coaches. In this way they get two fees in contrast with the majority of women with families, who also have two jobs, but get paid far only one. SPORT IS NOT FOR WOMEN? Sport education needs a complex approach to stu- dent's personality and beside completely expert tasks in the study plan, includes also the task of in- troducingstudents (male, female) to some value def- initions ensuing from human interrelations, espe- ciallythose between the twosexes. The task of sport education, to shatter prejudices and introduce ma- jor changes in the midst of century long tradition, is stili significant. In this regard, the male/female tea- cher of sport education holds an important position in the field of fast and complete affirmation of wom- en- sporteducation. 1 n Slovenia, we have better elementary school sport education than in many more developed countries, but all the same, in the minds of many, a negative view on the physical activity of girls stili exists. Not only older people, but also children (even the girls themselves) stil i think that sport is "not suitable" far women. Many have also a farmed, stereotype in- fluenced, pattern of sport activities that are suppos- edly "suitable" far the female or the male sex. Statistical data on the not-as-yet presented research of Janko Strel and collaborators (4) in which the Slovene elementary school pupils were included, showed the above mentioned views. In sport education children are not separated by gender the first faur years (till the so-called class le- Mojca Doupona THE CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SPORT vel). But this does not mean that it must be so. Just because of the fact that in sport education there is a mixture of education and learning, not t raining, there ex ist numerous reasons for the children to practice in rnixed groups. Usually female teachers teach girls while male teachers teach boys. But no co-education can be successful if it is plucked from a diverse method of work w ith boys or girls. In sport, where, in the past, the agonal approach was greatly stressed, co-education was so much less sensible. The fundamental problem in work with girls is the factthat, in the past, itwas the just a copy ofthe work with boys, when science in this field d id not as yet recognise that it is important to cultivate sport as an ingredientof the quality of life and not asa sport FOR better results, sport FOR health, FOR beauty, as sport FOR . .. (2) . There isstill too much copyingof the ima- ge o f the boy sportsman model, a fighter and not homo ludens. Generally we can say that the marginalisation of woman personality in sport, in Slovenia and former Yugoslavia, was not so obvious, regarding the fact that a part of sport atavisms, reflected also in the re- lation man-woman, ie. coach - female competitor, decreased due to the fact that the majority of sportswomen originated from relatively urban envi- ronments. Although this was not always an assurance - let us call it that - of a cultural relation coach - women, as living in urban societies does notensure this automatically. But it should be considered that, as a rule everywhere in the world, the talented sportsmen/women move into towns where profes- sional cadre and institutions are concentrated, as well as other possibi lities that are impossible to find in a vi llage. Sportswomen, specially young girls, are exposed to all possible abuses, mostly by coaches. Sport prac- tice generally shows that specially women, when the coach is a man and in most cases it is, can experience quite tu rbulent enroachment upon personal in- tegrity and d ignity. It is not j ust vulgar behaviour, swearing, but even demands for sexual intercourse on account of the coach's thesis about competition success. In Slovenia, we can speak, to a certain extent, about a different relatio n between coach and sportswo- man as the Slovene society mainly belonged to the Mid-European cultural space, and the "3K" (Kinder, Kuche, Kirche) for women d id not exist completely and, in sport, was in manyways surpassed. Buta cri- tical reflect ion does not allow us to think that the elements of a patriarchal fam ily and authoritative management, so typical for sport, are already a past 15 in Slovenia, be it male or female sport. But the eter- nal question will be puton the agenda tirne and tirne again: is the relation toward sportswomen built on progressive views of the relation of sport toward women oris sport perhaps the last fortress of "male chauvinism" ? Researches of the last few years in Slovenia point to- ward a change in such sport activities of women where more culture of movement is included (aero- bics, dancing). Society (state) d id introduce sport education to high school institutions. But all other, negative or posi tive shifts, were more a consequen- t ial reaction to the recognit ion of the significance of sport education over the world, than some au- tonomous, even less, autochthon social plan. The ar- ticulation of demands and activities was, in greater part, a consequence of cognit ion, examples of world trends (in accordance with social abilities in Slovenia) than a consequence of well spoken, pro- fessionally correct, but in reality non-feasible or un- realised intentions of the legislature or other re- sponsible factors for the development of sport cul- ture. The aim of sporteducation is primarily the child's ac- quisition of sport habits which he/she will keep till old age and therefore it is only fair that sport educa- t ion enables them that. There exists a great variety of sport activities for wh ich gi ris show more i nterest. lf a female pupil finds at leastonesport activity in the frame of the school sport program me, in which she w ill be recreat ionally active in her free t irne, then sport educat ion has achieved its aim. Therefore, se- lect ive sport programmes at all levels of educatio n may be the only acceptable definition of the deve- lopment of sport as an element of the quality of life. Sport cannot be otherw ise than individual and adapted to the structure of an individual. Here and only here does sport become completely partof the spi ritual and material culture of an individual as well as of a nation. This also means that it must pass the threshold toward the assertion of human rights and freedoms of a society where such views are more friendly to individuals as well as to sport activity and specially materially and professionally feasible. Sport is a f ield of general culture into w hich view- points about gender enter in different ways. This means thatsport activities are not simple manifesta- tions of the present, butare a part of historically con- ditioned and socially produced restrictions and abi- lities. They are neither static nor reflections of the pastor clear visions of the future, but they represent a condition where social relations of power and pri - vileges are mirrored. Th is argument is neither new nor unique. 16 Atthe Congress Women and Sport in Brighton (May 1994), a conferential declaration for women's sport, intended for the promotion of the equality of wo- men in sport, was adopted. The mentioned decla- ration presented the guidelines for the development of women's sport in the field of top and school sport: - in frame of top-sport, the directives were adopted with the intention that girls/women would assert themselves faster in two basic are as of thei r sport ac- tivity - that of the coach-woman and as a sports- woman. - the basic starting points defining the guidelines of sport education are oriented toward the problem of the gender in the complete educational system, from sport education at all levels to the inclusion of wo- men in research projects (5). In Slovenia, the problem of women' sport has not as yet been tackled. But the theses on the development of sport, which are to be the basic doctrine for ali in- terventions, especially the legislative ones, as well as other legally or illegally regulated relations in sport, are prepared. The resolution aboutsport, in the pro- cess of the birth of the newstate, did notestablish it- self in spite of the fact that two houses of the then- existing three-house parliament passed this as the basis for further building of the doctrinairian ap- proach to sport in new social conditions. In the new parliamentary bodies or the responsible ministry, there was created a thesis on the priority importance of passing a law on sport. The resolution was to be- come its theoretical base, putting under question al- so other acts and the doctrine present in the sport field. CONCLUDING REFLECTION The differences between the two sexes existed and will exist. Butwe should notgive them negative con- notations. Namely, every individual has a right to otherness in relation to others, irrespective of gen- der. Therefore the problem of female sport in regard to male sport should not exist. Women differ from one another as well as from men. lf we presented such a viewpoint, then no differences, resulting from such or other prejudices, would be ascribed to female or male sport. By help of expert sources at my disposal, 1 found the existence of social differences between the two sex- es, which, through a longer period of tirne, formu- lated themselves as political interests. The concept of dealing with women through historical and cul- tural periods also promoted the relation toward Mojca Doupona THE CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SPORT women's sport. In this, the surveillance apparatus was quite diverse and many-coloured, but quite evidently ensued from pre-formulated premises about women's role in society. Ali the same, it is evident that in the 60s, such views changed in favour of women' sport, but after the 60s, in very few fields do we find so much black-white dichotomy as just in the field of women's sport. It is true that life unrolls itself past scientific re- searches but it is altogether another matter for it to develop without feel ing the influence of social pre- judices and ossified views. In a certain way, it is quite tragicfor science that in certain periods of tirne, due to some or other constellations of social relations in the world, it even tried to give the popular stere- otypes scientific support. Regardless of development in views on women' sport, the dichotomy stili exists. It is presented in the Master's thesis, whi le some thoughts are concentrated in this article. REFERENCES 1. Objave sveta za prosveto in kulturo LRS (Publications of the council for education and culture of the Peoples Republic of Slovenia); 1953:6 2. Petrovič K. Pota in razpotja slovenskega športa (Roads and crossroads ofSlovene sport). In: Razprave in eseji. Ljubljana: Nova revija, 1993: 392-401 3. Stepišnik D. Telovadba na Slovenskem (Sport in Slovenia). Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenije, 1974 4. Strel J et al. Raziskovalni projekt: Analiza razvojnih trendov motoričnih sposobnosti in morfoloških značilnosti in relacij obeh s psihološkimi in sociološkimi dimenzijami slovenskih otrok in mladine med 7. in 18. letom starosti v obdobju 19 70-1983-199 3 (Research project: Analysis of develop- mental trends of motor abilities and morphologic characte- ristics and their relations, also with psychological and socio- logical dimensions, ofSlovene children and youth between 7 and 18 years of age in the period 1970- 1983- 1993)., Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport: 1994 5. The Brighton declaration on woman in sport. Brighton: Sports Council, 1994 6. 30 let športne vzgoje na Univerzi v Ljubljani (30 years of physical education on University of Ljubljana). Zbornik. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, 1993 7. Trstenjak A. Šport in ustvarjalnost (Sport and creativity). Telesna kultura 1987; 35(3): 18- 21 8. Uradni list SRS (Official Gazette of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia) 1953: 41