MEDNARODNA REVIJA ZA JAVNO UPRAVO International Public Administration Review Univerza v Ljubljani Fakulteta za upravo Letnik 14, številka 1, marec 2016 Volume 14, Number 1, March 2016 ISSN 2335-3414 (printed ed.) ISSN 2385-9717 (on-line ed.) Mednarodna revija za javno upravo je znanstvena revija, ki združuje različne discipline, povezane z javno upravo. Obravnava teoretična in praktična vprašanja ter rešitve s področja javne uprave, upoštevajoč upravne, pravne, ekonomske, organizacijske in informacijske vidike delovanja in razvoja javne uprave. The International Public Administration Review's mission is to inform the expert public about theoretical and practical issues and solutions in the field of public administration, the present key trends in public administration development both globally and in Slovenia, and to inform readers of major events, consultations, meetings and publications related to public administration. izdajatelj / publisher Fakulteta za upravo Univerze v Ljubljani / Faculty of Administration, University of Ljubjana naslov uredništva / address of editorial board Fakulteta za Upravo Univerze v Ljubljani Gosarjeva 5, SI-1000 Ljubljana tel.: +386 (0)1 5805-500 faks: +386 (0)1 5805-521 e-pošta / e-mail: mrju@fu.uni-lj.si spletna stran / website: http://www.fu.uni-lj.si/zalozba/mednarodna-revija-za-javno-upravo/ odgovorna urednica / editor Stanka Setnikar Cankar uredniški odbor / editorial board Aleksander Aristovnik, Manica Danko, Mitja Dečman, Nevenka Hrovatin, Maja Klun, Polonca Kovač, Alenka Kuhelj, Anamarija Leben, Primož Pevcin, Rajko Pirnat, Iztok Rakar, Janez Stare, Metka Tekavčič, Ljupčo Todorovski, Mirko Vintar mednarodni uredniški odbor / international editorial board Jon Aarum ANDERSEN (Örebro University, Sweden), Stephen BAILEY (Glasgow Caledonian University, Great Britain), Helena BLAŽIĆ (Ekonomski fakultet Rijeka, Sveučilište u Rijeci, Croatia), Robert B. DENHARDT (University of Southern California, USA), Mirjana DRAKULIĆ (Fakultet organizacionih nauka, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Serbia), Jürgen HARBICH (München, Germany), Calin HINTEA (Faculty of Political, Administrative and Communication Sciences, Babes Bolyai University, Cluj Napoca, Romania), Gyorgy JENEI (Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem, Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary), Theo P.W.M. van der KROGT (EAPAA, European Association for Public Administration Accreditation, The Netherlands), Kveta KUBATOVA (University of Economics Prague, The Czech Republic), Margaret LINEHAN (Cork Institute of Technology, The Republic of Ireland), Paolo MANCINI (University of Perugia, Italy), Alka OBADIĆ (Faculty of Economics and Business, Zagreb, Croatia), Katarina OTT (Institut za javne financije, Zagreb, Croatia), Mirko PEJANOVIĆ (Fakultet političkih nauka Sarajevo, Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Bosnia and Herzegovina), Heinrich REINERMANN (Deutsche Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaft, Speyer, Germany), Walter SCHERRER (Economics Institute, University of Salzburg, Austria), Željko ŠEVIĆ (Glasgow Caledonian University, Great Britain), Moloi TANKISO (University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa), John TAYLOR (Glasgow Caledonian University, Great Britain), Neda VITEZIĆ (Ekonomski fakultet Rijeka, Sveučilište u Rijeci, Croatia), Jacques ZILLER (Università di Pavia, Facoltà di Scienze Politiche, Italy) tehnično uredništvo / tehnical editor Nataša Svržnjak oblikovanje / design Branka Smodiš fotografije / photography Mitja Kandare prelom / text design Anamarija Leben lektoriranje / editing Katarina Puc tisk / print Demat, d. o. o. ISSN 2335-3414 (printed ed.) 2385-9717 (on-line ed.) naklada / edition 70 izvodov / copies Mednarodna revija za javno upravo je indeksirana v mednarodnih bazah / The International Public Administration Review is indexed and abstracted in - CSA-Worldwide Political Science Abstracts - CSA PAIS International (Public Affairs Information Service) - ECONLIT - EBSCO Publishing - EGPA - PA@BABEL - ERIH PLUS - IBSS - International Bibliography of the Social Sciences - PROQUEST - IPSA - International Political Science Abstracts - SSRN - Social Science Research Network Revija je članica CrossRef / The journal is a CrossReff member http://www.crossref.org/ Vsi članki v Mednarodni reviji za javno upravo so recenzirani. / All articles are peer-reviewed. Revija izhaja trikrat letno, ena številka je tematska, dvojna. / The journal is published three times a year, one issue is thematic as a special double issue. E-izdaja revije je prosto dostopna na / E-edition is available at http://www.fu.uni-lj.si/zalozba/mednarodna-revija-za-javno-upravo/arhiv-stevilk/ Več informacij o naročnini na tiskano izdajo na / More information about subscription to printed edition at http://www.fu.uni-lj.si/zalozba/mednarodna-revija-za-javno-upravo/narocilnica/ Uredniška politika je dostopna na / Editorial Policy is available at http://www.fu.uni-lj.si/zalozba/mednarodna-revija-za-javno-upravo/ Ponatis in razmnoževanje brez pisnega dovoljenja založnika nista dovoljena. / No portion of the contents may be reproduced in any form without written permission from the publisher. vsebina / contents Stanka Setnikar Cankar 7 Uvodnik / Editorial Timothy Mathews 11 Observations from the U.S. Federal Income Tax to Distinguish Between Measures of Progressivity and Redistributive Capacity 34 Ugotovitve glede ameriškega zveznega davka na dohodek za razlikovanje med merami progresivnosti in redistributivnosti 1.01 Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Iryna Kristensen, Walter Scherrer 37 Public Private Partnerships as a Systemic Instrument of Governance in Regional Innovation Policy 53 Javno-zasebno partnerstvo kot sistemski instrument upravljanja v regionalni inovacijski politiki 1.01 Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Mokoko P. Sebola 55 Public Participation in South Africa's Policy Decision-Making Process: The Mass and the Elite Choices 73 Sodelovanje javnosti v postopku odločanja o politiki v Južni Afriki: izbire množic in elite 1.02 Review article/ Pregledni znanstveni članek Polonca Kovač, Tina Jukić 75 Development of Public Administration and its Research in Slovenia through the Lenses of Content Analysis of the International Public Administration Review 114 Razvoj javne uprave in njenega proučevanja v Sloveniji v vsebinski analizi Mednarodne revije za javno upravo 1.01 Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti 115 Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana 135 Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers at the Ljubljana Police Directorate 1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek/ Original scientific article Štefan Šumah, Edita Mahić 157 Odnos med javnim podjetjem in lokalno skupnostjo v luči korupcijskih tveganj 171 The Relationship between Public Enterprises and the Locai Community in View of Corruption Risks 1.04 Strokovni članek/Professional article Uvodnik Spoštovani, V prvi številki letnika 2016 pišejo avtorji o davčnem področju, javno-zasebnem sodelovanju in načinu sprejemanja odločitev, ki vplivajo na delo in življenje občanov, Članek o javni izbiri omogoča primerjavo z usmeritvami Evropske komisije, Evropske centralne banke in Mednarodnega denarnega sklada o javni porabi v državah EU, S sprejetima proračunoma za leto 2015 in 2016 je tudi Vlada RS občutno znižala javnofinančni primanjkljaj, Za to je bilo treba znižati proračunska sredstva proračunskim porabnikom pri vseh oblikah porabe: pri investicijah, investicijskem vzdrževanju, materialnih stroških, stroških storitev in sredstvih za plače, Pri predlogih za zmanjšanje proračunske porabe na področju izobraževanja se je pojavila dilema, povezana z zaposlovanjem oziroma z brezposelnostjo, Ni treba posebej dokazovati, da je sedanja svetovna kriza povzročila izjemno rast brezposelnosti in največjo izgubo delovnih mest do sedaj, Ne samo v Grčiji, kjer je brezposelnost dosegla dramatične višine, ampak tudi v drugih državah v EU, Tudi te se soočajo z negativnimi posledicami krize, tako da se tudi pri njih kaže odpuščanje in zmanjševanje možnosti zaposlovanja kot ena od največjih družbenih težav, Menimo, da niso vsi ukrepi varčevanja in »zategovanja pasu« pri javni porabi, ki se financira iz proračuna, enakovredni, Pred odločitvijo za varčevanje je potrebna temeljita presoja širših družbenih stroškov in koristi uvedbe posameznih ukrepov, Kot primer predhodne presoje učinkov predlaganih varčevalnih ukrepov navajamo primer Ministrstva za znanost, izobraževanje in šport, ki je ocenilo predlog interventnega zakona o financiranju občin na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja, Skupni finančni učinek prihrankov za lokalne skupnosti bi predvidoma znašal 35,8 milijona, Najboljizstopajoč pa je bil podatek, da bi zaradi predlaganih sprememb predvidoma 1000 zaposlenih, večinoma na področju otroškega varstva in zaradi zaprtja podružničnih šol, postalo tehnološki presežek, Vlada RS je v razpravi sledila stališčem Ministrstva za izobraževanje, znanost in šport, podprtimi s podatki predhodne presoje učinkov spremembe zakonodaje, in umaknila predloge interventnih ukrepov, ki bi povzročili tako veliko zmanjšanje zaposlenih, Navedeni primer ponovno dokazuje pomen predhodne presoje učinkov spremembe zakonodaje pred njeno uvedbo, Opozarja pa tudi na časovni vidik, V tem primeru so bili predlogi posredovani v razpravo lokalnim skupnostim, še preden jih je obravnavalo in ocenilo matično ministrstvo, Povzročili so veliko negativnih odzivov, ki so bili nepotrebni, ker je kasneje vlada predloge umaknila, Hkrati primer kaže, da je veliko predlaganih varčevalnih ukrepov povezanih z odpuščanjem zaposlenih v javnem sektorju in s tem s povečevanjem brezposelnosti. Izredno težko je še najti možnosti za zmanjšanje proračunske porabe, ki ne bi posegali na področje zaposlovanja. Nedvomno je brezposelnost za družbo in za posameznike ena od najbolj negativnih posledic krize. Zato bi bilo treba ukrepe, ki vodijo k večji nezaposlenosti, opustiti, Odgovorna urednica MRJU Prof. dr. Stanka Setnikar Cankar Editorial Dear readers, In the first issue of 2016, the authors write about tax policy, public-private cooperation, and decision-making that has an impact on the work and life of citizens, The article on public choice allows a comparison with the guidelines of the European Commission, European Central Bank, and International Monetary Fund regarding public expenditure in the EU Member States. With the budgets adopted for 2015 and 2016, the Government of the Republic of Slovenia significantly reduced the government deficit. The appropriations for budget users thus needed to be reduced in all forms of expenditure: investment, major maintenance, material costs, costs of services, and staff appropriations, As for the proposals to reduce budgetary expenditure on education, there was a dilemma related to (un)employment, It is obvious that the current global crisis has led to enormous growth in unemployment and to the greatest loss of jobs in history, Not only in Greece, where unemployment has reached alarming rates, but also in other EU Member States, The latter are also facing negative consequences of the crisis, with dismissal and reduced employment possibilities representing one of the largest social issues, We believe that all austerity and "belt-tightening" measures in public administration, which is financed from the budget, are not equivalent, Before making a decision to introduce austerity measures, it is necessary to thoroughly assess the wider social costs and benefits of individual measures, As an example of an ex-ante assessment of the impacts of the proposed austerity measures, we cite an example of the Ministry of Education, Science, and Sport, which assessed the proposal of an intervention act on financing municipalities in the field of education. The overall financial impact of savings for local communities was expected to amount to EUR 35.8 million. Most noteworthy was the fact that about 1,000 employees, mainly in the field of childcare, were expected to become redundant due to the proposed changes and to the closure of branch schools. The Government of the Republic of Slovenia discussed the position of the Ministry of Education, Science, and Sport, supported by data from the ex-ante assessment of the impact of changes in the legislation, and withdrew the proposals for intervention measures, which would cause such a large reduction of employees. This example shows that it is necessary to conduct an ex-ante assessment of the impacts of changes in the legislation before its introduction. It also recalls the time horizon. In this case, the proposals were submitted to local communities for discussion before being considered and evaluated by the parent ministry. They caused many unnecessary negative responses, although the Government later withdrew the proposals. At the same time, the example demonstrates that many proposed austerity measures are related to the dismissal of employees in public administration and, consequently, to the increased unemployment. It is extremely difficult to find possibilities to reduce budgetary expenditure without interfering with employment. Unemployment is without any doubt one of the most negative consequences of the crisis for both individuals and society as a whole. Therefore, the measures leading to a higher unemployment rate should be abandoned. Editor in Chief of the International Public Administration Review Prof. Stanka Setnikar Cankar, PhD DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2016.1.01 1.01 Original scientific article Observations From the U.S. Federal Income Tax to Distinguish Between Measures of Progressivity and Redistributive Capacity Timothy Mathews Dept. of Economics, Finance, and Quantitative Analysis, Coles College of Business, Kennesaw State University, USA tmmathews@gmail.com ABSTRACT This study provides insights on the attributes of a tax that are measured by two different classes of progressivity indices - those defined by Kakwani (1977), Suits (1977), Stroup (2005), and Mathews (2016) and those defined by Musgrave & Thin (1948) and Reynolds & Smolensky (1977). Index values are determined for the U.S. Federal Income Tax from 1929 through 2010. These values illustrate that the indices of Kakwani, Suits, Stroup, and Mathews gauge the progressivity of the tax, while those of Musgrave & Thin and Reynolds & Smolensky measure the redistributive capacity of the tax. In the early 1940s the progressivity of this tax significantly decreased at the same time when the redistributive capacity of the tax significantly increased. Since the mid-1970s this tax has (i) been more progressive than it was from the early 1950s through the mid-1970s and (ii) redistributed income to a greater degree than it did from the early 1950s through the mid-1970s. Keywords: income taxation, progressivity measures, progressivity indices, income redistribution, U.S. tax policy JEL: H20, H24, D31 1 Introduction In order for governments to function, it is necessary for them to raise revenues. Thus, both scholars and practitioners of Public Administration must be concerned with government revenue generation. In most developed countries, the bulk of government revenues presently comes from income taxes. For example, in the U.S. in 2013, 91% of Federal Government revenues were attributed to income taxes and payroll taxes.1 The primary importance of income taxation for government revenue holds even for countries 1 See Office of Management and Budget (2015; p. 7). Mathews, T. (2016). Observations From the U.S. Federal Income Tax to Distinguish 11 Between Measures oF Progressivity and Redistributive Capacity. International Public Administration Review, 14(1), 11-35. which have Value Added Taxes. In Slovenia as of 2013, 60% of government revenues resulted from income taxes and social security contributions.2 In recent decades, the levels and structures of taxation in many countries have changed dramatically. Focusing on income taxes, the common trend has been for countries to reduce Marginal Tax Rates (MTR, defined as the percentage of the next dollar earned that must be paid in taxes) while broadening the tax base. As argued by Lazović-Pita (2015), this change in policy reflects a shift toward efficiency (over equity) in income taxation. A reduction of MTRs, particularly at the high end of the income scale, makes a tax less progressive and ultimately results in a distribution of income with greater inequality. A tax is progressive if the Average Tax Rate (ATR, defined as the amount paid in taxes divided by income) increases as income increases. While there has long been agreement on this basic definition of progressivity, scholars have yet to settle on an accepted measure of the degree of progressivity of a tax. Consider the U.S. Federal Income Tax. From an inspection of either MTRs or the resulting ATRs of different segments of taxpayers, this tax has always been a progressive tax.3 However, it is not clear when this tax was "most progressive." Further, different measures of progressivity yield conflicting insights, often because they are measuring different attributes of the impact of a tax. The present study contributes to this ongoing discussion by arguing that two well established and widely used indices of progressivity are in fact better thought of as measures of the redistributive capacity of a tax. Kiefer (2005) offers an insightful discussion of the numerous approaches used to measure the degree of progressivity of a tax. The present study focuses on indices which Kiefer calls "distributional" indices, the value of which depends on both the tax rate structure and the distribution of income within the population subject to the tax.4 More precisely, the present study considers distributional indices defined in terms of "concentration curves" (such as the well-known Lorenz Curve). Two of the earliest measures of this type were developed by Musgrave and Thin (1948) - the index of "effective progression" - and Reynolds and Smolensky (1977). These two distinct measures are each defined as a function of the pre-tax and post-tax values of the Gini-Coefficient. Thus, the dependence of each index on the pre-tax and post-tax Lorenz Curves is clear. Subsequently, several other tax progressivity indices based on the relation between 2 This figure is exactly equal to the OECD average, although the breakdown between these three revenue categories differs between Slovenia and the OECD as a whole. See OECD (2014). 3 Tax Foundation (2009a) reports relevant MTRs for each year over the entire history of this tax; the final table in Tax Foundation (2009b) summarizes realized ATRs for different income groups for each year from 1980 to 2008. 4 In contrast, the value of a "structural" index depends upon only the tax structure but not upon the distribution of income. Musgrave & Thin (1948) examine common structural indices, including measures of "average rate progression", "marginal rate progression", "liability progression", and "residual income progression." an "income concentration curve" and a "tax concentration curve" were defined by Kakwani (1977), Suits (1977), Stroup (2005), and Mathews (2016).5,6 Recognize that a progressive tax (i) places a disproportionate amount of the burden of paying the tax on high income individuals, thereby (ii) making the final distribution of income more equal. Any distributional progressivity index essentially gauges the impact of the tax with respect to these two closely related outcomes. As noted by de Sarralde, Garcimartin, and Ruiz-Huerta (2013), Kakwani's index and Reynolds & Smolensky's index measure fundamentally different attributes of a tax: Kakwani's index quantifies the "progressivity" of the tax by computing the "disproportionality of tax payments relative to pre-tax incomes", whereas Reynolds & Smolensky's index quantifies the "redistributive capacity" of the tax by measuring "the difference between pre- and post-tax income distributions" (p. 326). Using this observation by de Sarralde et al. (2013) as motivation, the aim of the present study is to clearly illustrate how different progressivity indices measure distinct characteristics of a tax. Numerical values of various indices are computed for the U.S. Federal Income Tax from 1929 through 2010. Observing index values over such a long period of time (during which there were significant changes in both the fraction of the population subject to paying the tax and total taxes paid as a percentage of societal income) allows us to gain insight into what is actually being measured by each index. Based upon observed values, it is argued that while the indices of Kakwani, Suits, Stroup, and Mathews gauge "progressivity", the indices of Musgrave/Thin and Reynolds/Smolensky are better thought of as measures of "redistributive capacity". This is not to say that the indices of Musgrave/Thin and Reynolds/Smolensky are not useful. On the contrary, which class of indices is more insightful depends upon what questions one would like to address (i.e., what aspects of policy one is trying to assess). For example, someone who wants to gauge how the burden of financing government spending is spread over different segments of the population could look at the values of the measures of Kakwani, Suits, Stroup, and Mathews to make this assessment. Alternatively, someone who thinks that tax policy should reduce income inequality 5 Two other measures of this type were developed by Khetan and Poddar (1976). But, as explained within Mathews (2016), one of Khetan and Poddar's measures can be expressed as a monotonic transformation of Suits' index while the other can be expressed as a monotonic transformation of Stroup's index. 6 Additional alternative approaches for assessing progressivity have been offered by: Baum (1987) who develops the notion of "relative share adjustment" to measure how a tax alters the share of income realized by different segments of society; Allen & Campbell (1994) who examine the difference in average tax rate between very high income households and moderate income households; and Piketty & Saez (2007) who examine and compare levels of average tax rate across groups of taxpayers with different levels of income, paying particular attention to individuals at the high end of the income scale. In contrast to the indices examined in the present study, these alternative approaches do not make any attempt to construct a single dimensional progressivity measure. could look to the measures of Musgrave/Thin and Reynolds/Smolensky to see if the tax is indeed helping to achieve their desired objective. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. A brief overview of the six indices which serve as our focus is presented in Section 2. A discussion of the computation of numerical values of these indices is offered in Section 3. Index values for the U.S. Federal Income Tax from 1929 through 2010 are examined in Section 4. The observations made within this discussion support the claim that while the indices of Kakwani, Suits, Stroup, and Mathews gauge "progressivity", the indices of Musgrave/Thin and Reynolds/Smolensky are better thought of as measures of "redistributive capacity". Section 5 briefly concludes. 2 Definitions and Previously Observed Values of Indices A detailed discussion of the definitions and relations between the four indices of Kakwani (K), Suits (S), Stroup (St), and Mathews (M) is provided within Mathews (2016). Each of these four indices is defined as a ratio of areas in relation to plots of an "income concentration curve" (which summarizes how incomes are allocated over the population, ordered from lowest income earners to highest income earners) and a "tax concentration curve" (which summarizes how tax payments are allocated over the population, ordered from lowest income earners to highest income earners). The antecedent in each index (i.e., the first term in the ratio) is a weighted difference between income and taxes paid over the population being taxed. For K and St different segments of the population are weighted equally, while for S and M different segments of the population are weighted by their marginal contribution to cumulative income. For S and St the consequent (i.e., the second term in the ratio) is a similarly weighted value of income, while for K and M the consequent is a similarly weighted value of population.7 As defined, each index can range in value between 0 and 1, with a larger value corresponding to taxation outcomes that are more progressive. Both Musgrave & Thin's index (MT) and Reynolds & Smolensky's index (RS) are direct functions of the pre-tax and post-tax values of the Gini coefficient.8 Letting Gj denote the initial (i.e., pre-tax) value of the Gini coefficient and Gf denote the final (i.e., post tax) value of the Gini coefficient, Reynolds & Smolensky's index) is simply RS = Gj - GF and Musgrave & Thin's index is simply MT = (1 - Gj) /(1 - Gf). Under a progressive tax individuals with higher incomes have higher Average Tax Rates. This results in a reduction in income 7 For a graphical depiction of these curves and a more detailed discussion of these definitions, see Mathews (2016). 8 The Gini coefficient is the most widely used measure of income inequality. It is defined in relation to the income concentration curve with respect to population (i.e., a curve which illustrates the relation between cumulative fraction of population and their corresponding cumulative fraction of societal income) as the ration of the area between this concentration curve and the 45°-line to the entire are below the 45°-line. The value of the Gini coefficient ranges between 0 and 1, with a smaller value revealing less income inequality. inequality and is reflected by a decrease in the value of the Gini coefficient, Consequently, for a progressive tax: GF < Gp implying RS > 0 and MT > 1. In order to have values of these two indices which are on a comparable scale, consider a simple additive transformation of Musgrave & Thin's index: MT = MT - 1, Note that MT = RS/(1 - G) from which it is apparent that the value of both RS and MT is positive for a progressive tax, Numerical values of St, S, K, and M for the U.S. Federal Income Tax have previously been determined by numerous researchers, including: Kakwani (1977) using his measure for 1968, 1969, and 1970; Suits (1977) using his measure for 1966 and 1970; Stroup (2005) using his measure for 1980 through 2000; Mathews (2016) using all four measures for 1987 through 2010; and Mathews (2014) using all four measures for 1929 through 2009.9 The Congressional Budget Office (2012) reports values of K and RS for both the U.S. Federal Income Tax and all federal taxes from 1979 through 2009, Stroup (2005), the Congressional Budget Office (2012), and Mathews (2014 and 2016) each present evidence to support a claim that the U.S. Federal Income Tax has become more progressive in recent decades, But while the Congressional Budget Office analysis does suggest that the U.S. Federal Income Tax became more progressive between 1979 and 2009, it also reveals that the progressivity of all federal taxes has either increased less substantially (based upon Kakwani's index) or not changed much at all (based upon Reynolds & Smolensky's index) over this time (see Congressional Budget Office (2012), Supplemental Table 9). This final observation is important because it begins to reveal how the distinct measures of Kakwani and of Reynolds & Smolensky can yield observations on changes in the degree of progressivity over time which appear to be at odds with one another, In addition to determining values of his index for the U.S., Kakwani (1977) computes values for Australia (for 1968 through 1972), Canada (for 1968 through 1970), and the United Kingdom (for 1964 through 1967). His results suggest that during these years income taxation in these four countries was least progressive in the U.S. and most progressive in the U.K. Khetan and Poddar (1976) determine numeric values of two different indices (one is a monotonic transformation of Suits' index and the other is a monotonic transformation of Stroup's index) for Canada from 1961 through 1971. Their results suggest that federal income taxation in Canada became less progressive during these years. More recently, Verbist and Figari (2013) 9 It is important to stress that the present study focuses solely on the U.S. Federal Income Tax and does not encompass other federal taxes (e.g., payroll, estate, and corporate taxes). Clearly, the overall progressivity of all federal taxes could differ from that of the Federal Income Tax. Piketty and Saez (2007) argue that the U.S. Federal tax system as a whole became less progressive between 1960 and 2004, due to an increased significance of fairly regressive payroll taxes and a diminished significance of highly progressive corporate and estate taxes. But, it is important to recognize that Piketty and Saez do not consider any of the four income/ tax concentration based distributional indices which are the primary focus here. Rather, they present a broad, general discussion of trends over time in average tax rates and the after tax position of different segments of the population (with an emphasis on subsets at the high end of the income scale, such as the "top 1%", "top 0.1%" and "top 0.01%"). compute values of Kakwani's index for the EU15 in 1998 and 2008. Their analysis reveals tremendous variation in tax progressivity across these 15 countries, with the most progressive outcomes found in Ireland and the least progressive outcomes found in Denmark and Sweden, 3 Computations of Index Values Focusing on the U.S. Federal Income Tax, numerical values of St, S, K, M, MT, and RS are determined for every year between 1929 and 2010. In order to compute these values, it is necessary to construct various concentration curves.10 The bulk of the data used to construct these curves was obtained from the Internal Revenue Service's "Statistics of Income" report for each relevant year." Each report summarizes the number of tax returns filed, the amount of income represented on the filed tax returns, and the amount of taxes paid (broken down by taxpayer income levels). For example, the data reported in Table 3 on Pages 68-70 of the "Statistics of Income for 1932" show that in this year 3,877,430 returns were filed, and that the people filing these returns collectively had a combined net income of $11,655,756,678 and collectively had to pay $329,962,311 in Federal Income Taxes." As an example of how this data is further broken down by taxpayer income levels, Table 3 of the "Statistics of Income for 1932" further reveals that in this year people with net incomes of $2,000 or less collectively filed a total of 1,849,277 returns, had a combined net income of $2,376,974,549 and had a combined tax obligation of $12,357,186. When constructing the relevant concentration curves, it is necessary to define (either explicitly or implicitly) the population over which the index values are to be determined. If the population of interest is simply those people filing tax returns, then the curves can be constructed and the index values determined from solely the data in the "Statistics of Income" reports. This is the approach taken by Kakwani (1977), Suits (1977), Stroup (2005), Congressional Budget Office (2012), and Mathews (2016). However, if the true desire is a measure of the degree of progressivity over the entire population, then focusing on only those individuals filing returns has shortcomings. First, if individuals with incomes below a certain level are not even required to file a return (as has always been the case for the U.S. Federal Income Tax), then this approach ultimately understates the degree of progressivity at each point in time. Second, if the fraction of adults required to file a return changes dramatically, 10 To compute K, S, St, and M it is necessary to construct a "tax concentration curve with respect to population", an "income concentration curve with respect to population", a "tax concentration curve with respect to income", and a "population concentration curve with respect to income" for each year. Similarly, to compute RS, and MT it is necessary to additionally construct a "post tax income concentration curve with respect to population". 11 All reports can be accessed through http://www.irs.gov/uac/Tax-Stats-2. For example, "Statistics of Income for 1932" is available at http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-soi/32soirepar.pdf. 12 Table 1 (presented in the Appendix of the paper) provides a summary of these values (along with the values of several other variables of interest) for the time period under consideration. In the interest of brevity, these values are reported for only every other year between 1929 and 2010. then focusing only on this restricted population could give misleading results when examining how the degree of progressivity has evolved over time, Using additional data from the Bureau of Economic Analysis and the U.S. Census Bureau, Mathews (2014) constructed concentration curves and computed index values over the entire adult population. This is the first study to truly gauge the progressivity of the U.S. Federal Income Tax over the entire population, and not over just people filing tax returns. A similar approach is used in the present study, For each year from 1929 through 2010, data on total Personal Income for the U.S. were obtained from the Bureau of Economic Analysis and estimates of the total adult population in the U.S. were obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau.13 These figures are reported for every other year between 1930 and 2010 in the columns labeled "Total Societal Income" and "Total Adult Population" in Table 1 (presented in the Appendix of the paper). It is worth noting that the present study uses data on Personal Income collected after the comprehensive revision of national income accounts which was undertaken by the Bureau of Economic Analysis in 2013, whereas Mathews (2014) used data on Personal Income collected before this comprehensive revision. As a consequence, the numerical values of St, S, K, and M which are obtained differ between the two studies. Returning attention to the "Statistics of Income Reports," the total number of adults represented on all filed tax returns was determined in each year (see "Adults Represented on Returns" in Table 1). From here, the percentage of all adults represented on a filed tax return was computed for each year (see "Percentage of Adults on Returns" in Table 1). Following an approach first used by Suits (1977), each of the five relevant concentration curves for each year is constructed as a piecewise linear function passing through each relevant pair of values and the implicit endpoints of (0,0) and (1,1). For the resulting piecewise linear concentration curves, the relevant areas between the various curves each consist of a collection of triangles and trapezoids. As was done in Mathews (2014), when constructing the concentration curves which depend upon income the income not represented on filed tax returns (i.e., the residual income of society) is allocated equally across the total adult population. As an example, in 1944 a total of 46,919,590 tax returns were filed for 71,270,340 adults. The total adult population in this year, based upon U.S. Census Bureau estimates, was 97,153,352. Thus, roughly 26.64% of the adult population was not represented on a filed tax return and, therefore, 13 The former figures were obtained from http://www.bea.gov/iTable/index nipa.cfm, and the latter figures were obtained from http://www.census.gov/popest/data/historical/index.html did not pay any income taxes.14 Consequently, the starting point for the tax concentration curve with respect to population is the point (0.2664, 0). Those individuals filing tax returns had a combined net income of $116,714,736,000, whereas total societal income was $169,700,000,000. Thus, the residual income of society was $52,985,264,000, roughly 31.22% of total societal income. Allocating this residual income equally over the entire adult population, it follows that the 26.64% of the population not represented on a filed tax return accounted for approximately 0.2664 x 0.3122 » 0.0832 of total societal income. Consequently, the first segment of the income concentration curve with respect to population extends from the origin through the point (0.2664, 0.0832). Following this approach, each relevant concentration curve is constructed for each year. From here, it is straightforward to determine numerical values of St, S, K, M, MT, and RS in each year from 1929 to 2010. 4 An Examination of Index Values For each year from 1929 through 2010, the resulting values (determined using the data and approach described in Section 3) of St, S, K, and M are reported in Table 2 and plotted in Figure 1. Similarly, values of MT and RS are reported in Table 3 and plotted in Figure 2" 4.1 Observations on St, S, K, and M Focusing first on St, S, K, and M, an inspection of Table 2 and Figure 1 reveals general trends in the degree of progressivity which are very similar to those discussed in Mathews (2014).16 For example, just as in Mathews (2014), St identifies 1929 and S, K, and M each identify 1931 as the year of most progressive taxation outcomes, while all four indices identify 1969 as the year of least progressive taxation outcomes over this period. Additionally, there is a consistent trend toward taxation outcomes that are increasingly more progressive from the late 1960s up to the present day. As a consequence, taxation outcomes in recent years are more progressive than at any point in time post World War II. In 2009 the value of: St was greater than in every year from 1942 onward; S was greater than in every year from 1943 onward; K was greater than in every year from 1943 onward; and M was greater than in every year from 1944 onward. Furthermore, for each index, the second largest value over this same time period was realized in 2010. 14 Since some people who file a tax return but do not ultimately have a positive tax burden, the percentage of the total population that paid no income tax would be greater than 26.64%. That is, this figure of 26.64% represents the minimum percentage of the population that paid no income taxes. 15 Tables are presented in the Appendix of the paper. 16 This should not be surprising, since the only difference between the values of St, S, K, and M in Mathews (2014) and the present study is that the latter were computed using data on Personal Income collected after the Bureau of Economic Analysis' most recent comprehensive revision of national income accounts. As a result, while the obtained numerical values of St, S, K, and M differ between the two studies, for the most part the differences are minimal. These results are qualitatively consistent with Mathews (2016) which finds that over the period from 1987 through 2010, the U.S. Federal Income Tax was most progressive in 2009 (according to each of these four indices). Recall, however, that Mathews (2016) - as well as all other studies cited, with the exception of Mathews (2014) - effectively computes index values over only taxpayers (as opposed to over the entire population). Consequently, the index values reported in Mathews (2016) are numerically smaller than those reported here.17 Similarly, the resulted reported here are qualitatively consistent with those of Stroup (2005), where values of St were computed for each year from 1980 through 2000. Over this time period, both the present study and Stroup identify 1981 as the year of least progressive taxation and 2000 as the year of most progressive taxation. Furthermore, according to the findings of both studies, there was a sizable jump in the degree of progressivity between 1992 and 1993, causing all outcomes from 1993 through 2000 to be more progressive than all outcomes between 1980 and 1992. Finally, the present results are broadly consistent with those of the Congressional Budget Office (2012) study, which, based upon computed values of K, finds that taxation outcomes became more progressive between 1979 and 2009, Figure 1: Indices of Progressivity 1.00 0.90 ф 0.80 zi £ 0.70 I 0.60 с > 0.50 I 0.40 3,7), • Nezavzeti zaposleni: »delno odsotni« zaposleni. Delo opravljajo korektno. V delo vložijo svoj čas, energije in strasti pa ne (merilo: 2,6 < M < 3,7). • Aktivno nezavzeti zaposleni: zaposleni, ki so nezadovoljni na svojem delovnem mestu. To nezadovoljstvo tudi aktivno izkazujejo. Ti zaposleni podcenjujejo delo zavzetih sodelavcev in vplivajo na splošno klimo v organizaciji (merilo: M < 2,6). V nadaljevanju smo izvedli redukcijo sklopa trditev s področja zavzetosti zaposlenih, kjer smo s faktorsko analizo generirali nove neodvisne spremenljivke, in sicer: »Pripadnost in rast«, »Prispevek« in »Pogoji dela« (tabela 4). Pri preverjanju zanesljivosti smo ugotovili, da imajo vsi trije elementi visoko stopnjo zanesljivosti (Cronbach Alfa nad 0,7) in skupaj pojasnijo 64,24 % celotne variance. Tabela 4: Elementi zavzetosti zaposlenih in komunalitete posameznih spremenljivk Rotirana vrednost Spremenljivka Faktor* Komunalitete Z1 Z2 Z3 Moj vodja me upošteva kot celovito osebnost, 0,813 0,741 Moje mnenje se ceni in upošteva, 0,763 0,750 Vsaj nekdo načrtno spodbuja moj razvoj, 0,760 0,729 V zadnjih sedmih dneh so moje delo pohvalili, 0,699 0,546 V zadnjih šestih mesecih so se z menoj pogovarjali o mojem razvoju, 0,660 0,653 Poslanstvo naše organizacije odslikava tudi to, kako pomembno je moje delo, 0,616 0,617 V tem letu sem imel priložnost za učenje in razvoj, 0,487 0,506 Imam na voljo vse, kar potrebujem, da dobro opravim svoje delo, 0,837 0,772 Imam priložnost početi praktično vsak dan tisto, v čemer sem najboljši, 0,741 0,676 Točno vem, kaj se pričakuje od mene na delovnem mestu, 0,572 0,487 Moj najboljši prijatelj je iz službe, 0,841 0,725 Moji sodelavci so iskreno zavzeti za dobro in kakovostno delo, 0,477 0,507 % pojasnjene variance skupaj: 64,237 47,084 8,744 8,409 Rotacijski seštevki kvadratov uteži (A) 3,650 2,510 1,548 * Faktorji: Z1 - Pripadnost in rast; Z2 - Prispevek; Z3 - Pogoji dela. Za ugotavljanje skupne stopnje zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na izbranih policijskih postajah smo z metodo tehtanega povprečja (angl. Weighted Average Cost Of Capital- WACC) dobili novo spremenljivko »Stopnja zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na policijskih postajah« : COMPUTE i1= (Z1 * 3.650 (X1) + Z2 * 2.510 (X2) + Z3 * 1.548 (X1)) / (3.650 (X1) + 2.510 (X2) + 1.548 (X3) V regresijskem modelu je ta spremenljivka predstavljala posledico (odvisno spremenljivko), 4.3.3 Preverjanje zastavljene hipoteze Na preizkus smo postavili naslednjo hipotezo: »Elementi vodenja zaposlenih v slovenski policiji statistično značilno vplivajo na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov«. Izide regresijske analize smo predstavili z modelom. Izpolnjene so vse predpostavke veljavnosti regresijskega modela (ostanki so normalno porazdeljeni, prisotnosti heteroskedastičnosti ni, vrednost VIF posameznih trditev ni zadosti visoka (< 2), da bi vplivala na izide ocene), Tabela 5: Ocene regresijskih koeficientov modela Model Nestandardni koeficienti Standardni koeficient Beta t sig Beta Standardna napaka Stopnja zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov 1,258 0,137 9,153 0,000 Neodv. sprem. Odnos 0,635 0,037 0,762 17,207 0,000 Neodv. sprem. Potrebe -0,117 0,041 -0,127 -2,867 0,004 Regresijska analiza (tabela 5) je pokazala (z uporabo Stepwise regresijske metode), da le en element vodenja v nasprotju s pričakovanji pozitivno vpliva na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov, in sicer: »Odnos komandirja policijske postaje do podrejenih« (krajše Odnos; ßn = 0,635) ima močan pozitiven vpliv. Element vodenja »Komandirjeva pomoč podrejenim« (krajše Pomoč) je statistično neznačilen (ß = 0). Element vodenja »Komandirjevo zadovoljevanje potreb podrejenih« (krajše Potrebe) ima na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov negativen vpliv (ßn = -0,117), ß pa dokazuje, da je prispevek tega elementa zelo majhen. Regresijsko funkcijo tako lahko zapišemo v obliki enačbe regresijske hiperravnine, zato zapišemo: Stopnja zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov = 1,258 + 0,635 * Odnos - 0,117 * Potrebe S hipotezo smo predvidevali, da elementi vodenja zaposlenih v slovenski policiji statistično značilno vplivajo na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov. Ugotavljamo, da hipotezo lahko delno sprejmemo. 5 Razprava Raziskava je pokazala, da je vodenje uniformiranih policistov na območju Policijske uprave Ljubljana v povprečju dobro (M = 4,00). Upoštevanje želja glede razporejanja delovnega časa in letnega dopusta so policisti ocenili najbolje. Odlična ocena kaže na to, da vodjem kljub slabši kadrovski zasedenosti policijskih postaj pri razporejanju delovnega časa in dopusta »zaenkrat« še uspeva zadovoljevati želje policistov. Tudi področje nadzora nad delom policisti dobro ocenjujejo. Kar 79,50 % policistov je ocenilo, da je vodja vedno pripravljen na pogovore s policisti. Najslabše so ocenili njihovo prizadevanje za motivacijo policistov pri delu (M = 3,68) ter njihovo skrb za nagrade in pohvale (M = 3,74). Policisti so dobro ocenili tudi odnose vodstva do njih (M = 4,00). Kar 69,06 % policistov je ocenilo, da si vodstvo zelo prizadeva vzpostaviti pozitiven odnos. Merjenje zavzetosti policistov je pokazalo, da jih je glede na stopnjo zavzetosti pri delu največ nezavzetih (58,00 %), sledijo zavzeti policisti (24,50 %), najmanj pa jih je pri delu aktivno nezavzetih (17,50 %). Poleg visokega odstotka nezavzetih policistov je skrb zbujajoč tudi podatek o aktivno nezavzetih policistih. Aktivno nezavzeti zaposleni so nezadovoljni na svojem delovnem mestu in to tudi aktivno izkazujejo. Izražajo vedenja, ki so negativna, nesodelovalna in celo sovražna (Wagner & Harter, 2006) ter s tem zmanjšujejo zadovoljstvo in zavzetost svojih sodelavcev. Hipotezo, s katero smo predvidevali, da elementi vodenja zaposlenih v slovenski policiji statistično značilno vplivajo na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov, smo delno sprejeli. Raziskava je pokazala, da ima odnos vodijpolicijskih postaj, kot eden izmed elementov vodenja, močan pozitiven vpliv na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov (glejte tabelo 5). 6 Zaključek Z raziskavo smo ugotovili, da je kljub v povprečju dobri oceni vodenja njihovih vodij več kot tri četrtine uniformiranih policistov pri svojem delu nezavzetih. Ugotovitev ne preseneča, saj policisti praviloma uporabljajo tudi stara in iztrošena vozila, veliko policijskih postaj je v slabem stanju in delajo na računalnikih, ki jih na drugih ministrstvih odpišejo. Policijske postaje na območju Policijske uprave Ljubljana so tudi kadrovsko podhranjene (povprečna kadrovska zasedenost je 72,64 %, najslabše kadrovsko zasedena policijska postaja dosega le 60,87 % zasedenost). Delovna obremenitev, časovni pritisk in izmensko delo že ob »normalni« kadrovski zasedenosti pri policistih povzročajo negativen stres. Neustrezna kadrovska zasedenost policijskih postaj, zaradi še večje količinske pripadnosti dela na posameznega policista, delovne zahteve policistov in s tem povezani stres samo le še povečuje. Takšen stres lahko vodi v izgorelost policistov (Maslach & Leiter, 1997). Vodje policijskih postaj, katerih odnos do podrejenih ima močan pozitiven vpliv na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov, lahko storijo veliko, da zaščitijo policiste in sebe. Avtorji v vseh opravljenih raziskavah o vplivu delovnih virov na zavzetost zaposlenih, ki smo jih omenili v prispevku, prepričljivo trdijo, da na stopnjo zavzetosti zaposlenih najbolj vpliva vodja. Prav vidiki delovnega okolja, ki so pod neposrednim vplivom vodje, naj bi razložili razlike v zadovoljstvu in zavzetosti zaposlenih (Harter, Schmidt & Hayes, 2002). Na osnovi spoznanj naše raziskave bi bilo smiselno izvesti sistematično evalvacijsko študijo programa usposabljanja Vodenje v policiji, ki bi pokazala, ali program usposabljanja zagotavlja ustrezna znanja in veščine, ki pripomorejo h gradnji pozitivnih medsebojnih odnosov in ali obstaja prenos znanj in veščin v vsakdanjo prakso vodenja v slovenski policiji. V trenutnih razmerah, ko izboljšanja finančnih in kadrovskih težav ter težav, povezanih z opremo ne moremo pričakovati, je vloga vodje ključna. Mag. Dominik Žužman je zaposlen v slovenski policiji in dela v Centru za varnost in zaščito. Magistriral je področju organizacijskih znanosti na temo zavzetosti zaposlenih v slovenski policiji na Univerzi na Primorskem. Je doktorski študent, ki v cilju izboljšanja zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov pri njihovem delu še naprej raziskuje učinke vodenja in socialnega kapitala na zavzetost uniformiranih policistov. Dr. Melita Moretti je doktorirala na področju organizacijskih znanosti na temo trajnostne rabe energetskih virov na Univerzi na Primorskem. Njeno raziskovalno, razvojno in strokovno delo je usmerjeno na področje menedžmenta, menedžmenta znanja, marketinga in prodaje. 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Dostopno na http://iourna[.doba.si/?aid=469 DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2016.1.05 1.01 Original scientific article Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers at the Ljubljana Police Directorate Dominik Žužman Ministry of the Interior, Slovenia dominik.zuzman@gmail.com Melita Moretti University of Ljubljana, Slovenia melita.moretti@amis.net ABSTRACT Quantitative research aims to examine the impact of the elements of leadership on the engagement of uniformed police officers and was conducted among 514 uniformed police officers in all 22 police stations in the area of the Ljubljana Police Directorate. We have found a strong positive impact of the leader's attitude on the engagement of uniformed police officers as being one of the elements of leadership. The research study has also shown that, despite of the average good rating of the leader's leadership, more than three-quarters of uniformed police officers are disengaged in their work. In planning, organizing, leading and controlling of the organization, the research results will provide practical assistance to the leaders of the police stations in the area of the Ljubljana Police Directorate as well as to the training providers for the leaders of police stations. Keywords: police station, uniformed police officer, leadership, employee engagement JEL: J24 1 Introduction Leadership effectiveness is determined according to the goals achieved in an organization. Profit organizations strive for economic and financial goals, while the goals set at the Slovenian police force are operational performance, efficiency and legitimate functioning (Anželj, 2001). The research results (Aristovnik et al., 2012) on efficiency of the Slovenian police force at the regional level have shown a high level of inequality between individual police directorates analyzed. The conducted research was based on a comparison of statistical data on assessments of (in)efficiency in performing police activities in preventing, detecting and investigating criminal offences between the period of 2005-2010, annual police directorates reports, databases of the Ministry of the Interior and the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. Given the identified research results (Aristovnik et al., 2012) and the fact that, in the last two decades, the Slovenian police force has been facing with many changes in goals, values, organization, equipment, infrastructure, modes of remuneration etc., leadership in the Slovenian police force is becoming even more challenging, Leadership effectiveness is correlated with the level of their engagement (Fleming & Asplund, 2007). Engaged employees are, compared to the disengaged employees, more successful at their work (MacLeod & Clarke, 2009; Harter, Schmidt, Agrawal & Plowman, 2013). This raises a question whether the elements of leadership in the Slovenian police force have an impact on engagement of the uniformed police officers. To this end, we have postulated the following hypothesis: Elements of leadership in the Slovenian police force have a statistically significant impact on the level of engagement of the uniformed police officers. The aim of this paper is to present the characteristics of employee engagement (definition, importance and factors of employee engagement) and leadership in general, and to analyze the findings of quantitative research which was conducted in August and September 2013 on a random sample of uniformed police officers in all 22 police stations in the area Ljubljana Police Directorate. 2 Leader and Leadership Leader plays an important role in daily lives of the employees and has a certain social power over them (Schermerhorn, Osborn, Hunt & Uhl-Bien, 2011; Griffin & Moorhead, 2014; McAuley, Duberley & Johnson, 2014; Schermerhorn & Wright, 2014). Leadership is thus a process of directing, influencing, encouraging and monitoring an employee or group of employees (Robbins & Judge, 2012; Yukl, 2013; McAuley et al., 2014). It draws on the so-called soft factors, such as values, ethics, expectations, interests and confidence (Tavčar, 2006; Yukl, 2013; McAuley et al., 2014). The elements of leadership include: leader's attitude towards its employees (motivation, attention, communication, problem solving, etc.), fulfilling the employees' needs (work adjustment) and leader's assistance (Schermerhorn, 2012; McAuley et al., 2014; Schermerhorn & Wright, 2014). A direct impact on the effective leadership have personality traits (e.g. gender, age, length of service, analytical skills, communication skills), work-related and social characteristics (e.g. good manners, willingness to participate) of a leader (Armstrong, 2009). The competences of a leader are important for a successful leadership (Griffin & Moorhead, 2014). The leader's competences are divided into technical competence (control of the work, special skills, analytical skills, problem solving, etc.), interpersonal skills (communication, motivation and coordination skills) and conceptual skills (ability to think, decision-making, long-term vision, etc.) (Yukl, 2013). In addition to the leader's competences, power and influence of a leader are also important for an effective leadership (Schermerhorn et al., 2011; Griffin & Moorhead, 2014), that is the leader's ability to influence his employees arising out of his position of a leader (the so-called positional power) and his personality traits (so-called personal power) (Daft & Marcic, 2013). The components of leadership include delegating, encouraging and mentoring/coaching (Armstrong, 2009; Schermerhorn et al., 2011). Delegation is defined as the transfer and appointment of the work to the subordinate employees (Schermerhorn, 2012; McAuley et al., 2014). By delegating, the leader transfers to the employees a part of his powers, but not his responsibilities (Biloslavo, 2008). Delegating helps the leader to relieve current tasks and solve the details. In this way, the leader can focus on urgent and important matters (Armstrong, 2009). When, what, to whom and how to delegate is determined by the leader himself, but he must pay attention that the person/the subordinate to whom the leader delegates a part of his competences knows how to do the work (Biloslavo, 2008; Schermerhorn, 2012). By mentoring/coaching, the leader is trying to increase the ability of the employees to better understand, handle and manage the changes, and by such encouragements, he builds the employees' engagement in the activity (Tavčar, 2006). Linear-cooperative leadership style - a mode of leadership that is focused on linear relationships between different levels of leader and on operational implementation of tasks and measures is a general method of leadership at the police force (Anželj, 2001). Leadership at the level of operational leadership is divided into operational coordinated leadership (leadership of regional police directorates), operational visionary leadership (leadership of departments and other organizational units within the police directorate -police stations), and operational tactical leadership (leadership of police stations) (Vršec, 1993; Anželj, 2001). The police leadership system is not the same as the leadership system of other organizations since the police leadership system is defined by the nature of its work: work that requires action 24 hours a day, special working conditions (e.g. also nights, on Sundays and holidays, constant availability, etc.), uniformity of the police force, status of the police force as a state's authority, statutory functions, responsibilities and powers, the public and secrecy of operation (Vršec, 1993; Anželj, 2001; Žužman, 2014). After reviewing the researches in the field of police leadership, the following characteristics of effective police leadership can be observed, namely: 1) creating a shared vision (Schafer, 2008; Steinheider & Wuestewald, 2008; Miller, Watkins & Webb, 2009; Andreescu & Vito, 2010; Vito & Higgins, 2010; O'Leary, Resnick-Luetke & Monk-Turner, 2011; Vito, Suresh & Richards, 2011); 2) building an engagement towards the organization (Steinheider & Wuestewald, 2008; Vito & Higgins, 2010; Dick, 2010; Johnson, 2012); 3) a concern for the subordinates (Singer & Singer, 1990; Moore, 1994; Bryman, Stephens & Campo, 1996; Densten, 1999, 2003; Davies, 2000; Metcalfe & Dick, 2000; Davies & Thomas, 2003; Butterfield, Edwards & Woodall, 2004; Fleming, 2004; Murphy & Drodge, 2004; Andreescu & Vito, 2010; Schafer, 2010; Vito & Higgins, 2010; Žagar & Durić, 2012); 4) monitoring changes (Vito, Walsh & Kunselman, 2005; Butterfield, Edwards & Woodall, 2005; Brodeur, 2005; Clarke, 2006; Silvestri, 2007; Steinheider & Wuestewald, 2008; Miller et al., 2009); and 5) problem solving (Silvestri, 2007; Miller et al., 2009; O'Leary et al., 2011; Meaklim & Sims, 2011; Žagar & Durić, 2012). 3 Employee Engagement It would seem natural to understand the importance of employee engagement, and probably most people believe that it is beneficial that the employees are engaged at their work, yet they are not quite sure how exactly the engagement manifests itself, with the exception that they depict people who are hard-working and care about their work. Despite a large number of definitions of engagement, an unambiguous definition which could be agreed by all the authors cannot be given, yet all of them contain some elements in common. 3.1 Definition of Employee Engagement Kahn (1990) was one of the first theorists who began writing about the engagement associated with the work. He described engaged employees as purely physical (as physical energy that an individual invests in the performance of his duties), cognitive (as an individual's belief about the organization and working conditions) and emotional dimension (as positive or negative emotions of an employee inspired by an organization, leaders and working conditions) related to their job roles. Depending on the mentioned dimensions of engagement, Kahn (1990) argues that the employee may be engaged in one of the dimensions and the more the employee is engaged in the chosen dimension, the greater the engagement, Maslach and Leiter (1997) argue that the employee engagement is opposite of burnout as they consider that burnout is a state of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion, while the engagement embodies positive energy, high efficiency and intensive involvement. Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) take the opposite view and believe that engagement and burnout are not regarded as two opposite poles of the same dimension, but they are two separate and negatively correlated concepts since the absence of something negative does not imply the presence of something positive. The authors (2004) believe that it is a mistake to assume that an individual who does not suffer from burnout is engaged. Bakker, Albrecht and Leiter (2011a) define employee engagement as a positive emotional state characterized by a high level of energy and a high degree of involvement in work. The authors (2011a) believe that engaged employees, unlike satisfied employees, are distinguished by a high degree of satisfaction with their work (commitment) combined with a high level of activity (liveliness, immersion). They define work satisfaction as a passive form of employee's well-being in the workplace (Bakker et al., 2011a). Moreover, they also distinguish engagement from the work-related enthusiasm since enthusiasm usually lasts for a short time (an hour or less), while engagement persists over a longer period (Bakker et al., 2011a). Employee engagement is also different from the employees' motivation. Motivated employees are characterized by a high level of commitment, while engaged employees are additionally distinguished by a high level of activity manifested by liveliness, immersion and greater success at work. Therefore, according to Bakker (2011) engagement is, surpassing motivation and satisfaction, the best predictor of success, The description above leads us to a conclusion that the authors describe engagement with the terms such as passion, enthusiasm, consistency, liveliness and focused effort. Despite of divergent definitions of employee engagement, all definitions include these two basic components: • positive and energetic motivational state associated with the work, and • genuine willingness to contribute to the work role and performance of the organization. The authors (Kahn, 1990; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Wagner & Harter, 2006; Macey & Schneider, 2008; Bakker, 2011; Harter et al., 2013) also share the same opinion that engagement is a positive and work-related psychological (such as enthusiasm, energy, passion and liveliness) and motivational state (as a genuine willingness to invest effort to achieve the goals of an organization). As a consequence, a growing number of non-profit organizations (particularly in the public sector), in addition to profit organizations, are focusing on human factors of leadership to improve low level of engagement among the employees, 3.2 Factors of Employee Engagement Factors contributing to engagement are of interest to all who address the employee engagement in a theoretical, empirical or practical ways. Factors contributing to engagement have become crucial for planning the activities in terms of increasing the level of engagement among the employees, Job demands - resources model as the most quoted and used model of determining employee engagement helps to explain how the characteristics of a workplace and personal resources may have a direct impact on employee engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), In this paper we present the characteristics of a workplace which play an internal motivational role as they enhance efforts, learning and development, and external motivational role as they enhance individual's efforts and ability to perform his work, Based on job demands-resources model, the characteristics of each workplace are divided into two broad dimensions, namely job demands (work and emotional overload, physical demands, time pressure, shift schedules, work at home and poor relations between employees) and job resources (autonomy at work, leader's support, rewards and recognition, equal distribution of benefits, adequate control and social support at work, the possibility of development and participation in decision making, feedback and safe employment) (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), According to Van den Broeck and colleagues (2008), job demands lead to burnout, and on the other hand, job resources increase employee engagement and reffer to those aspects of work aimed at functionally achieving work objectives, reducing job demands and the related physiologic and psychological costs and promoting personal growth and development, According to Demerouti and colleagues (2001) the job demands-resources model is used to explain that job demands are mainly related with exhaustion and burnout, and that the lack of job resources could lead to withdrawal behaviors in the workplace, Job demands launch a process of energy depletion in which the increased employee's efforts to attain the objective of job demands lead to increased psychological and physical efforts which result in energy consumption of the employee, Job resources such as growth, learning and development may, on the contrary, encourage motivation process (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001), Kahn (1990) believes that the jobs that provide challenge and diversity in the workplace, enable to apply different values, skills and knowledge, and thereby offer the employees an opportunity to contribute to the best possible business results of an organization and increase a sense of psychological meaningfulness, Numerous foreign researches have shown that, in addition to rewards and recognition (Mauno, Kinnunen & Ruokolainen, 2007; James, McKechnie & Swanberg, 2011) are adequate control (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; James, et al,, 2011), autonomy (Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti & Xanthopoulou, 2007; Mauno et al,, 2007; Schaufeli, Bakker & Van Rhenen, 2009; Tims, Bakker & Derks, 2012; Bakker & Demerouti, 2014; Breevaart et al,, 2014), feedback (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Bakker et al., 2007; Mauno et al., 2007; Schaufeli et al., 2009; Albrecht & Su, 2012; Tims et al., 2012; Van den Berg, Bakker & Ten Cate, 2013; Bakker, Sanz Vergel & Kuntze 2015), coworker support (Bakker et al., 2007; Schaufeli et al., 2009; Petrou, Demerouti, Peeters, Schaufeli & Hetland, 2012; Breevaart et al., 2014; Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti & Van den Heuvel, 2015), supervisory support (Bakker et al., 2007; Schaufel et al., 2009; Breevaart et al., 2015), and good coworker relationships (Nahrgang, Morgeson & Hofmann, 2011; Petrou et al., 2012; Bakker & Demerouti, 2014; Bakker et al., 2015; Breevaart et al., 2015) the aspects of working environment which could explain the differences in employee engagement. 3.3 Importance Of Employee Work Engagement Engaged employees are attached to their job role which costitutes an important part of their identity as they have internalized their aspirations (endeavours, wishes) and the objectives of their organization. Despite the onerous work, they describe their own fatigue as a pleasant condition associated with the success of the organization. In contrast, disengaged employees do not invest their emotions, energy, and passion in their work and are only physically present at work. They are indifferent of the organization's objectives and it rarely happens to them that they are immersed in the work of the organization to which they feel no affiliation (Bakker, Albrecht & Leiter, 2011b). According to Gorgievski, Bakker and Schaufeli (2010), engaged employees work because their work makes fun to them, not because of a strong and invincible inner instinct (such as workaholics). Engaged employees have also a sense of energetic and effective connection with their work activity, they work hard with a sense of enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and they always set new challenges, arising from their workplace, on their own in order to remain loyal (Bakker et al., 2011b). Kahn (1990) believes that engaged employee is not only a hard working employee. Engaged employee also expresses his points of view, ideas, hunches, feelings regarding the problems he seeks to solve, while feeling the need to work at its best as he can, and prefers to speak up rather than keep silent. According to different authors engaged employees are: • more creative, productive and are ready to do more in their workplace (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008); • eager to learn and are fully connected with their work role (Sonnentag, 2003); • full of energy and immersed in their work and work activities (Bakker, 2011); • those who have a sense of energetic and effective connection with their work activity and who see themselves as fully capable to meet their job demands and expectations (Schaufeli, Salanova, GonzalesRoma & Bakker, 2002); • capable and eager to work more, therefore it is important for an organization to understand the motives for their engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). 4 Survey Research 4.1 Survey Research Methods To collect data and information we used modified close-ended questions designed on the basis of theoretical principles, the Gorenak questionnaire (2003; segment: Leadership in the Slovenian Police Force) and the Wagner and Harter questionnaire (2006; segment: Employee Engagement). The questionnaire was composed of three sets, namely: • First set: demographical data of respondents (gender, age, education, job, period of employment within the police force); • Second set: statements of uniformed police officers in the field of leadership at individual police stations; • Third set: statements of uniformed police officers in the field of employee engagement in individual police stations. In the second and third part of the questionnaire the respondents marked level of agreement with each statement on the basis of a 5-point Likert rating scale. Survey method: the questionnaires were personally delivered to all the leaders at the selected police stations in an empty envelope, containing cover letter with a personal presentation, the purpose of the questionnaire and ensuring the anonymity of the purpose of the questionnaire (the number of delivered questionnaires was adapted to the number of uniformed police officers at each police station). The data were statistically processed and analyzed by using SPSS 22.0 software. The following analyses were conducted within the research: • basic statistical analysis: calculation of basic characteristics of the sample and individual variables in the field of leadership and engagement of uniformed police officers (use of arithmetic mean, standard deviation, frequency distribution, etc.); • factor analysis: a smaller number of non-measurable common leadership factors of uniformed police officers at the selected police stations was confirmed (factors influencing leadership style) and a smaller number of non-measurable common engagement factors of uniformed police officers at the selected police stations (dimensions of employee engagement) that explain a greater part of the variance of a larger number of measurable indicators - these factors were subsequently used as explanatory variables; • multivariate nonlinear regression analysis: descriptive dimensions of each variable were calculated, correlation coefficient, parameter values in regression model, parameter estimates of regression function, test values of independent estimates of the parameters and residual values. 4.2 Focus Group The population is represented by all (9321) uniformed police officers at all 22 police stations in the area of the Ljubljana Police Directorate which is also represented by the sample of respondents. The research survey was conducted in August and September 2013. We received 514 fully completed questionnaires (55.15% response rate) which was a sufficient basis for further statistical processing and analysis, Based on data obtained from the Ministry of the Interior, Organisation and Personnel Office, Human resource Department of 1. 8. 2013, the representative sample was confirmed according to gender (a total of 78.7% of uniformed male police officers and 21.4% of uniformed female police officers were employed at the selected police stations), workplace (a total of 40.9% of police officers, 24.6% of heads of patrols, 13.0% of police criminalists, 9.9% of heads of police precinct, 7.4% police officers on duty and 5.0% shift leaders were present at the selected police stations), and the average age of uniformed police officers (the average age of uniformed police officers was 34.9 years). 4.3 Research Survey Results In the questionnaire, the respondents were asked to rate the statements in the field of leadership and engagement of uniformed police officers based on the Likert rating scale ranging from 1 (Completely disagree) to 5 (Completely agree). The rates 2, 3 and 4 present intermediate levels. 4.3.1 Leadership Table 1 shows that the respondents gave, on average, the highest rate to the statement "Takes into account your wishes regarding home leave." (M = 4.53), and give the lowest rate to the statement "Identifies conflict situations within the team." (M = 3.64). The standard deviations (SD) range between 0.800 and 1.143. 1 The leaders of police stations (commanders and their assistants) were not included among uniformed police officers. Table 1: Leadership of Uniformed Police Officers at the Police Stations Statements M SD Takes into account your wishes regarding home leave. 4,53 0,80 Adjusts the work schedule due to your work obligations, if you suggest it. 4,47 0,87 Adjusts the work schedule due to your personal obligations, if you suggest it. 4,45 0,91 Is willing to discuss with the police officers. 4,21 0,94 Exercises control over the work of police officers. 4,11 0,88 Is willing to discuss with the police officers regarding work planning. 4,11 0,98 Supports the police officers in their work. 4,10 1,00 Plans the work of police officers. 4,09 0,83 Gives instructions to the police officers. 4,09 0,86 Seeks to establish a positive attitude towards the police officers. 4,03 1,04 You believe in effective communication between you and him before talking to him. 4,03 1,05 Strives to effectively inform and communicate with the police officers. 4,00 0,96 In informing and communicating with the police officers an easygoing attitude is predominantly established. 3,95 1,10 Is directly involved in solving more complex operational cases. 3,94 1,04 Assists the police officers in their work. 3,87 1,07 Sets clear objectives for the police officers. 3,87 1,00 Is in charge of co-participation of police officers while undertaking a co-decision on operational tasks. 3,74 1,02 Is in charge of rewards and recognition of the police officers. 3,74 1,14 Resolves conflicts within the team. 3,73 1,12 Prevents conflicts within the team. 3,68 1,14 Seeks to motivate the police officers at work. 3,68 1,12 Identifies conflict situations within the team. 3,64 1,09 As explained further below, a reduction of set of statements in the field of leadership in the Slovenian police force was conducted, whereas new independent variables - elements of leadership, namely: "Attitude of the commander of the police station towards the subordinate" (abbreviated "Attitude"), "Commander's ability to meet the subordinates' needs" (abbreviated "Needs"), and "Commander's assistance to the subordinates" (abbreviated "Assistance") - were generated through the factor analysis (Table 2). These variables (independent variables) represented the cause in the regression model. In verifying the reliability, we have found that all three elements have a high degree of reliability (the Cronbach's alfa above 0.7), and thus jointly explain 74.62% of the total variance, Table 2: Elements of Leadership in the Slovenian Police Force and Communalities of Individual Variables Values of rotated factor Variable Factor* Communalities V1 V2 V3 In informing and communicating with the police officers an easygoing attitude is predominantly established. 0,848 0,805 Seeks to motivate the police officers at work. 0,846 0,808 Seeks to establish a positive attitude towards the police officers. 0,841 0,832 Is in charge of rewards and recognition of the police officers. 0,827 0,750 Strives to effectively inform and communicate with the police officers. 0,827 0,818 You believe in effective communication between you and him before talking to him. 0,817 0,781 Is willing to discuss with the police officers. 0,778 0,775 Is in charge of co-participation of police officers while undertaking a co-decision on operational tasks. 0,764 0,674 Resolves conflicts within the team. 0,759 0,715 Supports the police officers in their work. 0,747 0,778 Prevents conflicts within the team. 0,747 0,725 Is willing to discuss with the police officers regarding work planning. 0,699 0,775 Identifies conflict situations within the team. 0,649 0,636 Assists the police officers in their work. 0,623 0,696 Is directly involved in solving more complex operational cases. 0,602 0,624 Sets clear objectives for the police officers. 0,574 0,668 Adjusts the work schedule due to your personal obligations, if you suggest it. 0,866 0,876 Adjusts the work schedule due to your work obligations, if you suggest it. 0,846 0,859 Takes into account your wishes regarding home leave. 0,824 0,837 Exercise control over the work of police officers. 0,753 0,569 Gives instructions to the police officers. 0,701 0,740 Plans the work of police officers. 0,678 0,693 % of explained variance in total: 74.629 62,856 6,189 5,584 * Factors: V1 - Attitude; V2 - Needs; V3 - Assistance. 4.3.2 Employee Engagement The data as shown in Table 3 were sorted in descending order according to the average value of each statement. It is evident that the respondents attributed, on average, the highest rate to the statement "I know exactly what is expected of me at work." (M = 4.26), while the lowest rate was attributed to the statement "My coworker is my best friend." (M = 2.20). The standard deviations (SD) range between 0.759 and 1.291. Table 3: Engagement of Uniformed Police Officers at the Police Stations Statements M SD I know exactly what is expected of me at work. 4,26 0,76 My leader considers me as a complete person. 3,74 1,02 My point of view is appreciated and respected. 3,43 1,01 My colleagues sincerely strive to achieve good and quality work. 3,34 1,03 At least someone deliberately encourages my development. 3,24 1,09 This year I had the opportunity to learn and develop. 3,11 1,25 I have the opportunity to do every day practically what I am best at. 3,05 1,08 Everything I need to do my job well is at my disposition. 2,93 1,08 In the last six months my development was discussed with me. 2,91 1,29 In the last seven days my work was complimented. 2,82 1,26 My coworker is my best friend. 2,20 1,24 To measure employee engagement, the statements refferring to engagement of uniformed police officers were categorized, according to Gallup, into three categories (Harter et al., 2013): • Engaged employees: energetic employees who have confidence both in their colleagues and their superiors (leaders). They work passionately and are deeply connected to the values and the mission of the organization where they work at (criterion: M > 3.7). • Disengaged employees: partly absent employees. They carry out their work properly. They invest their time and energy in work, but not passion (criterion: 2.6 < M < 3.7). • Actively disengaged employees: employees who are not satisfied in their workplace. This dissatisfaction is also actively manifested. This type of employees underestimates the work of engaged colleagues and has an impact on the overall climate in the organization (criterion: M < 2.6). As explained further below, a reduction of set of statements in the field of employee engagement was conducted, whereas new independent variables - elements of leadership, namely: "Affiliation and growth", "Contribution" and "Working conditions" - were generated through the factor analysis (Table 4). In verifying the reliability, we have found that all three elements have a high degree of reliability (the Cronbach's alfa above 0.7), and thus jointly explain 64.24% of the total variance. Table 4: Elements of Engagement of Uniformed Police Officers in the Slovenian Police Force and Communalities of Individual Variables Values of rotated factor Variable Factor* Communalities Z1 Z2 Z3 My leader considers me as a complete personality. 0,813 0,741 My point of view is appreciated and respected. 0,763 0,750 At least someone deliberately encourages my development. 0,760 0,729 In the last seven days my work was complimented. 0,699 0,546 In the last six months my development was discussed with me. 0,660 0,653 The mission of our organization also echoes how important my job is. 0,616 0,617 This year I had the opportunity to learn and develop. 0,487 0,506 Everything I need to do my job well is at my disposition. 0,837 0,772 I have the opportunity to do every day practically what I am best at. 0,741 0,676 I know exactly what is expected of me at work. 0,572 0,487 My coworker is my best friend. 0,841 0,725 My colleagues sincerely strive to achieve good and quality work. 0,477 0,507 % of explained variance in total: 64.237 47,084 8,744 8,409 Rotation sums of squared loadings (X) 3,650 2,510 1,548 * Factors: Z1 - Affiliation and growth; Z2 - Contribution; Z3 - Working conditions. To determine a total level of engagement of uniformed police officers at the selected police stations, the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) generated a new variable "level of engagement of uniformed police officers at police stations": COMPUTE i1= (Z1 * 3.650 (X1) + Z2 * 2.510 (X2) + Z3 * 1.548 (X1)) / (3.650 (X1) + 2.510 (X2) + 1.548 (X3) In the regression model, the variable represented a result (dependent variable). 4.3.3 Hypothesis Verification The following hypothesis was tested: "Elements of leadership in the Slovenian police force have a statistically significant impact on the level of engagement of the uniformed police officers." The results of regression analysis are presented based on this model. All the assumptions of validity of regression model are confirmed (residues are normally distributed, no presence of heteroscedasticity, the VIF of individual statements is not sufficiently high (<2) to influence the outcome of the estimate results). Table 5: Estimate Results of Regression Coefficient Model Model Non-standardized Coefficients Beta Standardized Coefficient t sig Beta Standard Error Level of Engagement of Uniformed Police Officers 1,258 0,137 9,153 0,000 Independent Variable Attitude 0,635 0,037 0,762 17,207 0,000 Independent Variable Needs -0,117 0,041 -0,127 -2,867 0,004 Regression analysis (Table 5) has shown (by using the Stepwise regression method) that there is only one element of leadership, contrary to the expectations, which has a positive impact on the level of engagement of uniformed police officers, namely: "The attitude of the commander of the police station towards the subordinate" (abbreviated Attitude; ßn = 0.635) has a significant positive impact. The element of leadership called "Commander's assistance to the subordinates" (abbreviated Assistance) is statistically insignificant result (ß = 0). The element of leadership called "Commander's ability to meet the subordinates' needs" (abbreviated "Needs") has a negative impact (ßn = -0.117) on the level of engagement of uniformed police officers, thus ß proves that the contribution of this element is very low, The regression function can be written in the form of regression hyperplane equation, therefore we write: Level of engagement of uniformed police officers = 1,258 + 0,635 * Attitude - 0,117 * Needs By this hypothesis, we have assumed that the elements of leadership in the Slovenian police force have a statistically significant impact on the level of engagement of uniformed police officers. We have found out that the hypothesis can be partially accepted. 5 Discussion The research survey has shown that the leadership of uniformed police officers in the area of the Ljubljana Police Directorate is, on average, good (M = 4.00). Taking into account the wishes regarding the organization of working time and annual leave was ranked highest by the police officers. The excellent rank implies that, for now, the leaders still manage, despite understaffed police stations, to satisfy the wishes of police officers regarding the organization of working time and home leave, The field of control over the work of police officers was also rated as good. As many as 79.50% of police officers estimated that the leader has always the willingness to discuss with the police officers. Nevertheless, their efforts to motivate the police officers at work (M = 3.68) and their concern for the rewards and recognition of the police officers (M = 3.74) were ranked the lowest. Police officers also ranked well the leader's attitude towards them (M = 4.00). As many as 69.06% of police officers estimated that their leaders strive hard to establish a positive relationship. The results of police officer engagement have shown that, compared to the level of engagement in their work, most of the police officers are disengaged (58.00%), followed by the engaged police officers (24.50%) and the lowest percentage present actively disengaged police officers (17.50%). In addition to the high percentage of disengaged police officers, the data on actively disengaged police officers is also alarming. Actively disengaged employees are not satisfied in their workplace and they also actively manifest it. They express the behaviors that are negative, non-cooperative and even hostile (Wagner & Harter, 2006), and thereby reduce satisfaction and engagement of their colleagues. The hypothesis assuming that the elements of leadership in the Slovenian police force have a statistically significant impact on the level of engagement of the uniformed police officers was partially accepted. The research survey has shown that the attitude of the leaders of police stations as one of the elements of leadership has a strong positive impact on the level of engagement of the uniformed police officers (See Table 5). 6 Conclusion The research study has shown that, despite of the average good rating of the leader's leadership, more than three-quarters of uniformed police officers are disengaged in their work. This finding is not a surprise since the police officers ordinaly also use old and worn out vehicles, many of the police stations are in poor condition and they work on computers which have been written off by the other ministries. Police stations in the area of the Ljubljana Police Directorate are also understaffed (the average number of staff responds to 72.64%, and the most understaffed police station attains only 60.87% of occupancy level). Workload, time pressure and shift work cause negative stress for the police officers already at a normal occupancy level. Inadequate level of police staffing at the police stations due to an even greater workload assigned to an individual police officer only contributes to higher job demands of police officers and the associated stress. Such stress may lead to burnout of the police officers (Maslach & Leiter, 1997). The leaders of police stations, whose attitude towards their subordinates has a strong positive impact on the level of engagement of uniformed police officers, can do a lot to protect the police officers and themselves. Authors of all the conducted research studies on the impact of job resources related to the employee engagement mentioned in this article convincingly argue that the level of employee engagement is most affected by the leader.The aspects of the working environment which are under the direct influence of the leader should explain the differences in employee satisfaction and engagement (Harter, Schmidt & Hayes, 2002). Based on the findings of our research study, it would be reasonable to conduct a systematic evaluation research on the Police leadership training program which would show whether this training program provides adequate knowledge and skills that contribute to building positive relationships and whether there is a transfer of knowledge and skills in the everyday practice of the Slovenian police leadership. In the current situation, when improving financial and staffing problems and equipment-related problems cannot be expected, the leader plays a key role. Dominik Žužman, MSc, is employed in the Slovenian police force and works at the Security and Protection Centre. He holds a Master's degree in organizational sciences in the field of employee engagement in the Slovenian police force at the University of Primorska. 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Available at http://journal.doba.si/?aid=469 DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2016.1.06 1.04 Strokovni članek Odnos med javnim podjetjem in lokalno skupnostjo v luči korupcijskih tveganj Štefan Šumah Crane d.o.o., Ravne, Slovenija stefan.sumah@gmail.com Edita Mahić Volper d.o.o., Maribor, Slovenija edita.mahic@gmail.com IZVLEČEK Korupcijo so kot velik gospodarski in socialni problem začeli prepoznavati šele proti koncu prejšnjega stoletja in od leta 1995 tudi sistematično raziskovati. Veliko so raziskovali korupcijo v javnem sektorju, predvsem v zdravstvu in javni upravi. Javnih podjetij, ki pa so prav tako pomemben del javnega sektorja, pa v teh raziskavah v glavnem ni niti zaznati. V teh podjetjih, ki so vitalnega pomena za lokalno skupnost, se obrača veliko denarja, ki izvira delno iz proračuna lokalnih skupnosti in delno iz plačila občanov za opravljene storitve; hkrati pa lahko lokalni politiki prek teh podjetij vplivajo na vsakdanje življenje v lokalni skupnosti. Kjer pa sta denar in vpliv, je pogosto tudi korupcija oziroma korupcijsko tveganje. Ker je ta tema dokaj neraziskana, je namen tega članka prikazati možna korupcijska dejanja oziroma korupcijska tveganja ter s tem odpreti v Sloveniji še neraziskano poglavje korupcije, ki bo v pomoč tudi vsem drugim raziskovalcem korupcije v javnem sektorju, hkrati pa opozoriti na možnost korupcije, ki se je še premalo zavedamo. Zato se je na podlagi raziskave različnih arhivov oblikovala osnovna taksonometrija korupcije, ki lahko nastane v razmerju med javnim podjetjem in lokalno skupnostjo, kjer tudi številni drugi avtorji zaznavajo možnost nastanka korupcijskih tveganj. Zaradi slabe medijske pokritosti pa tudi splošnega nepoznavanja korupcije na eni strani (časopisni arhivi) in predvsem statističnega navajanja na drugi (arhivi policije in KPK) je bilo težko narediti ustrezno taksonomijo.V taksonomiji so našteti najpogostejši primeri korupcije, primeri oblike le-teh in tudi področja, kjer se pojavljajo. V zaključku članka so navedene tudi nekatere ugotovitve glede na taksonomijo. Ključne besede: korupcija, taksonomija, javna podjetja, lokalna skupnost JEL: P3, P37 Šumah, Š., & Mahić, E. (2016). Odnos med javnim podjetjem in lokalno skupnostjo 157 v luči korupcijskih tveganj. International Public Administration Review, 14(1), 157-172. 1 Uvod Najbolj zanimiva in enostavna je definicija korupcije z matematično formulo, kjer je korupcija definirana kot odvisna spremenljivka, na katero vplivajo tri neodvisne spremenljivke (Fitzsimons v Brackings, 2008, str.61) in je z njo zajeta dejanska vsebina korupcije: KORUPCIJA = MONOPOL + DISKRECIJSKA PRAVICA - ODGOVORNOST Torej, če se prenese ta enačba na obravnavano temo: tehnični monopol, ki ga imajo javna podjetja, in diskrecijska pravica, ki jo ima lokalna skupnost v odnosu do javnega podjetja (izbira direktorja oziroma vodstva podjetja, sprejemanje cen, vpliv na poslovne odločitve ...), povzroča ob pomanjkanju odgovornosti velika korupcijska tveganja, Oba deležnika, tako javno podjetje kot lokalna skupnost spadata v javni sektor s tem, da gre pri javnih podjetjih za specifičnost v okviru javnega sektorja, za servisno dejavnost države in lokalnih skupnosti (pri tem ni nikakršnih oblastnih funkcij). Med njima je vedno neki neuravnoteženi odnos, saj je v veliki večini javnih podjetij njihov lastnik lokalna skupnost (predvsem občine) in tako kot lastnik vpliva posredno ali neposredno na poslovanje in poslovne odločitve javnega podjetja, Za javna podjetja velja, glede na njihov status, neke vrste dualizem1, saj zaradi opravljanja gospodarskih javnih služb za njih velja Zakon o gospodarskih javnih službah2 (predvsem sta tu pomembna 26. člen, ki govori sprejemanju cen in 27. člen, ki govori o imenovanju direktorja), po svoji organiziranosti (d.o.o ali d.d.) spadajo pod Zakon o gospodarskih družbah3 (prav tako ZGD ureja vprašanja glede javnega podjetja, ki v ZGJS niso urejena), zaradi lokalne vpetosti in lastniške strukture pa tudi pod Zakon o lokalni samoupravi4 (61. člen, ki govori o Svetu ustanoviteljic, ki ga sestavljajo župani in skrbi za uresničevanje ustanoviteljskih pravic) in pogosto prihaja do samovoljnih tolmačenj posameznih zakonov (brez upoštevanja vpliva drugih dveh), z namenom izkoriščanja le-tega zaradi trenutnih političnih interesov. Javna podjetja se pretežno ukvarjajo z javno infrastrukturo oziroma so upravljalec lokalne javne infrastrukture (vodovod, kanalizacija, čistilne naprave ...). Lokalna skupnost je zadolžena za investicije, ki jih pogosto v imenu skupnosti izvajajo javna podjetja. Javna podjetja so kot velik potrošnik določenih vrst blaga in opreme (gradbeni materiali, gradbeni stroji, tovornjaki ...) in dober plačnik zelo zanimiva za dobavitelje. Prav tako pa so, kot dokaj zanesljiv delodajalec in dober plačnik, privlačna tudi za iskalce 1 Dualizem kot delitev oziroma reduciranje celotne resničnosti na dva, med sabo ločena in nezamenljiva dela. 2 Zakon o gospodarskih javnih službah (Uradni list RS, št. 32/93, 30/98 - ZZLPPO, 127/06 - ZJZP, 38/10 - ZUKN in 57/11 - 0RZGJS40) v nadaljevanju ZGJS 3 Zakon o gospodarskih družbah (Uradni list RS, št. 65/09 - uradno prečiščeno besedilo, 33/11, 91/11, 32/12, 57/12, 44/13 - odl. US, 82/13 in 55/15), v nadaljevanju ZGD-1 4 Zakon o lokalni samoupravi (Uradni list RS, št. 94/07 - uradno prečiščeno besedilo, 76/08, 79/09, 51/10, 40/12 - ZUJF in 14/15 - ZUUJFO), v nadaljevanju ZLS zaposlitve. Skratka, obrača se precej denarja in marsikdo bi rad dobil svoj delež pogače, Vendar vpliva korupcije na javno infrastrukturo oziroma dejavnosti, ki se z javno infrastrukturo ukvarjajo, ni mogoče meriti, mogoče pa jo je ocenjevati tako skozi njen neposredni vpliv na uporabnike (na primer omejevanje dostopa uporabnikom do osnovnih storitev, kot sta voda in kanalizacija, s povečevanjem stroškov javnih storitev ali z nižanjem njihove kakovosti) in njen posredni vpliv (s preusmerjanjem javnih sredstev od uporabnikov in z omejevanjem razvoja ter zmanjševanjem revščine). Lahko pa uporabniki uporabijo korupcijo tudi v svojo korist. Na primer, uporabniki lahko podkupujejo uradnike za dostop do storitev ali za izboljšanje količine/kakovosti storitev, so lahko vpleteni v korupcijo pri goljufiji razvojnih projektov ali pa uporabniki lahko volijo skorumpirane politike zaradi obljube o oskrbi z vodo ali za neko drugo korist, Toda, ko si revna gospodinjstva ne morejo privoščiti, da bi plačala podkupnino (ali nimajo pravih stikov za sodelovanje pri korupciji), so odrinjena od dostopa do infrastrukture, kot sta voda in elektrika (Sohail & Cavill, 2007, str. 10), In ravno korupcija v javnih podjetjih, torej podjetjih, ki se ukvarjajo z javno infrastrukturo (voda, čiščenje odpadne vode, elektrika, kanalizacija, zbiranje odpadkov ...) in so v lasti lokalnih skupnosti oziroma države, je od vsega javnega sektorja (kamor ta podjetja spadajo) najmanj raziskana. 2 Raziskave korupcije v javnih podjetjih Zagotavljanje javnih storitev na lokalni ravni izhaja iz procesa decentralizacije. Decentralizacija prenaša izvajanje javnih storitev po načelu subsidiarnosti na najnižjo možno lokalno raven, ki je še zmožna kakovostno zagotavljati določeno javno storitev. Takšno razumevanje določanja pristojnosti prinaša tri glavne prednosti: (1) lokalna oblast je najbližja prebivalcem, zato najbolje razume in prepozna njihove potrebe, poleg tega pa ima legitimnost za takšno delovanje; (2) fleksibilnost lokalnega političnega odločanja omogoča prilagajanje lokalnim razmeram in spremembam pri povpraševanju po javnih storitvah; (3) prednost pa je tudi učinkovitost pri zagotavljanju javnih storitev, ki nastaja zaradi politične odgovornosti lokalnih oblasti (Bačlija, 2011, str. 101). Ravno tu Evropska komisija (2014, str.16) v svojem poročilu ugotavlja, da obstajajo velika korupcijska tveganja na regionalni in lokalni ravni, kjer pretežno delujejo tudi javna podjetja in sta medsebojno preverjanje in notranji nadzor običajno šibkejša kot na centralni ravni. V številnih državah članicah se široka diskrecijska pooblastila lokalnih vlad ali lokalnih uprav (ki prav tako upravljajo znatna sredstva) ne ujemajo z ustrezno ravnjo odgovornosti in nadzornimi mehanizmi. Posebne težave na lokalni ravni povzročajo navzkrižja interesov. Potrebna so dodatna prizadevanja za razširjanje dobrih praks, ki jih uporabljajo nekatere regije ali lokalne uprave, in vzpostavitev enakih konkurenčnih pogojev za izvoljene in imenovane funkcionarje na lokalni ravni, zlasti glede standardov preglednosti, prijave premoženja, preprečevanja in sankcioniranja navzkrižja interesov ter nadzora javne porabe, Raziskava Zgodovina javnih storitev (Troesken, 2006) je pokazala razvoj korupcije v javnih podjetjih v Združenih državah Amerike, kako so politiki na koncu 19. stoletja in v začetku 20 stoletja prav na lokalni ravni izrabljali javna podjetja za zmage na volitvah. V mestih, kjer so bile komunalne storitve (voda, kanalizacija ...) v javni lasti, torej v lasti mest ali drugih lokalni skupnosti, so delavci zaslužili tudi do 40 odstotkov več na uro in delali do 17 odstotkov manj ur od primerljivih delavcev v zasebnem sektorju. Pogosto pa so morali zaposleni zato dajati prispevke za kritje volilnih kampanij na lokalni ravni, Velikost »prostovoljnega« prispevka je znašala med 2 in 4 odstotke delavčeve letne plače, odvisno od zaposlitve delavca. Politiki so v javnih podjetjih pogosto zaposlovali tudi več delavcev, kot je bilo potrebno, samo zato, da so si zagotovili več podpornikov, ko je prišel čas volitev. Cene storitev pa so bile seveda nižje kot tam, kjer je te storitve opravljalo zasebno podjetje. Raziskava, ki jo je v letih 2012-2013 v osmih izbranih evropskih državah (Francija, Madžarska, Italija, Litva, Nizozemska, Poljska, Romunija in Španija) za OLAF izvedel PWC (2013), kaže, da je bilo na področju oskrbe z vodo in ravnanja z odpadki (torej storitvah, ki jih med drugimi, opravljajo javna podjetja) med 27 in 38 milijonov evrov direktnih stroškov korupcije, najpogostejša vrsta korupcije pa ravno zavajanje pri javnih razpisih. Tabela 1: Direktni stroški korupcije pri javnih naročilih Sektor Direktni stroški korupcije (v milijon evrih) % od celotne vrednosti javnih naročila v sektorju v 8 državah članicah Ceste in železnice 488-755 1,9% do 2,5% Voda in odpadki 27-38 1,8% do 2,5% Urbana infrastruktura 830-1141 4,8% do 6,6% Usposabljanje, izobraževanje 26-86 4,7% do 15,9% Raziskave in razvoj 99-228 1,7% do 3,9% Vir: PWC (2013, str. 6) Dube (2011) ugotavlja, da težave s korupcijo v javnih podjetjih izhajajo iz nepreglednega oziroma skoraj tajnega dela, saj vodstvo teh podjetij pogosto izkorišča projekte, za katere je zadolženo ali jih izvajaja, za lastno korist, ne pa za korist širše javnosti. Prav tako navaja neustrezno upravljanje javnih podjetij, ki se kaže v pomanjkanju preglednosti, discipline, poštenosti in odgovornosti. Študija je pokazala tudi, da pomanjkanje znanja in usposobljenosti v boju proti korupciji in neustrezno korporativno upravljanje pomaga pri uničevanju nekdaj močnih podjetij v škodo širše javnosti. Vse to pa je na dolgi rok ogrožalo finančno sposobnost javnih služb in tudi mestno oziroma občinsko blagajno, hkrati pa je ogrožalo tudi potrebno izboljšavo infrastrukture. V raziskavi z naslovom Javni denar in korupcijska tveganja (Bouda et al., 2013) so raziskovali tveganje sistemske politične korupcije pri upravljanju z evropskim denarjem in v podjetjih v državni (javni) lasti na Češkem, Slovaškem in Poljski, Ugotovili so, da so podjetja v državni lasti pogosto tarče klientelističnih skupin, povezanih s politiko, ki prejemajo javna sredstva iz podjetij v državni lasti s pomočjo anonimnih pogodbenih partnerjev podjetij v državni lasti, odsotnost lastniške politike pa povzroča šibko in nepregledno korporativno upravljanje teh podjetij. Ta podjetja pogosto niso pripravljena razkriti informacij o svojem poslovanju javnosti. Raziskava korupcije in kriminala v Bosni in Hercegovini (UNOCD, 2013) je med podjetji zajela tudi podjetja, ki bi jih lahko šteli za del javnega sektorja oziroma kot javna podjetja (distribucija in proizvodnja energije, distribucija plina in vode), kjer pa je, zanimivo, ugotovljeno, da je ta sektor bistveno manj koruptiven kot drugi gospodarski sektorji, saj je povprečje stopnje prisotnosti podkupovanja v tem sektorju 6,2 %, povprečna stopnja prisotnosti podkupovanja (ki se računa v odstotkih podjetij, ki so vsaj enkrat na leto dala podkupnino) pa je v Bosni in Hercegovini 10,2 %. Stopnja prisotnosti podkupovanja javnih uslužbencev, ki jih izvajajo podjetja, pa se giblje med 8,5 % (za delavce v zdravstvu) in 2,2 % (za davčne uslužbence). Tudi tu so uslužbenci komunalnih služb pod povprečjem z 2,5 %. Veliko avtorjev zagovarja privatizacijo kot enega izmed učinkovitih ukrepov v boju proti korupciji. Da pa vse le ni tako enoznačno, kaže raziskava Velika korupcija v javnih storitvah (Kenny & Soreide, 2008). Tudi zasebna podjetja, ki opravljajo javne storitve, se trudijo ali pridobiti javna naročila ali pa novo dobičkonosno koncesijo s korupcijo. Za to vrsto korupcije je značilna korupcija pred razpisom, z namenom, da se prilagodijo pravila igre, ki zagotavljajo vnaprej želene rezultate, sami razpisni postopki pa nato niso sporni. Prav tako so značilna za to obliko korupcije ponovna pogajanja (mogoče kakšno leto po sklenitvi koncesionarske pogodbe) z namenom pridobiti boljšo pozicijo ali doseči višjo ceno. Raziskava v letu 2014 (Domadenik, Prašnikar & Svejnar, 2014) je pokazala, da v manj razvitih demokracijah, kot je na primer slovenska, ki ne kaznuje politične korupcije, to negativno vpliva na poslovanje podjetij. Večji delež politično povezanih članov v nadzornih svetih vodi k znižanju faktorske produktivnosti podjetja. Pri ločeni raziskavi proizvodnih, k tujim trgom usmerjenih podjetij, in neproizvodnih podjetij, pa je raziskava pokazala, da ima pomemben negativen vpliv na produktivnost na daljši rok večji delež politično postavljenih članov nadzornega sveta v neproizvodnem sektorju, medtem ko je sestava nadzornih svetov v proizvodnem sektorju statistično nepomembna. Iz česar avtorji sklepajo, da je »legalna« korupcija veliko močneje prisotna v neproizvodnem sektorju, torej tudi na področjih, ki jih pokrivajo javna podjetja. Po raziskavi iz leta 2012 Komisije za preprečevanje korupcije (KPK, 2013, str. 89) pa je bila korupcija pri javnih naročilih prepoznana kot druga najvplivnejša oblika korupcije, ki vpliva na poslovanje podjetij, takoj za političnimi pritiski na poslovanje slovenskih bank (slaba polovica, tj. 40 odstotkov, predstavnikov slovenskih podjetij ocenjuje, da korupcija javnih uslužbencev in funkcionarjev pri oddaji javnih naročil znatno ali zelo vpliva na poslovanje njihovega podjetja). V isti raziskavi (str. 28) so bili ugotovljeni primeri pri imenovanju javnih funkcionarjev in drugih odločitvah, sprejetih na podlagi politične ali poslovne diskrecije v javnem sektorju, prihaja do kršitev dolžnega ravnanja z znaki korupcije, do nasprotja interesov, drugih nezakonitih in neetičnih ravnanj (predvsem z političnimi imenovanji in drugimi odločitvami diskrecijske narave, ki objektivno predstavljajo korupcijska tveganja nasprotja interesov, klientelizma, nepotizma, pa tudi kronizma). Raziskava Škrbca v njegovi doktorski nalogi (Škrbec, 2013, str. 107) pa kaže, da so na prvem mestu med področji korupcije ravno javna naročila in na petem mestu lokalna raven, med subjekti korupcije pa občinski funkcionarji in uslužbenci, torej tudi zaposleni javnih podjetji. Zaradi same narave lastnikov, pri katerih ni v ospredju ustvarjanje dobička v podjetju, kot je to normalno v gospodarstvu, pač pa so, sploh v predvolilnem času, taki povsem drugi interesi, je vodstvo javnih podjetij še boljpod pritiskom in se mora zatekati pogosto v čisti machiavelizem, sklepanje kompromisov in v boj za lastno preživetje. Vse prepogosto so vodstva javnih podjetij samo grešni kozli za neuspešnost lokalnih veljakov in se hitro najdejo na listi za odstrel, sploh če ne upoštevajo njihovih namigov (tudi posrednih), želja ali pa tudi direktnih ukazov, pa čeprav so sprti z ekonomsko logiko, ki bi jo moralo vodstvo podjetja, kot dober gospodar upoštevati. Vse to pa, žal, lahko vodi v moralno sporna, če ne že koruptivna dejanja. Razen tega, da se v javnih podjetjih, zlasti s področja gospodarskih javnih služb varstva okolja, vršita pogosto nadzor in ocenjevanje uspešnosti izvajanja nalog varstva okolja (za razliko nadzora nad poslovanjem, kjer je tveganje za korupcijo veliko večje), to pa seveda znova vodi v določena korupcijska tveganja. Na voljo je veliko raznovrstne zakonodaje, kar lahko v javnosti vzbuja malce zmedenosti, saj je področje varstva okolja razdeljeno na zelo veliko manjših področij, poleg tega je ponekod besedilo razloženo na zelo dolg, zapleten in preveč podroben način. Morda je to dobro zaradi samega urejanja, vendar bi se lahko predpisi pisali bolj razumljivo (Vojnovič, 2011, str.48). Dodati pa je treba še, da je zakonodaja na nekaterih področjih zelo nedosledna in nedorečena, kar dopušča diskrecijsko pravico in različna tolmačenja. V svoji doktorski disertaciji je Škrbec (2013, str.107) raziskoval tudi vzroke in motive za nastanek korupcije v Sloveniji in ugotovil štiri najpogostejše. Prvi oziroma najpogostejši vzrok in motiv korupcije je izboljšanje ekonomskega statusa (torej pohlep). Drugi najpogostejši vzrok so navade iz preteklosti, kjer so ljudje v bivši Jugoslaviji iskali načine kako zaobiti sistem in pravila igre. Tretji vzrok za korupcijo je sistemske narave, saj že sam sistem vpliva na povečanje korupcije. Četrti najpogostejši vzrok pa je majhnost Slovenije in delovanje vez in poznanstev, zato je urejanje stvari v Sloveniji specifično, ker smo tako majhni in se med seboj poznamo, na ta način pa se lažje ustvarijo neformalne mreže in se zato tudi lažje prikrijejo. Ljudje pa se prek neformalnih mrež srečujejo in skupajiščejo poti za zadovoljevanje lastnih interesov. Prav tako navaja raziskava (str. 120) ugotovitev, da so Slovenci egoistična bitja in da nekaj spoštujejo, šele ko je to dobro za njih, to spoštujejo, drugače pa poskušajo najti obvod omejitvam oziroma stvari, ki jim ne ustreza. Pravna kultura v Sloveniji pa je na ravni, na kateri ljudje spoštujejo pravo zgolj tedaj, ko imajo od njega osebno korist. Tisti, ki v Sloveniji dosledno spoštujejo pravo, so prej izjeme kot pravilo in so v javnosti včasih celo ožigosani kot »idioti, bebci ali kaj podobnega«. Podobno navaja v svoji raziskavi Grodeland (2005), ki ugotavlja, da večina anketirancev v Sloveniji meni, da Slovenci ne spoštujejo vladavine prava in da je iskanje lukenj v zakonu nacionalni šport. Po Grodelandu Slovenci na splošno menijo, da treba biti iznajdljiv, zakone pa spoštujejo le v delu, ki jim koristijo. Nespoštovanje zakonov pa po mnenju anketiranih izhaja predvsem iz komunistične preteklosti. 3 Korupcijska tveganja in taksonomija korupcije v odnosih med javnim podjetjem in lokalno skupnostjo Območij korupcijskega tveganja pri javnih podjetjih je več, saj so pogojena s tem, kdo vstopa v odnos z javnim podjetjem oziroma na kateri relaciji se korupcija lahko dogaja in kdo so akterji. Kot akterji v odnos (poslovni, lastniški, zakonodajni, nadzorni ...) z javnim podjetjem vstopajo: lokalne skupnosti (kot lastniki in uporabniki storitev), država (včasih kot lastnik, pogosteje pa z nadzorom in regulativo, včasih tudi kot uporabnik storitev), podizvajalci in izvajalci storitev (ko jim delo daje javno podjetje), dobavitelji blaga in storitev javnemu podjetju ter seveda tudi uporabniki storitev (kot fizične osebe). In naša raziskava obravnava samo območje odnosov na relaciji javno podjetje -lokalna skupnost, Lokalna skupnost ima kot lastnik javnega podjetja pravico tako do nadzora5 kot tudi do, vsajv enem delu, regulativnega delovanja in tudi omejene pravice odločanja, hkrati pa pogosto naroča pri javnih podjetjih storitve in nastopa kot stranka oziroma plačnik. Prav tako lokalna skupnost postavlja in odstavlja vodstvene kadre ter z dajanjem soglasja k cenam storitev obveznih gospodarskih javnih služb6 in naročanjem storitev vpliva na poslovanje podjetja. Korupcijska tveganja nastajajo pri odnosu med javnim podjetjem in lokalno skupnostjo, ker ima lokalna skupnost precejšen vpliv na kadrovanje (postavljanje in odstavljanje vodstva)7, ker naroča delo in sprejema cene ter s tem vpliva na poslovanje (dobro ali slabo) in lahko poskuša vplivati na poslovne odločitve (izbira podizvajalcev, dobaviteljev ali zaposlovanje) ter tudi na druge odločitve (sponzoriranje, donacije). Ravno zaradi naštetih vplivov je vodstvo v odnosu do lokalne skupnosti pogosto prisiljeno sprejemati določene odločitve, ki mejijo na korupcijo, so moralno sporne ali celo koruptivne, 5 ZGD-1, Nadzorni svet, revizija 6 ZGJS, 26. člen 7 ZGJS, 27. člen saj lahko prihaja do izsiljevanja pri imenovanju vodstva, pri sprejemanju cen in pri naročanju storitev, Slika 1: Obojestranski vplivi, kjer nastajajo korupcijska tveganja LOKALNA SKUPNOST nadzor in poskus vplivanja na:/ д poslovanje, kadrovanje, I \ poslovne odločitve, j \ druge odločitve izogibanje nadzoru in \ / poskusi vplivanja na: \ j vsebino odlokov, \ / sprejetje cen, kadrovanje JAVNO PPODJETJE Vir:lasten V tem odnosu je javno podjetje (vodstvo javnega podjetja) akter aktivne korupcije, saj omogoča tako lokalni skupnosti kot posameznikom (občinskim veljakom, funkcionarjem, vplivnežem) tako materialno kot nematerialno korist, Zahteve, s katerimi se pogojujejo npr, direktorsko delovno mesto, soglasje k spremembi cen, naročilo določenih del in podobno, lahko postavljajo lokalna skupnost oziroma posamezniki v obliki zahtevkov zase ali za druge, to so predvsem brezplačne storitve (običajno manjša gradbena dela), zaposlitev določene osebe, doniranje ali sponzorska sredstva športnemu klubu ali društvu, pogosto pa gre tudi za čisto politične, strankarske interese, Slika 2: Primer preusmeritve dela denarja preko javnega podjetja lokalna skupnost ali posamezniki preko javnega podjetja denar transferirajo do klubov ali društev ali skozi ceno storitev, ki jo plačujejo občani (dejansko neprostovoljni prispevek) ali pogojujejo plačila z donadjami ali sponzorskimi sredstvi Vir:lasten Včasih pa tudi lokalne skupnosti ali vplivni posamezniki javno podjetje uporabijo za pomoč pri izogibanju javnemu naročanju ter prelivanju javnih sredstev k fizičnim osebam ali društvom in klubom (ta način je sploh pogost, kadar ni zagotovljenih sredstev v proračunu in jih je treba preusmeriti iz drugih proračunskih postavk), Na osnovi raziskovanjdostopnih arhivov časopisov (Delo, Večer), arhiva Komisije za preprečevanje korupcije in arhiva policije je nastala osnovna taksonomija korupcije, ki se pojavlja v odnosu med javnim podjetjem in lokalno skupnostjo, skupaj s primeri in pojavnim območjem v javnem podjetju, Pregledani so bili arhivi za obdobje desetih let (2005-2014), V arhivu časopisov Delo in Večer sva iskala ustrezne članke z ključno besedo korupcija. V dnevniku Delo je bilo v raziskovanem obdobju objavljenih 9793 člankov na temo korupcija, v dnevniku Večer pa le 1056, zato sva v arhivu Večera raziskovanje nadaljevala z ključnimi besedami podkupovanje, klientelizem in nepotizem, tako da sva našla še dodatnih 831 člankov s temi ključnimi besedami (nekateri so se med seboj pokrivali), Po pregledu vseh člankov sva ugotovila, da je le teh o korupciji oziroma o njenih pojavnih oblikah (podkupovanje, klientelizen in nepotizem) v javnih podjetjih zelo malo, pa še med temi jih je veliko bolj splošnih (se nanašajo na glas ulice) in ne konkretnih, takih, ki bi opisovali dejansko korupcijo, z imeni in obliko le-te (se pa je iz proučevanja člankov pokazalo, da novinarji zelo slabo poznajo problematiko korupcije, saj med sabo mešajo osnovne pojme, sploh klientelizem in nepotizen; podkupovanje v nekaterih primerih sploh ne smatrajo kot korupcijo, hkrati pa nekaterih vrst korupcije sploh ne prepoznavajo kot korupcijo. Prav tako se je kot dokaj omejeno področje za raziskavo korupcije v javnih podjetjih pokazal arhiv policije oziroma letna poročila policije za obdobje 2005-2014, sajima policija zelo natančno in ozko opredelitev, kaj je korupcijsko kaznivo dejanje (kar je razumljivo, saj morajo, kot organ pregona kaznivo dejanje natančno specificirati). Tako je v tem obdobju obdobju policija obravnavala le 711 tako imenovanih tipičnih korupcijskih dejanj8 V arhivu Komisije za preprečevanje korupcije pa sva raziskala Načelna mnenja, Mnenja, Pojasnila, Stališča, Zaključne ugotovitve ter Letna poročila in Ocene stanja. Ta arhiv je bil bistveno obširnejši od policijskega in tudi bistveno več konkretnih primerov posameznih oblik korupcije se je v njem analiziralo ter pridobilo tudi več uporabnih podatkov, ki so se uporabili pri izdelavi taksonomije. 8 Med tako imenovana tipična korupcijska dejanja, glede na policijsko statistiko, spadajo: kršitev proste volje volilcev, prejemanje podkupnine pri volitvah, nedovoljeno sprejemanje daril, nedovoljeno dajanje daril, jemanje podkupnine, dajanje podkupnine, sprejemanje daril za nezakonito posredovanje, dajanje daril za nezakonito posredovanje. Tabela 2: Taksonomija korupcije na relaciji javno podjetje - lokalna skupnost Taksonomija korupcije na relaciji javno podjetje - lokalna skupnost Vrsta korupcije Primer poteka korupcije Pojavno območje korupcije Podkupovanje V obliki brezplačnih storitev (urejanje okolja, manjša gradbena dela, razne manjše druge storitve .) ali brezplačna dobava materiala lokalnim veljakom, županu, lokalni skupnosti, klubom ali društvom Pojavno območje je na relaciji med top menedžmentom in srednjim menedžmentom in veljaki lokalne skupnosti Klientelizem Imenovanje direktorja na osnovi politične pripadnosti, zaposlovanje po nareku lokalnih veljakov (župana, članov občinskega sveta, strankarskih veljakov .), določanje javnemu podjetju s kom bo poslovalo oziroma pri kom bo naročalo material ali storitve Tu je pojavno območje korupcije relacija med top menedžmentom in veljaki lokalne skupnosti Konflikt interesov Omogočanje poslov prek javnega podjetja tem, ki direktno z občino ne morejo oziroma ne smejo poslovati zaradi omejitve poslovanja. Tudi tu je pojavno območje korupcije relacija med menedžmentom in veljaki lokalne skupnosti Nezdružljivost funkcij Imenovanje v organe odločanja, upravljanja ali nadzora ljudi, ki se jih zaradi njihovih funkcij, povezanih z lokalno skupnostjo, ne bi smelo imenovati. Tu je pojavno območje predvsem lokalna skupnost, javno podjetje imam na to samo posreden in zelo omejen vpliv. Izsiljevanje Izsiljevanje vodstva s pogojevanjem sprejetja cen ali sprejetja drugih, za podjetje pomembnih odločitev za pridobitev koristi zase ali za lokalno skupnost Pojavno območje korupcije je med veljaki lokalne skupnosti in vodstvom podjetja Uporaba javnega podjetja za izogibanje javnim naročilom Lokalna skupnost (tu je mišljena občina) ima v primerjavi z javnim podjetjem precej nižji cenzus, pri katerem mora začeti z postopki, predpisanimi v zakonu o javnem naročanju, Zato storitev ali blago naroči pri javnem podjetju in se s tem ogne postopkom javnega naročanja, Od javnega podjetja pa zahteva, da odda delo točno določenemu izvajalcu, ki pa v primeru izvedbe javnega naročila ne bi ali izpolnjeval pogojev ali ne bi bil konkurenčen, Pojavno območje korupcije je med veljaki lokalne skupnosti (predvsem vodstvom občine) in vodstvom podjetja Vir: lasten 4 Zaključek Ugotovitve Škrbca (2013) in Grodelanda (2005) veljajo tudi v razmerju, ki je ustvarjeno med lokalno skupnostjo in javnim podjetjem (nespoštovanje vladavine prava, iskanje vez in poznanstev, pohlep, izogibanje pravilom igre ...), zato tudi javna podjetja niso imuna na korupcijo, le manj vidna je kot v drugih javnih sektorjih in manj zanimiva za javnost, saj nima tako direktnega vpliva na vsakodnevno življenje ljudi kot npr. korupcija v zdravstvu ali v javni upravi, Naštetim generatorjem korupcije pa je v veliko pomoč tudi nedorečena zakonodaja, saj je zakon o gospodarskih javnih službah v določanju pravnega režima javnih podjetij zelo skop, ker za vsa vprašanja v zvezi s položajem javnih podjetij, ki v ZGJS-ju niso navedena oziroma urejena, napotuje na uporabo predpisov, ki urejajo položaj podjetij oziroma gospodarskih družb, torej na ZGD, kar pa lahko sproža dvome o pravilnosti umestitve javnega podjetja med osebe javnega prava, saj je v vprašanjih pravnega statusa, upravljanja in poslovanja javnega podjetja javno podjetje, glede na določbo 28. člena ZGJS-a, povsem izenačeno s kapitalskimi gospodarskimi družbami, Zaradi navedenega se kaže bistvena pomanjkljivost v sedanji ureditvi javnega podjetja (Brezovnik, 2009, str. 177-195) v dvojni vlogi države (oziroma lokalne skupnosti) v javnih podjetjih, ko v razmerju do javnega podjetja nastopa na eni strani kot regulator dejavnosti gospodarske javne službe, ki jo opravlja javno podjetje, na drugi strani pa kot lastnica kapitalskih deležev v javnem podjetju ter v sui generis organizacijski obliki javnega podjetja, kar pa včasih kar samo kliče k svojevoljnemu tolmačenju zakonov in posledično tudi h korupciji, Korupcija je lahko pasivna ali aktivna. Aktivna korupcija pomeni dajanje podkupnin, daril, obljub ali drugih materialnih ali nematerialnih koristi, pasivna korupcija pa je prejemanje podkupnin, daril, obljub in drugih materialnih ali nematerialnih koristi (obe pa sta kaznivi oziroma v nekaterih primerih vsaj moralno sporni). Pričakovati, da v primeru javnega podjetja poteka samo pasivna korupcija, torej sprejemanje koristi vseh vrst je zmotno, obstaja kar precej odnosov, v katerih javno podjetje nastopa kot aktivni akter korupcije, oziroma vsaj v nekaterih odnosih potekata obe vrsti korupcije, tako aktivna kot pasivna, Vsekakor je korupcija, ki poteka med javnim podjetjem in lokalno skupnostjo, običajno dokajdobro skrita (sploh če poteka med javnim podjetjem in občinskimi veljaki), pogosto pa je tudi širše družbeno sprejemljiva (zlasti tedaj, če so v pridobitev koristi vpletena razna športna ali kulturna društva) ali pa se sploh ne zaznava kot korupcijsko dejanje. Tudi poročanje lokalnih medijev je prav tako zgoljnevtralno, sajzaradi svoje vpetosti v lokalno skupnost in pogosto tudi zaradi odvisnosti od oglaševalcev, ne morejo pisati kritično, saj lahko vsako tako pisanje pogosto pomeni tudi njihovo izgubo, ker so oglaševalci pogosto vključeni v lokalno gospodarsko mrežo, katere del sta tudi lokalna politika in javno podjetje. Tu se je treba strinjati s Toninom (2009), ki je zapisal, da zaradi številnih povezav in soodvisnosti lokalni mediji pogosto ne morejo opravljati funkcije, ki bi jo kot četrta veja oblasti morali. Sama privatizacija javnih podjetijoziroma podelitev koncesije zasebnim podjetjem seveda ne rešuje težav s korupcijo, kot trdi večina avtorjev, ki se s to tematiko ukvarja, saj se, ko upravljajo zasebniki javno infrastrukturo, problem korupcije samo prestavi. Če v primeru podjetij v lokalni lasti zaradi korupcije trpijo predvsem proračuni države ali lokalnih skupnosti, pa pri upravljanju infrastrukture od zasebnikov finančno trpijo predvsem uporabniki storitev. Zaradi zgorajnavedenih ugotovitev bo osnovna taksonomija korupcije na odnosu javno podjetje - lokalna skupnost pripomogla k prepoznavanju posamičnih korupcijskih dejanj in tako olajšala delo vsem, ki se bodo ukvarjali z raziskovanjem korupcije na tem odnosu v prihodnosti, hkrati pa bo pripomogla tudi k širšemu vpogledu v korupcijo vsem, ki se ukvarjajo ali se bodo ukvarjali z raziskovanjem korupcije v javnem sektorju. Najše dodamo, da je zelo veliko vprašanje, ki se pojavi pri proučevanju korupcije na odnosu javno podjetje - lokalna skupnost, kako korupcija, seveda skozi povišane stroške poslovanja, vpliva na cene storitev javnih podjetij? Vendar pa je to vprašanje primerno za drugo, bistveno razširjeno raziskavo. Mag. Štefan Šumah je diplomiral na Fakulteti za naravoslovje in tehnologijo Univerze v Ljubljani, nato končal specialistični študij na Strojni fakulteti v Mariboru ter magistrski študij poslovnih ved na FKPV Celje. Sedaj končuje doktorski študij poslovnih ved na FKPV Celje. Večji del svoje poklicne kariere je prebil v gospodarstvu na vodstvenih ali vodilnih delovnih mestih. Sedaj je zaposlen kot tehnični direktor v slovenskem delu multinacionalke CRANE. V strokovnih in znanstvenih revijah je doslej v soavtorstvu objavil več člankov in se udeležil kot avtor ali kot soavtor prispevka več mednarodnih znanstvenih konferenc. Mag. Edita Mahić je diplomirala in magistrirala na Gea College, sedaj končuje doktorski študij poslovnih ved na FKPV Celje. Vso svojo poklicno kariero je prebila v gospodarstvu na vodilnih delovnih mestih. Trenutno je zaposlena kot direktor zasebnega podjetja Volper d.o.o. 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Partnering to Combat Corruption in Infrastructure Services: A Toolkit. WEdC, Loughborough University. Dostopno na http://r4d. dnd.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/Regcomp/WEDC-Tooikit-nnai.pdf Domadenik, P., Prašnikar, J., & Svejnar, J. (2014). Legal Corruption, Politically Connected Corporate Governance and Firm Performance (CgEG-CDEP Working Paper No. 12). Columbia University, School of Internatioanl and Public Affairs, Center on Global Economic Governance. Dube, T. (2011). Systemic corruption in public enterprises in the Harare metropolitan area: a case study (magistrska naloga). University of South Africa. Dostopno na http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handie/10500/4694/dissertation dube t.pdf?sequence=1 Evropska komisija. (2014). Poročilo komisije svetu in evropskemu parlamentu -Poročilo o boju proti korupciji v EU (C0M(2014) 38). Bruselj: Evropska komisija. Dostopno na http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/e-iibrary/documents/ poiicies/organized-crime-and-human-trafficking/corruption/docs/acr 2014 si.pdf Gordeland, A. B. (2005). Informal Networks and Corruption in the Judiciary: Elite Interview Findings from the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Bulgaria and Romania. Paper presented at the World Bank conference New Frontiers of Social Policy, Arusha, 12.-15. december 2005. Kenny, C., & Soreide, T. (2008). Grand Corruption in Utilities (World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4805). Dostopno na SSRN: http://ssrn.com/ abstract=1327274 KPK. (2013). Ocena stanja. Ljubljana. Dostopno na https://www.kpk-rs.si/upioad/t datoteke/Ocena stanja korupcije v RS.pdf PWC. (2013). Public Procurement: cost we pay for corruption. Dostopno na https:// ec.europa.eu/anti-ffaud/sites/antiffaud/fiies/docs/body/pwc oiaf study en.pdf Škrbec, J. (2013). Vpliv korupcije na pravno državo v Republiki Sloveniji (doktorska disertacija). Ljubljana: Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za varnostne vede. Tonin, M. (2009). Slovenski župani kot »vsemogočni lokalni šerifi« (seminarska naloga). Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za družbene vede. Troesken, W. (2006). Regime Change and Corruption. A History of Public Utility Regulation. In E. L. Glaeser & C. Goldin (ur.), Corruption and Reform: Lessons from America's Economic History (str. 259-282). University of Chicago Press. Dostopno na http://www.nber.org/chapters/c9986.pdf UNOCD, UN Office on Drugs and Crime. (2013). Poslovanje, korupcija i kriminal u BiH: Utjecaj mita i kriminala na privatna preduzeča. Dunaj: UNOCD. Dostopno na https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-anaivsis/statistics/corruption/ Prevod izvjestaja BHS fina za stampu ispravijeno.pdf Vojnović, T. (2011). Gospodarske javne službe varstva okolja. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za upravo. Zakon o gospodarskih javnih službah. Uradni iist RS, št. 32/93, 30/98 - ZZLPPO, 127/06 - ZJZP, 38/10 - ZUKN in 57/11 - ORZGJS40 Zakon o iokaini samoupravi. Uradni iist RS, št. 94/07 - uradno prečiščeno besedilo, 76/08, 79/09, 51/10, 40/12 - ZUJF in 14/15 - ZUUJFO. SUMMARY 1.04 Professional article The Relationship between Public Enterprises and the Local Community in View of Corruption Risks Corruption as a major economic and social problem began to be recognized only towards the end of the last century. Since 1995 it has also been systematically researched. There are many researches of corruption in public sector, especially in the health care and in public administration. But public enterprises that are the important part of the public sector as well, in these researches cannot be found. In these companies, which are of vital importance to the life of the local community a lot of money is turning, whose origin is partly from the budget of local communities and partly from payment of citizens for services rendered and which may also enable local politicians to impact on the daily life of the local community. Where there are money and influence, there are often corruption and corruption risks. Since this topic has been relatively unexplored, the purpose of this paper is to show the potential corruption offenses and corruption risks, and thus open, in Slovenia, the still unexplored issue of corruption, which might be helpful to all other researchers of corruption in the public sector, while making us aware of the possibility of corruption which has still not sufficiently been recognized, There are several areas of corruption risks in public enterprises. They are stipulated by the relations and the actors in the corruption. There are different relations between public enterprises and local communities as owners and users of services. The state sometimes acts as owner, most commonly by control and regulation. Performers of services (when their job is given by public enterprises), are suppliers as well as users of services, This research treats only the area of relation public enterprise - local community. Local community as the owner of the local enterprises has the right to control their decisions and very often gives orders to public enterprises. It acts as the client or the payer. The local community forms and suspends the managing infrastructure and by giving accord to prices of economic public services, it controls the management of the enterprises. The corruption risks appear in relation between the public enterprises and the local community, because local community has important influence on forming and suspending the management, because it orders services and accepts their prices and so it influences the management and tries to influence business and other decisions (engaging suppliers or employing). Because of this influence the management is forced to make particular decisions relating to local community. These decisions might be morally controversial and corruptive, if resulting from blackmailing for accepting prices, ordering services. Following the research of different archives the authors of the paper created a primary taxonomy of corruption appearing in relationship between the public sector and local community, where many authors detected the possibility of corruption risks. However, due to the poor media coverage as well as the general ignorance of corruption on the one hand (newspaper archives), and in particular the inadequate statistical references on the second (archives of the police and of the Commission for the Prevention of Corruption), it was difficult to make a proper taxonomy. In the taxonomy there are most common examples of corruption, as well as their appearances and the areas, In the conclusion, the paper also lists some findings relating to the taxonomy, However, the corruption between public enterprise and local community might be well hidden, particularly if it takes place between the enterprise and the municipal men of wealth, or could be often socially acceptable if getting benefits concerning sports or cultural activities or it cannot be perceived as a corruptive act at all. But there is the important question how this kind of corruption influences the prices of services. Privatisation of public enterprises or giving concession for services to private companies does not solve the problems with corruption. The problem of corruption is postponed, above all suffer the users of services. Navodila avtorjem V Mednarodni reviji za javno upravo objavljamo izvirne članke, ki obravnavajo teoretična in praktična vprašanja razvoja in delovanja javne uprave. Znanstvene članke objavljamo v slovenskem in v angleškem jeziku, izjemoma v nemškem ali francoskem jeziku. Druge članke objavljamo v slovenskem, angleškem, nemškem ali francoskem jeziku, z daljšim povzetkom v angleškem oziroma slovenskem jeziku. Članek za objavo v Mednarodni reviji za javno upravo pošljite na elektronski naslov: mrju@fu.um-lj.si. Članek imenujte po priimku prvega avtorja (Novak.doc). Članku priložite izpolnjeno Izjavo o avtorstvu, s katero potrdite, da se strinjate s pravili objavljanja v teh navodilih. Za avtorsko delo, objavljeno v Mednarodni reviji za javno upravo, pripadajo vse moralne avtorske pravice avtorju. Materialne avtorske pravice reproduciranja (vsebuje tudi shranitev v elektronski obliki, 23. člen ZASP), pravico dajanja na voljo javnosti (32. a člen ZASP), pravico distribuiranja (24. člen ZASP) v Republiki Sloveniji in tujini pa avtor brezplačno, enkrat za vselej, za vse primere in neomejene naklade ter vse medije prenese izključno na izdajatelja. Avtorji so za objavo slik, tabel in grafičnih prilog, za katere nimajo avtorskih pravic, dolžni pridobiti dovoljenje, ki ga pošljejo na naslov uredništva. Vsakemu avtorju pripada 1 tiskan izvod revije in separat članka v e-obliki. Članki niso honorirani. Citiranje člankov, izdanih v Mednarodni reviji za javno upravo, pomembno prispeva k uveljavljanju revije. Zato vas glavna urednica prosi, da pregledate arhiv revije na naslovu http://www.fu.uni-lj.si/zalozba/mednarodna-revija-za-javno-upravo/arhiv-stevilk/, kjer najdete članke, izdane v reviji v letih 2003-2015, odnosno od letnika I do letnika XIII, ki bi bili morda zanimivi za vašo tematiko, in jih citirate v literaturi svojega članka. Uredniški postopek: 1. Uredništvo lahko še pred recenzijo zavrne objavo članka, če njegova vsebina ne ustreza najavljeni temi, če je bil podoben članek v reviji že objavljen, ali če članek ne ustreza kriterijem za objavo v reviji. O tem uredništvo pisno obvesti avtorja. 2. Članek naj bo lektoriran, v uredništvu se opravlja samo korektura. Izjemoma se po dogovoru z avtorjem besedilo tudi lektorira. 3. Vsi članki se recenzirajo in razvrstijo.' Med recenziranjem avtorji in recenzenti niso imenovani. Članki po 1.01, 1.02 morajo za objavo prejeti dve pozitivni recenziji, od tega eno od tujega recenzenta. Če recenzenti razvrstijo članek različno, o končni razvrstitvi odloči uredniški odbor. 4. Članek, ki ga je avtor poslal v slovenskem jeziku in sta ga recenzenta razvrstila po 1.01, 1.02, mora avtor nato poslati še v prevodu v angleški jezik. 5. Avtor prejme rezultate recenziranja praviloma v treh mesecih od oddaje članka. Oblikovanje članka: 1. Naslovu prispevka naj sledi: a) polno ime avtorja/avtorjev, b) naziv institucije/ institucij in c) elektronski naslov/naslovi. 2. Članek mora vsebovati še: a) izvleček, ki naj v 8 do 10 vrsticah opiše vsebino prispevka in dosežene rezultate raziskave; b) ključne besede: 1-5 ključnih besed ter c) kodo iz klasifikacije po Journal of Economic Literature - JEL (https://www.aeaweb.org/jel/guide/jel.php). 3. Članek, ki je bil razvrščen po 1.04, 1.05 ali 1.08, naj vsebuje tudi povzetek v angleškem jeziku v obsegu 3 strani. V povzetku prevedite naslov ter predstavite vsebino članka (opredelitev problema in ugotovitve). Prevod povzetka članka tujih avtorjev v slovenski jezik zagotovi uredništvo. 4. Članek naj bo napisan v urejevalniku besedil Word (*.doc, *.docx) v enojnem razmiku, brez posebnih ali poudarjenih črk. Ne uporabljajte zamika pri odstavkih. Razdelki od Uvoda do Sklepnih ugotovitev naj bodo naslovljeni in oštevilčeni z arabskimi številkami. 5. Slike in tabele, ki jih omenjate v članku, vključite v besedilo. Opremite jih z naslovom in oštevilčite z arabskimi številkami. Revijo tiskamo v črno-beli tehniki, zato barvne slike ali grafikoni kot original niso primerni. Če v članku 1 Članke razvrščamo po tipologiji COBISS: 1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek. Izvirni znanstveni članek je samo prva objava originalnih raziskovalnih rezultatov v takšni obliki, da se raziskava lahko ponovi, ugotovitve pa preverijo. Praviloma je organiziran po shemi IMRAD (Introduction, Methods, Results And Discussion) za eksperimentalne raziskave ali na deskriptivni način za deskriptivna znanstvena področja. 1.02 Pregledni znanstveni članek. Pregledni znanstveni članek je pregled najnovejših del o določenem predmetnem področju, del posameznega raziskovalca ali skupine raziskovalcev z namenom povzemati, analizirati, evalvirati ali sintetizirati informacije, ki so že bile objavljene. Prinaša nove sinteze, ki vključujejo tudi rezultate lastnega raziskovanja avtorja. 1.04 Strokovni članek. Strokovni članek je predstavitev že znanega, s poudarkom na uporabnosti rezultatov izvirnih raziskav in širjenju znanja, zahtevnost besedila pa prilagojena potrebam uporabnikov in bralcev strokovne ali znanstvene revije. 1.05 Poljudni članek. Poljudnoznanstveno delo podaja neko znanstveno ali strokovno vsebino tako, da jo lahko razumejo tudi preprosti, manj izobraženi ljudje. 1.08 Objavljeni znanstveni prispevek na konferenci. Predavanje, referat, načeloma organiziran kot znanstveni članek. 1.19 Recenzija, prikaz knjige, kritika. Prispevek v znanstveni ali strokovni publikaciji (reviji, knjigi itd.), v katerem avtor ocenjuje ali dokazuje pravilnost/nepravilnost nekega znanstvenega ali strokovnega dela, kriterija, mnenja ali ugotovitve in/ali spodbija/podpira/ocenjuje ugotovitve, dela ali mnenja drugih avtorjev. Prikaz strokovnega mnenja, sodbe o znanstvenem, strokovnem ali umetniškem delu, zlasti glede na njegovo kakovost. 1.21 Polemika, diskusijski prispevek. Prispevek, v katerem avtor dokazuje pravilnost določenega kriterija, svojega mnenja ali ugotovitve in spodbija ugotovitve ali mnenja drugih avtorjev. uporabljate slike ali tabele drugih avtorjev, navedite sklic pod sliko, tabelo ali kot sprotno opombo. Enačbe oštevilčite v oklepajih desno od enačbe. 6, Članek naj obsega največ 30.000 znakov. 7, Članku dodajte kratek življenjepis avtorja/avtorjev (do 8 vrstic). 8, V besedilu se sklicujte na navedeno literaturo na način: (Novak, 1999, str. 456), 9, Na koncu članka navedite literaturo po abecednem redu avtorjev in vire, upoštevajoč APA standard, po naslednjem vzorcu: Članek v reviji: Gilber, G., & Pierre, P. (1996). Incentives and optimal size of local jurisdictions, European Economic Review, 40(1), 19-41. Članek z DOI številko2: Boldrin, M., & Levine, D. K. (2013). The Case against Patents. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1), 3-22. DOI: 10,1257/jep,27,1,3 Knjiga: Katzenbach, J., & Smith, D. (1993). The wisdom of teams. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Knjiga z urednikom: Keene, E. (Ur.). (1988). Natural Language. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press. Prispevek na konferenci: Bugarič, B. (2002). Od hierarhične k participativni (odprti) javni upravi. IX. dnevi slovenske uprave. Portorož (str. 23-29). Ljubljana: Visoka upravna šola, Internetni vir: Tax Administration of the Republic of Slovenia. (n.d.). Pridobljeno 8. 5. 2007, s http://www.durs.gov.si/ Uradna publikacija, poročilo: World Bank. (2001). World Development Indicators. Washington: World Bank. Disertacija: Richmond, J. (2005). Customer expectations in the world of electronic banking: a case study of the Bank of Britain (doktorska disertacija), Chelmsford: Anglia Ruskin University. Kadar ima publikacija več kot pet avtorjev, navedite samo prvega avtorja, npr. Novak et al. Če navajate dve deli ali več del istega avtorja, letnico označite, npr. 2005a, 2005b ... Priporočamo, da uporabite samodejni zapis literature, ki ga omogoča Word 2010 (zapis APA). 2 Če ima članek dodeljeno DOI številko, jo v seznamu literature obvezno navedite. Instructions for Authors The International Public Administration Review publishes original articles on theoretical and practical issues in the development and function of public administration. Academic articles are published in Slovene and English, and exceptionally also in German and French. Other articles are published in Slovene, English, German or French with an extended summary in English or Slovene as appropriate. Please send articles for publication in the International Public Administration Review to this address: mrju@fu.urn-lj.si. The article filename should be the surname of the principal author (e.g. Novak. doc). A completed Copyright Statement should be sent as an attachment to the article to confirm agreement with the rules of publication, as set out in these instructions. The author retains all moral rights to any copyright work published in the International Public Administration Review. The author transfers the economic right to reproduction (including saving in electronic format pursuant to Article 23 of the Slovenian Copyright and Related Rights Act - the CRRA), the right of communication to the public (Article 32a of the CRRA), and the right of distribution (Article 24 of the CRRA) in the Republic of Slovenia and abroad exclusively to the publisher free-of-charge and once and for all for all cases and an unlimited number of copies, and for all media. Authors are required to obtain permission for the publication of any images, tables and graphic material for which they do not own the copyright, which they must submit to the journal's editorial board. All published authors are entitled to one printed copy of the journal and a copy of the article in electronic format. Fees are not paid for the articles. Citations of articles published in the International Public Administration Review contribute significantly to developing the journal's standing, therefore the chief editor has asked that you review the journal archive (available at http://www. fu.uni-lj.si/en/publishing-center/international-public-administration-review/arhiv-stevilk/), where you will find articles published from 2003 to 2015 (Year I to XIII), which may be of relevance to your subject, and which you may cite in the literature of your article. Editorial policy 1. The editorial board may decide not to publish an article even before the peer-review phase, if its content does not match the stated subjects, if a similar article has already been published in the journal, or if the article does not meet the criteria for publication in the review. The editorial board will inform authors of such a decision in writing. 2. The article should already have been language edited, and the editorial board only takes responsibility for proof-reading. Exceptionally it may also edit a text in agreement with the author. 3. All articles are peer-reviewed and classified.' The author and reviewer are not named during the peer review process. Articles classified as 1.01 and 1.02 must have two positive peer reviews in order to be published, one of which from a foreign reviewer. If peer reviewers assess an article differently, the editorial board will make the final decision on the assessment. 4. If an article submitted in Slovene is classified as 1.01 or 1.02 by the reviewers, the author must then provide a translation into English. 5. The author will generally receive the results of the peer review within three months of submitting the article. Article formatting 1. The article's title should be followed by: a) the full name of the author/ authors; b) the name of the institution/institutions, and c) email address(es). 2. The article must also include: a) an abstract defining the content of the contribution and research results in 8 to 10 lines; b) keywords: 1-5 keywords; and c) a JEL (Journal of Economic Literature) code - (https://www.aeaweb. org/jel/guide/jel.php). 3. An article classified as 1.04, 1.05 or 1.08 must also have a summary in English, 3 pages in length. The summary should offer a translation of the title and present the content of the article (define the argument and findings). For foreign authors, the translation of the article summary into Slovene will be arranged by the editorial board. 4. An article must be supplied in MS Word (*.doc, *.docx) with single spacing, without special or highlighted characters. Do not indent paragraphs. Sections should be titled and numbered with Arabic numerals from the introduction to the conclusion. 5. Figures and tables mentioned in the article should be included in the text. They should be titled and numbered with Arabic numerals. The journal 1 Articles are classified according the COBISS typology: 1.01 Original scientific article - first publication of original research results in a form that allows the research to be repeated and the findings verified. In general it must be organised according to the IMRAD structure (Introduction, Methods, Results And Discussion) for experimental research or in a descriptive manner for descriptive academic areas. 1.02 Review article - an overview of the latest articles in a specific subject area, the works of an individual researcher or group of researchers with the purpose of summarising, analysing, evaluating or synthesising data that has already been published. It offers new syntheses, including the results of the author's own research. 1.04 Professional article - a presentation of what is already known, with an emphasis on the applicability of original research results and the dissemination of knowledge, with readability adapted to the needs of users and readers of the professional or scientific journal in which it appears. 1.05 Popular article - popular (science) articles offer professional or scientific content in a simpler form, making it accessible to people without higher education in the field. 1.08 Published scientific conference contribution - lecture, presentation, organised in principle as a scientific article. 1.19 Review, book review, critique - a contribution in a scientific or professional publication (journal, book, etc.) in which the author evaluates or demonstrates the validity or otherwise of a scientific or professional work, criterion, opinion or finding and/or disputes, supports or evaluates the finding, work or opinion of other authors. The presentation of an expert opinion, a critique of a scientific, professional or artistic work, particularly in terms of its quality. 1.21 Polemic, discussion - a contribution in which the author demonstrates the correctness of a specific criterion, his or her own opinion or findings and disputes the findings or opinions of other authors. is published in black and white, so the original of figures and graphs should not be in colour. If the figures or tables of other authors are used in the article, give the reference below the figure or table or as a footnote. Equations should be numbered in brackets to the right of the equation. 6. Articles should not exceed 30 000 characters. 7. A short CV of the author or authors should be added to the article (up to 8 lines). 8. References in the text to cited literature should be made as follows: (Novak, 1999, p. 456). 9. List the literature in alphabetical order of author and source at the end of the article according to APA standard, in the following manner: Article from a journal: Gilber, G., & Pierre, P. (1996). Incentives and optimal size of local jurisdictions. European Economic Review, 40(1), 19-41. Article with DOI number2: Boldrin, M., & Levine, D. K. (2013). The Case against Patents. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1), 3-22. DOI: 10.1257/jep.27.1.3 Book: Katzenbach, J., & Smith, D. (1993). The wisdom of teams. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Book with editor: Keene, E. (Ed.). (1988). Natural Language. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press. Conference contribution: Bugarič, B. (2002). Od hierarhične k participativni (odprti) javni upravi. IX. dnevi slovenske uprave. Portorož (pp. 23-29). Ljubljana: Visoka upravna šola. Internet source: Tax Administration of the Republic of Slovenia. (n.d.). Retrieved 8. 5. 2007, from http://www.durs.gov.si/ Official publication, report: World Bank. (2001). World Development Indicators. Washington: World Bank. Dissertation: Richmond, J. (2005). Customer expectations in the world of electronic banking: a case study of the Bank of Britain (Ph.D.). Chelmsford: Anglia Ruskin University. If a publication has more than five authors, state only the first author, e.g. Novak et al. If citing two works or more by the same author, indicate the year, e.g. 2005a, 2005b, etc. We recommend the use of the automatic literature citation, which is supported by Word 2010 (APA citation). 2 If a DOI number is assigned to an article, it has to be stated in the reference list.