New Horizons in Subject-Specific Education Research Aspects of Subject-Specific Didactics Editors Alenka Lipovec Janja Batič Eva Kranjec July 2020 Title Naslov New Horizons in Subject-Specific Education Subtitle Podnaslov Research Aspects of Subject-Specific Didactics Editors Alenka Lipovec Urednici (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education) Janja Batič (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education) Eva Kranjec (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education) Review Metka Kordigel Aberšek Recenzija (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education) Samo Fošnarič (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education) Amalija Žakelj (University of Primorska, Faculty of Education) Language editor Lektoriranje Anja Šega Technical editor Jan Perša Tehnični urednik (University of Maribor, University Press) Cover designer Jan Perša Oblikovanje ovitka (University of Maribor, University Press) Graphic material Grafične priloge Authors Published by / Založnik Co-published by / Izdajatelj University of Maribor University of Maribor University Press Faculty of Education Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia https://press.um.si, zalozba@um.si https://pef.um.si, dekanat.pef@um.si Edition Izdaja 1st Publication type Vrsta publikacije E-book Available at Dostopno na http://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/481 Published at Izdano Maribor, July 2020 © University of Maribor, University Press Text / Besedilo © Authors & /Univerza v Mariboru, Univerzitetna založba Lipovec, Batič, Kranjec 2020 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. / To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Nekomercialno-Brez predelav 4.0 Mednarodna. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode.sl CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Univerzitetna knjižnica Maribor 37.026(082) LIPOVEC, Alenka New horizons inʺ- subject-specificʺ education [Elektronski vir] : research aspects of ʺ-subjects specificʺ didactics / editors Alenka Lipovec, Janja Batič, Eva Kranjec. - 1st ed. - E-knjiga. - Maribor : Univerzitetna založba Univerze, 2020 Način dostopa (URL): http://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/481 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 doi: doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6 1. Gl. stv. nasl. 2. Batič, Janja, didaktika likovne vzgoje COBISS.SI-ID 18556931 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 (pdf) DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6 Price Cena Free copy For publisher prof. dr. Zdravko Kačič, Odgovorna oseba založnika Rector of University of Maribor NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS ALENKA LIPOVEC, JANJA BATIČ & EVA KRANJEC University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia. E-mail: alenka.lipovec@um.si, janja.batic@um.si, eva.kranjec@um.si Abstract Over the past three decades, various research methods have been developed in the field of subject-specific educational research. The individual subject didactics have been consolidated enormously, each in its way and at a different pace. The scientific monograph New Horizons in Subject-Specific Education is a study work containing complete and in-depth research of subject-specific didactics, written by several authors from Slovenia, Croatia, Slovakia and the Czech Republic. The monograph presents new ideas and developments in subject didactics, which are of significant importance to those working in the field. It reflects both the diversity of research concerns in Keywords: this field and the range of methods used to investigate them. The quantitative book consists of four thematic parts - STEM Education, Sport and qualitative and Art Education, Social Science and Humanities Education, methodologies, and Pedagogy. We hope that the monograph New Horizons in empirically Subject-Specific Education wil contribute some new bas ed research, teaching, information and knowledge to an evolving but extremely learning, important area of research. knowledge. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS A. Lipovec, J. Batič & E. Kranjec (eds.) Table of Contents Foreword Alenka Lipovec, Janja Batič, Eva Kranjec 1 Research Boxes and Science Process Skil s Nikolaja Golob 5 Completion of Mathematics Homework Jasmina Ferme, Daša Štesl 31 The Ability to Perceive Initial and Final Sounds in a Word Marija Ropič Kop 53 Development of Professional Vision in Art Education Video Interventions 71 Magdalena Novotná What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Modelling? 89 Mateja Sabo Junger, Alenka Lipovec Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 113 Izza Javornik, Alenka Lipovec Models Describing Secondary-School Students’ Opinions and Attitudes Toward Mathematic 139 Simon Brezovnik, Andrej Šorgo Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia 159 Snježana Dubovicki, Tomislav Topolovčan Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor 181 Karmen Kolnik, Eva Konečnik Kotnik The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process Monika Mithans, Milena Ivanuš Grmek 201 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS. Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 229 Jurka Lepičnik Vodopivec, Marko Gavriloski Planned Mathematical Activities in Slovenian Kindergartens Darja Antolin Drešar 253 Testing Motor Predispositions and Competences of Primary School Children in the Czech and Slovak Republics 271 Jaromír Šimonek, Nora Halmová, Lenka Vojtíková Views of Art Education Students on the Inclusion of Artworks in Art Education Lessons 291 Janja Batič The Novel and the Film Wonder Dragica Haramija 309 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS A. Lipovec, J. Batič & E. Kranjec (eds.) Foreword ALENKA LIPOVEC, JANJA BATIČ, EVA KRANJEC All school subjects refer to one or more academic fields of study at the research level. The term subject-specific didactics refers to this underlying academic field; for example, the didactics of mathematics relates to mathematics. However, the field of subject didactics also draws on findings and results from various educational sciences, which are usual y not subject-matter oriented -the didactics of mathematics often relates to psychology as wel . Subject didactics generate scientific knowledge itself: this is the case when an academic discipline does not deal with specific areas or issues enough. However, from an academic point of view, subject didactics seem essential for systematic learning. As early as in 1986, Shulman pointed out that mere knowledge of a subject is not enough for teaching. Among other things, he introduced the notion of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Shulman defined PCK as a special kind of knowledge that experienced teachers possess, and which constitutes a fusion of subject matter knowledge and the pedagogy suitable for teaching specific topics. It includes knowledge about learners and the presentation of subject matter in a form that makes it understandable to students. According to Shulman, this knowledge distinguishes the subject teacher from the subject specialist. 2 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS. Over the past three decades, a variety of research methods have been developed in the field of subject-specific educational research. The scientific monograph New Horizons in Subject-Specific Education is a study work containing complete and in-depth research of subject-specific didactics, written by several authors from Slovenia, Croatia, Slovakia and the Czech Republic. The monograph presents new ideas and developments which are of significant importance to those working in the field of subject didactics. It reflects both the diversity of research concerns in this field and the range of methods used to investigate them. The basic framework of the monograph was developed at the conference The role of subject didactics for the competences of the future held at the Faculty of Education, University of Maribor, in October 2019. The conference presented findings from practitioners and researchers from a wide range of academic fields interested in researching educational issues and contributing to the scientific discourse. This monograph targets a wide readership -scientists, professors, students, teachers, decision-makers, editors of journals and repositories. As such, it creates area-specific questions. Readers working in the field of education could perhaps think about certain aspects of their research and teaching, such as what kind of teaching models they use in their classrooms, whether these models contribute to the success of students in their discipline area, how they learn about the new trends in education research, and what role they, as teachers educators, play in society. The book consists of four thematic parts. In the first, STEM Education, there are six chapters: “Research Boxes and Science Process Skil s,” “Models Describing Secondary-School Students’ Opinions and Attitudes Toward Mathematics,” “Planned Mathematical Activities in Slovenian Kindergartens,” “Completion of Mathematics Homework,” “What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing?” and “Do Aternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Really Help Students to Be More Efficient?” The second part of the book, Sport and Art Education, consists of three chapters: “Testing Motor Predispositions and Competences of Primary School Children in the Czech and Slovak Republics,” “Views of Art Education Students on the Inclusion of Artworks in Art Education Lessons,” and “Development of Professional Vision in Art Education Video-Interventions.” The third part of the book, Social Science and Humanities Education, consists of three chapters: “Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of A. Lipovec, J. Batič & E. Kranjec: Foreword 3. Arts, University of Maribor,” “The Ability to Perceive Initial and Final Sounds in a Word” and “The Novel and the Film Wonder.” The final, fourth part of the book, Pedagogy, consists of three chapters: “The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process,” “Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia,” and “Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives.” On behalf of the Faculty of Education, University of Maribor, we wish to express gratitude to all the participants (authors, reviewers, editors, and others) who contributed to the development of this monograph. There is an impressive increase in didactic knowledge and subject-related problem awareness. The individual subject didactics have consolidated enormously in recent years, at various speeds, and in their own respective ways. We hope that the monograph New Horizons in Subject-Specific Education can and will contribute a bit of knowledge to this evolving but extremely important area of research. 4 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS. RESEARCH BOXES AND SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS NIKOLAJA GOLOB University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: nika.golob@um.si Abstract To develop basic science process skil s, a preschool child requires science experiences of sufficient quality and frequency at both home and the kindergarten. The science education first formally offered to such a child significantly improves the development of science process skills like observing, classifying, categorising, comparing, counting, arranging, experimenting, predicting, inferring, formulating assumptions, communicating and researching. The above- mentioned science processes were included in designed picture task cards for 30 research boxes that were prepared to support learning in the natural sciences classes. They were used in kindergartens by 185 children aged mainly 4 to 6. We found that the children were successful in most tasks (at least 82 % of them) and that the majority of the children worked independently on Keywords: simpler science processes. Although the task-card instructions science process exclusively contained pictures and symbols, this method of skils, independently conducting activities still demands much from research children if a child is encountering it for the first time. Given the box, picture children’s motivation and performance, we recommend teachers task to prepare more research boxes with topical science contents and cards, accompany them with picture task cards in order to ensure the preschool children, development of children’s science process skil s and child’s independence. independence. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.1 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 6 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Introduction The development of pre-school children requires a comprehensive approach, as they should develop and master a range of psychomotor, emotional, social and cognitive skil s from a variety of areas and contexts. In addition to the development of language, mathematics and art, learning by nature includes the natural and material world. Since learning at this age cannot be based on self-education and chance, there are many good reasons for involving children in organized forms of education. Given the complexity of the social, material and natural world of children in some countries, kindergarten curricula also include elements of technology and nature (Barenthien et al., 2019; Kurikulum za vrtce, 1999), where it is desired that a preschool child should acquire considerable experience in a natural environment. Since the natural environment is often not accessible to children in a suitable form, it is useful to offer children certain materials that they can experience through free exploration, manipulation and experimentation. However, free play is often too restricted and rarely leads a child on its way to cognitive development. A child must be confronted with chal enges in order to explore the offered material successful y and independently. Learning by exploring can become a way for a child to explore nature and the world around it (Krnel, 2001). Process skills (observing, inferring, classifying, measuring, predicting and communicating) are the fundamental basis of science teaching and learning because they guide scientific inquiries for children. The earlier children have experience with process skills, the better prepared they are for learning science. (Farland-Smith, 2015) According to Farland-Smith (2015) and Skribe Dimec et al. (2007) the descriptions of science processes skil s that was used in this research are the fol owing: Observing -the most essential skill for young children. Children experience the world around them with their senses. Observations can be made by seeing, hearing, smelling, touching and even tasting. Inferring -a logical thought process that explains the relationships between reason or cause and effect. Children learn to careful y find the relationship between proof and explanation. N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 7. Classifying -the inevitable process of organising objects into groups based on observable characteristics. A visible classification system based on observations is an appropriate skill for pre-school children. If the groups are already set, then the process skil s are cal ed categorization. Comparing - young children examine or look for the differences between two or more things, usually by observable characteristics and in a variety of ways appropriate to their stage of development. Descriptions of differences range from obvious differences to details. Arranging - the process of organising objects into different orders. Children usually recognise the given order or create their own at an early age. Counting - children say numbers for different subjects one after the other. It is mainly related to measuring. Measuring - is process of using various measuring tools. Measurements for young learners can be carried out with comparisons between two objects and also with simple, non-standard measuring instruments. Predicting - smal children anticipate what wil happen in a certain situation based on their experiences. They learn most when what they think wil not happen as a result of scientific investigation. Predicting usually involves the ability to make assumptions. Experimenting - a way of discovering, through questions or practical activities. Children use some simple gadgets to experiment with, such as magnets, cups, spoons, and some kitchen supplies. Researching - in the context of young children this is mainly done by inquiring the topic, especial y to get new information or to reach a new understanding. This includes simple experiments al owing the child more independency. Communicating - it is important to give a new understanding in different ways, for example by writing words or a sentence, by drawing pictures, by making drawings and diagrams, and by talking about it. 8 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS To develop basic science process skil s, a preschool child requires natural science experiences of sufficient quality and frequency both at home and in the kindergarten (Gropen et al., 2017; Piasta et al., 2015). The science education first formally offered to such a child significantly improves their development of science process skil s and critical thinking, fills them with curiosity, open-mindedness, perseverance and scepticism that lead to progress in the skil s of formulating hypotheses and the ability to identify problems. Moreover, it strengthens children’s feeling that the world surrounding them is worth exploring, thereby creating a positive attitude to natural science (Kuru & Akman, 2017; Murphy & Smith, 2012). Despite scientific findings in support of the above, preschool teachers are stil frequently deciding not to include science activities in kindergartens (Barenthien et al., 2019). In recent times, as summarised by Jirout and Zimmerman (2015), one can find tendencies in early science education (for children aged 8 and below) that have altered the doctrines that not long ago, according to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, strictly stated that the learning of science process skil s should be postponed until adolescence. Science education for smal children often focuses on simple natural science processes like observation, description, comparison and discovery. Pre-schoolers are capable of understanding simple experiments aimed at testing hypotheses, recognising a control experiment, explaining simple observed patterns in research and using the results in further decisions or for making generalisations or predictions regarding future examples. A comparative study of research conducted over several years (Jirout & Zimmerman, 2015) reveals that preschoolers develop many simple scientific processes or demonstrate early signs of such skills. Nevertheless, many possibilities for development exist, underpinning the need for more research about the introduction of science process skil s in kindergartens. An important requirement of education is the development of a supportive environment that promotes lifelong learning. Early childhood education is a critical time in which experiences are made that enable and encourage children's willingness to engage in lifelong learning (Katz, 2010, as cited in Campbell et al., 2018). STEM at the early childhood level, if properly addressed, could provide educators opportunities to engage young children in activities that make use of their interests, experiences and prior knowledge (Campbell et al., 2018). N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 9. On the other hand, research also shows that the time currently spent in STEM early childhood is probably not sufficient to achieve positive educational outcomes (Saçkes et al., 2011) Learning by exploring can be one of successful STEM practices that can be made even more interesting for a child and can be transformed into an independent task if a learning tool is provided alongside, such as research boxes (Skribe Dimec et al., 2007). A typical research box includes materials from a particular theme, such as interesting everyday items like stones, straws, nuts and bolts, keys and locks. Teachers may use also items that have their "story" like plaster casts of footprints, elements that can be tested, like water solubility, items related to a particular subject, such as certain animal, like birds, natural materials such as foliage, forest fruits, moss and similar. The exterior of the research box is custom made according to the theme of the material. Inside the box there is a content card showing the contents of the box (Figure 1). Inside the box, in addition to the material, there are several work cards to guide the child as he or she explores. Examples of working cards for different natural science procedures are shown in Figures 2-7. Figure 1: Content card of 'Screws and Nuts' research box (from archival material kept by Ungar and Šplajt, 2019) 10 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The use of research boxes in a way sees children ‘asking nature’ because the task cards feature productive questions that are designed to encourage children to find answers from the material provided and not from books, computers or preschool teachers. Research boxes help children develop a range of science process skil s like observing, classifying, measuring, experimenting as well as planning and conducting simple research. Using research boxes boosts children’s creativity since an answer to a question can be found in different ways during the research. To ensure children can be successful while independently exploring the research box materials, they must be able to understand the instructions. As pre-schoolers cannot yet read, the instructions should include pictures and symbols or feature realistic photographs of selected objects. This research aimed to establish how successful and independent preschool children are while working with these research boxes. Methodology As part of practical sessions for the Didactic Approaches for Natural Environment Teaching subject for preschool education, students prepared (under supervision of the author of this paper) 30 different research boxes containing different materials and picture task cards; these were to guide children in their independent research, making them rely on different science process skills like observing, comparing, counting, classifying, categorising, arranging, experimenting, communicating, inferring, predicting, formulating assumptions and researching. Making measurements was not included. The research boxes contained simple natural materials or materials taken from everyday life, as suggested by Skribe Dimec et al. (2007). The themes included research into materials (e.g. magnetic properties, size of items, spices, kitchen materials), objects (e.g. plastic bottle caps, filled plastic eggs, nuts and screws) and natural materials (e.g. bird feathers, seashel s, tree leaves). To get a better idea of the appearance of the research boxes prepared for the kindergarten test, descriptions of two more boxes with titles ‘Bird Feathers’ and ‘Plastic Caps’ are given in the appendix. The tasks required that children use different senses; apart from observing and touching, the tasks included smel ing and listening. Tasting was not a component. As this study cal ed for the children to perform their tasks as independently as possible, the instructions containing pictures and symbols were prepared, as shown in Figure 2. N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 11. Figure 2: Example of a task card from the ‘Screws and Nuts’ research box -arranging screws (from archival material kept by Ungar and Šplajt, 2019) Figure 3: Example of a task card from the ‘Screws and Nuts’ research box -arranging nuts (from archival material kept by Ungar and Šplajt, 2019) Figure 4: Example of a task card from the ‘Screws and Nuts’ research box -inferring (from archival material kept by Ungar and Šplajt, 2019) 12 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 5: Example of a task card from the ‘Screws and Nuts’ research box -experimenting with a magnet and categorising objects into magnetic and non-magnetic (from archival material kept by Ungar and Šplajt, 2019) Figure 6: Example of a task card from the ‘Screws and Nuts’ research box -experimenting with water and categorising objects into those that float and those that sink (from archival material kept by Ungar and Šplajt, 2019) N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 13. Figure 7: Example of a task card from the ‘Screws and Nuts’ research box -researching: Are al plastic nuts and screws magnetic? (from archival material kept by Ungar and Šplajt, 2019) The research sample consisted of 185 pre-schoolers from different kindergartens across Slovenia, where 160 children were aged from 4 to 6, and the rest were younger. The sample included 94 girls and 91 boys. A selected child was individually observed in their independent work on a research box, lasting up to 20 minutes. Data were gathered from April to June 2019. The following research questions were formulated: − Do the children understand the picture-based instructions? − How independent are the children while working on a research box? − How successful are the children in carrying out different science processes? 14 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The results were recorded using an observation protocol where we noted down information on a child’s age and gender, the science process featured on the task card, and the child’s performance. While monitoring the performance, it was considered whether the child was independent and/or needed non-verbal/verbal assistance. Giving direct instructions was avoided as we wanted the child to first think about what the picture-based instruction could mean when confronted by the material found in the research box. Detailed general observations about the child’s individual work with the research box were made. The results were categorised and merged in a table where they were processed with Excel, using basic descriptive statistics. The descriptive results were evaluated in terms of their contents and then compared. Research Results After testing and using the prepared research boxes, it was established that not al boxes contained task cards with al science processes. Most boxes, but not al of them, contained at least one task card related to observation, as 163 children performed tasks including observation (Table 1), representing 88 % of all the children in the research. Besides observation, the second and third most frequently used science processes applied to the research boxes were categorising (128 children) and classifying (127 children). More demanding science processes were found on a smal er number of task cards, with the least frequently used processes including communicating (6 children), formulating assumptions (16 children) and researching (38 children). Science processes that were regularly used included comparing, arranging, experimenting, predicting, inferring and counting, as Table 1 shows. N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 15. Table 1: Results of the analysis of task-card use from the 30 research boxes along with the performance and independence of 185 children together (not al children participated in al science processes) no. of no. of % no. of % Science no. of successf % unsucce of indepen of process involved of unsucce indepen children ul ssful dent children success children ssful dent children children children observing 163 145 89 18 11 56 34 categorising 128 117 91 11 9 43 34 classifying 127 111 87 16 13 44 35 comparing 116 106 91 10 9 43 37 arranging 86 76 88 10 12 40 47 experimenting 84 74 88 10 12 21 25 predicting 68 61 90 7 10 27 40 inferring 55 52 95 3 5 14 25 counting 46 42 91 4 9 16 35 researching 38 31 82 7 18 7 18 formulating assumptions 16 14 87 2 13 6 38 communicating 6 6 100 0 0 3 50 The shares of successful children in Table 1 show that at least 82 % of children involved in a particular science process were successful in the implemented science processes. All children (albeit, only 6) tasked with communication were successful. As many as 95 % of the children were successful in inferring. The biggest share of unsuccessful children (only 18 %) was recorded in relation to the science processes of researching, followed by formulating assumptions (13 %) and classifying (13 %). The results of this observation of a child’s independence (last two columns in Table 1), namely the child did not need any non-verbal/verbal assistance but still successful y did the science process on the task card, show the children were most independent in communicating (50 % of al children completing this process), arranging (47 %) and predicting (40 %), followed by formulating assumptions, comparing, counting, classifying and categorising. Children were the least independent in researching (18 %) as wel as in experimenting and inferring (both 25 %). 16 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Regarding the children’s understanding of the picture-based instructions on the task cards, it was established, based on observation notes, that children found it difficult to understand certain symbols used like a question mark (?), the less-than and greater-than signs (<, >) and the standard sign for continuation of the sequence (…). Some children had difficulty understanding the instructions for ‘observing’ or ‘taking a look’, where an eye was used as a symbol. It was established that some children still have problems recognising the objects in the photographs, as a photograph only shows a two-dimensional view of a selected object. Observation notes revealed the children were highly motivated to participate and showed perseverance in performing the tasks and exploring the prepared materials in the research boxes. Discussion and Conclusion The use of simpler science processes, such as observing, comparing, classifying and categorising, gives foundations for pre-schoolers upon which they can build their understanding of the world surrounding them, which is why these processes are included in different planned activities, as established by Jirout and Zimmerman (2015), in many research studies. The fact that most of the task cards in the research boxes (used as a learning tool) featured the above-mentioned simpler science processes confirms the boxes were prepared appropriately. We also established that the children were general y very successful in doing al of the tasks. One trend that is noticeable is that the success rate drops from simpler to more demanding science processes, as researching and formulating assumptions are considered to be less successful processes. Although a smal er share of children was involved in the more demanding science processes, it may be concluded from the results that more demanding science processes, provided they are appropriately prepared, can be included in preschool education as well, and thus give an excellent basis for the development of real scientific research in adulthood. Since the share of children who performed their tasks completely independently was smal er than of those who successful y implemented the tasks, we can conclude that many children failed to understand the picture-based instructions on the task cards and required non-verbal/verbal assistance. Observation notes reveal a trend of older children being more independent, which is associated with their better understanding of symbolic notations that are learned while completing various tasks in children’s magazines or on a computer or smart phone. However, the mentioned N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 17. assumptions cal for more research attention to confirm such correlations. The science processes of researching and experimenting as wel as consequent inferring, in the performance of which the children in this research were the least independent, corroborate the findings of some studies (Barenthien et al., 2019; Gropen et al., 2017; Piasta et al., 2015), showing that children lack sufficient experience and opportunities to conduct experiments based on simple research questions and, as expected, become less independent. The desire to see children work independently on a research box and its natural science contents and materials guided us in the design of the picture task cards featuring symbols. Certain agreed-upon symbols were used, such as a question mark, three dots to denote continuation of the sequence, the mathematical less-than and greater-than signs as wel as some symbols arising from pictographs because of the fact that most pre-schoolers cannot read. Children only formal y learn about symbols in later years of primary school. Nevertheless, the children stil showed considerable misunderstanding of the prepared picture-based instructions. We assume that understanding of picture-based instructions would improve if a child could work on several research boxes containing similar instructions and symbols. The careful y prepared research boxes with picture and symbol-based instructions are an excel ent science tool for developing the science process skil s of preschool children aged 4 to 6. The use of research boxes facilitates children’s individualisation and differentiation as they become more successful and, when using the research boxes frequently, also more independent. While, as a rule, children are more successful and independent in developing simpler science process skil s like observation, categorisation and classification, this study’s research findings confirm it is reasonable to also include and develop more demanding science process skil s such as experimenting, inferring and researching. By using research boxes in this extremely motivating activity, preschool children are able to build a foundation for themselves for the later development of actual research work methods in adulthood. Preschool teachers are recommended to upgrade group, frontal and guided science activities in which children learn the basics of specific natural sciences, aids and processes, as wel as offer them to children in an individual independent form, i.e. research boxes. 18 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Acknowledgement Financial contributions from the project “NA-MA POTI - Operation partly financed by the European Union, European Social Fund” have made this research project possible. References Barenthien, J., Oppermann, E., Steffensky, M., & Anders, Y. (2019). Early science education in preschools – the contribution of professional development and professional exchange in team meetings. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 27(5), 587–600. https://www.doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2019.1651937 Campbell, C., Speldewinde, C., Howitt, C., & MacDonald, A. (2018). STEM practice in the early years. Creative Education, 9(1), 11–25. https://www.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2018.91002 Farland-Smith, D. (2015). Developing young scientists: Building process skills, questioning skills & the representation of scientists through television viewing and listening (Sid the Science Kid TV Show). EDUCATION PRACTICE AND INNOVATION, 2(2), 1–9. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.884.7389&rep=rep1&type=pdf Gropen, J., Kook, J. F., Hoisington, C., & Clark-Chiarelli, N. (2017). Foundations of science literacy: Efficacy of a preschool professional development program in science on classroom instruction, teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge, and children’s observations and predictions. Early Education and Development, 28(5), 607–631. https://www.doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2017.1279527 Jirout, J., & Zimmerman, C. (2015). Development of science process skil s in the early childhood years. In K. Cabe Trundle & M. Saçkes (Eds.), Research in Early Childhood Science Education (pp. 143– 165). Dordrecht: Springer. Krnel, D. (2001). Narava. In L. Marjanovič Umek (Ed.), Otrok v vrtcu. Priročnik k kurikulu za vrtce [Child in a kindergarten. A handbook to curriculum for kindergartens] (pp. 159–175]. Maribor: Založba Obzorja. Kuru, N., & Akman, B. (2017). Examining the science process skil s of preschoolers with regards to teachers’ and children[s]’ variables. TED EĞİTİM VE BİLİM, 42(190), 269–279. https://www.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2017.6433 Murphy, C., & Smith, G. (2012). The impact of a curriculum course on pre-service primary teachers' science content knowledge and attitudes towards teaching science. Irish Educational Studies, 31(1), 77–95. https://www.doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2011.634061 Piasta, S., Logan, J., Pelatti, C., Capps, J., & Petrill, S. (2015). Professional development for early childhood educators: Efforts to improve math and science learning opportunities in early childhood classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), 407–422. https://www.doi.org/10.1037/a0037621 Saçkes, M., Trundle, K. C., Bel , R. L., & O'Connel , A. A. (2011). The influence of early science experience in kindergarten on children's immediate and later science achievement: Evidence from the early childhood longitudinal study. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48(2), 217–235. https://www.doi.org/10.1002/tea.20395 Skribe Dimec, D., Peklar, A., & Zrnec, J. (2007). Raziskovalne škatle: učni pripomoček za pouk naravoslovja [Research boxes: A teaching aid for science lessons]. Ljubljana: Modrijan. Kurikulum za vrtce [Kindergarten Curriculum]. (1999). Ministrstvo za šolstvo in šport Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana: Zavod za šolstvo https://www.gov.si/assets/ministrstva/MIZS/Dokumenti/Sektor-za-predsolsko-vzgojo/Programi/Kurikulum-za-vrtce.pdf N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 19. Appendix 1 Presentation of the research box 'Plastic Caps' Figure 8: The exterior of the research box ‘Plastic Caps’ (from archival material kept by Bezjak and Pirnat, 2019) Figure 9: Material included in the research box ‘Plastic Caps’ (caps, cut off bottle necks, ribbons, a box of semolina, blades) and task cards (from archival material kept by Bezjak and Pirnat, 2019) 20 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 10: Example of a task card from the ‘Plastic Caps’ research box -arranging according to the pattern (from archival material kept by Bezjak and Pirnat, 2019) N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 21. Figure 11: Example of a task card from the ‘Plastic Caps’ research box -measurement of the circumference of a cap (a multi-step instruction) (from archival material kept by Bezjak and Pirnat, 2019 22 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 12: Example of a task card from the ‘Plastic Caps’ research box -experimenting and comparing the amount of semolina in caps (a multi-step instruction) (from archival material kept by Bezjak and Pirnat, 2019) N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 23. Figure 13: Example of a task card from the ‘Plastic Caps’ research box -arranging and measuring with a non-standard tool, comparing (a multi-step instruction) (from archival material kept by Bezjak and Pirnat, 2019) 24 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 14: Example of a task card from the ‘Plastic Caps’ research box - experimenting and inferring caps and bottle necks (a multi-step instruction) (from archival material kept by Bezjak and Pirnat, 2019) N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 25. Figure 15: Examples of task cards from the ‘Plastic Caps’ research box from top to right sorting: classifying by colours, observing, inferring caps and bottle necks, experimenting rol ing test, classifying by size, communicating (from archival material kept by Aberšek and Lepej, 2019) 26 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Appendix 2 Presentation of the research box ‘Bird Feathers’ Figure 16: The exterior of the ‘Bird Feathers’ research box (from archival material kept by Smiljan, Radolič and Pelcl, 2019) Figure 17: Material included in the research box ‘Bird Feathers’ (from archival material kept by Forjan and Kisilak, 2019) N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 27. Figure 18: Content card of the ‘Bird Feathers’ research box (feathers, magnifier, water pot with dropper, bird photos) (from archival material kept by Forjan and Kisilak, 2019) 28 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 19: Example of a task card from the 'Bird Feathers’ research box -observing the difference in branched structures using magnifier (from archival material kept by Forjan and Kisilak, 2019) Figure 20: Example of a task card from the 'Bird Feathers’ research box -arranging (from archival material kept by Forjan and Kisilak, 2019) N. Golob: Research Boxes and Science Process Skills 29. Figure 21: Example of a task card from the 'Bird Feathers’ research box -inferring which feather belongs to which bird (from archival material kept by Forjan and Kisilak, 2019) Figure 22: Example of a task card from the 'Bird Feathers’ research box -experimenting: What happens to the dripping water on the feather? (from archival material kept by Forjan and Kisilak, 2019) 30 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 23: Example of a task card from the 'Bird Feathers’ research box -comparing two selected feathers and communicating (from archival material kept by Forjan and Kisilak, 2019) COMPLETION OF MATHEMATICS HOMEWORK JASMINA FERME1,2 & DAŠA ŠTESL2 1 University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: jasmina.ferme1@um.si 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: jasmina.ferme1@um.si, dasa.stesl1@um.si Abstract Homework is a complex phenomenon, and there are many factors that can influence its effectiveness. This study focused on the completion of mathematics homework. The survey was conducted in Slovenia on a sample of 192 students from the first three grades and 417 students from the last three grades of elementary education. Based on the obtained results, we conclude that the share of completed homework assignments and students' achievements are positively related. Our findings show that students mostly do not complete their homework because they are unable to do it; they do not know how to solve al of the assigned tasks. We believe there are at least two explanations: (a) they do not focus on homework and/or despair over homework before they even start doing it, and (b) they truly do not know how to solve tasks. Since there is a positive link between the time optimisation of doing mathematical homework Keywords: and the share of completed mathematical tasks (between time mathematics, homework, optimisation and students’ mathematical achievements as wel ), completion, we believe that improving students’ time optimisation of doing time mathematical homework (better focus on work) could help with optimisation individualized the aforementioned reason for not completing mathematical mathematical tasks. homework. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.2 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 32 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Introduction Homework is often discussed among the general public, but unfortunately, this phenomenon is frequently a source of conflict between students, parents and teachers. While some think that homework is a necessary fact of life, others state that it is, undoubtedly, an unnecessary waste of time. There are several arguments against assigning homework in schools, such as the following: homework assignments consume too much of the child’s free time, reduce the amount of time that children could spend with their families, lead to unhealthy levels of stress for children, to name a few (see Matei & Ciascai, 2015). However, there are some positive views about homework as well; it can refresh, expand and reinforce students' knowledge, it can help teach students responsibility, develop positive study skills and habits. (see Cooper, 1989; Kukk et al., 2015; Matei & Ciascai, 2015; Warton, 2001). Such inconsistencies can be found not only in these opinions of general public, but also in empirical findings concerning the relationship between homework and students' achievement (Cooper, Robinson, et al., 2006; Fan et al., 2017). One of the possible reasons for the mentioned inconsistency of the results may lie in the diversity of homework characteristics, which can be specific to teachers, parents, students, and others. From the students’ point of view, several studies consider the number of homework assignments completed by students (the share of completed tasks), and it seems that this factor could be positively related to their achievements (Cooper, Lindsay, et al., 1998; Núñez et al., 2015; Núñez et al., 2015a). Therein arises a question of why students do not complete their homework. Namely, if we know that, then we can try to cancel out the mentioned reasons for uncompleted tasks and in this way try to improve students’ academic achievements. Theoretical framework Homework is an interesting element of education for many authors; it has been studied in many papers (e.g. Cooper, Lindsay, et al., 1998; Cooper, Robinson, et al., 2006; Corno, 1996; Dettmers et al., 2010; de Jong et al., 2000; Dumont et al., 2012; Fan et al., 2017; Ferme & Lipovec, 2019; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2015; Hoover- J. Ferme & D. Štesl: Completion of Mathematics Homework 33. Dempsey et al., 2001; Núñez et al., 2015; Núñez et al., 2015a; Podgoršek et al., 2017; Trautwein et al., 2002). According to Cooper, Robinson, et al. (2006), homework can be defined as tasks assigned to students by school teachers that are meant to be performed during non-school hours. Empirical findings that consider the relationship between homework and students’ achievement have been very inconsistent (Cooper, Robinson, et al., 2006; Fan et al., 2017). While several studies suggest a positive relationship between the mentioned two variables (e.g. Fernández-Alonso et al., 2015), there are some studies that do not confirm that relationship or even report the negative correlation between some of the mathematics homework characteristics and students' achievements (de Jong et al., 2000; Trautwein et al., 2002). One of the possible reasons for this inconsistency of the results may lie in the diversity of homework characteristics. Students themselves clearly play an important role in the effectiveness of homework. Several studies suggest that the number of homework assignments completed by students (the share of completed tasks) and students’ achievements are positively related (Cooper, Lindsay, et al., 1998; Ferme & Lipovec, 2019; Núñez et al., 2015; Núñez et al., 2015a;). For instance, Núñez et al. (2015) conducted a study in Spain, among 454 students aged between 10 and 16 years. Along with others, the researchers posed the following question to the students: “Some students complete al of their homework, and others only complete some of it. And you? How much of your homework do you do . . usually/in a typical week/on a typical weekend?” The students provided their answers using 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( I don’t do any of my homework) to 5 ( I do al of my homework). Based on their answers, the researchers discovered that the amount of homework completed positively and significantly predicts students’ academic achievement (measured via students’ final academic grades). In addition, Ferme and Lipovec (2019) conducted a study limited to mathematics only. They examined the share of completed mathematical homework and it connected with students’ knowledge. Participants of this study were students from the first, second, and third grades of elementary school from Slovenia ( N = 192). It was discovered that almost 20 % of students do not complete al (or almost all) tasks from the tasks in assigned homework. Based on the results, they believe 34 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS that the share of completed tasks and students' self-reported mathematics grades are positively related. The reasons for homework incompletion were investigated in several papers (see Glazer & Williams, 2001; Hinchey, 1996; Hong et al., 2011; Hudson & Kendall, 2002; Morgenweck, 2006). For example, Hong et al. (2011) found out that students from China (grade 10) most frequently do not complete their mathematical homework, because of its large amount, difficulty and their tardiness/laziness, while Hinchey (1996) mentioned the lack of students’ time and their beliefs about the pointlessness of homework. Furthermore, Morgenweck (2006) found out that the most common reasons for students’ incompletion of homework assignments include students’ forgetting assignments or homework material, lack of students’ time, students not understanding the assignments, and their unwil ingness and extracurricular activities. According to Hudson and Kendall (2002), other possible reasons for uncompleted assignments include forgetting to complete homework, and anxiety (for instance, worrying about completing it inaccurately). Note that these authors also mentioned unsuitable difficulty of tasks (Hudson & Kendall, 2002). Forgetting homework and not understanding the tasks is mentioned by Glazer and Williams (2001) as well. One of the possible factors that can positively affect the share of completed tasks by students is better quality of homework time management (time optimisation, focusing on work). Namely, it seems that the mentioned two variables are positively related (Ferme & Lipovec, 2019; Núñez et al., 2015; Núñez et al., 2015a; Xu, 2011). In addition, the quality of time optimisation, expressed as focusing on work while doing homework, is positively related to students’ achievement (Ferme & Lipovec, 2019; Núñez et al., 2015; Núñez et al., 2015a;). Furthermore, since several authors (Hong et al., 2011; Hudson & Kendall, 2002; Morgenweck, 2006) mentioned that students do not complete their homework assignments due to their difficulty (or not understanding of tasks), maybe there is need for more individualized tasks. It seems that teachers do not individualize mathematical homework often (Lipovec & Ferme, 2018). In addition, Murillo and Martínez-Garrido (2013) reported that the individualized homework is positively related to students’ achievements. J. Ferme & D. Štesl: Completion of Mathematics Homework 35. Research problem The aim of the study is to examine the rate of completing mathematical homework among students, reveal their reasons for not completing the given tasks, and based on the findings, provide some suggestions for school and home work. We have set forth the following research questions. 1. What is the share of mathematical homework tasks completed by students? 2. What is the relationship between mathematical homework completion and students’ mathematical achievement? 3. Why is mathematical homework not completed? 4. Are students distracted by other factors while doing homework (how students optimize the time while doing mathematical homework)? 5. How frequently do students receive individualized mathematical homework? Methodology We have used the methods of quantitative empirical pedagogical research. The survey, conducted at the end of 2018, was carried out on the basis of completed questionnaires of 609 students from Slovenia. The students were guided by authors when completing the questionnaire. This means that each of the questions posed to the students and/or each of the offered answers was precisely explained to students. Data obtained from questionnaires was analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics 25. We used the fol owing statistical tests: the chi-squared test, tests for independent samples and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient test. Sample The participants of our study were students from Slovenia ( N = 609). We have randomly chosen schools from Slovenia and asked them to cooperate in our study. Then, the data were obtained from students of the selected schools who decided to take part in the study. 36 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS 192 students from the first three grades (first, second, and third grade), and 417 students from the last three grades of elementary education (seventh, eighth, and ninth grade) in Slovenia participated in our study. Note that, in Slovenia, first-graders starting school are 5 years and 8 months to 6 years and 8 months old. The structures of the partial samples are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 describes the partial sample of students from the first three grades of elementary education. It presents the share of students from each grade, presents the share of students with respect to the gender and gives the information about students’ mathematical knowledge. Students’ mathematical knowledge for students from the first three grades of elementary education was measured via their self-assessment grade (of their mathematical knowledge). Table 1: Sample structure for students from the first, second, and third grade f f % N 192 100.0 1st 35 18.2 Grade 2nd 63 32.8 3rd 91 47.4 Gender Male 80 41.7 Female 112 58.3 Self-assessment grade Less than 5* 80 41.7 5 107 55.7 Table 2 describes the partial sample of students from the last three grades of elementary education. It presents the share of students from each grade, the share of students with respect to the gender and provides the information about students’ mathematical knowledge. In this case, the students’ mathematical knowledge was measured via students’ final grades in mathematics, which were obtained in the previous school year. J. Ferme & D. Štesl: Completion of Mathematics Homework 37. Table 2: Sample structure for students from the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade f f % N 417 100,0 7th 138 33.1 Grade 8th 143 34.3 9th 136 32.6 Gender Male 190 45.6 Female 227 54.4 Final grade in mathematics 1 or 2 81 19.4 3 118 28.3 4 116 27.8 5 101 24.2 Instrument An anonymous questionnaire comprised questions about students' basic data (class, gender), questions regarding their mathematical knowledge, and questions related to some characteristics of mathematical homework. Students’ mathematical knowledge was measured via self-assessment of their mathematical knowledge (for students from the first three grades of elementary education) or via the final mathematics grade in the previous school year as reported by students (from the last three grades of elementary education). Questions about the characteristics of mathematical homework included the share of completed tasks in homework, the reasons for uncompleted tasks, the level of time optimisation and the frequency of individualized tasks. The following are the questions from the questionnaire (only the ones related to mathematics homework characteristics). How many tasks do you usually complete from the tasks in the assigned homework? a) None or almost none. b) Approximately half of them. c) All or almost all. Why don't you complete al of your math homework? 38 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS "I do not complete math homework because …" (You can choose more answers.) a) I have not got enough time (because of other activities); b) it is too extensive; c) I cannot do it (I do not know how to do al the tasks); d) I cannot do it (I do not know how to do al the tasks), even if someone helps me; e) I forget to complete it; f) it is not interesting; g) no one checks if I completed it; h) I would rather do other things (for instance, spend the time with my friends); i) I am tired (I have no energy); j) I do not have the motivation to start doing my homework; k) other: ____. Are you, when doing homework for mathematics, distracted by other things (such as cell phones, talking to other people, television)? Do you think about other things, while doing homework for mathematics? a) I do not do homework. b) Other things always distract me. I often think about other things. c) Other things sometimes distract me. I sometimes think about other things. d) While doing mathematical homework I think only about the homework. Nothing distracts me. How often does everyone in your class get the same mathematical homework? a) Never. b) Sometimes. c) Often. d) Always. J. Ferme & D. Štesl: Completion of Mathematics Homework 39. Research results In the continuation of this paper, we wil use the abbreviation MHW – mathematical homework. The share of completed tasks of MHW First, we consider the results pertaining to the share of the completed tasks of MHW. As it was mentioned, we posed the following question to the students: “How many tasks do you usually complete from the tasks in the assigned homework?” Students chose one of the three possible answers (None or almost none, Approximately half of them; All or almost all). Tables 3 and 4 present the frequency of students’ responses to the question. The majority of the students from the first three grades, 81,3 %, usual y complete al or almost al of MHW. The share of such students from the last three grades is less than 64 %. On the other hand, there is more than 5 % of students from the last three grades of elementary education who complete none or almost none of the assigned homework tasks. Note that the share of such students from the first three grades is less than 2 %. Table 3: The share of completed tasks of MHW for students from the first, second, and third grade How many tasks do you usually complete from the tasks in the assigned homework? f f % None or almost none. 3 1.6 Approximately half of them. 33 17.2 All or almost all. 156 81.3 40 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 4: The share of completed tasks of MHW for students from the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade How many tasks do you usually complete from the tasks in the assigned homework? f f % None or almost none. 22 5.3 Approximately half of them. 129 30.9 All or almost all. 266 63.8 The share of completed tasks and students’ mathematical achievement In order to reveal the relationship between the share of completed tasks and students’ mathematical achievement, we obtained the completion index. It was calculated as an average of the completed tasks, where one represented none or almost none completed tasks and three all or almost all completed tasks. The indexes of final grades in mathematics for students with different self-assessed grades are presented in Tables 5 and 6. Table 5 shows completion indexes (averages with standard deviations) for students from the first three grades of elementary education. As written, the completion index for all of the mentioned students is 2.80. More precisely, the index is 2.69 for students with a self-assessed grade of 4 or less, and it is 2.90 for students with a self-assessed grade of 5. Table 5: Completion indexes for students from the first, second and third grade 1st, 2nd, 3rd – grade Completion index 2.80 (0.441) Students with a self-assessed grade of 4 or less 2.69 (0.542) Students with a self-assessed grade of 5 2.90 (0.305) Based on the result of the statistical chi-square test, we found out that the two variables, the students’ self-assessed grade (5 or at most 4) and the completion index, are related (p =.004, 𝜒𝜒2 = 10.837). Moreover, based on the indexes written in the Table 5 and based on the fact that the task completion indexes are statistical y different for students with a self-assessed grade of less than 5 and for those with a self-assessed grade of 5 (p = .002, t = 3.112), we believe that the relationship between the mentioned two variables is positive (in the case of the students from first, second, and third grade). J. Ferme & D. Štesl: Completion of Mathematics Homework 41. Table 6: Completion indexes for students from the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade 7th, 8th, 9th – grade Completion index 2.59 (0.591) Students with the final grade 1 or 2 2.21 (0.586) Students with the final grade 3 2.48 (0.610) Students with the final grade 4 2.75 (0.491) Students with the final grade 5 2.82 (0.498) Table 6 presents completion indexes (averages with standard deviations) for students from the last three grades of elementary education. The completion index for al of the mentioned students is 2.59. In Table 6, completion indexes for students with different final grades are written as wel . Again, based on the result of chi-square test, we found out that the variables students’ final grade in mathematics and completion index are related ( p = .000, 𝜒𝜒2 = 81.990). In addition, the relationship is positive ( p = .000, ρ = 0.410). Reasons for the incompletion of mathematical homework Furthermore, we were interested in students’ reasons for not completing MHW. We offered the students a list of reasons and they could choose multiple answers, or add their own reasons. The list of reasons for the incompletion of mathematical homework is the following. a) I have not got enough time (because of other activities); b) it is too extensive; c) I cannot do it (I do not know how to do al the tasks); d) I cannot do it (I do not know how to do al the tasks), even if someone help me; e) I forget to complete it; f) it is not interesting; g) no one checks if I completed it; h) I rather do the other things (for instance, spend the time with my friends); i) I am tired (I have no energy); j) I do not have the motivation to start doing my homework; 42 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS k) other: ____. Tables 7 and 8 present the most common reasons for incompletion of mathematical homework as reported by students. The majority of students (from the first three and the last three grades combined) do not complete their homework because they cannot do it, namely, they do not know how to solve the given tasks. Table 7: Reasons for the incompletion of MHW for students from the first, second, and third grade Students from the first, second, and third grade f % I cannot do it (I do not know how to do al tasks). 21.9 I have not got enough time (because of other activities). 16.7 I forget to complete it. 16.7 Table 8: Reasons for incompletion of MHW for students from the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade Students from the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade f % I cannot do it (I do not know how to do al the tasks). 64.5 I forget to complete it. 36.0 I am tired (I have no energy). 31.2 The time optimisation in doing MHW Further, we consider students’ level of time optimisation while they are doing their MHW (focusing on work while doing MHW). This characteristic of mathematical homework was expressed by students through the answer to the following question: “Are you, when doing homework for mathematics, distracted by other things (such as cel phones, talking to other people, television)? Do you think about other things, while doing homework for mathematics?” We offered the students four possible answers and they could choose one of them. Table 9 presents the answers of students from the first three grades of elementary education. Only 40.1 % of students from the first three grades completely focus on mathematical homework while doing it, where nothing distracts them (therefore, their level of time optimisation while doing mathematical homework is high). On the other hand, there is almost 10 % of students who reported that they do not focus J. Ferme & D. Štesl: Completion of Mathematics Homework 43. solely on work while doing mathematical homework. Namely, other things always distract them, and they often think about other things. Table 9: Time optimisation for students from the first, second, and third grade Are you, when doing homework for mathematics, distracted by other things (such as cell phones, talking to other people, television)? Do you think about other f f % things, while doing homework for mathematics? I do not do homework. 1 0.5 Other things always distract me. I often think about other things. 19 9.9 Other things sometimes distract me. I sometimes think about other things. 95 49.5 While doing mathematical homework I think only about the homework. Nothing distracts me. 77 40.1 Next, Table 10 presents the results of the time optimisation while doing mathematical homework for students from the last three grades of elementary education. As seen, only 14.4 % of students from the last three grades reported that they focus completely on mathematical homework while doing it and nothing distracts them. Similar as for the students from the first three grades, there is almost 10 % of students from the last three grades who do not focus solely on work while doing mathematical homework. Table 10: Time optimisation for students from the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade Are you, when doing homework for mathematics, distracted by other things (such as cell phones, talking to other people, television)? Do you think about other things, f f % while doing homework for mathematics? I do not do homework. 20 4.8 Other things always distract me. I often think about other things. 37 8.9 Other things sometimes distract me. I sometimes think about other things. 300 71.9 While doing mathematical homework I think only about the homework. Nothing distracts me. 60 14.4 The time optimisation while doing MHW, the share of completed tasks of MHW and students’ mathematical achievement 44 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS We found out that the time optimisation (for students who do MHW) and the share of completed tasks are related for students from the first three grades ( p = .000, 𝜒𝜒² (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙) = 21.176). In this case the correlation is positive (ρ = 0.304, p = .000). We also calculated the task completion indexes for students with different levels of time optimisation. These indexes are written in Table 11. They indicate the above-written conclusions. Table 11: Time optimisation and completion of MHW for students from the first, second, and third grade Time optimisation Task completion index (1–3) Other things always distract me. I often think about other things. 2.42 Other things sometimes distract me. I sometimes think about other things. 2.77 While doing mathematical homework I think only about the homework. Nothing distracts me. 2.94 Furthermore, for students from the first three grades of elementary education the variables time optimisation (for students who do MHW) and students’ self-assessed grade are related as wel ( p = .008, 𝜒𝜒² (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙) = 9.730). We calculated the average of the students’ self-assessed grades for students with different levels of time optimisation. Their grades are written in Table 12. Furthermore, we found out that the average of the students’ self-assessed grade (5 or less than 5) is statistically different for students with different levels of time optimisation ( p = .007; F = 5.05). Based on these findings and the results written in Table 12, we believe that the level of time optimisation is in positive correlation with the students’ mathematical achievement (which is, in this case, measured via the students’ self-assessment of their mathematical knowledge). J. Ferme & D. Štesl: Completion of Mathematics Homework 45. Table 12: Time optimisation and students’ mathematical achievement for students from the first, second, and third grade Time optimisation Average students’ self-assessed grade (1–5) Other things always distract me. I often think about other things. 3.71 Other things sometimes distract me. I sometimes think about other things. 4.44 While doing mathematical homework I think only about the homework. Nothing distracts me. 4.67 For students from the last three grades of elementary education the results are similar. Namely, the level of time optimisation (for students who do MHW) and the share of completed tasks are related ( p = .000, 𝜒𝜒2 = 34.468). The correlation is positive (ρ = 0.426, p = .000). These findings are supported by the results written in Table 13, which shows the task completion indexes for students with different levels of time optimisation. Table 13: Time optimisation and completion of MHW for students from the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade Time optimisation Task completion index (1–3) Other things always distract me. I often think about other things. 2.27 Other things sometimes distract me. I sometimes think about other things. 2.66 While doing mathematical homework I think only about the homework. Nothing distracts me. 2.83 Moreover, the statistical chi-squared test shows that the variables time optimisation (for students who do MHW) and students’ final grade in mathematics are also related ( p = .000, 𝜒𝜒2 = 19.938). Based on the result of the correlation test, we believe that the correlation is positive in this case as well (ρ = 0.183, p = .001). The findings are supported with the results written in Table 14. We calculated the average of students’ final grades in mathematics for students with different levels of time optimisation. Our calculations are presented in Table 14. 46 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 14: Time optimisation and students’ mathematical achievement for students from the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade Time optimisation Average students’ final grade (1–5) Other things always distract me. I often think about other things. 3.22 Other things sometimes distract me. I sometimes think about other things. 3.54 While doing mathematical homework I think only about the homework. Nothing distracts me. 4.03 The frequency of individualized mathematical homework Final y, we considered the frequency of individualized MHW. We posed the following question to the students: “How often does everyone in your class get the same mathematical homework?” Students could choose one of the four possible answers ( always, often, sometimes, never). Their responses are presented in Table 15 and in Table 16. Table 15 presents the responses of students from the first three grades of elementary education. As shown, the majority of the students, 87.5 %, from the first, second, or third grade, reported that everyone in their class always or often receives the same mathematical homework. Table 15: The frequency of individualized MHW for students from the first, second, and third grade How often does everyone in your class get the same mathematical f f % homework? Always 119 62.0 Often 49 25.5 Sometimes 23 12.0 Never 1 0.5 Table 16 presents the responses of students from the last three grades of elementary education. Again, the majority of students, 91.6 %, reported that everyone in their class always or often receive the same mathematical homework. Note that in this case the share of such students is higher as in the case of the students from the first three grades of elementary education. Based on these results, we hypothesise that the frequency of individualized MHW is decidedly low. J. Ferme & D. Štesl: Completion of Mathematics Homework 47. Table 16: The frequency of individualized MHW for students from the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade How often does everyone in your class get the same mathematical homework? f f % Always 263 63.1 Often 119 28.5 Sometimes 28 6.7 Never 7 1.7 Discussion and Conclusion Several studies suggest that the amount of homework completed by students is positively related to their achievements (Cooper, Lindsay, et al., 1998; Núñez et al., 2015; Núñez et al., 2015a). Our findings are in accordance with these results. Based on the executed statistical tests, we hypothesise that the relationship between the share of the tasks completed by students and their achievements is positive for students from the first, second, and third grade of elementary education. In addition, the students’ final grade in mathematics and the completion index are related for students from the last three grades of elementary education ( p = .000, 𝜒𝜒2 = 81.990). Based on the results of Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient test, we discovered that the mentioned relationship is positive ( p = .000, ρ = 0.410). Furthermore, we found out that more than 18 % of students from the first three grades of elementary education do not complete al or almost al of the tasks in the assigned homework. The share of such students from the last three grades of elementary education is more than 36 %. Based on the mentioned and repeatedly indicated positive relation between the share of completed tasks and students' achievements, we think that there is need (and opportunity) for improvement of these results. One of the ways for that is expanding the knowledge on the reasons for uncompleted tasks as reported by students. The most common reason for MHW incompletion of students from the first and from the last three grades of elementary education is the following: they do not complete their homework assignment because they cannot do it, namely, they do not know how to solve al tasks. This has already been mentioned by several other authors (Glazer & Williams, 2001; Hong et al., 2011; Hudson & Kendall, 2002; Morgenweck, 2006). There are at least two explanations for these reasons: (a) students do not know how to solve tasks, because they do not real y focus on them, 48 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS and/or they despair over homework before they real y start doing it, or (b) they real y do not know how to solve tasks. The first explanation is based on our finding that only 40 % of students from the first three grades and only 14.4 % of students from the last three grades of elementary education focus entirely on doing MHW (they think only about the MHW and nothing distracts them). In addition, we found out that the quality of the students’ time optimisation (focusing of work) and the share of completed tasks are positively related (ρ = 0.304, p = .000) for students from the first three grades (ρ = 0.426, p = .000 for students from the last three grades), which is in accordance with the results of several other studies (Ferme & Lipovec, 2019; Núñez et al., 2015; Núñez et al., 2015a; Xu, 2011). Moreover, our results reveal that the variables time optimisation (for students who do MHW) and students’ mathematical achievement are also positively related. Specifical y, for students from the last three grades of elementary education, final grades in mathematics are positively related to the levels of time optimisation (p = .001, ρ = 0.183). For better understanding of the described situation (for students from the last three grades of elementary education), see Figure 1. It shows the described positive relationships between MHW completion, time optimisation of doing MHW and students' mathematics achievement for students from the last three grades of elementary education. The positive relationships between the mentioned variables exist also for students from the first three grades of elementary education. Based on these findings, we think that better time optimisation of doing MHW (higher level of focusing on work) could help students with the above-mentioned reasons for uncompleted tasks. As written, the other common reasons for uncompleted tasks as reported by students from the first three or from the last three grades of elementary education are the fol owing: students’ lack of time for doing homework (due to other activities), forgetting to complete homework, and their lack of energy (tiredness). The role of al of these may be reduced with better time optimisation. Hence, we suggest as it has already been suggested by Núñez et al. (2015): students need to be trained in effective homework time optimisation. In addition, since homework is done at home, maybe parents could help with the improvement of their child’s quality of time optimisation (for instance, by providing a quiet room for doing homework, ensuring time for doing homework). J. Ferme & D. Štesl: Completion of Mathematics Homework 49. Figure 1: Relationships between MHW completion, time optimisation in doing MHW and students' mathematics achievement for students from the last three grades of elementary education Situation b) is based on our findings on the frequency of individualized MHW. Namely, more that 87 % of students from the first three grades and more that 91 % of students from the last three grades of elementary education reported that everyone in their class always or often receives the same mathematical homework. Therefore, the share of individualized MHW tasks is low. Recall that Murillo and Martínez-Garrido (2013) reported that the individualized homework is positively related to students' achievements. Hence, we think that there is need for more individualized tasks as well. Our study reveals that most times students do not complete their homework because they cannot do it (do not know how to). Based on our findings, we conclude that there are at least two different explanations for this: (a) the students do not know how to solve tasks, because they do not real y focus on them and/or they despair over homework before they real y start doing it and (b) they real y do not know how to solve tasks. Based on our results on the positive relationship between time optimisation in doing MHW and the share of completed tasks (and also between time optimisation in doing MHW and students’ mathematical achievement) , we believe that improving students’ time optimisation in doing MHW (a better focus on work) could help with the mentioned reason for uncompleted tasks. Hence, we 50 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS suggest encouraging students in their efforts towards effective homework time optimisation. On the other hand, since the share of individualized MHW tasks is low and some authors report that the individualized homework is positively related to students' achievements, more individualized homework could help as well. In conclusion, our study reveals some new findings about the completion of mathematical homework, but due to the complexity of the phenomenon of homework, more in-depth research wil be needed. 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The Journal of Educational Research, 104(3), 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671003636752 52 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS THE ABILITY TO PERCEIVE INITIAL AND FINAL SOUNDS IN A WORD MARIJA ROPIČ KOP University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: marija.ropic@um.si Abstract Teachers test the students’ ability to perceive initial and final sounds at the beginning of the first grade. They use the findings to create differentiation and individualization in promoting phonological awareness, as individual levels of phonological awareness develops in a specific set. This development does not proceed as quickly with all pupils. They first perceive syl ables in words, then the initial sound, followed by the final sound, and, lastly, they develop the ability to divide words into sounds. It is important that teachers careful y plan exercises for the development of phonological awareness, since the reading and writing success depend on successful development of phonological awareness abilities. The focus of this research was on possible differences in the ability to perceive Keywords: phonological awareness among first grade students led. The initial sound, study involved two comparable groups of pupils, with a large final difference in the ability to perceive initial and final sounds. The sound, results show that the ability to perceive final sounds is first grade, approximately equal in both groups, compared to the perception gender, of initial sounds. literacy. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.3 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 54 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Introduction Systematic literacy in the first grade is influenced by many factors. These include the perceptual abilities that pupils already develop in their preschool years. This period represents the most intense development of perceived abilities. One of the most important perceived abilities is auditory perception, which includes auditory discernment and auditory parsing. Levels of phonological awareness evolve from less demanding to more demanding in the following order: rhymes, sentence divisions, split/merge of syllables, split/merge of beginnings and endings (including initial and final sounds), and split/merge of individual sounds (Chard & Dickson, 1999). Research has shown the beneficial impact of promoting phonological awareness in preschool years on the development of the aforementioned ability (Ball & Blachman, 1991; McGee & Ukrainetz, 2009; Rohl, 2000; Strickland, 2011; Venn & Jahn, 2004). The perception of phonological awareness is significantly influenced by frequent exercises which should be diverse and interesting. Teachers should encourage pupils’ phonological perceptions before literacy and during systematic literacy, as this is beneficial for pupils. It should be emphasized that pupils need a lot of exercise and training experience in perceiving phonological awareness (Ball & Blachman, 1991; Rohl, 2000; Ropič, 2014, 2016, 2017; Strickland, 2011). At the beginning of the first grade, teachers accelerate the perception of the initial sound in a word and slightly later, the final sound in a word. Pupils who correctly perceive the initial and the final sound in a word are spel ing the words. In regard to perceiving initial and final sounds in a word, some research considers that students are most successful when that sound is a consonant (Ashby et al., 2013). There is no similar research in Slovenia. It cannot be ignored that some research links the success of perceiving initial and final sounds with word length. Pupils are supposed to be more successful in non-syllabic or monosyllabic words. The difficulty in perceiving the initial and final sounds is enhanced by the choice of longer or multi-syllabic words (Levin, 2007). M. Ropič Kop: The Ability to Perceive Initial and Final Sounds in a Word 55. The research does not correlate the ability to perceive initial and final sounds in a word with gender. In some screening cases, girls are more successful, in others, boys -sometimes, they even achieve the same averages. Research findings pointed out that differences between boys and girls in their ability to perceive initial sounds in a word and on other levels of phonological awareness were statistically insignificant (Bider Petelin, 2014; Božič et al., 2007). Method As research has shown various influences on the development of phonological awareness of children in kindergarten and differently developed phonological awareness of students entering the first grade, I decided to carry out a study examining the ability to perceive the initial and final sounds in words of first grade pupils. 192 pupils were examined individually and divided into two basic groups. The first group included 98 pupils and was named “G1”. Typical for this group is that before entering elementary school, these pupils had fewer exercises of phonological awareness and came from a less stimulating environment. The second group contained of 94 pupils and was named “G2”. These mostly came from a stimulating environment and from kindergartens where phonological awareness was present. The research also focused on whether there was a difference between pupils according to gender (boys, girls) in their ability to perceive initial and final sounds. The study covers two levels of phonological awareness; the first level examines the perception of the initial sound in a word and the second the perception of the final sound in a word. Each set contained sixteen frames. Each pupil named a single frame and named the initial sound of that frame. In the second set, pupils first observed al the frames to get the naming without the diminutives, as that would change the final sound in the word. Pupils then named the final sound in the word of each frame. In the study, a descriptive and causal non-experimental method of empirical research was used. The obtained data were processed with the SPSS program. To analyze the differences between the groups, a t-test was used to get independent samples in the total number of correctly perceived initial and final sounds in words. The x2-test was 56 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS used because I was interested in the differences between pupils -whether there was a connection, and what the frequencies were in the ability to perceive initial and final sounds at the level of a single word. To analyze differences between students according to gender (boys, girls) in the perception of initial and final sounds in a word, a t-test for independent samples was used. I was also interested in the differences that occurred between pupils in terms of gender at the level of the chosen sixteen cases in the perception of the initial sound in a word and sixteen cases in the perception of the final sound in a word. For the purpose of the latter, the x2-test was used. Results Table 1: Results of the t-test among pupils of groups G1 and G2 in ability to perceive initial sounds. Group N x s F p t p G 1 98 11.39 4.873 9.134 .000 -3.552 .000 G 2 94 13.60 3.620 Table 1 shows the differences between the two groups at the beginning of first grade in pupils’ ability to perceive the initial sound in a word. The difference is statistically significant (p = .000). Pupils of the G2 group perceived on average 13.60 initial sounds per word out of the 16 possible and were therefore more successful than their peers in G1 who perceived an average of 11.39 initial sounds in a word out of the 16 possible. The standard deviation indicated a greater range in the ability to perceive initial sounds among pupils in G1, which means that in this group a greater number of pupils was unable to perceive initial sounds and that there were large differences in the aforementioned ability. Results show that pupils’ previous knowledge in the perception of initial sounds in G2 is higher, as they have been earlier and more frequently stimulated in promoting phonological awareness. Comparing research in the ability of perceiving initial sounds in a word of first grade pupils with that of children in the preschool period just before first grade (June) shows that there is no statistical y significant difference in the ability to perceive initial sounds among preschool children, but there is a tendency in the difference in favor of those children whose perception of initial sounds was stimulated early, in M. Ropič Kop: The Ability to Perceive Initial and Final Sounds in a Word 57. kindergarten; these children were exposed to phonological awareness exercises for a longer time (Ropič, 2017). The positive impact of systematic exercises to promote the perception of the initial sound is also emphasized by other authors (Mesmer & Griffith, 2005; Ropič, 2016; Strickland, 2011). Promoting phonological awareness during preschool and in early years of primary school has an impact on successful development of phonological awareness (Bal & Blachman, 1991; Cardoso-Martins et al., 2010). Table 2: Results of the t-test among pupils of groups G1 and G2 in ability to perceive final sounds. Group N x s F p t p G 1 98 7.07 5.449 0.000 .987 -2.464 .015 G 2 94 9.03 5.572 Upon comparing the obtained results with the results of similar research of preschool children just before attending the first grade, the findings highlight that both studies show a statistical y significant difference between the two groups. More successful were those who were more stimulated to promote phonological awareness or have previously started performing exercises to develop phonological awareness, which is highlighted in the following research as well (Graaff et al., 2007). The ability to perceive final sounds in a word, compared to perceiving initial sounds in a word, presents a more chal enging activity or level of phonological awareness. A child develops those levels gradual y and slowly, requiring the educator/teacher to properly plan work and integrate differentiation through individualization. 58 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 3. Results of the x2-test between the two groups of children in the perception of the initial sound. Initial No. of Group 1 Group 2 sound child Total 𝐑𝐑esult of -test Points Points 0 1 0 1 0 1 p i f 28 70 16 78 44 148 = 3.623 p = .057 f % 28.6 71.4 17.0 83.0 22.9 77.1 m f 25 73 5 89 30 162 = 14.837 p = .000 f % 25.5 74.5 5.3 94.7 15.6 84.4 j f 45 53 26 68 71 121 = 6.864 p = .009 f % 45.9 54.1 27.3 72.3 37.0 63.0 e f 31 67 14 80 45 147 = 7.492 p = .006 f % 31.6 68.4 14.9 85.1 23.4 76.6 v f 31 67 17 77 48 144 = 4.696 p = .030 f % 31.6 68.4 18.1 81.9 25.0 75.0 k f 21 77 13 81 34 158 = 1.901 p = .168 f % 21.4 78.6 13.8 86.2 17.7 82.3 u f 17 81 12 82 29 163 = 0.785 p = .376 f % 17.3 82.7 12.8 87.2 15.1 84.9 d f 23 75 9 85 32 160 = 6.670 p = .010 f % 23.5 76.5 9.6 90.4 16.7 83.3 c f 29 69 16 78 45 147 = 4.225 p = .040 f % 29.6 70.4 17.0 83.0 23.4 76.6 r f 22 76 7 87 29 163 = 8.421 p = .004 f % 22.4 77.6 7.4 92.6 15.1 84.9 š f 34 64 15 79 49 143 = 8.861 p = .003 f % 34.7 65.3 16.0 84.0 25.5 74.5 p f 21 77 4 90 25 167 = 12.494 p = .000 f % 21.4 78.6 4.3 95.7 13.0 87.0 h f 29 69 9 85 38 154 = 12.111 p = .001 f % 29.6 70.4 9.6 90.4 19.8 80.2 g f 28 70 17 77 45 147 = 2.940 p = .086 f % 28.6 71.4 18.1 81.9 23.4 76.6 ž f 18 80 11 83 29 163 = 1.662 p = .197 f % 18.4 81.6 11.7 88.3 15.1 84.9 f 47 51 24 69 71 120 f = 9.343 p = .002 f % 48.0 52 25.8 74.2 37.2 62.8 Table 3 shows a statistical y significant difference ( p = .000) in the ability to perceive initial sounds in a word with an initial sound “m” and an initial sound “p”. In G1, a quarter of pupils did not perceive the initial sound “m”, while in G2, they perceived that initial sound in 94.7 %. The initial sound “p” also caused problems for pupils in G1 in 21.4 %, while in G1 only 4.3 % of pupils did not perceive it. A statistically significant difference between the groups shows in the perception of the initial sound “h”. Almost 30 % of pupils in G1 did not detect the initial voice “h”, and M. Ropič Kop: The Ability to Perceive Initial and Final Sounds in a Word 59. only 9.6 % had difficulty perceiving it, including the pupils of G2. A significant difference ( p = .002) between the groups also occurred when the initial sound “f” is perceived. In G1 only 52 % perceived this sound, and 74.2 % in G2. A statistically significant difference ( p = .003) in the ability to perceive the initial sound “š” should be noted as wel -in G2 84 % and in G1 only 65.3 %. Table 3 shows a statistically significant difference in the perception of initial sounds “r” ( p = .004), “e” ( p = .006), “j” ( p = .009), “d” ( p = .010), “v” ( p = .30) and “c” ( p = .040). In G2 pupils showed a greater ability to perceive the aforementioned initial sounds. The tendency indicates a higher performance in G2 in the perception of the initial sound “i”, which was successfully perceived in 83 %, and in the perception of the initial sound “g”, which was correctly perceived in 81.9 %. There are no statistical y significant differences in other tests of initial sounds between G1 and G2. The differences were smal er in the perception of the initial sound “k”, even smaller in “ž” and the smallest in “u”. Some authors have found that initial sounds that are consonants enable children to perceive sounds more successfully (Ashby et al., 2013). In this study, that prediction is only partially realized within G2. Pupils in this group successfully perceived the initial sound of six words, where the initial sound is a consonant (p, m, r, d, h, ž). In the following initial sounds, words beginning with the vowel (u), consonant (k), vowel (e), consonant (š) and vowel (i) ware perceived. The final third of the performance in G2 includes words beginning with the initial sound of consonants (e, g, v, f, j). Pupils in G1 who were less successful in perceiving initial sounds than pupils in G2 ( p = .000) most successfully perceived the initial “u” and had been successful in perceiving initial sounds in the words that begin with the initial consonant only in the next six places of successful perception (ž, p, k, r, d, m). These results correlate with the findings of other studies (Levin, 2007), as the pupils of both groups were more successful in perceiving initial sounds in shorter or easier words. There is no similar research in the Slovenian language. 60 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 4. Results of the x2-test between the two groups of children in the perception of the final sound. Final No. of Group 1 Group 2 sound child Total Result of -test Points Points 0 1 0 1 0 1 p a f 52 46 45 49 97 95 = 0.517 p = .472 f % 53.1 46.9 47.9 52.1 50.5 49.5 š f 53 45 39 55 92 100 = 3.048 p = .081 f % 54.1 45.9 41.5 58.5 47.9 52.1 e f 77 21 65 29 142 50 = 2.212 p = .137 f % 78.6 21.4 69.1 30.9 74.0 26.0 a f 54 44 41 53 95 97 = 2.532 p = .112 f % 55.1 44.9 43.6 56.4 49.5 50.5 a f 52 46 44 50 96 96 = 0.750 p = .386 f % 53.1 46.9 46.8 53.2 50.0 50.0 š f 55 43 39 55 94 98 = 4.111 p = .043 f % 56.1 43.9 41.5 58.5 49.0 51.0 a f 50 48 29 65 79 113 = 8.060 p = .005 f % 51.0 49.0 30.9 69.1 41.1 58.9 o f 57 41 41 53 98 94 = 4.063 p = .044 f % 58.2 41.8 43.6 56.4 51.0 49.0 a f 45 53 37 57 82 110 = 0.843 p = .359 f % 45.9 54.1 39.4 60.6 42.7 57.3 a f 41 57 33 61 74 118 = 0.918 p = .338 f % 41.8 58.2 35.1 64.9 38.5 61.5 e f 64 34 47 47 111 81 = 4.609 p = .032 f % 65.3 34.7 50.0 50.0 57.8 42.2 o f 45 53 37 57 82 110 = 0.843 p = .359 f % 45.9 54.1 39.4 60.6 42.7 57.3 a f 43. 55 33 61 76 116 = 1.543 p = .214 f % 43.9 56.1 35.1 64.9 39.6 60.4 b f 81 17 61 33 142 50 = 7.857 p = .005 f % 82.7 17.3 64.9 35.1 74.0 26.0 a f 44 54 32 62 76 116 = 2.364 p = .124 f % 44.9 55.1 34.0 66.0 39.6 60.4 a f 60 38 49 45 109 83 = 1.618 p = .203 f % 61.2 38.8 52.1 47.9 56.8 43.2 Table 4 shows the performance of first grade pupils in the perception of final sounds. The biggest difference -also a statistical y significant difference ( p = .005) between groups in the perception of final sounds -was reflected in the perception of “b” and “a”. The results show that 82.7 % of pupils in G1 were unsuccessful in the perception of the final sound “b”. Their peers in G2 were unsuccessful in 64.9 %. The difficulty in perceiving the final sound “b” might have increased because it appeared in the consonant cluster “mb”. The results point to a heavier perception M. Ropič Kop: The Ability to Perceive Initial and Final Sounds in a Word 61. of final sounds when they are part of a consonant cluster. In the second case of large group differences, the perception of the final sound “a” emerged from the syl able “ra”. In this case, 51 % of pupils in G1 and 30.9 % in G2 were unsuccessful. There is also a statistical y significant difference between the groups ( p = .032) in the perception of the final sound “e” when that sound appeared in the syl able “je”. In G2, the final sound “e” was correctly recognized by half the pupils, and only 34.7 % in G1. There is a statistically significant difference between the groups in the perception of the final sound “š” ( p = .043) and “o” ( p = .044). In both cases, the pupils of G2 were more successful in perceiving the final sound, as they have correctly perceived “š”, which was in the syl able “oš”. Furthermore, these pupils were more successful in perceiving the final sound “o” which, in this case, appeared in the syl able “vo”. In one case, there was a tendency to perceive the final sound “š” which was in the syllable “iš”. In this particular case, pupils of G2 were more successful. In al the other cases of the perception of final sounds, there are no statistical y significant differences between the groups. The results show the fol owing sequence in the differences between the groups: “a” (na), “a” (iba), “e” (ce), “a” (ca), “a” (ša), “a” (aba), “a” (ta), “o” (ro), “a” (ja) and “a” (la). The results of the syllable “la” came closest to the ability to perceive the final sound “a”. The peculiarity of this word is that it begins with a vowel, followed by a consonant, another consonant and ends with a vowel. This word contains two syl ables (vowel and consonant, consonant and vowel). When looking at the ability to perceive final sounds from another point of view, it should be noted that the pupils in G2 were most successful in perceiving the final sound “a” when it appeared in the syl able “ra”. Their peers were only sixth in determining final sounds in this word. The pupils of G1 were most successful in perceiving “a” in the word that appeared in the “iba” sequence. In this case of successful determination of the final sound, the pupils of G2 came in third place. 62 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS According to some authors (Ashby et al., 2013), consonants as initial or final sounds in a word make perception easier. The results of this study do not ful y confirm this. This research indicates difficulties in detecting final sounds in longer words with two-syl able consonant clusters and three-syllable words (Levin, 2007). Table 5: The results of the t-test among pupils in the perception of initial sounds according to gender Gender N x s F p t p Boys 100 12,33 4,780 4,035 ,046 -0,623 ,534 Girls 92 12,73 4,000 Table 5 shows the results of the t-test -the difference between pupils according to gender in the perception of initial sounds in a word is not statistically significant. The arithmetic mean shows that girls were slightly more successful in perceiving the initial sound. Also, the standard deviation indicates large differences between them. Boys perceived an average of 0.4 less of initial sounds per word than girls. The standard deviation indicates even greater individual differences among boys compared to girls. Some pupils among boys and girls have been given different amounts of exercises to promote phonological awareness. Comparing this research with a study (Bider Petelin, 2014) conducted with students of the same age in different stages of reading and writing basics which presents children’s prior knowledge of systematic literacy in first grade, both studies refute the importance of gender in the abilities of phonological awareness. No similar research was found on an international scale; therefore, no comparison is possible. Table 6: The results of t-test among pupils according to gender in the ability to perceive final sounds Gender N x s F p t p Boys 100 8,17 5,920 5,918 ,016 0,345 ,730 Girls 92 7,89 5,207 The results in Table 6 show that all pupils, boys and girls, had significantly more difficulties in perceiving final sounds in a word than in perceiving initial sounds in a word. Furthermore, the differences in the perception of final sounds in a word between boys and girls are not statistical y significant. Out of sixteen points, they reached around eight points. On the level of phonological awareness, namely the M. Ropič Kop: The Ability to Perceive Initial and Final Sounds in a Word 63. perception of the final sounds in a word, boys are slightly better (the arithmetic mean is 8.17) compared to girls (the arithmetic mean is 7.89). The standard deviation indicates large individual differences among boys and girls. There are slightly greater differences among boys in the perception of final sounds in a word compared to girls. Table 7: The results of the -test according to gender in the perception of the initial sound Initial Boys Girls Total Result of - test sound No. of in a child Points Points Points word 0 1 0 1 0 1 p i f 24 76 20 72 44 148 = 0.139 p = .710 f % 24.0 76.0 21.7 78.3 22.9 77.1 m f 17 83 13 79 30 162 = 0.299 p = .584 f % 17.0 83.0 14.1 85.9 15.6 84.4 j f 39 61 32 60 71 121 = 0.366 p = .545 f % 39.0 61.0 34.8 65.2 37.0 63.0 e f 24 76 21 71 45 147 = 0.037 p = .848 f % 24.0 76.0 22.8 77.2 23.4 76.6 v f 25 75 23 69 48 144 = 0.000 p = .000 f % 25.0 75.0 25.0 75.0 25.0 75.0 k f 19 81 15 77 34 158 = 0.239 p = .625 f % 19.0 81.0 16.3 83.7 17.7 82.3 u f 17 83 12 80 29 163 = 0.585 p = .444 f % 17.0 83.0 13.0 87.0 15.1 84.9 d f 17 83 15 77 32 160 = 0.017 p = .897 f % 17.0 83.0 16.3 83.7 16.7 83.3 c f 23 77 22 70 45 147 = 0.022 p = .881 f % 23.0 77.0 23.9 76.1 23.4 76.6 r f 14 86 15 77 29 163 = 0.198 p = 656 f % 14.0 86.0 16.3 83.7 15.1 84.9 š f 25 75 24 68 49 143 = 0.030 p = .863 f % 25.0 75.0 26.1 73.9 25.5 74.5 p f 13 87 12 80 25 167 = 0.000 p = .993 f % 13.0 87.0 13.0 87.0 13.0 87.0 h f 22 78 16 76 38 154 = 0.641 p = .423 f % 22.0 78.0 17.4 82.6 19.8 80.2 g f 25 75 20 72 45 147 = 0.284 p = .594 f % 25.0 75.0 21.7 78.3 23.4 76.6 ž f 15 85 14 78 29 163 = 0.002 p = .966 f % 15.0 85.0 15.2 84.8 15.1 84.9 f 33 67 39 53 72 120 f = 1.803 p = .179 f % 33.0 67.0 42.4 57.6 37.5 62.8 64 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 7 shows that the difference in the perception of initial sounds in a word between boys and girls is not statistical y significant in any position. Nevertheless, a lot of information can be drawn from it. Girls were more successful in perceiving nine out of sixteen cases of initial sounds in a word (i, m, j, e, k, u, d, h, g), while boys perceived five cases of initial sounds in words (c, r, š, ž, f). When perceiving the initial sound “v” and “p” in the word, boys and girls achieved the same average. The results in Table 7 represent the results of boys and girls in the perception of initial sounds in a word, which explicitly point to gender specific facts. Boys and girls had the most difficulties in perceiving the initial sound in a word consisting of three syl ables (consonant “f”, consonant, vowel + consonant, vowel + consonant, vowel). Boys were successful in only 67 % and girls in 57.6 %. The table shows that girls were the least successful with this particular word. Slightly worse, they perceived the initial “j” in a word consisting of a consonant, vowel, consonant, consonant and vowel. Boys performed similarly, as they initially perceived the initial sound in the same two words as girls, but in the reversed order. As the third word that caused problems for al participants in perceiving the initial sound in a word, was a word consisting of two syl ables (consonant “š”, consonant, vowel + consonant, consonant, vowel). Pupils had more difficulties perceiving initial sounds in words with a consonant cluster. The aforementioned findings of this research confirm the results of other studies, which also conclude that the performance in perceiving initial sounds in a word depends on the composition of the word. Pupils have more difficulties with multi-syllabic words (Levin, 2007; Ropič, 2016). Boys and girls were most successful in perceiving the initial sound in a two-syllabic word (consonant / "p" /, vowel + consonant, vowel). Pupils are known to be more successful at perceiving initial sounds in a word in the case of shorter words that are non-syl abic or two-syllabic (consonant, vowel + consonant, vowel) (Levin, 2007; Ropič, 2016). The following does not show the same sequence in the performance of perceiving the initial sound in a word in the same word between boys and girls; there is no significant deviation. M. Ropič Kop: The Ability to Perceive Initial and Final Sounds in a Word 65. Table 8: The results of the -test according to gender in the perception of the final sound Final Boys Girls Total Result of - test sound No. of in a child Points Points Points word 0 1 0 1 0 1 p a f 52 48 45 47 97 95 = 0.183 p = .669 f % 52.0 48.0 48.9 51.5 50.5 49.5 š f 47 53 45 47 92 100 = 0.070 p = .791 f % 47.0 53.0 48.9 51.1 47.9 52.1 e f 70 30 72 20 142 50 = 1.698 p = .193 f % 70.0 30.0 78.3 21.7 74.0 26.0 a f 48 52 47 45 95 97 = 0.183 p = .669 f % 48.0 52.0 51.1 48.9 49.5 50.5 a f 50 50 46 46 96 96 = 0,000 p = .000 f % 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 š f 48 52 46 46 94 98 = 0,077 p = .782 f % 48.0 52.0 50.0 50.0 49.0 51.0 a f 41 59 38 54 79 113 = 0,002 p = .966 f % 41.0 59.0 41.3 58.7 41.1 58.9 o f 56 44 42 50 98 94 = 2,053 p = .152 f % 56.0 44.0 45.7 54.3 51.0 49.0 a f 40 60 42 50 82 110 = 0,626 p = .429 f % 40.0 60.0 45.7 54.3 42.7 57.3 a f 37 63 37 55 74 118 = 0,209 p = 647 f % 37.0 63.0 40.2 59.8 38.5 61.5 e f 57 43 54 38 111 81 = 0,056 p = .812 f % 57.0 43.0 58.7 41.3 57.8 42.2 o f 46 54 36 56 82 110 = 0,924 p = .336 f % 46.0 54.0 39.1 60.9 42.7 57.3 a f 42 58 34 58 76 116 = 0,510 p = .475 f % 42.0 58.0 37.0 63.0 39.6 60.4 b f 74 26 68 24 142 50 = 0,000 p = .989 f % 74.0 26.0 73.9 26.1 74.0 26.0 a f 42 58 34 58 76 116 = 0,510 p = .475 f % 42.0 58.0 37.0 63.0 39.6 60.4 a f 53 47 56 36 109 83 = 1,209 p = .271 f % 53.0 47.0 60.9 39.1 56.8 43.2 The difference between boys and girls in the perception of final sounds in a word is not statistical y significant in any of the sixteen cases of the perception of final sounds. Table 8 shows that boys were slightly more successful in perceiving the following final sounds in words: “w” (s), “e” (ce), “a” (s), “w” (s), “a” (ra), “a” (ta), “a” (ba), “e” (is) and “a” (ca). Girls achieved a better average score in the perception of the final sounds “a” (la), “o” (ro), “a” (sha) and “a” (ba). It should be noted that there were smal differences in the average between boys and girls. In the perception of the final sound in words “a” (ja) and “b” (mb), they achieved the same average. 66 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The biggest gender differences were in the perception of the final sound “o” (vo) in favor of the girls; in the case of the final sound “e” (ce) boys were more successful; in the case of “a” (ca) boys were also more successful. The final sound “o” (ro) was better perceived by girls, while the difference in favor of the boys is also in the perception of the final sound in the word “a” (ta). Boys had the most difficulties in perceiving the final sound “b” (mb) in a word consisting of a consonant cluster (consonant, vowel, consonant, consonant). There are less problems in the perception of the final sound “e” (ce) in a word consisting of a consonant, a vowel, a consonant, a consonant and a vowel. Difficulties were encountered in perceiving the final sound in words with a consonant cluster (word: consonant, consonant, vowel, consonant, consonant, vowel, or word: consonant, consonant, vowel, consonant, vowel, consonant, vowel). The girls were similarly successful in perceiving final sounds in multi-syl abic words. It should not be overlooked that girls also have most difficulties in perceiving the final sound in a word with the same words as boys, except that the sequence is reversed. The results show that boys and girls did not successfully perceive the final sound in the same words, although they al were most successful in perceiving the final sound “a” but in different words. The results show that gender differences are insignificant. The success in perceiving final sounds in a word for both boys and girls is most influenced by the length of words (two-syllable, multi-syl able) and the composition of sounds in the word or a syllable. Similar findings are reported by other studies (Levin, 2007; Ropič, 2016). It is not crucial to successfully perceive initial sounds in a word where the initial sound is a consonant. As this study shows, the participants’ success is influenced by word length (multiple syl ables) and syl able composition (such as, consonant, vowel + consonant, vowel or consonant, consonant, vowel + consonant, vowel + consonant, vowel). In addition, research also indicates that pupils have more difficulties perceiving initial sounds in a word when the initial sound is a vowel (Ashby et al., 2013). In this research, the following sequence was formed: boys and girls are most successful in perceiving the initial sounds “u” (before r), then “i” M. Ropič Kop: The Ability to Perceive Initial and Final Sounds in a Word 67. (before g) and then “e” (before n). Gender does not significantly affect the perception of initial sounds in a word. Discussion and Conclusion I was interested in whether the pupils of both groups were most successful in perceiving the same initial sounds. The results of this study do not confirm this. Pupils in G2 most successfully perceived the initial sound “p”, and their peers in G1 came only in third place in the perception of the sound “p”. In the first third of the results in the performance of perceiving initial sounds, it should be noted that “r” is in third place in G2 and in fifth place in G1. The performance of perceiving the initial “c” sound in both groups can be seen at the beginning of the last third. Perceiving initial sounds “j” and “f” causes the most problems in both groups of pupils. Nevertheless, it cannot be ignored that 48 % of pupils are not yet able to perceive the initial sound “f” and 45.9 % of pupils the initial sound “j”. There are some similarities in the perception of final sounds of the two groups; both successful y perceived the final sound “a” in the second part of the syl able “aba”, “a” in the final syllable “ta”, and “o” in the final syllable “ro”. Half of the words included in the test measured the ability to perceive the final sound “a” in the syllable “na”, then “o” in the final syl able “vo”. On the 13th and 14th place in the successfulness of both groups is the perception of final sounds in same words, namely “a” in the final syl able of the word, “ca”, and the final sound “e” in the final syllable of the word, “je”. A similar level of ability to perceive the final sound can also be detected in the same two words in the two groups that were most difficult for pupils. This is the final sound “e” in the final syl able “ce” and “b” in the final syllable “mb” in the word. In both cases of the final sound “š”, first in the final syllable “iš” and second in the final syllable “oš” in the word, the pupils of both groups were moderately successful, although some studies say that the students can easily perceive final sounds that are consonants (Ashby et al., 2013). This research cannot confirm that. Some studies indicate that students can use one-syl able or non-syl able words to perceive final sounds (Levin, 2007). My study confirmed this as well, since the pupils of both groups most easily perceived final sounds of words that are composed of two syl ables (consonant–vowel, consonant–vowel). Similarly, pupils of both groups 68 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS had significantly greater difficulty in defining the voice in two-syllable (a syllable with consonant set) and three-syl able words. This study concludes that there is no statistically significant difference in the perception of initial and final sounds between boys and girls. It also indicates that boys and girls have difficulties in perceiving the initial and final sounds in multi-syl abic words and words in which consonant clusters occur. There are large differences among the first-grade pupils in the ability to perceive initial and final sounds. That makes it imperative to differentiate and individualize lessons. If the teachers perform phonological awareness tests, they wil learn the students’ abilities and be able to plan individualized exercises for developing phonological awareness. Although I found a significant difference between the groups of first grade students in their ability to perceive initial and final sounds in a word, they all began the process of systematic literacy at the same time. This raises the further question of whether the pupils of G1 wil be able to develop phonological awareness during the literacy period in their education or their reading and writing problems wil deepen. References Ashby, J., Dix, H., Bontrager, M., Dey, R., & Archer, A. (2013). Phonemic awareness contributes to text reading fluency: Evidence from eye movements. School Psychology Review, 42(2), 157–170. Ball, E. W. & Blachman, B. A. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spel ing? Reading Research Quarterly, 26(1), 49–66. Bider Petelin, I. (2014). Ugotavljanje predbralnih zmožnosti [Determining pre-reading abilities]. Sodobna pedagogika, 65(131), 24–40. Božič, A., Habe, K., & Jerman, J. (2007). 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Newark, DE: International Reading Association. 70 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL VISION IN ART EDUCATION VIDEO INTERVENTIONS MAGDALENA NOVOTNÁ Charles University, Faculty of Education, Art Education Department, Prague, Czech Republic, e-mail: magdalena.novotna@pedf.cuni.cz Abstract The study investigates the professional vision of pre-service, elementary-school, art-education teachers and presents a video-intervention methodology based on a wider transdidactic approach. The author uses a concept of the professional vision, wel -known in teaching mathematics and sciences and seeks to establish it in the domain of Art Education. The study analyzes thirty-four student-written reflections based on watching a video recording of an art education lesson using a modified Stockeroś categorical system. The study shows what subject-specific phenomena the students notice in comparison with the experts, and focuses on how they reflect them. The results demonstrated Keywords: a low number of noticed phenomena with a low ability of the art education, professional knowledge-based reasoning. The findings were used to develop vision, a video-intervention methodology at the Faculty of Education of reflective the Charles University, Prague, with the aim of improving the practice, video-intervention, professional vision of pre-service teachers. The text presents pre-service briefly the video-intervention methodology. teachers. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.4 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 72 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Introduction Video-interventions are one of the forms of practice-based education of pre-service teachers. The complex educational situations are shown to pre-service teachers on a video recording. In order to analyze those, it is necessary to use the frame enabling the students to make relations to the individual moments or phenomena. Paying attention to such situations in education and their reflection represent teacher’s skil s that are important for high-quality teaching. Those skil s are connected with the ability to reflect on whose importance has been stressed in education since 1980s. Reflective approach is often used in the teacher’s training; for instance, it is the key element of student’s practices. Nowadays, many authors pay attention to professional vision in the education as evidenced by numerous studies in mathematics, biology and other subjects. The presented study is a part of a broader, transdidactical y-oriented research, realized at the Faculty of Education of the Charles University, Prague. The following text describes the professional vision of pre-service, elementary school teachers in art education with the aim to map their qualifications. A low level of art education in Czech elementary schools has been stressed many times, for example, Šobáňová (2016). One of its reasons can be a low quality of professional skills of the teachers. The concept of professional vision was introduced by Goodwin (1994) in the context of linguistic anthropology as a set of discourse procedures that the subjects use to structure important phenomena in order to be able to understand them. In connection with the education of teachers, Sherin and van Es (2009) mentioned two subprocesses, namely noticing and knowledge-based reasoning. Experts understand noticing as a process of distinguishing important and less important phenomena in the education. Reasoning about the noticed reality relates to the teacher’s ability to evaluate and interpret the situations in the education. The professional vision is a dynamic interaction that affects the teacher’s thinking and action. In the context of professional training of the teachers of mathematics, Stockero (2008) confirmed the effect of analysis of the videos on the level of reflection and attentiveness given to the pupil’s thinking. It has been shown that even a short video-course has an impact on the noticing skil s of participants, such as more specific comments, more attention to subject-specific thinking and less on pedagogy, more attention to pupils and less to the teacher (Stockero, 2008). The literature also describes the shift of M. Novotná: Development of Professional Vision in Art Education Video Interventions 73. videoclub participants from the evaluation of situations to their interpretation (Sherin & van Es, 2009; Stockero, 2008), while interpretations occur less often, and most interpretations are naive statements (Uličná 2017). Blomberg et al. (2011) show also that the skil of professional vision is subject-specific. They highlight the possible link between choosing a field of study and how and what future teachers of the given field perceive during the lesson. Robová and Novotná (2018) compared what attitude students of two different subjects of study, the art education and mathematics, adopted in the video-interventions. Video-interventions can take different forms. Some video-interventions allow participants to view their own videos or videos of col eagues. In others they can watch video recordings of other people. Simpson and Vondrová (2019) distinguish two different approaches in video-intervention methodology, one based on situated cognition and the second on cognitive learning theories. The first approach understands learning as grounded in authentic activity and accentuates the inquiry and communities of practice. Bloomberg et al. (2014) thus encourage open reflections on videos. The second approach, based on cognitive learning theory, uses videos as illustrations of the previously studied theory. It includes explicit frameworks for a more structured analysis of videos, implicitly directing the attention (Santagata & Guarino, 2011; Stockero et al., 2017). Method The research seeks to investigate which phenomena and situations pre-service teachers (from now on, PST) notice in art education lessons, compared to the experts. The expert group included six researchers and two lecturers from the Department of Art Education, Faculty of Education, Charles University, Prague. The survey analyzed written reflections of PST based on the observation of a video of a lesson in art education. 74 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The survey questions were the following: 1. What phenomena do PST notice in the video of the art education lesson, compared to the experts? 2. What do they think about the noticed phenomena? 3. What theoretical knowledge do PST use to explain the noticed reality? Participants A total of 34 PST in their fourth year of a 5-year study took part in the art education research. All of them were students who frequented art aducation courses in two study groups. Two students did not deliver the reflections. The selection of participants was made to map their professional vision at the end of the professional education before starting their educational job. Instrument: Description of the Video-recorded Lesson I used videos of authentic classroom situations to capture PST’s noticing skills. Some researchers (for example, Schäfer & Seidel, 2015) use short clips, others use whole lessons (for example, Star et al., 2011). I used the video recording of a whole 45-min art education lesson that took place in Grade 7, specialized in arts and digital technologies. The lesson was chosen as it included a number of interesting features related to the subject. However, it was not an example of a good practice. The video-recorded lesson started with a presentation of the three-month project focused on the photographic portrait. Then the comprised lessons, aids and materials were planned. The teacher opened the lesson with questions, such as: “What face is it?” The pupils put down their associations individually. Quotations of famous authors served for inspiration, such as Zenon's quote: “That's why we have two ears and one mouth to listen more and speak less.” Then the pupils discussed their observations and collectively formulated the main ideas. M. Novotná: Development of Professional Vision in Art Education Video Interventions 75. Figure 1: Group work in the classroom. The teacher discusses quotes with pupils. Source: Own. A partial task helped the pupils to talk about their own identity. In the next part of the lesson, the teacher assigned a partial art task. It extended the previous brainstorming into the material creation and led pupils to think about the following questions: Who am I? How do others see me? How do I see myself? The pupils took photographs of each other. The printed photos were then used to make collages that would express their personal characteristics. The ground colour characterized the authorś personality. 76 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 2: Examples of the artwork Source: Own. The Expert Phenomena: Identification of Important Moments In order to be able to explore PST’s noticing and reasoning, it was necessary to identify what was considered important by the experts. In order to distinguish the content-specific important moments in the lessons, the experts first had to negotiate their ideas of quality teaching in their subjects. The selection of specific phenomena for the expert comparison was realized on the basis of consensus of the whole research team. Six most significant phenomena were selected for each subject. Then particular codes were assigned to them (see Table 1). M. Novotná: Development of Professional Vision in Art Education Video Interventions 77. Table 1: Expert phenomena, examples of PST’s comments Enables the teachers to use a deeper approach in a AE1 Wider Art limited number of AE lessons per week. Pupils are project taught to think contextual y. Hard to plan and reflect. Notes made by the pupils. “First it seemed to be strange how, at the beginning, the Example teacher dictated to the pupils what they should expect in the next lessons but then it wel matched the context of the whole lesson.” Art production – The core of the phenomenon is a stereotype assumption AE2 a necessary part that an AE lesson must include a creative activity. of AE lesson Creation is considered to be a cognitive process of cultural transformation and making of the meaning. „Never it occurred to me that other things except the Example creation, painting etc. could also be a part of an AE lesson.” AE3 Communication Meaning making and semiotics; communicative in AE lesson dimension of the AE curriculum. Example A situation can be seen when children say to each other what they know about him/her.” Teacher changes the instructions. The process of AE4 Unclear task instructions instructing pupils is unclear. Pupils do not understand the instructions. “In this stage the teacher changes the instructions of the task about four times and the pupils seem to be Example confused. It takes about 15 min for al groups to finish the task. I suggest that the teacher writes the instructions on the blackboard and thus prevents the pupils from receiving different instructions.” AE5 Lesson topic The lesson content is related to the inquiry about oneś identity. Portrait is a classical form of its expression. “Each pupil had to give a thought to him- or herself and probably found out something new, which was important in his/her opinion. To express something linked to him or her, what the others did not see or know, was a bit intimate, but it matters in the art -to express oneś opinion, feelings, ideas, etc.” AE6 Pupilsćomments PST noticed pupilsćomments. “Example of a pupilś statement: ‘The face determines Example the human identity, it expresses his/her spirits, importance of the listening (two ears and one mouth).’” Note: AE, art education. 78 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Data Collection The task of reflecting on the video was assigned to the students as fol ows: “You can see the video recording as many times as you want. Then write a reflection about the recording; the extent of the text is not limited. You should mention what you found interesting and what was important from your point of view. Do not be afraid to present your views, there is no correct answer. You wil not be evaluated on the basis of the text you write. I would ask you to formulate your opinion in whole sentences.” The students were working at home and the texts were handed in electronical y. Data Analysis The students’ texts were divided into semantic units always including only one phenomenon. If a student expressed the opinion concerning a phenomenon several times, their comments were involved in one unit. The split was done by one researcher and another one checked the validity. Any inconsistencies were negotiated. In that way a total of 87 units were established. Coding the Noticing and Reasoning about Expert Phenomena In order to identify the nature of reasoning, I used a framework based on Stockero (2008). I kept the codes of description, explanation, and theorizing and omitted the codes of confronting and restructuring that I could not see in the collected data. 1 I added three aspects of the data which were not explicitly included in Stockeroś framework: evaluation, alteration2 and prediction (Table 2). The comments classified as description and evaluation were considered to be of a lower quality than those of explanation and theorizing, as PST did not connect what they observed by using their subject-specific or general knowledge. One comment could be integrated into several codes. An example can be the fol owing statement that was coded as a description, explanation and alteration: “At the beginning of the lesson the teacher dictates to the pupils what wil happen in the course of future lessons. It seems to me that by doing that the teacher lost precious time that could be spent on art 1 Stockero analyzed group discussions which, presumably, were richer than the individual responses. 2 This is a part of Stockero’s Restructuring, but many alternative actions suggested by our PST were naïve or general and thus hardly provided signs of restructuring. M. Novotná: Development of Professional Vision in Art Education Video Interventions 79. production. Perhaps the pupils could better be given a printed plan of lessons.” Table 2: Coding framework Code Characterization Description Recounting of what can be seen in the video. Evaluation Subjective judgment of what was seen in the video, without reasoning why. Explanation Naïve explanation of what was seen in the video, or explanation based on one’s own experience as a pupil or as a teacher. Theorizing Generalization of what was seen in the video. Some theorizing is necessary (use of professional terms, pedagogical concepts). Alteration Any suggestion of an alternative action to what is happening in the lesson. Connection of what was seen in the video with a future state, for Prediction example, what effect the event might have on pupils’ future understanding or use of the subject matter. Research results Noticing of Important Moments Figure 3 shows what phenomena PST notice. Most often they include AE5 – Face and identity (76 %) and AE1 – wider art project (74 %). Less than one half of PST took notice of the AE4 (unclear assignment of the task, 47 %) and AE2 phenomena (the lesson did not include visual art production, 38 %). Few students took notice of the communication dimension of the lesson (AE3, 12 %) and the concrete statements of the pupils (AE6, 9 %). 80 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% AE1 AE5 AE4 AE2 AE6 AE3 Figure 3: Relative numbers of commented expert phenomena The data suggest that, in average, the students noticed 2.6 specific phenomena out of a total of 6. No PST noticed al 6 phenomena. Al PST noticed at least one expert phenomenon. Considering the extent of the text, the combinations of the noticed phenomena that are a part of the data are not mentioned. However, they showed that PST who noticed only one phenomenon always noticed either AE1 or AE5, i.e. the phenomena that were noticed most often of al . I therefore think that those phenomena were wel noticeable. Knowledge-based Reasoning Figure 4 shows what level of reasoning was achieved by PST. It can be seen that 16 % of comments were classified as belonging to the description code and 30 % were evaluation statements. The relative amount of explanation statements that reflected oneś experience but not the theory, reached 44 %. Only 10 % of the comments could be considered to be theorizing reflections. M. Novotná: Development of Professional Vision in Art Education Video Interventions 81. 50% 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Description Evaluation Explanation Theorising Figure 4: Levels of knowledge-based reasoning Theorizing It can be seen that students rarely theorized. Evidently, they did not see the theory studied in the context of the educational situations and were not able to use it wel for providing the reasons. Most often the students theorized about the AE5 phenomenon or about the lesson content. If the phenomena that the students theorized about little or not at all were studied, researchers could get information on the so-cal ed white sites. They represent questions for which PST did not find any support in the theory, namely the questions of visual production, communication in the art education and the meaning making. Alteration and prediction Alteration and prediction are considered to be a higher level of thinking since they provide the reasons. In case a PST suggests an alternative solution of the educational situation, he/she must consider what would be prevented by making the change. The data show that the alteration and prediction were most often coupled with the explanation. Figure 5 shows that the relative values when PST were using alteration and prediction, 23 % and 21 %, respectively, were higher than those of the 82 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS theorizing. The phenomena when alteration was used most frequently were AE1, AE4 and AE5. Predictions were also most often related to those phenomena. They mostly represented practical suggestions like: “At this stage the teacher changed the assignment about four times and the pupils look confused. Al groups finished the task within 15 min. I suggest that the teacher puts down the assignment on the blackboard and thus precludes providing another assignment to the pupils.” Theorising Alteration Prediction Figure 5: Higher-level, knowledge-based reasoning Discussion and Conclusion The PST noticed a low number of phenomena, on average 2.6 phenomena out of a total of 6. The study of Vondrová and Žalská (2015) also monitored the phenomena with a low rate of noticing and discussed the connection with the way how the phenomena had been selected. Star et al. (2011) mentioned a rate of 53 % of the noticed phenomena and distinguished more and less important situations in the education process. M. Novotná: Development of Professional Vision in Art Education Video Interventions 83. In their reflections, PST most often focused on the planning and structuring of the visual art project and on its topic, but less on the role of the teacher in the assigning of tasks. PST repeatedly expressed surprise at the record in the exercise book in the art education lesson: “I was quite surprised that almost one lesson dealt only with speaking, thinking and preparatory works. I have never seen this…” I assume that this phenomenon could be caused by the fact that the previous didactic study was aimed practical y. PST learned to plan visual art tasks. However, they did not pay attention to the fact how the teacher implemented the task planned. The video recording used was a suitable tool for a discussion about project planning. The issue of planning in the integrated art education is mentioned in the studies of Kafková (2013) and Roeselová (1997). The broader visual art projects enable us to make a deeper insight in the topic even in the case of a smal number of lessons per week. They teach the pupils to think in the context, to link gradually acquired experiences and to compare various solutions. They are demanding, with respect to the planning done by the teacher, by combining various approaches and a reflection (Kitzbergerová, 2014). Only 15 % of the comments concerned art production (AE2). None of them had a solid support in the theory. It is evident that PST do not consider art production to be a cognitive process or a process of cultural transformation of the content (Goodman, 1996; Slavík, 2013): “It may be a little conservative, but for me art is all about creation. The concept is certainly good for artwork, but in this lesson, it was more about creating the idea, thinking about work, rather than about art itself.” The video recorded only the introduction of the project. The lesson was not primarily focused on the art production. The criticism of the absence of the art production in the lesson is not appropriate. However, the idea that an art education lesson has to include a material production by the pupils is deeply rooted. An idea that the art education lesson is aimed at receptive actions in the sense of the interpretation of artifacts was not widely accepted by PST, even though gal ery and museum pedagogy has become a part of the art education (Fulková, 2019; Wagner & Schönau, 2016). 84 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS In reflections, PST gave the opinion on the unclear assignment of the task (AE4). The statements reflected that the teacher, in reaction to the students’ questions, repeated the same assignment and did not detail it or formulate in a different way: “When assigning the task- col age, the teacher repeats it twice. Unnecessary. Why didn't she say it once? Pupils could have written it on the blackboard or on the paper for the second time. Why didn’t one of the pupils repeat the assignement instructions the second time?” The video-recorded situation wel il ustrated the fact that the art task assignment is a process of a mutual clarification of the ideas between pupils and the teacher, in contrast to other subjects where the task has a clear and brief form of the assignment. PST have not yet realized this aspect of art education. The lowest rate of noticing exhibited communication in art education lesson (AE3) and pupils’ comments (AE6). In connection with this finding (see Šobáňová, 2016) I assume that, if PST did not reflect the communication dimension of the lesson and meaning making, there is a risk that they wil not include those aspects in their own teaching. PST are blind to pupilsćomments. It is surprising in a lesson that was mostly devoted to a discussion, where many views of the pupils are presented. Unfortunately, the photodocumentation of quotations did not make a part of the video recording. The studies of Blomberg et al. (2011), Stockero (2008) and Novotná (2017) also pointed out the dominance of general statements over the specific ones. I am confident that an important task of the subject didactics in the art education is a development of PST in the area of semiotics and visual symbols and in strengthening of the communication component of the art education. Figures 4 and 5 show a high rate of non-justified reasoning, a high rate of naïve explanation and a low rate of complex thinking. Similar findings concerning elementary-school teachers, pre-service teachers of mathematics and pre-service English-language teachers were reported by other authors, namely Pavlasová et al (2018), Santagata and Guarino (2011). I am convinced that the “oriented” noticing of educational situations connected with the proposing of alternative solutions, the interest in pupils’ thinking and the capacity to its prediction lead to the development of more complex thinking of PST. M. Novotná: Development of Professional Vision in Art Education Video Interventions 85. The results indicate that PST were not able to duly use their theoretical knowledge when they should have provided reasons to justify the phenomena observed. It opens the discussion about the role and form of the theory in teacherś training (Slavík et al., 2014). The question of selection of a suitable theory for the professional formation of teachers matters here. The results of the analysis showed that PST did not comment on the subject matter of the lesson. The key term “portrait” appeared in the reflections only nine times, which is not much, as the term was used in the lesson repeatedly. Here I can see space for a better aiming of the professional subject skills. PST did not think about the medium of photography, its role in the lesson, the possibilities, the approach, the portrait photography, they were not writing about the application of the medium of photography. The relation between the form and the content in art is thought as the key one (see Eisner, 2004; Gajdošíková, 2019) and nowadays as inseparable. In my analysis, it was noticeably easier for the students to use their knowledge obtained in the planning of the teaching and in the use of the project method in the lesson, i.e. in the practically-focused teacher’s skil s. Video-interventions should be a way to link the practice with the theory (Korthagen et al., 2011) and to develop PST metacognition (Janík et. al., 2016; Sherin & van Es, 2009; Stockero, 2008). In led discussions, it was possible to contextualize selected phenomena. PST praised such occasions in the professional training (Robová & Novotná, 2018). The issue of video-interventions is dealt with in the studies of Simpson and Vondrová (2019), Pavlasová et al. (2018), among others. The concept has been worked out in a broader research team that started in 2016. It was included in the teacher’s training in the form of optional courses. PST worked in small collaborating groups in the course of one semester. The work was divided into five common sessions. PST prepared for each session by individual y watching video recordings of their own teaching, or they watched videos of others. PST first individually analyzed the watched videos in the written form. The individual reflections were then discussed in a group according to a unified scaffolding that supported the noticing and knowledge-based reasoning. The group discussions brought forward collaborative reflection that confronted preconceptions and a 86 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS concrete peer feedback. General y, the principle of video-interventions are the cycled reflections situated in practice. 3 The results obtained describe the level of professional vision of pre-service, elementary-school teachers in art education, compared to the expert vision. The data show a low number of the noticed phenomena. It can be seen that PST paid little attention to the communication dimension of the art education. A large amount of unjustified comments was also observed. PST exhibited a low capability of application of the theoretical knowledge to give reasons for their observations. The results cannot be generalized as it must be kept in mind that the investigation included a limited sample of students at one university during one academic year only. On the other hand, the sample included al students in one grade. It is therefore possible to think of a preparedness of the whole group of students to teach the art within the art education profession. The conclusions can be affected by the selection of specific phenomena as wel as by their number, however, I tried to avoid this problem methodological y. Other forms of the resulting statements of the students (e.g. discussion) could lead to different statements. The noticing of the phenomena was clearly affected by the selection and technical parameters of the video recording. The interpretation of the results thus must be understood in connection with the description of the recorded lesson. In connection with the conclusions drawn, a methodology of video-interventions that has been developed during the last three years is presented. Acknowledgments This research was supported by the project PROGRES Q17. 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MATEJA SABO JUNGER1 & ALENKA LIPOVEC2, 3 1 University of Zagreb, Faculty of Teacher Education, Zagreb, Croatia, e-mail: mateja.sabojunger@ufzg.hr 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: alenka.lipovec@um.si 3 University of Maribor, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: alenka.lipovec@um.si Abstract In today's world, mathematical modelling is essential, and it is necessary to learn how to model. Therefore, considerable efforts must be made to make the mathematical model ing process understandable to al students. Almost al education systems are striving in this direction. Nevertheless, there is still relatively little model ing in early mathematics teaching practice. The paper describes what mathematical model ing is in the context of early mathematics and the benefits it brings to students. The survey was conducted in Slovenia and Croatia on a sample of 887 teachers in the first four/five years of elementary education. The participants answered questions on the general meaning of the term mathematical model ing as they understand it. After the answer, we provided the teachers with the definition of mathematical model ing. We then set up claims Keywords: about mathematical model ing with which teachers could either mathematics, agree or disagree on the five-point Likert scale. Finally, the cross-country teachers answered some questions about the obstacles in comparison, curricular teaching mathematical modelling. The results of the study documents, suggest that teachers in both countries feel a lack of professional teachers' skills to teach mathematical modelling efficiently. Besides, the beliefs, socially results show the advantages of explicit attention to model ing in desirability the curriculum documents. bias. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.5 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 90 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Introduction Mathematics has been developed to describe the world almost from the beginning of human existence. Processes such as constructing, reasoning, predicting, guessing, organising data, quantifying, and so forth, are becoming increasingly more essential processes in the life of every person. English and Watters (2004) have stated that mathematical model ing provides a rich source of opportunity for developing these crucial processes. The fact that applications and model ing have been, and continue to be, central themes in mathematics education is not at all surprising. Nearly all questions and problems in mathematics education, that is questions and issues concerning human learning and the teaching of mathematics, influence and are influenced by relations between mathematics and some aspects of the real world (Niss et al. 2007, p. 22). This essential interrelationship between the real world and mathematics has been recognised as of critical importance by many in education and educational research and has given rise to a sub-field of educational research related to the teaching and learning of mathematical applications and mathematical model ing. Niss et al. (2007) suggested that the ICMI Study on model ing and applications in mathematics education from 2004 might "formal y mark the maturation of applications and model ing as a research discipline in the field of mathematics education" (p. 29). Niss et al. (2007) define applications (and model ing) as being when mathematics is applied to some aspect of the extra-mathematical world for some purpose including "to understand it better, to investigate issues, to explain phenomena, to solve problems, to pave the way for decisions, and so on" (Niss et al. 2007, p. 24). Mathematical model ing conceived as real-world problem-solving is the process of applying mathematics to a real-world problem with a view of understanding it (Niss et al., 2007). It is more than using mathematics where we also start with a real-world problem, apply the necessary mathematics, but after having found the solution we no longer think about the initial problem except to check if our answer makes sense. With mathematical model ing, the use of mathematics is more for understanding the real-world problem/situation. The model er also poses the problem(s) and questions (Stillman, 2019). In line with the described emphasis, we have decided for the following definition: "Mathematical modelling is an iterative process that involves the open-ended, real-world, practical problems that students make sense of with M. Sabo Junger & A. Lipovec: What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing? 91. mathematics using assumptions, approximations, and multiple representations. Other sources of knowledge besides mathematics can be used as wel " (Stohlmann & Albarracin, 2016, p. 2). To better illustrate the process of mathematical modelling, we can use the cycle of mathematical model ing from Blum and Leiss (2007) in Figure 1. Figure 1: The mathematical modelling cycle according to Blum and Leiß (2007, p. 225) In the model ing circle, we begin with the problem that is to be solved using math tools. In the first stage, the problem is described by relevant non-mathematical terms. During this phase, it is necessary to choose (simplify) assumptions. The outcome of the first phase is the conceptual model. This conceptual model is then translated into a mathematical model that can be mathematical y analysed. Furthermore, the mathematical solution is translated back into the language of the initial problem, which is called interpretation. Finally, we confirm the answer. If necessary, we wil again begin the model ing circle by adjusting one or more steps (Spandaw & Zwaneveld, 2009). 92 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Example: Uwe Seller's foot. The relevance of metacognition has increased in the context of mathematical modelling. It is essential to involve metacognitive activities during model ing processes to support model ing competencies. Concerning this, Blum (2011) underlines: "There are many indications that meta-cognitive activities are not only helpful but even necessary for the development of model ing competency" (Blum 2011, p. 22). In the example, Uwe Seller's foot, the importance of metacognitive skills is visible (Figure 2). The example shows several characteristics of students' as wel as teachers' metacognitive skil s (Vorhölter and Schwartz, 2020; Wendt et al., 2020) Since August 2005, there has been a sculpture of the right foot of Uwe Seeler, a famous German soccer player, in front of the footbal arena in Hamburg, Germany. Figure 2: Fuß Uwe Seeler (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fu %C3 %9F_Uwe_Seeler.JPG) and possible solutions for splitting the foot into geometric bodies (Vorhölter et al., 2019, p.8). M. Sabo Junger & A. Lipovec: What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing? 93. A newspaper, the Hamburger Abendblat , reported that Uwe Sel er's real foot fits exactly 3,980 times into the sculpture. Is it possible? Uwe Sel er's shoe size is 10½. Mathematical model ing helps students understand the world around, and it contributes to the development of different competencies and appropriate attitudes including flow (Csíkszentmihályi's, 1990, as cited in Liu, & Liljedahl, 2019). It fosters metacognitive skills, conceptual understanding, creative and innovative abilities, the socio-cultural role of mathematics, and is linked to several other competencies such as reading, communication, design, and application of problem-solving strategies, which emphasise high cognitive skills (Blum, 1994; Blum & Borromeo Ferri, 2009; English, 2010; English & Watters, 2004). From an educational perspective, the purpose of model ing can be considered as an end in itself or as a method to achieve the goal of constructing mathematical knowledge (Cai et al., 2014). The first purpose is based on the assumption that the ability to model and find solutions, for life situations, is a competence that can serve an individual in daily life and the workplace. Another purpose is achieved when an individual constructs new knowledge or reconstructs the knowledge they have already acquired when engaging in a model ing process (van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, 2003). As modelling requires the use of previously acquired mathematical knowledge in different ways, it promotes a flexible and adaptable mindset for mathematical competences. Chal enging model ing problems, however, require the acquisition of new mathematical facts, skills and processes, which involves the construction of new knowledge (Cai et al., 2014). Mathematical model ing tasks enable young students to understand the importance and usefulness of mathematics for individuals as wel as for society and create opportunities for students to perceive mathematics as useful and applied rather than abstract and isolated (Asempapa, 2015). Mathematical Model ing in Elementary School Teaching mathematical model ing is a demanding job. Teachers need to draw on several dimensions of knowledge, including but not limited to pedagogical content knowledge (Blum, 2012), knowledge of the model ing process, understanding of student background and experience, and knowledge of teaching practices that facilitate individual and group learning (Zawojewski, Lesh, & English, 2003). Besides, the open nature of many model ing activities means that teachers need to take students' ideas into account and respond to them as they emerge. At the same 94 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS time, understanding of mathematical model ing as an open, exploratory and dynamic process mean that learning to involve children in mathematical model ing had to include opportunities for teachers to learn from their practice. Al classroom instruction is relational work (Lampert 2010), and modelling, which involves ongoing negotiations about the meaning and importance of contexts, assumptions, representations and mathematical strategies, intensifies relational work between and among teachers and students. It was, therefore, essential to involve teachers in the process of reflecting on model ing from two perspectives: from the perspective of a student learning to model and from the perspective of a teacher teaching others to model. Unfortunately, mathematical modelling is rarely taught in elementary school, and even less so in primary school. Until recently, mathematical model ing was often not included in the elementary school curriculum (Brown & Ikeda, 2019). However, the basics of mathematical model ing can and should begin in elementary school where children already possess the necessary competencies on which model ing can be developed (English & Watters, 2004). For instance, Albarracína and Gorgorió (2019) argue that the use of significant number estimation problems is a suitable activity for introducing mathematical model ing processes in primary school classrooms. Results show that students can become active participants in mathematical modelling activities, even if they are fifth-grade underachievers (Zubi et al., 2019). Mel one et al. (2017) investigated whether there is a relationship between Grade 5 students' situation models and the realistic nature of their answers to problems. In clearly defining model ing as the process of creating a mathematical model from a situation model, they found working in pairs and rewording then solving led to an increase in realistic responses, but for only one problem. Traditional y mathematical model ing in elementary schools was misunderstood as solving arithmetic problems with words (tasks with words) in which concrete materials were presented that would then model the more abstract operating rules (English, 2003; Stohlmann & Albarracin, 2016). Many of the mathematical tasks used in elementary schools are word problems - applications where either the real world does not affect the problem, either there is a clear solution strategy (Tran and Dougherty 2014). In mathematical model ing, problems can be open at the beginning of the investigation. The model ers can ask different mathematical questions about a scenario, open in the middle when the model ers investigate M. Sabo Junger & A. Lipovec: What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing? 95. different solution strategies and open at the end when the model ers consider how the models can or cannot be applied to other situations. The struggle with openness in model ing is a feature that conveys the idea that real-world situations do not always have a single, clear beginning, approach, or solution. Dogan Temur (2012) stated that effective teaching of mathematics during the first grade of primary school is crucial for the formation of students' mathematical thinking. Often solving such problems is not a modelling task for students, but relies on keywords or phrases in the problem, such as times, more, less, and so on (English, 2003); for example, Suzy saved $12. Maria saved three times more than Suzy. How much did Maria save? Furthermore, there is often only one way of interpreting the problem, so students are forced into limited mathematical thinking. Although we do not dispute the importance of this type of tasks, they do not address enough mathematical knowledge, processes, fluency and social skills that our children in the twenty-first century need. Below, we present a task that involves mathematical model ing and is appropriate for lower grades of primary school. Example: Beans, beans, glorious beans. Beans, beans, glorious beans is a more straightforward mathematical model ing task in which students test their knowledge of the conditions required for plant growth and use minimal mathematical calculations. This assignment, as noted by English and Watters (2004), proved to be exciting and encouraged students to participate in the joint discussion. The task was initially published by English and Watters (2004, p. 5). Farmer Sprout is trying to decide which light conditions are best for growing But er beans. To help Farmer Sprout make his decision, he went to visit the Farmers' Association who are growing climbing But er bean plants using two different light conditions. The two light conditions being tested are: a) Growing Butter beans out in the ful sun with no shade at al b) Growing Butter beans underneath shade-cloth. 96 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 1: Butter beans crops. Sunlight Shade Butter Butter Bean Week 6. Week 8. Week 10. Bean Week 6. Week 8. Week 10. Plants Plants Row 1 9 kg 12 kg 13 kg Row 1 5 kg 9 kg 15 kg Row 2 8 kg 11 kg 14 kg Row 2 5 kg 8 kg 14 kg Row 3 9 kg 14 kg 18 kg Row 3 6 kg 9 kg 12 kg Row 4 10 kg 11 kg 17 kg Row 4 6 kg 10 kg 13 kg Using the data above, determine which of the light conditions is suited to grow But er beans to produce the greatest crop. In a let er to Farmer Ben Sprout, outline your recommendation of the light condition and explain how you arrived at this decision. Predict the weight of but er beans produced on week 12 for each type of light. Explain how you made your prediction so that Farmer Ben Sprout can use it for other similar situations. ( English and Watters, 2004, p. 5). With the help of this type of assignment, students can exchange ideas about possible solutions, since a unique solution does not limit the task. They also learn to cooperate and are forced to widen perspectives to solve the task themselves; for example, some students will ask questions asking about rain, whether this will affect the yield of the beans, in which climate the farmer lives, and so on. Example: The theme park. We list another task appropriate for students in early primary education that involves mathematical model ing, as written in Bleier-Baxter et al. (2017, p.22). The park manager needs your help. His intern was able to fil in only a selection of the information needed. Your group will work to complete the table with missing wait times for Universal Studios Park. You wil need to mathematical y justify how your group has decided to fil in the table and explain your strategy clearly on chart paper. You can use pictures, words, and symbols to help you make your strategy for fil ing in the missing data as clear as possible for another group to fol ow. M. Sabo Junger & A. Lipovec: What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing? 97. Table 2: Wait times for Universal Studio Park. Ride Low Moderate Busy Very busy Production Central Despicable Me: Minion Mayhem 3D 30 50 110 155 Transformers: The Ride 3D 30 Shrek 4D 10 Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit 20 30 75 110 New York Twister: Ride It Out 5 10 15 20 Revenge of the Mummy 90 The Blues Brothers Show 10 San Francisco Beetlejuice's Graveyard Revue 15 Disaster! 35 World Expo Men in Black™: Alien Attack 55 The Simpsons Ride 15 35 60 90 Fear Factor Live 10 Woody Woodpecker's KidZone Animal Actors on Location 10 15 15 20 A Day in the Park with Barney 20 Curious George Goes to Town 20 Woody Woodpecker's Nuthouse Coaster 45 Fievel's Playland 15 E. T. Adventure 45 Hollywood Universal Orlando's Horror Make-Up Show 10 20 30 45 Terminator 2: 3D 35 Lucy -A Tribute 5 Your group wil present your strategy for fil ing in the missing data to the whole class. During the presentation, each member of the group should be prepared to justify the group's strategy mathematical y. Our class goal is to find the best possible model for fil ing in an amusement park wait times. Important note: There is no one correct way to complete this task. Your task is to try to find the best possible strategy. ( Bleier-Baxter et al., 2017, p.22). Real-world contexts are ful of underlying patterns that can be represented mathematical y. To successful y "see" such underlying patterns, students must be able to identify relevant quantities in the situation. Then, they must make decisions about the best way to map relationships using mathematical tools, such as diagrams, 98 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS tables, graphs, flowcharts, and formulas (Bleiler-Baxter et al., 2017). In their research with the theme park task, Bleiler-Baxter et al. (2017) stated that students identified relevant quantities within the table in different ways and that their ways of seeing the table influenced how they mapped relationships. Some students focused on pairs of data in the table and identified a possible multiplicative relationship among those pairs, some concentrate on complete rows of data and identified additive relationships. Bleiler-Baxter et al. recognised that to engage students in model ing with mathematics; it is critical for teachers to value student autonomy and to select a task that represents a complicated real-world situation. Giving students the freedom to make decisions means the decisions they make may vary. It also means the teacher must be patient to let students struggle through the process of weighing pros and cons of their decisions and not to bypass the decision-making process by stepping in and making decisions for students (Bleiler-Baxter et al., 2017). Teachers and Mathematical Modelling Teacher training is considered necessary in achieving high-quality teaching of mathematics. A critical step in developing and promoting high-quality modelling experiences for children and youth is to understand the learning opportunities teachers need to facilitate such experiences. Model ing wil not become an integral part of students' mathematical learning if their teachers are not prepared to provide classroom leadership in this area (Fulton et al., 2019). In-service training is most effective when it is sustainable, intensive and integrated into the daily work of teachers (Garet Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001). It should also be student-centred (Hawley and Valli 1999, p. 137) and take into account the existing knowledge, experience and beliefs of teachers. Regardless of the benefits that mathematical model ing brings to learning mathematics, several situations present chal enges for teachers. Teachers must give up most of their traditional ways of engaging their students to achieve goals of mathematical modelling we described previously (Asempapa, 2015). It is known that teachers (falsely) assume that a large proportion of students finds model ing difficult or chal enging, and therefore teachers rarely apply model ing activities in the classroom (Asempapa, 2015; Brown, 2019; Spandaw & Zwaneveld, 2009). Even experienced and skil ed teachers may not automatical y transfer their M. Sabo Junger & A. Lipovec: What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing? 99. knowledge of teaching mathematics to teaching mathematical model ing. Thus, teachers need a variety of experiences and support to effectively engage students in mathematical modelling (Fulton et al., 2019). Additional y, in most textbooks developed for elementary and secondary schools, less emphasis is placed on mathematical modelling activities. Teachers rarely use model ing tasks in their classrooms due to time constraints and their perception that mathematical model ing tasks are complex and demanding (Borromeo Ferri, 2010). Example: Harvesting the eucalypt forest. To facilitate teacher's mathematical Stillman (2019, p.2) listed a task that was used in a university mathematics unit for primary pre-service teacher education students in Australia. The students had four weeks to work on the task independently outside the class. The task fol ows: Those of you who drive the Western Freeway between Bal arat and Bal an wil have noticed that a large plantation of Eucalypts has been fel ed and the logs transported away. Using mathematical model ing pose a problem related to the removal of the forest that can be mathematised and solved [The task was accompanied by several photographs taken before, during and after the fel ing of the trees.]. (Stillman, 2019, p.2.) The purpose of mathematical model ing was to analyse an existing real-world situation (the felling of a forest) as a means of answering a practical question. Both mathematical and extra-mathematical knowledge were needed to answer this question. It is also an example of using model ing as empowerment for students to become independent users of their mathematics (Stillman, 2019). Any solution depends on particular assumptions. Different assumptions may lead to a different solution method which may not be what the teacher intended. A critical aspect of mathematical model ing is that the model er makes decisions, for example, considering some, but not al real-world aspects in one's initial solution, describing how to interpret terms such as the best one. Such mathematical thinking natural y leads to diverse solutions, but the task must be presented in such a way as to allow this (Brown & Ikeda, 2019). Fulton et al. (2019) identified four features of modelling practice that could be developed and used by the novice, as wel as experienced model ers: a) wrestling with openness in model ing, b) posing mathematical problems to address real-world situations, c) making choices creatively while modelling and d) revisiting ideas and 100 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS revising solutions during the modelling process. Fulton et al. (2019) stated that these features were unlikely to be a part of most teachers as learners' experiences in teaching and learning mathematics. Wrestling with openness in model ing is a feature that conveys the idea that real-world situations do not always have a single, clean-cut beginning, approach, or solution. Problem posing is a central feature not only of mathematical model ing, but of mathematical activity in general that can occur before, during, or after the solution of a problem. Furthermore, making choices creatively while model ing focuses on the ability to determine what mathematics the modeller will use or develop to make progress on a modelling task. Finally, revisiting ideas and solutions during the model ing process involves considering whether the solution makes sense in light of the initial problem (Fulton et al., 2019). Slovenian school curriculum (Žakelj et al., 2011) explicitly address mathematical modelling. The curriculum also contains a topic entitled Mathematical problems and real-life problems from first to ninth grade. The Croatian curriculum devoted less attention to model ing; the term mathematical model ing was not mentioned in the elementary school curriculum at all. After our study, in the school year of 2019/2020, the revamped Croatian curriculum was applied, addressing modelling more explicitly (Ministarstvo znanosti obrazovanja i sporta, Hrvaška [Ministry of Science and Education Croatia], 2018). The research aimed to examine Slovenian and Croatian teachers' self-reported knowledge on beliefs about mathematical model ing. Participants were teachers in the lower grades of public elementary schools. Methodology An exploratory study using a self-constructed questionnaire delivered to teachers in both countries was used. We have used the methods of quantitative empirical pedagogical research. The questions were set in Croatian for teachers from Croatia and in Slovene for teachers from Slovenia. We asked the teachers several questions addressing their knowledge and beliefs following two main research questions: 1. What are teachers' beliefs regarding mathematical modelling? 2. Are there any differences among countries? M. Sabo Junger & A. Lipovec: What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing? 101. Sample The survey was carried out based on completed questionnaires on a convenience sample of 438 teachers from Slovenia and 449 teachers from Croatia, together 887. In Slovenia, we were interested in the knowledge of first to fifth-grade elementary teachers, because of the nine-year elementary school system of education, In Croatia, we were interested in the knowledge of first to fourth-grade elementary teachers, because of the eight-year primary school system. Table 3: Sample structure Country f f % Slovenia 438 49.4 Croatia 449 50.6 Total 887 100 Instrument A questionnaire was designed with several types of questions: (a) questions about teachers' basic data (gender, years of work experience in the classroom), (b) general questions about mathematical modelling, (c) claims regarding mathematical modelling given with a five-point Likert scale of agreement/disagreement, (d) questions about teachers' opinions regarding introducing mathematical modelling into the classroom. Before conducting the survey, we did a pilot survey on 20 primary teachers in Slovenia and Croatia and adapted the questionnaire according to the results. The questionnaires we used to col ect the data were online surveys. We surveyed from February 2019 to June 2019. As we collected data using an online survey, teachers from al parts of Slovenia and Croatia were represented. The obtained data were processed and analysed using the IBM SPSS statistics 22 program. Results In Table 4, we present the results regarding whether teachers were ever acquainted with the concept of mathematical model ing. 102 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 4: Teachers' acquaintance with the concept of mathematical model ing Are you acquainted with the concept of mathematical modelling? f f % yes 41 9.4 Slovenia no 343 78.3 barely 54 12.3 total 438 100 yes 32 7.1 Croatia no 373 83.1 barely 44 9.8 total 449 100 yes 73 8.2 Slovenia and Croatia no 716 80.8 barely 98 11.0 total 887 100 The participating teachers from Slovenia and Croatia are not familiar with the concept of mathematical modelling. Only 95 (21.7 %) of Slovenian participants are acquainted or barely acquainted with the concept of mathematical model ing. Similarly, only 76 (16.9 %) of Croatian participants are acquainted or barely acquainted with this concept. A vast majority of the teachers in both countries have not heard about the term mathematical model ing. There was no difference between Slovenian and Croatian teachers regarding this question (χ2 = 3.251, 𝑝𝑝 = .197). The next question regarding model ing targets teachers' experience in class. Table 5 presents the results. Table 5: Teachers' incorporation of mathematical model ing into teaching Do you incorporate tasks/activities that include mathematical modelling in your math class? f f % yes 34 9.4 Slovenia no 276 75.8 sometimes 54 14.8 total 364 100 yes 39 8.7 Croatia no 344 46.6 sometimes 66 14.7 total 449 100 yes 73 9.0 Slovenia and Croatia no 620 76.2 sometimes 120 14.8 total 813 100 M. Sabo Junger & A. Lipovec: What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing? 103. The results in Table 5 show that among Slovenian participants, 87 teachers (20.0 % of 438) include or sometimes include what they believe to be mathematical modelling in the classroom practices. Similarly, 105 (23.4 % of 449) Croatian participants' activities in their teaching include or sometimes include what they believe to be "mathematical model ing" in the classroom practices. We observed that an additional 20 teachers include mathematical modelling into classroom practice even if their answer to the first question was that they are not acquainted with mathematical model ing. There was no difference between Slovenian and Croatian participants regarding this question (χ2 = 0.115, 𝑝𝑝 = .944). When teachers completed those two general questions, we provided them with the definition of mathematical modelling by Stohlmann and Albarracin (2016). We set several statements regarding mathematical model ing, which teachers could answer. For that paper, we present the results (Table 3) for three statements. Statement A: Mathematical model ing is an exact, formal process, or a col ection of formulas and rules that have to be applied. Statement B: Although mathematical model ing activities improve students' ability to solve problems, I find that there are too many obstacles to incorporate such activities into my math classes. Statement C: I think mathematical model ing is a necessary skill in the 21st century for every student. The results are presented in Table 6. 104 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 6: Agreement with claims regarding mathematical model ing Statement A Statement B Statement C f f % f f % f f % Completely disagree 40 20.8 53 27.6 2 1.1 Slovenia Partially disagree 34 17.7 39 20.3 6 3.2 Neither agree nor disagree 45 23.4 34 17.7 21 11.1 Partially agree 61 31.8 62 32.3 82 43.4 Completely agree 12 6.3 4 2.1 78 41.3 Completely disagree 71 22.3 59 18.2 6 1.9 Partially disagree 45 14.2 57 17.6 11 3.4 Croatia Neither agree nor disagree 100 31.4 80 24.7 35 10.9 Partially agree 87 27.4 112 34.6 137 42.5 Completely agree 15 4.7 16 4.9 133 41.3 Completely disagree 111 21.8 112 21.7 8 1.6 Partially disagree 79 15.5 96 18.6 17 3.3 Neither agree nor Total disagree 145 28.4 114 22.1 56 11.0 Partially agree 148 29.0 174 33.7 219 42.9 Completely agree 27 5.3 20 3.9 211 41.3 Total 510 100.0 516 100.0 511 100.0 Results reported in Table 6 are somewhat disappointing. Although we defined the mathematical modelling before, 73 (16.6 %) of Slovenian participants and 102 (22.7 %) of Croatian participants completely or partial y agree with the statement A. That result was surprising, given the definition was written in the survey just before the statement A. It is obvious that statement A contradicts the definition. We also notice that 66 (15.0 %) of Slovenian participants and 128 (28.5 %) of Croatian participants partial y agree or completely agree with statement B. However, they know that mathematical model ing improves many student capabilities, such as solving problems. 160 (36.5 %) of Slovenian participants and 260 (57.9 %) of Croatian participants partial y agree or completely agree that mathematical model ing is a necessary skil for every student (statement C). The results for statement A and statement C do not differ considering the country. We applied the c²-test (statement A: c² = 5.136, p = .274; statement C: c² = 0.540, p = .969). There are, however, significant differences regarding statement B (c² = 10.763, p = .029). Slovenian participants are more prone to incorporating model ing activities in teaching. Namely, almost half of the participating Slovenian teachers (47.9 %) completely or M. Sabo Junger & A. Lipovec: What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing? 105. partially disagree with statement B. Slightly more than one-third of the participating Croatian teachers (35.8 %) completely or partial y disagree with statement B. The last set of questions was related to the teachers' thoughts on whether they thought they were educated enough to teach mathematical model ing in elementary math classes. Some results are shown in Table 7. Table 7: Teachers' opinions about their professional knowledge regarding mathematical model ing I believe that I am sufficiently educated to teach mathematical modelling in elementary math classes. f f % Slovenia Yes 43 22.6 No 147 77.4 Croatia Yes 85 26.4 No 237 73.6 Yes 128 25.0 Total No 384 75.0 Sum 512 100.0 As expected, most participants feel that they are not educated enough to teach mathematical modelling (75 %). Some of the reasons they mentioned in the open part of the question were: (1) insufficient workshops/education/professional training on this subject, (2) lack of examples and materials, (3) have never met this term, (4) too little experience in working with mathematical model ing, and so on. There are no significant differences among countries (c² = 0.904, p = .342). Discussion and Conclusion As the world -as wel as the STEM area -progresses, we see the need for a growing number of young people who are good at connecting, constructing and model ing everyday problems. Model ing is a mathematics teaching strategy that encourages a real-world connection to the abstract world of mathematics. Mathematical models help many sciences solve their problems, which is why mathematical model ing competency is highly desirable in the modern world (Merrit et al., 2017). These are just a few of the reasons why we need mathematical model ing, and why it needs to be practised it in elementary school teaching. Our results show that more than three-quarters of lower elementary school teachers from Croatia and Slovenia have never 106 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS been acquainted with the concept of mathematical model ing, one-tenth of them have barely been acquainted with mathematical modelling. The result is in line with several other studies (e.g. Stillman et al., 2013). Therefore, teacher education is crucial. Our study detected a high rate of social desirability bias, which refers to the tendency of research subjects to give social y desirable responses instead of choosing answers that are reflective of their real feeling (Muijs, 2006). The teachers first claimed to be unfamiliar with mathematical model ing and then claimed to be introducing it into teaching (see Table 2). As we expected such a situation, we defined the term mathematical model ing. Nevertheless, teachers stil provided unreasonable answers (see statement A). It seems that the questionnaire used in this study is not a sensitive instrument when examining teachers' attitudes beliefs regarding mathematical model ing. This phenomenon also occurred in several different areas of education dealing with novel approaches. Results, reported by Lüke and Grosche (2018), for instance, show that the attitude of the organisation conducting the survey -as perceived by the participant - outperforms wel -documented variables (such as sex, age, and contact to a person with a disability) in predicting the attitudes of the participant towards inclusion. Positive bias in the attitudes of participants was evident when a university surveyed them. Lüke and Grosche (2018) argued that social desirability is a neglected issue in research on attitudes towards inclusive education. Our results confirm that hypothesis in the area of mathematical model ing in education. After describing the definition of mathematical model ing, we gave the teachers statements regarding mathematical model ing in which they could agree or disagree. In the first claim that mathematical model ing is an exact, formal process or collection of formulas and rules to be applied, more than one third (34.3 %) of the teachers partial y or completely agree with the statement. However, earlier in the poll, the definition of mathematical modelling was given. There is support in the literature for the claim that teachers' beliefs appear to act as filters through which teachers interpret and ascribe meanings to their experience as they interact with children and the subject matter (Bergman Ärlebäck, 2010). Depending on the mathematical beliefs held by the teacher, it is more or less likely that they build up M. Sabo Junger & A. Lipovec: What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing? 107. obstacles for introducing applications and model ing in their mathematics teaching (Bergman Ärlebäck, 2010). Our results show that teachers agree with the importance of model ing (84.2 %). However, more than one-third of teachers (37.6 %) (partially or completely) agreed that although mathematical modelling activities improve students' ability to solve problems, there are too many obstacles to incorporate such activities into teaching maths. Students of different ages -even very young students -can learn to model, but it requires effort and investment in the sense of careful and focused teaching design, learning environments, activities and time to develop such activities and tasks (Niss, 2012). Slovenian and Croatian teachers are aware of the fact that they are not educated enough to teach mathematical model ing (75 %) and that they need additional workshops/training, which is in line with other studies (e.g. Fulton et al., 2019). One way of providing future teachers with the necessary professional knowledge is to offer specific model ing seminars already at the university, with their own compulsory teaching experiences (Blum, 2012). We found that there were almost no significant differences between Slovenia and Croatia. These are traditionally similar school systems. In mathematics, education systems respond similarly, which has been shown in other studies from the area of mathematics education. Lipovec and Ferme (2018) report the results regarding mathematics homework practises in three countries. Slovenia, Croatia and the Slovak Republic. Even though some homework policies differ, Slovenia and Croatia are much closer to each other in homework practices than they are to the Slovak Republic. On the other hand, Sabo and Lipovec (2017) provided evidence for differences in opinions of Croatian and Slovenian teachers on the differences between curricular mathematical content. Nevertheless, differences occurred regarding the statement B. We believe that the curricular framework in Slovenia helped Slovenian teachers shape their beliefs more accurately. In Slovenia, curricular renewal occurred in 2008, and in 2011, the documents were updated. Notably, in 2011, much attention was paid to integrating mathematics with real-world experience and applicability. In the last three years of elementary education, mathematics model ing was added as obligatory content and was also explicitly mentioned in the national mathematics curriculum (Žakelj et al., 2011). 108 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS National Educational Institute in Slovenia provided teachers with many resources. In the book Upgrading teaching in elementary school practice (Suban & Kmetič, 2014), the whole Chapter 4 is dedicated to mathematical modelling. Unfortunately, almost all sources focus too much on the last three years of elementary education, and mathematical modelling in Slovenia, also, has not come to life in primary school classrooms. Slovenia offers mathematical model ing materials for free-to-all users in e-textbooks (I-textbooks, 2014). The task example Beans, beans, glorious beans, as wel as several other examples could be found in the i-textbook for fifth grade (Bajramović et al., 2014, pp. 484, 488). The teacher plays a vital role in supporting student engagement in mathematical model ing, the reflection on it, decisions related to technology use and mathematical model ing and the interactions between these (Brown & Ikeda, 2019). We believe that it is necessary to give greater importance to the education of teachers for the implementation of mathematical model ing in teaching, and to encourage them in the introduction, work and performance of mathematical model ing tasks in the classroom. Teachers' knowledge about model ing activities can be developed through their active engagement in modelling activities. Several researchers have proposed interventions in which practising and prospective teachers engage in modelling activities as learners. The teachers develop an understanding of the nature of mathematical model ing, of the relationship between mathematical model ing and meaningful understanding, and the nature of mathematical model ing tasks (Shahbari & Tabach, 2019). We propose increasing and developing available assignments and tasks that include mathematical model ing for elementary school. We also emphasise the need to research mathematical model ing in elementary schools, since such research is not currently available in either Slovenia or Croatia. A more in-depth teachers' knowledge of mathematical model ing could perhaps be obtained through a similar experiment to the one conducted by English and Watters (2004) in Australia. Elementary school teachers presented four mathematical model ing tasks to their students (one of which was introduced in the introductory section of this paper) for six months, and tracked both the teachers' and their students' progress. The teachers agreed that the children enjoyed the activities, although they were perceived to be chal enging. They also stated that there were M. Sabo Junger & A. Lipovec: What Do Slovenian and Croatian Teachers Know About Mathematical Model ing? 109. substantial social gains concerning group work, social interaction, reporting and questioning skills. They considered the students at the end of the year ready to engage in more mathematical y oriented tasks. They were more prepared to question assumptions and each other's interpretation of the data (English et al., 2004). Our results show, among other things, the importance of curricular documents. In Slovenia, the curriculum contains mathematical model ing, which has shaped a more positive attitude towards the introduction of model ing into school practice. Nevertheless, the results are still disappointing, since the vast majority of teachers in Slovenia and Croatia (approximately 75 %) do not feel competent enough to teach mathematical model ing. A crucial next step in developing and promoting quality modelling experiences for children and young people is to understand the learning opportunities that teachers need to enable such experiences. Model ing wil indeed not become an integral part of students' mathematical learning if their teachers are not prepared to take the lead in this area in the classroom. When students have opportunities to model with mathematics, they can improve their problem-solving abilities, reason mathematical y, and make connections to real-world problems (Bleiler-Baxter et al., 2017). We want all students to be involved in solving real-life problems. Teachers and students should develop shared expectations for mathematical model ing in elementary school (Bahmaei, 2011). In model ing, students wil face the problems that matter to them and the society in which they live. They will have to decide which information is relevant, make approximations and use appropriate mathematical tools wisely. As teams, students wil persevere through chal enges, and surprise us with the ways they can use mathematics to improve the world in which all of us live. Undoubtedly, we know that mathematical modelling is particularly tricky and complicated for teachers, but many studies show and point to its benefits and wel -being for students. However, to achieve those goals, we first have to convince (and educate) their teachers about the importance of mathematical model ing in lower grades of elementary school. 110 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS References Albarracín, L., & Gorgorió, N. (2019). 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(2020) Teachers' Perspectives on Students' Metacognitive Strategies during Mathematical Modelling Processes– A Case Study. In G. Stil man, G. Kaiser and C. Lampen (Eds) Mathematical Modelling Education and Sense-making. International Perspectives on the Teaching and Learning of Mathematical Model ing, ( pp. 335–346). Springer, Cham Žakelj, A., Prinčič Röhler, A., Perat, Z., Lipovec, A., Vršič, V., Repovž, B., Senekovič, J., & Bregar Umek, Z. (2011). Učni načrt. Program osnovna šola. Matematika. [Curriculum. Compulsory education. Basic school. mathematics.]. Ljubljana: Zavod RS za šolstvo [National Educational Institute Slovenia]. DO ALTERNATIVE ALGORITHMS FOR TWO- DIGIT MULTIPLICATION REALLY HELP STUDENTS TO BE MORE EFFICIENT? IZA JAVORNIK1 & ALENKA LIPOVEC1, 2 1 University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: iza.javornik@student.um.si, alenka.lipovec@um.si 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: alenka.lipovec@um.si Abstract Standard arithmetic algorithms are the traditional part of school mathematics. The teaching and the learning of algorithms have been associated with procedures and erroneously with low-level cognition. Teaching algorithms without developing a conceptual understanding is a major concern for many mathematics teachers. However, if efficient teaching and learning strategies are used, this is not necessarily the case. Multi-digit number multiplication proved to be a difficult topic for many young students; therefore, many errors have been reported in the literature. Our research problem was to compare the efficiency of standard algorithms with the efficiency of several alternative two-digit multiplication algorithms. We designed a pedagogical experiment, after which the multiplication fluency of 5th-grade students (N = 73) was measured. Multiplication fluency was measured in two Keywords: dimensions: Correctness (of the result) and time efficiency. The mathematics results show that the introduction of alternative algorithms has education, not hindered correctness, but the use of alternative algorithms elementary school, has greatly increased the computing time. On the other hand, the distributive results show that students consistently chose alternative property, algorithms, or more precisely, area algorithms. On the basis of two-digit multiplication, the results obtained, some guidelines for school practice are alternative given. algorithms. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.6 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 114 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Introduction Mathematics is defined in the syllabus (Žakelj et al., 2011) as one of the basic subjects in elementary school with numerous educational–informative, functional–formative and educational tasks. Knowledge of certain procedures, understanding, cross-curricular integration, use of mathematical knowledge and ability to solve problems are important factors for living a quality life. In the process of teaching mathematics, among other things, we raise awareness of the practical usefulness and meaningfulness of learning mathematics. The factors of quality education in elementary schools based on the principles of social responsibility are the basis for the progress of the whole society. According to UNESCO IBE (International Bureau of Education, n. d) raising the mathematical competence of future citizens has a positive influence on raising the GDP of the entire society. In the initial years of elementary school, students are introduced to several types of algorithms. The most typical are the algorithms in arithmetic, which we wil focus on later. Students also learn about algebraic and geometric algorithms. An example of content where we introduce algebraic algorithms are equations. In Slovenian elementary schools, the pupils are introduced to the process of solving equations in fourth grade. The first geometric constructions with the characteristics of the algorithms are also introduced to Slovenian students in fourth grade when constructing rectangles and squares. When we talk about multiplication algorithms, we follow the definition by Jazby and Pearn, which states that multiplication algorithms are “cognitive aids that make it possible to break down a multiplication problem into a series of less cognitively demanding subroutines” (2015, p. 311). Multi-digit number multiplication is one of the more difficult concepts in early mathematics, so many of the mistakes that students make are known (for example, see Leung, 2006). On the other hand, there are few studies that deal with teaching strategies for multi-digit multiplication (Larsson, 2016). According to Fuson (2003), it is important that students have the right physical condition and a suitable learning environment in which they can successful y develop the predispositions necessary for understanding the algorithms. In addition, the algorithms must be clearly presented for an independent and successful application based on a conceptual understanding (Fan & Bokhove, 2014). I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 115. Multiplication Multiplication is at the core of elementary arithmetic instruction and underpins other mathematical topics such as fractions, ratio, proportionality, and functions (Bakker et al., 2014). The importance of multiplication and division understanding is evident in the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Curriculum Focal Points developed in the US (NCTM, n.d.). Multiplicative reasoning is emphasized as one of the three crucial mathematics themes (along with equivalence and computational fluency) that are interwoven through the content standards for middle grades, forming the foundation for proportional reasoning. Over-emphasizing memorization of facts or developing conceptual understanding along with factual and procedural knowledge is a long-standing problem in mathematics education (Smith, & Smith, 2006). Multi-digit multiplication can be performed through learned algorithms or student-invented strategies. Calculations concerning multiplication and division, whether learned algorithms or student-invented strategies have attracted less research when compared to addition and subtraction (Larsson, 2016). In the early 1980s, most research on calculations tended to focus on conceptual errors in algorithms, while a decade later student-invented strategies became the focus. The latter focus on student-invented strategies has prompted a number of case studies in which students have been engaged in devising methods for calculation, especially concerning multi-digit addition and subtraction (Larsson, 2016). Multiplication can be represented in various ways, although there is less of a consensus with regard to categorizing multiplicative situations in comparison to additive situations (Fuson, 2003). Some of these representations are contextual, as in word problems or real-life problems. Multiplicative representations frequently found in the literature, include, among other situations, equal groups and rectangular arrays (Greer, 1992). In asymmetrical situations such as equal groups, the multiplier has a different role from the multiplicand. Symmetrical situations, such as rectangular arrays and area, where the two factors have the same role, are more convenient for the development of algorithms. Such multiplicative representations are not simply contextual or visual cues, they can also be perceived as the thinking tool students use when determining what actions to take with regard to the numbers in a problem or explaining properties (Yackel, 2001). 116 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Standard Multiplication Algorithm The place value system is the foundation of our numbering system. The efficiency of the arithmetic algorithms is based on it. A real understanding of the basic four algorithms rests on a firm grasp of the place value system. Multiplication, for example, is a little more than the combination of the place value system, distributivity, and single-digit math facts for multiplication. This combination is the mathematical reasoning that makes the multiplication algorithm work. Students in Slovenian elementary schools are taught the standard algorithm for multiplication with one-digit numbers in fourth grade (age 9–10). The algorithm has been first presented in Slovenia in the first Slovenian schoolbook for mathematics, written by Franc Močnik and published in 1856 (Močnik, 1914). Figure 1: Močnik textbook from 1856, reprinted for Močnik, 1914. Learned algorithms are often referred to as vertical or standard algorithms. They typical y build on the distributive property where both factors are split into ones, tens, hundreds, etc. and each part is multiplied by each part of the other factor. Implicit use of distributivity has been found to develop without instructions in elementary classrooms, focussed on student-invented strategies for multiplication. This was in contrast to commutativity, which was harder for students to discover by themselves (Ambrose et al., 2003). In fifth grade, students are introduced to the multidigit multiplication algorithm (see Figure 2). I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 117. a) b) Figure 2: Slovenian standard multiplication algorithm. We first multiply the multiplier by the highest digit of the multiplicand in two-digit multiplication with tens. Since we have multiplied with tens, we add a zero at the end of the partial product. If we have multi-digit multiplicands, we add as many zeros as the value of the most significant digit. Writing down zeros helps students to understand the final addition of partial products. We continue with the remaining digits of the multiplicand. If a partial product of digits (e.g. 7 8) results in a number that is higher than 10, ones of the partial product (6 in 56) are written off, tens of the partial product are transferred to the next place value digit. In the next step, these tens are added to the new partial product (7 3+1). In the end, we sum up two partial products. When the students understand the algorithm by reference to place values, we start by dropping the addition of zeros at the end. The algorithm takes the classic staircase shape (Figure 3, left). The staircase shape is sometimes taught directly, producing the so-called “lining up procedure” -multiply, move to the right, multiply, add. The algorithm in Slovenian schools is often illustrated with an array field (Figure 3, right). 118 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 3: The »Staircase« shape of the Slovenian standard algorithm of multiplication and array model for il ustration of it. Reprinted from Bajramovič et al., 2014, p. 264, 261. There are several “neuralgic” points for understanding this procedure. We have already mentioned the issue of “dropping” zeros. Similar is the dilemma under which of the two factors (multiplicand or multiplier) the partial product should be written. This is an important question for students who do not understand the procedure. The procedure shown in Figure 1b is mainly used in fourth and fifth grade, but since subject teachers in later grades often “drop the line” (see Figure 5), teachers in higher grades more often write the product below the multiplicand. This can be confusing for the students if it is shown without explaining the rationale. The standard algorithm shown in Figure 2 is used in several other countries with slight changes (e.g. the spatial arrangement of the factors could be vertical instead of horizontal, see Figure 4. I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 119. Figure 4: UK and Wales standard algorithm of multiplication. Reprinted from Department for Education (2013, p.143) One of the biggest advantages of a standard algorithm is its generality. It always works, the procedure is always the same, no matter what numbers we multiply, no matter what digits these numbers have, no matter how many digits we have. Ma (1999) stressed the importance of two digit by two-digit multiplication. Ma compared the lessons of Chinese and American teachers. The results show that more Chinese than American teachers are aware that two-digit multiplication occupies a particularly important place among multiplication algorithms. The multiplication of two-digit numbers is a central concept in the multiplication of multi-digit numbers. If students understand this multiplication, they will also understand other multiplication algorithms (e.g. multiplication of three-digit numbers). In general, it is possible to figure out how to multiply any two numbers without the standard algorithm, but the strategy cannot always be generalized. Using the standard multiplication algorithm, we solve the problem of multiplication for al cases once and for all. Another advantage is time efficiency. The record itself could be further optimized. We start by dropping zeros at the end of the partial products. Then we omit the first partial product, if the case, when the number of tens of the multiplier equals 1 (see figure 5b). Over time, we also discard small numbers that indicate how much higher place values we have gained when swapping with lower place values (e.g. 4 hundreds for 40 tens). We therefore only record what is real y necessary (see Figure 5c and Figure 2a). With this, we further develop the speed of execution. 120 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS a) b) c) Figure 5: Dropping the line when the highest place value of the multiplier equals 1. A multi-digit multiplication algorithm is built up from single-digit operations using the place value system and the basic properties of numbers such as distributivity. The general operations are reduced to the single-digit number facts. Regardless of students' level of understanding, students without instant recal of these foundational single-digit number facts are severely handicapped in their attempts to reach the next level of mathematics. Several authors (e.g. Hickendorff et al., 2019; Young-Loveridge & Mills, 2009) reported that the standard algorithm for multiplication could be problematic for students. Van de Walle and colleagues (2014) pointed out that the numbers are viewed as single digits and not as decimal units. Only when adding together partial products we pay attention to how many digits the end product should have. Van de Walle and colleagues (2014) highlighted that it is very important to emphasize the importance of the digits’ place value to reduce the risk of errors. When explaining the algorithm, the teacher should also create a good graphical representation of the algorithm on the blackboard (Lampert, 1986). This wil help the students to better memorize spoken explanations. The graphical representation of the algorithm should be clear and transparent; the steps of the algorithm must be clearly visible. Ma (1999) gave a more refined discussion of why rote learning might take place in the context of multi-digit multiplication: This is the case when the teacher does not possess a deep understanding of the underlying mathematics to explain it well. Teaching multi-digit multiplication using procedural methods does not give the student a proper understanding of place value and the distributive property. 70 % of teachers in the United States stated that the problem was an incorrect procedure lining up, while 30 % concluded that students did not understand the rationale of the algorithm. The teachers agreed that there is a problem with the learning comprehension for the students, which is a direct reflection of the teachers' teaching I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 121. methods. Even though teachers have difficulties teaching multi-digit multiplication and notice similar errors every year when the algorithm is taught, these teachers do not seem to take steps to change teaching methods. The “carrying out the lining up” algorithm is taught with a procedural y directed method, which refers to the term “place-value” as the location of the numbers. The procedural y directed approach “verbalized the algorithm so it can be carried out correctly” yet by doing these, teachers are not providing the understanding of the importance of the definition of true place value (Ma, 1999, p. 29). Although teachers used other methods like using lined paper or a grid to position the “zeros” in the placeholder, the teacher merely suggested placing the numbers correctly. The term “place-value” was not introduced to students as a mathematical concept, but as labels for columns where they should put numbers” (Ma, 1999). Alternative Algorithms The advantage of working with non-standard or alternative algorithms is emphasized by many authors (e.g. Ambrose et al., 2003; Van De Walle et al., 2014). Focusing on empirical y based studies, Randolph and Sherman (2001, p. 484) stated that “alternative algorithms offer a vehicle for a deeper understanding of mathematics”. Fuson (2003) argued that various alternative algorithms could be suitable for multidigit multiplication. Each of the alternatives has pros and cons and it is the teachers’ job to study those pros and cons to choose the alternative algorithm. West (2011) listed nine alternative algorithms. We present three algorithms we found suitable for the fifth grade (students aged 10-11). We have to note that al the presented alternative algorithms are actually based on the same concepts as the standard algorithm, namely distributivity property 𝑎𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐) = 𝑎𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑎𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐𝑐 when decomposing multiplicands to decimal units. Alternative algorithms only represent the distributive property with a different model. Area multiplication algorithm The area multiplication algorithm uses “multiple representations to explain the multiplication process and can help students make connections to algebra and algebraic thinking” (West, 2011, p. 3). West (2011) presented the multiplication of 14 ⋅ 12 with an area model. First, we draw a rectangle with a height of 12 and width of 14, as we can see in Figure 6. The next step in the use of an area algorithm is to 122 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS decompose the multiplicator and the multiplicand to tens and ones. Each summand is written up on one column or on the side of a row. In each sub-area, we calculate partial products of numbers that are entitled to certain sub-area. After calculating partial products, we sum them up. Figure 6: Area algorithm. Grid method. Reprinted from West, 2011, p. 4. West (2011) indicated that the area algorithm helps students to establish a fundamental understanding of a variety of basic math concepts. It can be used for calculations or only as a tool for a conceptual explanation of the standard algorithm. West (2011) also highlighted the il ustration of commutative property of multiplication that can be illustrated with the area algorithm. Very similar to the area algorithm is the array-based algorithm introduced by Young-Loweridge and Mil s (2009), depicted in Figure 7. I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 123. Figure 7: Area algorithm. Array model. Reprinted from Young-Loweridge, & Mills, 2009, p. 53). In England and Wales, the area algorithm is known as The grid method (or box method) and is often taught to pupils in primary or elementary school. It has been a standard part of the national primary school mathematics curriculum in England and Wales since the late 1990s. Lattice multiplication algorithm A lattice multiplication algorithm is “algorithmically identical to the traditional long multiplication method but breaks the process into smaller steps” (West, 2011). Figure 8 shows what the algorithm would look like if one wanted to multiply 453 ∙ 25. 124 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS a) b) c) d) Figure 8: Lattice multiplication algorithm. Reprinted from West, 2011, p. 5. The area algorithm exposes decimal units of each digit in the number, lattice multiplication algorithm does not – in the first place. You still need a rectangle divided into as many columns as there are digits in the multiplier, and as many rows as there are digits in the multiplicand. We write multipliers across the top and down the right side, lining up the digits with the squares. (Figure 5a). In the case of 453 ⋅ 25, we obtain two rows, in each row, there are three squares (left, middle and right) and in each square, there are two triangles (upper and bottom). Two triangles are meant for each digit in partial products -the upper left triangle for tens and the lower right triangle for ones of the product. If the product does not have tens, then we write a zero in the upper left triangle (Figure 5b). There are two triangles for a reason -we know partial products will only have two or fewer digits. Let us now consider where the lattice ones of the product 453  25 = 11325 are located. Ones in 11325 are obtained by multiplying ones of the multiplier with ones of the multiplicand 5  3 = 15. Therefore, ones are located in the bottom row, in the right square and in the bottom triangle (Figure 8c). Tens of the product can be obtained in three ways (Figure 8c): (a) multiplying ones of the multiplicand by tens of the multiplier (upper row, right square, bottom triangle), (b) multiplying tens of I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 125. the multiplicand by ones of the multiplier (bottom row, middle square, bottom triangle) or (c) by carrying over the ones obtained in the product of multiplicand ones by multiplier ones (bottom row, right square, upper triangle). Hundreds of the product can be obtained (Figure 8c): (a) by multiplying tens of the multiplicand by tens of the multiplier (upper row, middle square, upper triangle), (b) by multiplying hundreds of the multiplicand by ones of the multiplier (bottom row, left square, upper triangle), (c) by carrying over the ones obtained in a product of multiplicand ones by multiplier tens (upper row, right square, upper triangle), or (d) by carrying over the ones obtained in a product of multiplicand tens by multiplier ones (upper row, middle square, upper triangle). Graphically that can be depicted as adding together the numbers along the diagonals (Figure 8c). If we get two-digit sums, we need to carry them to the next place and then record the final answer of multiplication (Figure 8d). Line multiplication algorithm Another algorithm used as an alternative is called the line multiplication algorithm. It is also a graphic representation of multiplication. We draw as many sets of vertical lines, as there are digits in the multiplier and as many sets of horizontal lines, as there are digits in the multiplicand. One set of lines represents the size of the number. For instance, if we want to multiply 22 by 13, we will draw lines like in Figure 9. Figure 9: Line algorithm. Reprinted from West, 2011, p. 6-7. 126 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The next step is to highlight the intersecting points. To find the product, we count the intersecting points in each highlighted set and add diagonally. Just like with lattice multiplication, when adding diagonally we can get two-digit numbers, which means we must regroup the numbers and carry on tens to the next place (West, 2011). The method works, because the number of parallel lines is like decimal placeholders and the number of dots at each intersection is a product of the number of lines. You are then summing up al the products that are coefficients of the same power of 10. Thus in the example shown in Figure 9: 22  13 = (2  10 + 2)  (110 + 3) = 2 1  102 + [2  1  10 + 3  2  10] + 2 3= 286. Comparing alternative algorithms For the area algorithm of multiplication, Randolph and Sherman (2001) suggested that it improves the understanding of decimal units in multiplying two-digit numbers. You do not need any regrouping; you just multiply numbers with each other. This algorithm represent a sketch -multiplying this way helps the student to rest their brain, and it is fast and easy to calculate the product. Fuson (2003) indicated that the area algorithm of multiplication means an easier way of multiplying because it is gradual. With the lattice algorithm the teacher can identify multiplication facts for which students consistently find incorrect products. This model is divided into three main steps, which helps the student be organized and not get confused. Another benefit of the lattice algorithm is its appearance which students find appealing. There are, of course, various disadvantages of alternative algorithms. All of them are more time consuming since you need to draw an array or a lattice or sets of paral el lines. The line multiplication algorithm is hard to use when digits are bigger since the picture becomes blurred, the problem occurs also when you multiply three-digit numbers by three-digit numbers. I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 127. Aim of the Study While we studied different alternative algorithms, we noticed that many authors (Fuson, 2003; Jazby & Pearn, 2015; Van de Walle, 2005; West, 2011) indicate the problematics of the standard algorithm of written multiplication. The model is not easy to understand, and its use can lead to several errors, because of a lack of understanding (Leung, 2006). Therefore, we wanted to examine if any of the alternative algorithms can benefit fifth graders. Method A pedagogical experiment was conducted in order to answer the fol owing question: Can teaching alternative algorithms contribute to students’ two-digit multiplication fluency? Design of the study Students were first introduced to a standard algorithm of the two-digit multiplication. After that, some changes were applied in experimental groups. The experimental group EG1 was additional y introduced to an area algorithm, and the experimental group EG2 was additional y introduced to three alternative algorithms: an area algorithm, a lattice algorithm, and a line algorithm. During the experiment students in experimental groups did not use only the standard algorithm of two-digit multiplication, they were encouraged to use some of the alternative algorithms. The use of alternative algorithms was not mandatory, alternatives were introduced as a simple way and as a help when the standard algorithm might be too difficult to use. The experiment lasted one month (April–May 2018). After a month, we checked the participants’ knowledge. Students had 45 minutes to solve the final test. On the final test, students themselves chose with which algorithm they would calculate. Sample We included a sample of 73 students of the fifth grade from two public elementary schools, where 55 % of students were boys. Students were divided into three groups, one control (CG) and two experimental groups (Table 1). Groups were formed according to pre-existing classes. 128 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 1: Sample structure f f % Control group CG 24 33 Experimental group 1 -EG1 24 33 Experimental group 2 -EG1 25 34 together 73 100 Instrument Data were col ected with two different tests. To ensure the validity of the pedagogical experiment, we used TIMSS 2011 tasks for the fourth grade as initial testing. Examples of the TIMSS 2011 released tasks are in Figure 10. In task 28 students had to find the result of the offered products that is closest to the given product. In task 32, students needed to draw a bisector of the two-dimensional figure. Students’ job in task 37 was to find the fraction that is bigger than 1 . 2 Figure 10: Some of the TIMSS 2011 tasks. I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 129. The instrument for final testing was designed for the purposes of the study and included ten numerical expressions: 12 ∙ 53, 24 ∙ 12, 44 ∙ 33, 67 ∙ 47, 27 ∙ 35, 43 ∙ 18, 58 ∙ 14, 27 ∙ 89, 94 ∙ 29, 72 ∙ 68. Numerical expressions were carefully chosen to represent two-digit multiplication. Data analysis The col ected data was statistically processed in the program IDM SPSS 22. In the first part of the study, we used statistical inference to make predictions possible, and in the second part of the research, we used the Kruskal–Wallis H test to check for differences between EG1, EG2, and CG. Results TIMSS assignments cover different areas of mathematics and are thoughtful y created to cover different taxonomic levels. This allows us to evaluate students’ previous knowledge. The results of the initial test (TIMSS) and the final test are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Results of the initial test initial test results ( %) N Mean (%) Std. Dev. (%) EG1 24 78.6 22.8 EG2 25 79.1 17.5 CG 24 82.1 20.7 Results in Table 1 show that tested groups performed similarly in both tests; inferential statistics agrees (Kruskal–Wallis H = 0.732, df = 2, p = .693). The correctness of the products Within the framework of the pedagogical experiment, alternative algorithms were adhered in the experimental group. Table 3 displays the results of the final test, regarding only correctness. 130 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 3: Results of the final test final test results ( %) N Mean ( %) Std. Dev. ( %) EG1 24 76.7 25.0 EG2 25 76.0 21.8 CG 24 80.8 25.5 We can see that the control group performed a little better in the final test as wel . After introducing one alternative algorithm in EG1 and three alternative algorithms in EG2, statistical differences among students in different groups could not be confirmed (Kruskal–Wallis H = 1.582, df = 2, p = .453). We conclude that introducing alternative algorithms did not harm the correctness of the computational results. Multiplication number sentences used in the final test were of different difficulties. Students' success with different number sentences is presented in Table 4. The order of number sentences is determined by the decline in CG performance. Table 4: Results regarding specific number sentences Number sentence EG1 EG2 CG f f % f f % f f % 24  12 21 88 23 92 21 88 94  29 16 67 18 72 21 88 27  35 20 83 18 72 21 88 43  18 17 70 22 88 20 83 44  33 19 79 16 64 20 83 12  35 21 88 24 96 19 79 67  47 18 75 16 64 19 79 72  68 18 75 17 68 18 75 27  89 16 67 15 60 15 63 The differences between groups are minimal. In some places, the difficulty of number sentences changed as students in different groups perceived it. Number sentence 12 ⋅ 35 is one such example. The number sentence is quite easy since al digits are small. The CG groups showed only 79 % success, in both experimental groups the success was much higher (88 % and 96 %). The number sentence 94 ⋅ 29 shows the opposite characteristics. In this number sentence, we have two nines I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 131. as digits. The transition between places occurs when multiplying ones of the multiplicand with ones of the multiplier. The result was expected to be lower, which happened in both experimental groups (67 % and 72 %); however, the result in the control group was relatively high (88 %). Students’ strategies Using a standard multiplication algorithm, the students in the CG group wrote each digit of the same decimal unit one underneath the other. The majority of students did not write down the digit zero while multiplying the tens of the multiplier by the multiplier (Figure 11a). Students who used the standard algorithm in an improper manner often encountered a problem that was due to a misunderstanding of the space value. One of the examples is shown in Figure 11b. When adding together the partial products, no digit 0 was assigned to the first partial product, so the result was only shown as a two-digit. The record in Figure 11c enumeration of the digits in the multiplicand serves as help in remembering the order of the partial products. We can also observe a smal digit zero. a) b) c) Figure 11: Students' records of the standard algorithm of multiplication 132 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS We observed at least three different strategies for the area multiplication algorithm. The first and most common is shown in Figure 12a. Students wrote down each partial calculation that belongs to a particular square. When they had all the products, they total ed the products with a written sum calculation on the side. The other strategies for using the area multiplication algorithm consisted of recording only partial products (Figure 12b) or writing down only partial number sentences without products (Figure 12c). a) b) c) Figure 12: Students' records of the area multiplication algorithm The lattice multiplication algorithm was not used often. Using a lattice multiplication algorithm, the students first calculated partial products and then summed them. Students used arrows to depict transferring the digits to the larger decimal unit. As it can be seen in Figure 13, a student drew an arrow and wrote down which digit transfers to a larger decimal unit. This strategy helped the student to calculate the final product. I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 133. Figure 13: Students’ record of the lattice multiplication algorithm Time efficiency Computational fluency has at least two dimensions: Correctness (of the result) and time efficiency of the calculation. Table 5 shows the average time (in minutes) taken to complete the final test, which included ten number sentences listed above. Table 5: Time efficiency N Mean (minutes) Std. Dev.(minutes) area 41 19.57 1.3 lattice 8 18.33 1.7 standard 24 9.23 0.5 We see that the time efficiency of the algorithm implementation is by far the best in the standard algorithm. We also noticed that the standard deviation is the lowest, which means that the standard algorithm is about equal y effective for different types of learners. The differences were statistical y significant (Kruskal -Wallis 𝐻𝐻 = 39.007, 𝑝𝑝 = .000) in favor of the standard algorithm. Students from experimental groups EG1 and EG2 had an option to decide which algorithm to use on the final test – standard or any of the alternative ones. The results of student choices are presented in Table 6. 134 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 6: Students who chose standard or one of the alternative algorithms. area lattice line standard N f f % f f % f f % f f % EG1 24 24 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 EG2 25 17 71 8 29 0 0 0 0 CG 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 100 The results in Table 6 show that all students in EG1 and EG2 have chosen alternative algorithms. In EG2 they had four algorithms to choose from (one standard and three alternatives). The majority (71 %) chose the area algorithm, the rest chose the lattice algorithm. Discussion and Conclusion Kadum (2005) emphasizes the importance of understanding algorithms used by students. By deciding to introduce alternative multiplication algorithms into the learning process, we wanted to bring students closer to the understanding of the two-digit multiplication algorithm. All but three students have used algorithms in an appropriate way. Iljič (2017) exposed that students use the correct interpretation of the algorithm if their steps and understanding of the concept of the algorithm are clear and organized. The problem of the “missing zero” has also been addressed in several other studies to point out shortcomings of the standard algorithm (e.g. Hickendorff et al., 2019; Young-Loveridge & Mills, 2009). Norton (2012) pointed out that many of the students' mistakes were due to a poor understanding of the algorithms, which led to the algorithms being confused with each other (in this case the algorithm for addition and algorithm for multiplication). There were no significant differences between the students in the control group and experimental groups in the average score in the test of written multiplication. Even in the more difficult calculations of the two-digit multiplication (comp. Table 4) the differences were not statistically significant. Students in the control group were almost three times faster in completing the final test of written multiplication. This suggests that using alternative algorithms takes more time for students than using a standard multiplication algorithm. Most students in the control group needed between 10 and 20 minutes to complete the final test. Al students in the control group completed the test in less than 15 minutes. I. Javornik & A. Lipovec: Do Alternative Algorithms for Two-Digit Multiplication Real y Help Students to be More Efficient? 135. The control group performed the final test immediately after two weeks of learning and consolidating the standard algorithm, and the experimental groups performed the final test one month after the introduction of alternative algorithms. Students were not advised which methods of written multiplication they should use. They have decided themselves whether to use the traditional algorithm or any of the alternative methods. This delay is considered as one of the limitations of the study since retention was measured only in experimental groups. The results of our study show that the introduction of alternative algorithms does not affect the correctness in computing. The results are somehow inconsistent with some other studies (e.g. Fuson, 2003; West, 2001) which claim that the introduction of alternative algorithms is beneficial for students. It seems that the advantages lie in the conceptual part, whereas the procedural part remains unchanged. None of the students from the experimental groups chose a standard algorithm, al of them used one of the alternative algorithms. The results indicate that students prefer alternative algorithms over the standard algorithm. Similarly, Iljič (2017) conducted research among students at a faculty, where she investigated the use of alternative algorithms of multiplication. The students were more interested in using alternative algorithms, which also led to a better understanding of the algorithm. The area algorithm was chosen by 41 of 49 students. The results are in line with several other study findings. The area algorithm al ows a process of multi-digit multiplication to be represented as a rectangle with the sides corresponding to the two factors, and this is consistent with Davis' view that “the most flexible and robust interpretation of multiplication is based on a rectangle” (2008, p. 88). Also, Young-Loweridge and Mills report in their work with 46 students (11–13 years) that the adoption of arrays representing the area (comp. Figure 3b) can be useful to improve the students' understanding of multi-digit multiplication. The students' preference for the area algorithm over the standard algorithm was also reported by Bobis (2007). In addition, Jazby and Pearn (2015) report results indicating that the use of the area multiplication algorithm is the most effective tool for explaining the standard algorithm. However, the use of alternative algorithms slowed down students in comparison to using the standard algorithm, and the average computing time was about three times shorter. 136 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS One of the basic didactic principles of arithmetic algorithms is the “delay” principle (Van de Walle et al., 2014). The first algorithm that students usually learn is the standard addition algorithm. Some students may learn standard algorithms from older relatives. However, it is highly unlikely that they will invent them themselves. Standard algorithms are therefore usual y implemented by the teacher. It is also the teacher’s task to make the algorithms understandable to all students. The use of algorithmic procedures in arithmetic slows down the development of the number sense, so teachers are advised to wait with the introduction of standard algorithms at least until students are able to add up to 100 fluently. When students master the standard algorithms, they quickly determine its effectiveness and use it even in situations where there is no necessity to use them, for example 999 + 1. The results of the presented study show that students who use alternative algorithms do not achieve better computational results in multiplication than students who use a standard algorithm. However, the results also show that students prefer alternative algorithms over the standard algorithm. The area multiplication algorithm especially stands out. We agree with Van de Walle et al. (2014) that the array (also area) model promotes a visual demonstration of the commutative and distributive properties and that it can also be linked to successful representations of the standard algorithm for multiplication. The array representation of the multiplication algorithm is already present in Slovenian school practice (comp. Figure 7b). Clivaz (2017) pointed out that it is important that teachers understand the algorithm wel . From our own experience, we must stress that it is very important that the teacher takes enough time to explain the algorithm to the students. It takes a little longer to explain the individual steps and their meaning, but this will reduce the time spent on consolidating the algorithm. The importance of teaching computational algorithms, or at least the amount of time spent teaching them at school, has been frequently questioned over the past decade (Fuson, 2003). 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Palmerston North, NZ: MERGA. West, L. (2011). An introduction to various multiplication strategies. Retrieved December 6, 2019, from http://fliphtml5.com/pcnx/yiby/basic Žakelj, A., Prinčič Röhler, Perat, Z., Lipovec, A., Vršič, V., Repovž, B., Senekovič, J., Bregar Umek, Z. (2011). Program osnovna šola. Matematika. Učni načrt. [Elementary school program. Mathematics. Curriculum.] Ljubljana: ZRSŠ. MODELS DESCRIBING SECONDARY-SCHOOL STUDENTS’ OPINIONS AND ATTITUDES TOWARD MATHEMATICS SIMON BREZOVNIK1, 2 & ANDREJ ŠORGO1 1 University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: simon.brezovnik2@um.si 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: simon.brezovnik2@um.si, andrej.sorgo@um.si Abstract In this research, we create some new models which additionally explain some aspects of students’ motivation to learn mathematics and consequently give information about students’ opinions about the mathematics taught in school. We observed a correlation between classroom experiences and mathematics contents with students’ perception of general contents of mathematics. The research was conducted on the sample of 552 17-19-year-old Slovenian general upper secondary school (Gimnazija) students from the grades 3 and 4. The results show that students find general mathematics contents slightly more Keywords: fascinating, attractive and exciting than boring, unattractive or CFA, EFA, unexciting, but this result correlates negatively with contents mathematics taught in school and the teaching of these contents. Our research contents, unveils that mathematics cannot be treated as a uniform mathematics teaching, construct, but it instead consists of three more or less connected SEM components. analysis. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.7 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 140 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Introduction One of the recently unearthed problems worldwide is students’ lack of interest in electing STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) subjects, where an election is an option; students choose enrolment into such studies at the higher educational levels (Osborne et al., 2003). In search of explanation of these trends, many expose elementary and secondary school experiences as a potential source for lack of interest, both at the content and instructional levels. It is hypothesized that students’ opinions and attitudes toward STEM school subjects are a combination of students’ relationship with the contents taught in that subject and the related classroom experiences, together with their satisfaction with the teacher (Šorgo et al., 2018). On the other hand, some studies have shown that students’ attitudes towards secondary school science are not stable and are becoming progressively more negative over time (Abrahams, 2009; Whitley et al., 2012). Some of the recent research has shown that the quality of student-teacher relationships may play a crucial role in the upper-elementary school (Wang & Eccles, 2012; Zee et al., 2013). Teaching of mathematics is tightly connected with students’ emotions (Hannula, 2006), motivation (Pajares & Graham, 1999), their attitude toward the subject (Kibrislioglu, 2015), and their self-confidence in relation to mathematics (Henderson & Rodrigues, 2008). In our study, we used an adaptation of the STEM Semantics Scale (Tyler-Wood et al., 2010). The adaptation was first used by Šorgo et al. (2018) in a study about predictive power of school experiences with STEM subjects in choosing a career as a researcher or educator. Recently, in research about students' interest in school biology connected to the career aspirations the mention adaptation was also performed (Šorgo & Špernjak, 2020). The constructed theoretical models were created in the wake of the models from Pekrun et al. (2011). The aim of our study was to explore connections between attitudes toward general content of mathematics, content taught at elementary and secondary schools, and related teaching practices, by application of the models proposed by Pekrun and co-workers (2011) in the framework of emotions. S. Brezovnik & A. Šorgo: Models Describing Secondary-School Students’ Opinions and Attitudes Toward Mathematics 141. We focused on the folowing research questions: − Are theoretical models used by Pekrun et al. (2011) valid for our study? − Do theoretical y predicted factors form new combined factors? − Is it possible to upgrade some of these models by reducing the number of items? − How are factors (constructs) correlated in the models? Based on the research questions, we formed next hypotheses: − H1: Opinions of mathematics is a single construct. − H2: Students’ attitudes toward mathematics are formed from 5 different non-correlated constructs (general interest in mathematics, elementary school contents, secondary school contents, teaching of mathematics in elementary school, and teaching of mathematics in secondary school). − H3: Contents in elementary school influence students’ opinions about mathematics. − H4: Teaching in secondary school has a great impact on students’ opinions about mathematics. Methods Instrument The questionnaire was based on a seven-point semantic scale with bipolar adjectives (Gardner, 1995). As proposed in the STEM Semantics Scale, we offered the following adjective pairs: fascinating– boring (F–B), interesting–mundane (I–M), important– unimportant (I–U), attractive–unattractive (A–U) and exciting–unexciting (E–U). Internal consistency and unidimensionality of each scale have already been observed by Šorgo et al. (2018). The five leading questions in the questionnaire were the following: 142 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS − I find mathematical contents (statistics, algebra, geometry, algorithms and programming, mathematical finance, optimization methods, mathematical modelling): (Q21), − I find mathematical contents from elementary school: (Q22), − I find mathematical contents from secondary school: (Q23), − I find teaching mathematics from elementary school: (Q24), − I find teaching mathematics from secondary school: (Q25). Sample The research was conducted on the sample of 552 secondary school students. All of the students considered in the study were in the third (59.4 %) or fourth grade (40.6 %) of the 4-year general upper secondary school, “Gimnazija”, programme. Mostly, the participants were between 17 and 19 years old. The sample covered around 10 % of the complete number of Slovenian “Gimnazija” students from these two generations. More information about the Slovenian school system, the structure of the “Gimnazija” programme, and a detailed description of the sample and sampling can be found in Šorgo et al. (2018). Statistical analyses and procedures We used the models suggested by Pekrun et al. (2011). The first model is based on the prediction that the latent construct MATHEMATICS is unidimensional. Furthermore, the second model predicts correlation between five different latent variables MATG (general mathematics contents), MATES (elementary school mathematics contents), MATSS (secondary school mathematics contents, MATTES (teaching in elementary school) and MATTSS (teaching in secondary school) were observed. The third model additional y describes the second one and is based on the prediction that a single second-ordered construct MATHEMATICS fol ows from aforementioned five different constructs. To investigate the constructs’ validity, we chose a two-step approach. In the first phase, we conducted an exploratory analysis (EFA) with the application of standard procedures for such types of analyses (principal component analysis with direct oblimin rotation in SPSS 24) to explore unidimensionality and reliability of the theoretically proposed factors (Field, 2013). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) (Schmitt, 2011) was the next step, and was S. Brezovnik & A. Šorgo: Models Describing Secondary-School Students’ Opinions and Attitudes Toward Mathematics 143. carried out by AMOS 25. Due to a poor fit of the initial y proposed models’, procedures for their improvement were performed. Research results Descriptive results Frequencies and descriptive statistics on the opinions about basic mathematics contents, mathematics contents taught in elementary and secondary school and the opinions on teaching in elementary and secondary school were considered. Table 1 shows that each construct has appropriate reliability (alpha values in the table). Skewness of observed variables (indicators) does not exceed a value of 0.8 (0.18– 0.79) and the standard error of skewness is 0.14. Because of the large sample and the fact that all upper-mentioned values fall below the suggested thresholds, we might not need to be extremely concerned with the non-normal contribution when we perform SEM analysis (Lei & Lomax, 2005). Students find general mathematics contents more fascinating than boring ( M = 3.60), more attractive than unattractive ( M = 3.73) and more exciting than unexciting ( M = 3.82). On the other hand, the majority of the means of students’ opinions about school contents and teaching in elementary or secondary school are more negative than positive (see Table 1). 144 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 1: Descriptive results regarding students' opinions about school contents and teaching in elementary and secondary school on a 7-point scale (N = 552) Item Mean Median Mode Std. Deviation Skewness General interest in mathematics Alpha = 0.95; Q21a F–B 3.60 3.00 3 1.82 0.37 Q21b I–M 3.37 3.00 3 1.84 0.44 Q21c I–U 3.02 3.00 1 1.85 0.68 Q21d A–U 3.73 4.00 4 1.88 0.27 Q21e E–U 3.82 4.00 4 1.93 0.22 Contents from elementary school Alpha = 0.95; Q22a F–B 3.35 3.00 3 1.75 0.48 Q22b I–M 3.25 3.00 2 1.80 0.51 Q22c I–U 2.78 2.00 1 1.72 0.79 Q22d A–U 3.42 3.00 3 1.76 0.42 Q22e E–U 3.59 3.00 4 1.83 0.35 Contents from secondary school Alpha = 0.95; Q23a F–B 3.60 3.00 2 1.80 0.37 Q23b I–M 3.38 3.00 2 1.81 0.42 Q23c I–U 3.21 3.00 1 1.91 0.57 Q23d A–U 3.71 4.00 4 1.81 0.23 Q23e E–U 3.86 4.00 3 1.84 0.18 Teaching in elementary school Alpha = 0.96; Q24a F–B 3.43 3.00 3 1.76 0.42 Q24b I–M 3.26 3.00 3 1.80 0.53 Q24c I–U 2.95 3.00 1 1.74 0.69 Teaching in elementary school Alpha = 0.96; Q24d A–U 3.44 3.00 3 1.76 0.34 Q24e E–U 3.56 3.00 3 1.79 0.31 Teaching in secondary school Alpha = 0.96; Q25a F–B 3.44 3.00 3 1.80 0.47 Q25b I–M 3.26 3.00 1 1.88 0.56 Q25c I–U 3.07 3.00 1 1.89 0.70 Q25d A–U 3.56 3.00 4 1.89 0.36 Q25e E–U 3.69 4.00 4 1.89 0.29 Note. a = fascinating–boring (F–B); b = interesting – mundane (I–M); c = important–unimportant (I–U); d = attractive– unattractive (A–U) and e = exciting–unexciting (E–U). S. Brezovnik & A. Šorgo: Models Describing Secondary-School Students’ Opinions and Attitudes Toward Mathematics 145. CFA of the theoretical models Based on Pekrun et al. (2011), we first designed three different theoretical models. Model 1 assumes that every observed variable is a predictor of a single first-order variable MATHEMATICS (see Figure 1). We can see from the model that the factor loadings for importance of contents in elementary school (0.57), importance of teaching secondary school mathematics (0.55) and also for other descriptors of students’ opinions on teaching mathematics in elementary school are outstandingly low. Model 2 was produced on five different constructs, MATG, MATES, MATSS, MATTES, and MATTSS (see Figure 2). The model offers correlations between al created constructs. We can observe that there are stil strong correlations between constructs MATES and MATTES (0.82), between constructs MATSS and MATTSS (0.86) and between constructs MATG and MATSS (0.86). In the theoretical Model 3, a second-order latent variable MATHEMATICS was established from first-order constructs MATG, MATES, MATSS, MATTES, and MATTSS. This model shows that those latent variables (with the exception of MATES and MATTES, which have the smallest factor loadings, 0.68 and 0.59, respectively) explain the students’ opinions about learning mathematics (see Figure 3). We performed SEM analyses to explore the model fits. The construct validity of Models 1, 2 and 3 was checked by observing RMSEA (root mean square of error approximation; 0.24, 0.12, 0.13), GFI (goodness of fit index; 0.31, 0.69, 0.67), AGFI (adjusted goodness of fit; 0.18, 0.62, 0.61), CFI (comparative fit index; 0.55, 0.90, 0.88), Chisq (Chi-square; 8892.28, 2211.60, 2594.63), and df (degrees of freedom; 275, 265, 270), respectively. However, all three of the observed models do not fit perfectly, which can be assume from Yuan et al. (2016). Through inspection of the models, we concluded that Model 2 showed the best fit, so we tried to improve it (see Figure 4) 146 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT- SPECIFIC EDUCATION: RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 1: CFA diagram of Model 1 Figure 2: CFA diagram of Model 2 S. Brezovnik & A. Šorgo: Models Describing Secondary-School Students’ Opinions and Attitudes Toward Mathematics 147. Figure 3: CFA diagram of Model 3 Figure 4: CFA diagram of Model 4 148 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION: RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Principal component analysis (PCA) of the questionnaire By performing exploratory factor analysis, more precisely, principal component analysis with direct oblimin rotation based on the eigenvalue >1 criterion, four components were identified. Sampling adequacy was checked with the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure (KMO, 0.96) and sphericity (with Bartlett’s test of sphericity) by 𝜒𝜒2 = 19257.31, df = 300, p < .001. The first factor gathered students’ opinions about the secondary school mathematics (Q23a–Q23e and Q25a–Q25e). The second component represented students’ opinions about the elementary school mathematics (Q22a–Q22e and Q24a–Q24e). The third component represented students’ opinions on the general mathematics interest. The last, fourth factor, was formed from students’ opinions about the importance of mathematics (Q21c, Q22c and Q24c). After the application of parallel analysis (Hayton et al., 2004), only the first three factors were retained. The explained variance of the matrix was 83.80 % when these four factors were considered, and 79.67 % when only three factors were considered. These differences are too minor to be considered as important, however; the percent is stil satisfactorily high. From the component correlation matrix in the Table 2, one can see that the third component (i.e. general mathematics interest) negatively correlates with al of the other factors, which is counter-intuitive and was regarded as quite surprising. Table 2: Component Correlation Matrix Component 1 2 3 4 1 1,00 2 .43 1.00 3 -.52 -.38 1.00 4 .24 .22 -.15 1.00 S. Brezovnik & A. Šorgo: Models Describing Secondary-School Students’ Opinions and Attitudes Toward Mathematics 149. Three-construct Model 4 based on PCA analysis Based on the aforementioned exploratory factor analysis of our questionnaire, we created a new three-construct model with the suggested latent variables MATES, MATSS, and MATG. We tested the model and got the following fit indices: − GFI = 0.52, − AGFI = 0.421, − CFI = 0.79, − RMSEA = 0.16, − Chisq = 4275,60, − df = 272. Poor fit indices suggested some further improvement of the model was in order. Additionally, Figure 4 shows, that the correlations between MATG and MATSS are stil high, so further research was necessary. Improved Model 4 Due to the facts from Section 3.4. and results from the PCA we modified the Model 4 to create a model with better fit indices and a smal er correlation among the factors (see Figure 5). We get the following fit indices: − GFI = 0.91, − AGFI = 0.86, − CFI = 0.97, − RMSEA = 0.082, − Chisq = 398,23, − df = 84. From Yuan et al. (2016) one can observe that the improved Model 4 has a good fit. The adaptation of the model revealed that removing mathematics contents taught in elementary school from construct MATES and teaching of mathematics from construct, MATSS stabilizes our model. 150 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION: RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 5: Improved Model 4 Importance of mathematics as a single construct With a purpose of continuing our model research, we again studied descriptives from Table 1. The importance of mathematics stands out from the other answers (the mode of Q21c–Q25c is 1 and the mean is the lowest among al the answers). On the other hand, if we recal the results from the PCA in section 3.3., one can observe that the factor 4 was constructed from the answers Q21c, Q22c and Q24c, therefore S. Brezovnik & A. Šorgo: Models Describing Secondary-School Students’ Opinions and Attitudes Toward Mathematics 151. we could use it as the independent construct. Table 3 additional y shows that in every correlation matrix answers Q21c–Q25c reach the smallest value of correlation coefficient. That is the reason for starting the exploratory factor analysis. Table 3: Correlation matrices for each question from Q21–Q25 Correlation matrix for Q21 Q21a Q21b Q21c Q21d Q21e Q21a 1.000 Q21b .905 1.000 Q21c .682 .696 1.000 Q21d .854 .836 .707 1.000 Q21e .852 .831 .662 .877 1.000 Correlation matrix for Q22 Q22a Q22b Q22c Q22d Q22e Q22a 1.000 Q22b .878 1.000 Q22c .683 .728 1.000 Q22d .844 .867 .711 1.000 Q22e .836 .835 .630 .876 1.000 Correlation matrix for Q23 Q23a Q23b Q23c Q23d Q23e Q23a 1.000 Q23b .886 1.000 Q23c .717 .710 1.000 Q23d .859 .836 .708 1.000 Q23e .861 .820 .704 .893 1.000 Correlation matrix for Q24 Q24a Q24b Q24c Q24d Q24e Q24a 1.000 Q24b .896 1.000 Q24c .742 .760 1.000 Q24d .856 .869 .738 1.000 Q24e .860 .848 .703 .896 1.000 Correlation matrix for Q25 Q25a Q25b Q25c Q25d Q25e Q25a 1.000 Correlation matrix for Q25 Q25b .885 1.000 Q25c .763 .777 1.000 Q25d .859 .872 .758 1.000 Q25e .835 .845 .729 .891 1.000 152 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION: RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS We removed the answers from the primary constructs and checked if they correlate (see Table 4). As the results were satisfactory (only Q22c and Q24c for primary school slightly stand out), we formed new construct, named IMPORTANCE_OF_MATHEMATICS. The Cronbach’s alpha of this new construct was 75.9 % -it passed the 70 % threshold value. Table 4: Correlation matrix for Q21c–Q25c Q21c Q22c Q23c Q24c Q25c Q21c 1.000 Q22c .526 1.000 Q23c .741 .464 1.000 Q24c .433 .746 .422 1.000 Q25c .669 .458 .807 .464 1.000 Four-construct Model 6 By application of the error terms and observing the standardized residual covariances, we obtained the four-construct Model 6 (see Figure 6). Analogously to the analysis in section 3.3., the sampling adequacy of new constructs was checked with the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure (0.801) and sphericity (with Bartlett’s test of sphericity), 𝑐𝑐2 = 1623.833, df = 6, p < .001. We obtained the improved four-construct model with the suggested latent variables MATES, MATSS, MATG and IMPORTANCE_OF_MATHEMATICS. We performed SEM analyses to explore the model fits. The construct validity of Model 6 was checked by observing RMSEA (0.11), GFI (0.87), AGFI (0.8), CFI (0.95), Chisq (685.53), and df (92). S. Brezovnik & A. Šorgo: Models Describing Secondary-School Students’ Opinions and Attitudes Toward Mathematics 153. Figure 6: EFA diagram of Model 6 Figure 7: EFA diagram of Improved Model 6 154 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION: RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Improved Model 6 Due to the reflection in section 3.5., the construct IMPORTANCE_OF_MATHEMATICS could be updated such that we exclude answers about the importance of contents from primary school mathematics (Q22c), which gave the smal est correlation indices (see Table 8). An exploratory factor analysis diagram of the improved Model 6 is depicted in Figure 7. The explained variance of the matrix was 82.00 % when the new factor and factors MATG, MATES, and MATSS were used. The following are model fits, which show that the improved Model 6 has a better fit than the afore-constructed Model 6: − RMSEA = 0.10, − GFI = 0.89, − AGFI = 0.84, − CFI = 0.96, − Chisq = 482.81, − df = 78. Discussion and Conclusion From the descriptives, one can observe that students’ opinion about general mathematics contents is more positive than negative. On the other hand, students’ opinions on the contents and teaching in elementary or secondary school are exactly the opposite. From the high correlation between theoretical constructs MATSS and MATTSS and between MATES and MATTES, we found out that these latent variables might be parts of a single construct. Therefore, we might define another model that gives us more accurate information about defining the second-latent variable MATHEMATICS. Moreover, there are stil some options for further polishing of the Model 4. From the PCA results and the pattern matrix we could create one more latent variable, named “THE IMPORTANCE OF MATHEMATICS”. This could be the option for further analysis. S. Brezovnik & A. Šorgo: Models Describing Secondary-School Students’ Opinions and Attitudes Toward Mathematics 155. The results from the PCA together with the descriptive statistics seem fairly interesting. The most remarkable result of the PCA is the negative correlation between students’ opinions about general mathematics contents and their opinions about the contents taught in school together with the teaching. Apparently, students perceive mathematics as something more or less valuable; however, they want that it presented in school in a more attractive, important, interesting, fascinating and exciting fashion. The improved Model 4 revealed that the contents of primary school mathematics do not influence students’ perceptions about primary school mathematics, and in contrast, the teaching of mathematics in secondary school does not influence students’ opinions about the secondary school mathematics. Due to the lack of the information, we could not understand these two findings and therefore we left those questions open for further study of the subject. Model 6 showed that students’ opinions about mathematics could be more thoroughly observed by additional observation of their perception of the importance of mathematics as a single construct. The improved Model 6 additional y showed that we do not consider the importance of contents and teaching of elementary school mathematics when dealing with students’ opinions about the importance of mathematics. Our research unveiled that mathematics could not be treated as a uniform construct. We do not have a ful explanation of the relative unimportance and unattractiveness of school mathematics. We also believe that there are such respectable mathematics teachers who insert lots of efforts to make their lessons exciting and make a great impression on students, and give them a positive attitude toward mathematics. But the results show that there is room for improvement of our secondary school teaching in such a way that the students would better recognize our efforts. Results also hint at the mathematics contents in elementary school not being attractive and important enough for students, so this again cal s for further study. By changing our teaching approaches in secondary school mathematics and choosing more attractive contents in elementary school mathematics, those two indicators would play a more important role in shaping students’ perceptions of mathematics. 156 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION: RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS References Abrahams, I. (2009). Does practical work really motivate? A study of the affective value of practical work in secondary school science. International Journal of Science Education, 31(17), 2335–2353. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690802342836 Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Gardner, P. L. (1995). Measuring attitudes to science: Unidimensionality and internal consistency revisited. Research in Science Education, 25(3), 283–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02357402 Hannula, M. S. (2006). Motivation in mathematics: Goals reflected in emotions. 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Journal of School Psychology, 51(4), 517–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2013.05.003 158 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION: RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS METHODOLOGICAL AND THEMATIC TRENDS: A CASE STUDY OF TWO PEDAGOGICAL JOURNALS IN CROATIA SNJEŽANA DUBOVICKI1 &TOMISLAV TOPOLOVČAN2 1 Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Education, Osijek, Croatia, email: sdubovicki@foozos.hr 2 University of Zagreb, Faculty of Teacher Education, Zagreb, Croatia, e-mail: tomislav.topolovcan@ufzg.hr Abstract The aim of the research was to examine the methodological and thematic trends in scientific periodicals in the field of pedagogy. Two Croatian journals for education, Život i škola and Napredak in the period from 2012 to 2017, were analysed. A total of 370 articles were analysed, 143 from Napredak and 227 from Život i škola. The research results indicate that the analysed period is dominated by the topics of assessment, teacher competence, and teaching climate, while the topic of the future of education is the least represented in al segments. In methodological terms, the dominant papers are those with empirical quantitative research and categorization of Keywords: original scientific and review papers. Based on the analysis of the analysis, obtained facts, the main conclusions were synthesized, and they case study, show that the methodological and thematic trends in Croatian futurology, scientific periodicals occur with an emphasis on the dominance pedagogy, of the positivist paradigm, lack of historical, theoretical and research methodology, futuristic research, and a small number of studies with a trends in qualitative methodological approach. education. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.8 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 160 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Introduction The scientific periodical of a particular field of science -branch -has been one of the most significant forms of scientific communication in the last few centuries (Kronick, 1976); it serves as a communication and correspondence device among scientists via scientific discoveries. As science developed, so did the scientific periodical. In the last few decades, information and communication technologies made a great contribution to scientific journals, which significantly accelerated and simplified scientific communication, but also created new chal enges for journal publishers and editors. In this respect, when talking about contemporary scientific journals, especial y in the field of education research, there are numerous similarities, but also particularities of each journal. In addition to the particularities and similarities of the thematic and structural concepts of individual journals, some thematic trends can be seen as an indicator of the current problems that are being investigated in a given period of pedagogy, i.e. research of education. In this regard, the dominant phenomena that are being explored, current papers and authors cited, as wel as the actuality of the use of certain research methods, are clearly outlined. Apart from the fact that certain research topics appeared as certain trends in research of pedagogy, the need for crystallization of specific topics addressed by individual scientific journals appeared. In other words, individual scientific journals specialize only in certain topics and works with certain types of methodology. Thus, in social sciences, there is a wel - known example in psychology, the journal Psychological Bul etin1 (n.d.) which publishes papers that are literature reviews (review papers) and papers with meta-analyses or journals for papers with results obtained through various qualitative methods such as Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung (n.d.). In the abundance of research phenomena and topics in pedagogy, certain journals specialize in specific topics, and as such, there are journals specializing only in curriculum research, for example the Journal of Curriculum Studies (n.d.). Certain umbrella institutions for the issue of research of education publish their journals as well: The American Educational Research Association (AERA, n.d.) publishes a number of relevant editorial journals such as AERA Open, American Educational Research Journal, Educational Research, Review of Educational Research, 1 It should be emphasized that these journals and publishers and institutions are mentioned only for the purpose of listing examples. They are not, in any case, listed as superior journals and institutions. In addition to the mentioned journals and institutions, there are numerous quality and relevant journals and institutions for research of education. S. Dubovicki &T. Topolovčan: Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia 161. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Journal of Educational and Behavioural Statistics, and Review of Research in Education. Furthermore, the crucial element of scientific journals is their indexation, their impact factor (IF), or bases in which they are indexed, such as Current Contents, Web of Science, and Scopus. The indexation in databases and IF journals essential y determines the interest of scientists in a particular journal of publication and publishing work, hence there are trends of refinement in specific scientific journals. The IF is not just a question of indexing (reputation) of a certain journal, but it can also have repercussions for further research of a particular issue. The IF is often the criterion for accepting/excluding certain scientific papers on the same or similar topic in meta-analysis. That is, the coefficient (size) of the IF of a journal in which the particular paper has been published determines whether that paper (and research results) wil be accepted in the mentioned meta-analysis (Field & Gillett, 2010). This may result in a deviation of the synthesis results of such studies. That is, here we can clearly see that the recent trend of discussing the indexation bases and the IF's scientific journals is not a superficial and trendy publication, but a question of serious scientific contributions and discoveries. Such trends show what was current in the past, and they also make it possible to predict the new research actualities of the time to come. In today's time it is necessary to reflect on, research and write about the future of one's profession (Dubovicki, 2017). Numerous sciences (Technical Sciences, Natural Sciences) have been exploring and anticipating, for many years, possible future challenges, considering possible solutions, and seeking answers. In relation to the aforementioned, we were concerned about the state of pedagogy, which should be the first field to warn about, but also answer (offer solutions) the upcoming chal enges in the field of education. It is obvious that such research in the Republic of Croatia is still insufficient in continuously monitoring the content and methodological analysis of trends in the field of pedagogy with projection trends in the future. The emergence of trends in pedagogy has also been discussed at round tables in recent times (Raman, 2016)2. Ideas on the various innovative aspects of higher education pedagogy that would go 2 A collection of papers on the broad theme of “Emerging Trends in Higher Education Pedagogy: Innovative Learning Environments in Higher Education” (Raman, 2016) aims to review the research done in the area of higher education pedagogy. The papers were given at a Roundtable Workshop entitled “Emerging Trends in Higher Education Pedagogy” that the School of Education, Languages and Communications organised on February 25-26, 2016, to bring together a group of experts in order to explore new forms of teaching, learning and assessment for an interactive world. 162 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS hand in hand with the contemporary understanding of education, which would successful y deal with upcoming social scenarios, have been presented. Earlier researches (Gal et al., 1997; Haslam & McGarty, 2014) show that the selection of research methods and statistical procedures can have a stressful impact on the anxiety of students who, most often, are faced with such chal enges when writing and researching for the purpose of their graduate thesis. Rock et al. (2016) take a critical approach in researching how e-learning systems could involve psychology students in research methods and statistics. We can say that this paper is another contribution of the thesis that psychology research mainly relies on quantitative methodology -research techniques by which we quantify data -and statistics as an indispensable part of the interpretation of results. The problem becomes more complicated if we consider that the phenomena of education in the research process cannot always be accurately measured or statistical y “calculated”. Dubovicki et al. (2018) researched 159 graduate theses of students of Teacher Education at the Faculty of Education, University of Osijek. Of the total number, 132 (83 %) contain actual research. Furthermore, the most represented scientific field in research are social sciences (36, 47 %), and within them, pedagogy (46, 55 %). According to the type of research, empirical, fundamental, transversal and contemporary research are the predominant ones. Of al the explored scientific paradigms, the most represented is the positivist (60, 6 %), then the constructivist (17, 43 %) and post-positivist (15, 91 %) paradigm. Applied research (78 %) dominates, while developmental research (5 %) is still insufficiently represented and accepted by students. Topolovčan (2017) highlights the importance of the established theory in research of education. Drysdale et al. (2013) conducted an analysis of doctoral dissertations and master theses in which they explored methodological and thematic trends. They noted a growth in the context of research of the combined learning. Dubovicki (2017) emphasizes that research of education rarely uses futurology methods (especial y in the Republic of Croatia). Chang (2017) conducted a review of articles in four journals: Journal of Advertising, Journal of Advertising Research, International Journal of Advertising, and Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising from 2001 to 2015 and found that with the help of mentioned analysis it is possible to offer solutions S. Dubovicki &T. Topolovčan: Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia 163. to some methodological questions, but also to track progress and trends in research since the beginning of this century. Bouillet and Jokić (2019) show -using abstract analyses of 2395 papers published in 265 journals indexed in Scopus between 1996 and 2013, in 15 countries of Central and Eastern Europe -that the specifics and dynamics of the present topics and contents throughout the above-mentioned time period in the field of education has changed over time, in terms of quantity, content and methods. These changes have resulted in more expansive and diverse research methods, whose plurality has been recognized in works published both in international and Central and Eastern Europe journals. Previous research results of certain topics in education show that there are certain differences, accents and trends in pedagogical periodic publications on the international level. It is therefore scientifically interesting to investigate whether certain trends also exist in the Croatian pedagogical periodicals. The journals Život i škola [Life and school] and Napredak [Progress] are the two Croatian journals that primarily deal with publishing works from the field of education at all levels, especial y pedagogical works, and are, for these reasons, worth exploring. These journals are interesting because they already contain some studies, that is, systematic analyses of their bibliographies - Napredak (Strugar, 2019) and Život i škola (Dubovicki & Munjiza, 2019; Lavrnić et al., 1982; Petrović, 1981; Subotić, 1972), which confirms their historical relentlessness for practice and science of education. Munjiza and Dubovicki (2012) follow the launch and development of Život i škola. Through research, they analyse, explain and interpret the contribution of Život i škola in the field of educational practice and pedagogical theory in the past sixty years (1952 - 2011). Following the contents of Život i škola, the authors followed the external and internal changes that took place in the school system in Croatia (as wel as worldwide). Methodology Methodological trends have been described by qualitative, inferential statistics, descriptive statistics, and combined approaches to data analysis. Research is based on a case study of two Croatian educational journals. Research covered 370 papers (scientific and professional) that were published in the period from 2012 to 2017 in 164 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS the two Croatian journals Život i škola (herein after also referred to as "ŽiŠ") and Napredak (herein after also “N”). The six-year period was chosen because this is the minimal time period for quality research of evolutionary trends within a time period. The analysis did not include the year, 2018 because at the time of writing, not al 2018 issues for both journals were available. In the mentioned period, there were 227 analysed papers from the journal Život i škola, and 143 from the journal Napredak. Our research covered 370 papers that were analysed according to the fol owing parameters: year of publication, type of journal, science area, work categorization, has/does not have research, type of methodology within which the appropriate research techniques were used, used research techniques, and paper title (which determined the thematic area). The aim of the analysis was (1) to investigate al published papers in both journals over the period from 2012 to 2017 in order to observe the pedagogical and methodological preferences of the authors, as well as the thematic trends visible from the title analysis; (2) to single out the papers that used empirical research; (3) to single out research techniques, their numeracy, and then the dominance of the qualitative/quantitative methodology; (4) to detect papers from methodology, as wel as the representation of the papers of a certain categorization, whose insight is the starting point for referring the journals towards the reference bases. The purpose of the research was to identify the specifics and dynamics of the present topics and content over a certain period of time, and to develop methodological approaches in pedagogical research. In relation to the set goals of the analysis, we start from the following research questions: 1. What is the most common categorization of papers in research journals? 2. What is the percentage of papers that use empirical research? 3. What kind of methodology prevails in papers which use research? 4. Which areas of science are most published by researchers? 5. What research technique is the most represented in works that use empirical research? 6. On average, how many research techniques do researchers use in their empirical research? 7. What is the most common topic in the field of social sciences? S. Dubovicki &T. Topolovčan: Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia 165. Research results and interpretation Research results wil show trends during six years of research (2012-2017) of the two Croatian journals in relation to the above-mentioned criteria with which we wil be able to determine the presence of trends in relation to the categorization of papers, dominance of methodology by type, representation of research techniques, scientific areas and thematic preferences. Table 1 shows how out of 370 published papers, 79.7 % are scientific and 20.3 % are professional papers. The highest percentage (38.3 %) goes to the original scientific papers, followed by review papers (29.98 %). This information answers our research question: “What is the most common categorization of papers in research journals?” 166 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT- SPECIFIC EDUCATION: RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 1: Categorization of research papers Categorization ŽiŠ* N** ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N Sum 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 f % Original scientific paper 3 8 9 11 21 12 6 13 25 15 7 11 141 38.2 Preliminary communication 10 3 14 5 0 0 7 3 10 1 11 5 69 18.7 Review paper 10 5 13 6 0 7 9 2 22 7 2 2 85 29.98 Professional paper 13 10 8 3 0 4 12 5 6 2 8 4 75 20.3 Sum ŽiŠ 36 44 21 34 63 28 227 61.4 Sum N 26 25 23 23 25 22 143 38.6 Total sum 370 100 Looking at the comparative results for each year during six years of research, it is evident that more papers were published in Život i škola (61.4 %) than in Napredak (38.6 %). The largest number of original scientific papers was published in 2016. The reason for that might be because Život i škola has one extra issue, so the number of papers published in that year reflects the above-mentioned situation. As an il ustration, we can state vivid examples of the ratio between professional and scientific papers in Život i škola (Munjiza & Dubovicki, 2012). The ratio between professional and scientific papers in 1994 was 80.4 %: 19.6 %, and in 2006, 29.4 %: 70.6 %. S. Dubovicki &T. Topolovčan: Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia 167. The next criterion according to which the analysis was conducted was the observation of papers that have/do not have empirical research3. Table 2 shows that in 63.8 % of the papers empirical research is present, which is certainly important for determining the state, but also for providing opportunities for improvement. The stated result answers our next research question: “What is the percentage of papers that use empirical research?” 1 Table 2: Has/does not have empirical research ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N Sum 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 f % It has empirical research 12 15 29 19 16 13 22 17 37 16 21 19 236 63.8 It does not have empirical research 24 11 15 6 5 10 12 6 26 9 7 3 134 36.2 Sum 36 26 44 25 21 23 34 23 63 25 28 22 370 100 3 It should be emphasized that the research papers in pedagogy and didactics include theoretical, empirical and historical research (Poljak, 1991). But, in this case, for the purposes of this analysis, special emphasis has been put on empirical research 168 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Considering the years, we can say that the number of papers that use research has increased with the years, so a similar situation is expected in the future. For the next criterion, type of methodology, we divided the papers according to whether it uses qualitative or quantitative methodology research techniques, that belong to both types of methodology, and we named that category combined. The combined methodology can be found under the name mixed methodology (Bamattre et al., 2019). In the qualitative type of methodology, we included papers which used, in the research part, the fol owing research techniques: interview, systematic observation, paperwork analysis (textbooks, pedagogical documentation, analysis of notes, comparison of programs), qualitative futurology research methods, formative evaluation (analysis of evaluation sheets) and case analysis. Regarding the quantitative methodology, we focused on the following research techniques: survey, evaluation and assessment (various scales), test and sociometric procedures. In the category of combined methodology, there were papers that used at least one research method from both methodologies, as wel as the papers in which the methodological part was done and presented via action research. Table 3 shows the dominance of papers using quantitative methodology (72.9 %), while the category of approaches to research with the help of a combined methodology -which we consider to be most desirable in pedagogical phenomena research -is the least and insufficiently represented with only 9.7 %. That also answers our next research question: “What kind of methodology prevails in papers which use research?” Nowadays, combined or mixed methodology is considered to be the most desirable in the research of pedagogical phenomena (Ivankova & Plano Clark, 2018). S. Dubovicki &T. Topolovčan: Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia 169. Table 3: Type of methodology Methodology ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N Sum 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 f % Quantitative 8 13 17 15 10 13 15 14 29 10 16 12 172 72.9 Qualitative 2 1 6 3 3 0 5 3 4 5 4 5 41 17.4 Combined/Mixed 2 1 6 1 3 0 2 0 4 1 1 2 23 9.7 Sum 12 15 29 19 16 13 22 17 37 16 21 19 236 100 The observed situation in the researched papers with a percentage of the quantitative methodology of 72.9 % again reminds us of the dominance of the "detection" of a state (Dubovicki et al., 2018), but also the subjectivity in the research contributing to the use of one research technique (83 %) and domination of one type of methodology (72.9 %8) see Graph 1 and Table 3). The obtained results answer the fol owing research question : “How many research techniques do researchers mostly use in their empirical research?” More recently, researchers (McChesney & Aldridge, 2019) discussed a more flexible approach to the scientific paradigm and types of methodology, considering the desirable positioning of researchers in favour of the flexible (but intentional) integration of any research method within any research paradigm. 170 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS 0% 3% 14% 1 research technique 2 research technique 3 research technique 4 research technique 83% Graph 1: Presence of research techniques in the researched papers We believe that in the research of the pedagogical phenomena it would be best to use the triangulation procedure (Bekhet & Zauszniewski, 2012; Honorene, 2016; Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007; Oliver-Hoyo & Allen, 2006), which would allow the researcher a more comprehensive approach to the research problem, and achieve a more accurate and valid evaluation of qualitative results. In addition to the above, more representative results would be obtained by combining qualitative and quantitative research methods, which -through their advantages and disadvantages - mutual y complement each other and add to a research. Aside from the review of the current state, these research methods also provide more specific explanations and ideas for solving the mentioned state. Table 4 gives us insight into all the research techniques used during the six-year period in both journals. S. Dubovicki &T. Topolovčan: Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia 171. Table 4: The presence of research techniques in research papers (236) ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N Sum 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 f % Survey 6 10 16 10 7 5 8 7 21 3 15 10 118 40 Assessment scale 6 3 6 8 8 8 8 7 13 8 0 0 75 25.5 Test 1 2 4 2 2 1 4 3 5 2 0 3 29 9.8 Paperwork 2 0 3 4 2 0 4 1 5 3 3 2 29 9.8 Interview 1 1 5 0 3 0 2 2 1 5 0 2 22 7.6 Systematic observation 1 1 6 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 14 4.7 Futurology methods 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0.6 Evaluation forms 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0.6 Action research 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0.6 Sociometry 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.4 Case study 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.4 Sum 17 17 40 24 25 14 28 21 48 21 20 20 295 100 % 11.5 21.7 13.2 16.6 23.4 13.6 100 172 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The most dominant research technique is the survey, by as much as 40 %, and it is fol owed by other research techniques belonging to the quantitative methodology: assessment scale (25.5 %) and test (9.8 %). The given data answers the fol owing research question: “What research technique is the most represented in works that use empirical research?” When it comes to qualitative methodology, the most dominant is the analysis of documentation (9.8 %) which includes textbooks analysis, paperwork analysis, analyses of curricula, programs and so on. Research conducted by Dubovicki et al. (2018) also shows that the students of Teacher Education most often use the aforementioned research technique in their graduate theses-the survey, up to 60.6 %. Bearing in mind that the authors of the research are mainly university professors (most of them from Croatian universities), we can hereby draw the link and say that students partial y “copy”their professors or their research, according to their suggestions; their methodological preferences are outlined in their papers. The analysis that matches our research in the time period of 2015 until 2017 goes hand in hand with the mentioned connection. The following criterion for analysing the papers was their representation in certain scientific areas. Table 5 shows us the state over the years. S. Dubovicki &T. Topolovčan: Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia 173. Table 5: Analysis by scientific areas ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N ŽiŠ N Sum 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 f % Social Sciences 16 14 27 18 21 14 18 16 41 16 18 8 227 61.4 Field of Art 1 0 7 1 0 5 5 0 11 4 1 4 39 10.5 Interdisciplinary Areas of Knowledge 7 6 3 1 0 3 4 1 6 2 1 2 36 9.7 Humanistic Sciences 10 2 2 2 0 1 3 3 1 0 5 3 32 8.6 Natural Sciences 1 3 3 3 0 0 3 1 2 3 2 3 24 6.5 Technical Sciences 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 1 1 8 2.2 Religious sciences 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 4 1.1 Sum 36 26 44 25 21 23 34 23 63 25 28 22 370 100 174 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 5 shows the most dominant scientific area during the six-year analysis - the area of social sciences (61.4 %), which was expected since both researched journals are on Hrčak 4 listed into the social areas, the field of pedagogy. The field of social sciences has been continuously the most represented in al the years in both journals, which also answers our next research question: “Which areas of science are most published by researchers?” Second place goes to al the papers published in the art field (10.5 %), seeing that from the whole number, 25 papers have been published in the journal Život i škola. Compared with the papers from the art field, Topolovčan (2016) stresses the importance of the qualitative approach especial y in research that is artistical y based. Such research is part of a recent methodological strategy that by further development, improvement, and expansion can be relevant to research of social and human sciences. 1 The last criterion based on which the analysis was made relates to the representation of certain thematic areas (Graph 2). Graph 2: Analysis of papers in the field of social sciences 4 Hrčak - a portal of Croatian scientific and professional journals, retrieved May 13, 2019, from https://hrcak.srce.hr/ S. Dubovicki &T. Topolovčan: Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia 175. Graph 2 shows a comparative analysis from which it is apparent that the subject of education is (as expected) the most represented, fol owed by papers dealing with assessment and behavioural disorders, which also answers the following research question: “What is the most common topic in the field of social sciences?” Napredak publishes more papers dealing with the topic of parenting, inclusion and methodology, while the journal Život i škola focuses mostly on the topics regarding teaching, pedagogical competences and kinesiology. Discussion and Conclusion Based on the obtained results, their interpretation and comparison with the results of some recent research on this topic, we can point to several facts. Namely, it is apparent that the journal Život i škola has published more papers than the journal Napredak in the mentioned six-year period. Furthermore, no matter which journal has the majority of published papers, the predominant ones are the scientific papers with the dominant categorization of the original scientific work. The most original scientific papers were published in 2016. This information may also be the result of publishing one extra issue of the journal Život i škola that year, which could have affected the final number of papers. Global y speaking, we can say that the categorization of papers varies from year to year, but there has been a decrease of professional papers during the six-year period. One of the reasons for this situation may be the attempt of the two journals to get as close as possible to the potential databases that are valued for advancement, and which are conditioned by a smal er number of professional and a larger number of scientific papers. Furthermore, the analysis has shown that the number of papers has increased over the years (the total in both journals). Empirical research with quantitative methodology is the predominant type of research in the papers. In other words, in the field of social research, which is thematical y most closely related to pedagogy, the quantitative methodology prevails. The obtained results imply that, in pedagogy, the application of quantitative methodology is stil dominant, while things change dramatical y in some other fields of social sciences. For comparison, psychology is a field of interest. Specifical y, intriguing data were reported by the American Psychologist (Kazak, 2018) saying that the number of words in the headlines or keywords of articles (based on PsycNET) increased drastical y over twenty years (Figure 1). That is, with just over 200 articles per year including the word qualitative 176 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS (in the title or keywords) in 1995, just under 3000 articles (which include the word qualitative) came up. This represents almost a fifteenfold increase over a 20-year period, or an increase of over 1000 %. It indicates that in some other fields of social sciences, such as psychology, qualitative methodology is beginning to take a more prominent place as a research approach. Picture 1: Qualitative in title or keywords in PsycNET 1995-2016 (source: Kazak, 2018, p. 2) In comparison with other social fields of science, we believe that an approach to pedagogical research which only delivers quantification of data with the need of most often (in 83 %) just one research technique, is something that should be avoided in scientific research because we cannot generalize such results or apply them global y to similar problems. Compared to papers published over the period from 2012 to 2017, it is evident that the trends changed in line with the changes that (directly and/or indirectly) affected our educational system at al levels of education. In addition to the prominent trends, there is a continuous presence of the topics of assessment, teacher competence and teaching climate. The subject that is the least represented in al segments deals with S. Dubovicki &T. Topolovčan: Methodological and Thematic Trends: A Case Study of Two Pedagogical Journals in Croatia 177. the reflections on the future of education. It should also be pointed out that the analysed journals published no papers with meta-analyses, complex qualitative methodologies (art-based research, grounded theory), and complex constructions of instruments for data col ection, which are some of the recent research trends in education and publication in relevant international educational scientific journals. Based on the analysis of these parameters, we predict that in the future, most research in the field of pedagogy wil be done with the help of quantitative methodology and research techniques that require quantification of data and numerical indicators, and that those techniques will continue to be survey, evaluation and assessment as the most dominant ones. Regarding the thematic research trends, it is predicted that in the coming period, more and more papers wil continue to be in the field of social sciences, if we are talking about the mentioned journals, because those are the journals that focus on publishing papers mostly from the area of education at all levels. Possible trends in pedagogical topics research are also predicted in the time to come. The best way for universities to remain relevant is innovation and the introduction of dynamic and new teaching methods; innovative pedagogy-defined as theories and pedagogy and practice of teaching, learning and assessment for the world of modern technology (Sharples et al., 2015) -is the future. In addition to the implications made in the discussion of the results of this analysis, the general conclusion of this study is that the two analysed journals play an important part in the development of Croatian pedagogy and research of education. Results imply that it is desirable to intensify the publishing of theoretical-comparative studies, historical studies, and research papers with qualitative methodology. It is also important to point out the lack of papers that were from the field of methodology (1.9 %). Given the number of research tools used in the empirical part of the research, and in relation to the preference of the positivist paradigm and the overcoming of the quantitative methodology, there is a more than obvious need for the popularization of research tools and methodological approaches that can be applied in pedagogical research, but also in general research of education. It is important to mention that researching the journals in Croatian and world contexts can significantly contribute to the monitoring of external and internal changes that took place in Croatian (and world) education and pedagogy. Such 178 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS indicators can represent a kind of a "hidden" curriculum of pedagogy and methodology of papers from the educational corpus, which can explain the origins, disappearances and solutions of certain pedagogic problems. Further research should focus on monitoring the published papers in these two journals, as well as their comparison with journals of similar nature outside the Republic of Croatia. It would be important to explore the kind of methodology and the kind of research techniques prevailing in pedagogy in journals that are referred to in bases such as Scopus, the Web of Science Core Collection ( WoSCC) or Current Contents ( CC). Final y, one should point to one possible prediction, which is that in the coming period, the journals Napredak and Život i škola are faced with a significant publishing challenge since, at the moment, neither of these two journals are referred to in the mentioned bases. This is possible to achieve through the use of various research tools that contribute to a thorough research of a problem, different methodological approaches and their combinations, and even representation of the papers of all categorizations and of all scientific paradigms (positivist, post-positivist, critical theory, constructivism and participatory paradigm). References American Educational Research Association. (n.d.) AERA Journals Online. Retrieved June 10, 2019 from https://www.aera.net/Publications/Journals Bamattre, R., Schowengerdt, B., Nikoi, A., & DeJaeghere, J. (2019). Time matters: the potential and pitfal s of using mixed methods approaches in longitudinal program evaluation. 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Portal of Croatian Scientific and Professional Journals, retrieved May 25, 2019, from https://hrcak.srce.hr/zivot-i-skola EVALUATION OF THE PRACTICAL PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF STUDENTS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AT THE FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR KARMEN KOLNIK1, 2 & EVA KONEČNIK KOTNIK1, 2 1 University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: karmen.kolnik@um.si, eva.konecnik@um.si 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: karmen.kolnik@um.si, eva.konecnik@um.si Abstract The article discusses how students of the pedagogical study programme Geography at the Faculty of Arts Maribor are connecting theoretical academic knowledge with their pedagogical experience. The questionnaire is used to establish students’ personal reflections of competences, set in the study programme and self-evaluation of their own achievements at the end of their pedagogical training. They identified the importance of three sets of subjects (a set of general subjects of pedagogical, psychological and didactic field, a geographical didactic set, and a set of elective subjects), as wel as up to five different forms of pedagogical activities. Results show that he participating students are satisfied with the competencies and their achievement of them, and that they are aware of the need for further professional growth. The most important evaluated competences for the successful work of teachers are in the field of defining the learning objectives and adjusting the planning and carrying out of lessons to the needs and capabilities of students and in the field of using different methods, forms and techniques of Keywords: teaching, assessing and grading knowledge. The respondents feel student, least competent in anticipating possible problems during geography, teacher, pedagogical work in the classroom and when planning how to training, solve them. competence. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.9 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 182 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Introduction The best teachers incorporate a wealth of “knowledge-in-action” into their activities, and it is therefore essential for students to gain as much practical experience as possible throughout the duration of their studies. In doing so, care must be taken to ensure that these experiences are diverse and appropriately intensified (Marentič Požarnik, 2000; Thiessen, 2002). It is stated in Zelena knjiga o izobraževanju učiteljev [Green Book on Teacher Education] that: … professionalized models of teacher education enable the development of a wide range of professional activities, which teachers adapt to individual participants, objectives, tasks, content and situations. The development of these activities requires a wide foundation of knowledge, as well as a coordinated and coherent practice, which enables (future) teachers to become familiar with learning situations in which they can connect theory and competent reflective activity. (2001, p. 62) With the academic year 2010/2011 the Faculty of Arts Maribor started to implement the double-major pedagogical second-cycle study programme Geography at the Department of Geography, in which -taking the above-mentioned into consideration -it was stated that future geography teachers need extensive and research-reflective knowledge of geography and of teaching geography, as wel as proven forms and methods of the practical application of knowledge. Essential professional qualities of geography teachers include professional autonomy, pedagogical competences and, of course, the capacity for critical intel ectual activity. The curriculum of the pedagogical study programme Geography is based on the recommended study structure that was provided by the Senate of the Faculty of Arts of the University of Maribor. This study structure was developed on the basis of the results of the research project entitled “Pedagoški modul, podporne aktivnosti za implementacijo bolonjske prenove ESS VS 06-09” [Pedagogical Module, Support Activities for the Implementation of the Bologna Reform ESS VS 06-09]. The project was carried out in 2007 by the most prominent researchers in the field of teacher education in Slovenia from all its three universities, including researchers from the Faculty of Arts of the University of Maribor, in collaboration with the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology. In accordance with the line ministry's working group's recommendation for the reform of the pedagogical K. Kolnik & E. Konečnik Kotnik: Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor 183. programmes, the “professional part” of pedagogical programmes should encompass at least 60 credits, which is the equivalent of one year of study, whereby at least a quarter of it should be teaching practice (Dvopredmetni pedagoški študijski program druge stopnje Geografija, 2019). The double-major second-cycle study programme Geography thus consists of courses from the field of geography with the objective of learning about different spatial units (from the local, regional and continental level to the global level, 30 ECTS), as wel as courses from the fields of pedagogy, didactics and psychology (the so-cal ed PDP module), in the framework of which students acquire theoretical and practical knowledge in the field of the education and profession of a geography teacher (60 ECTS). The courses in the second set are common to both fields of studies of the double-major study programme. The programme includes practical pedagogical training of students (pedagogical practicum), consisting of an observational practicum (2 ECTS) and a subject practicum; the latter is comprised of the pedagogical practicum Geography 1 (3 ECTS) and the pedagogical practicum Geography 2 (4 ECTS). The pedagogical practicum consists of in-class observation of teaching lessons independently, and of pedagogical practice. The pedagogical practice consists of one week in a primary school and one week in a secondary school; additionally, in the curriculum, there is one week of dispersed pedagogical practice, which is carried out at different times and is optional y thematic. The share of practical training in the field of the pedagogical study programme Geography is 13.3 % (Dvopredmetni pedagoški študijski program druge stopnje Geografija, 2019). The fundamental objectives of the pedagogical study programme Geography are: (1) To educate future teachers who, by the time they complete the study programme, wil have the knowledge, skil s and competences which -by international standards - are considered to be fundamental in the field of educating geography teachers, and wil qualify these teachers to teach geography at both the primary and the secondary school level; (2) to educate future teachers who will be qualified to identify and analyse current processes and conditions in the field of education and to transfer these findings into documents and actions that are important for the development of education in both a general sense and in the context of teaching geography; (3) to educate future teachers who wil be able to critical y evaluate the natural-geographical, social, economic and ecological conditions in the region/geographical area with the purpose of educating for sustainable development. 184 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The programme also defines 15 subject-specific competences in teaching geography (Dvopredmetni pedagoški študijski program druge stopnje Geografija, 2019). The purpose of the practical pedagogical training of students is to train them to systematical y observe how teachers, experienced practitioners and fel ow students teach, as well as to train them to plan, perform and evaluate lessons in accordance with modern pedagogical-psychological and didactic theoretical bases and good practice. Furthermore, the purpose is to develop students' awareness which they need to continuously reflect upon their own teaching practices, to adapt the planning and implementation of learning units to the needs of students, to collaborate with other teachers, as wel as to continue their professional development and thus their professional growth. To facilitate this, a portfolio as supporting pedagogical documentation was introduced in the process of the pedagogical training of geography students, thus enabling students to self-reflect and have proof of their practical pedagogical achievements, as wel as enabling their mentors (teachers-mentors and experts for didactics of the subject) to individually monitor and evaluate the students’ progress and achievements (Kolnik et al., 2007). Learning in order to participate in a knowledge-based society has to be focused on forming skil s of independent, critical thinking and deliberation, on the effective handling of sources and information, on team collaboration and lucid communication, as wel as on presenting of ideas. The portfolio strives for the afore-mentioned and at the same time represents an opportunity to see the quality of a particular student's progress and the results of his or her work also in the field of the so-cal ed tacit knowledge - skills, mental abilities, attitude to learning and the profession, and so forth (Klenowski, 2002; Sentočnik, 2004). By the end of the practical pedagogical training, students are expected to have developed competences related to work both in and outside of the classroom, competences related to school, as wel as competences related to their own professionalism (Kolnik et al., 2007). Study: Evaluating practical pedagogical training as part of the pedagogical competence of future geography teachers The evaluation of practical pedagogical training as part of the pedagogical competence of future geography teachers, along with the portfolio (the map of achievements of students’ practical pedagogical training), is part of a broader study entitled “Self-evaluation of the pedagogical competence of students -future K. Kolnik & E. Konečnik Kotnik: Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor 185. geography teachers”, which was carried out from the academic year 2016/17 to the end of the academic year 2018/19. It encompassed two generations of students of the second-cycle pedagogical study programme Geography at the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Maribor. In this paper, the part related to students' self-evaluation of their competence in practical pedagogical work wil be presented. Definition of the content of the research The basic research question for this part of the study was focused on evaluating the importance of the competences of students -future geography teachers -and their self-assessment of achieving these competences. They assessed competences that form part of both general and subject-specific competences but are mainly focused on the field of direct pedagogical training in the so-called practicums, and students are expected to attain them by the end of their studies. Furthermore, the students assessed to what extent they achieved these competences. A more detailed objective of the study was to establish: (1) how much importance students ascribe to individual competences that they should attain/develop during their practical pedagogical training; (2) whether there are any differences in their evaluation of the importance of the three sets of subjects (the so-called PDP module, the geographical didactic module and the elective module); (3) how students evaluate the five organizational forms of practical pedagogical training to achieve their pedagogical competence; (4) whether students of the two observed generations assess individual research parameters differently. The sample of participants The basic surveyed population consisted of al the students that in the academic years 2017/18 (14 students) and 2018/19 (8 students) were enrolled in the second year of the double-major second-cycle study programme Geography at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Maribor. In total, 18 female students (81.8 %) and 4 male students (18.2 %) participated in the study. 186 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Methodological definition of the research The study was based on a descriptive and causal non-experimental method of empirical pedagogical research. As the research instrument a questionnaire was developed for students after they had completed two years of practical pedagogical education. The anonymous questionnaire consisted of two sections and an introduction. In the introductory part, the purpose of the survey was explained, instructions for filling out the questionnaire were given, and respondents were asked to provide some general information about themselves. This was followed by two thematic sets, in which students were asked to evaluate their practical pedagogical training in terms of assessing their own activities and achievements. The first set of questions was related to the objectives of the practical pedagogical training and to the competences that the students achieved. The second set of questions was related to the students’ assessment of three sets of subjects in the curriculum and to the students’ assessment of the forms of practical pedagogical training, as wel as to suggestions for the possibility of improving this training. In the first set, there were two five-point (descriptive) assessment scales, where the respondents were asked about the importance of students’ individual competences. There were three questions in the second set. Two questions also included a five-point assessment scale (rank) to evaluate the relevance of both the previously set study areas and those they had added independently (their elective courses). The open-ended question regarding the extent of the practical training provided three options for a short answer. In the final part, students were asked to write down opinions, suggestions, reflections, praises, criticisms, weaknesses, strengths, which in their estimation could in the future help to further improve the activities of students, teachers and mentors in the framework of practical pedagogical training in the field of geography. Data colection process A broader survey encompassing two generations of students in their final year of studies was conducted between 2017 and 2019; in June 2018 (the 2017/18 generation) and July 2019 (the 2018/19 generation) students completed questionnaires. Ten students of the 2017/18 generation simultaneously completed an anonymous survey questionnaire at their final study meeting, while two, who had K. Kolnik & E. Konečnik Kotnik: Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor 187. been absent at that time, did so afterwards. The 2018/19 generation of students simultaneously completed an anonymous survey questionnaire at their final study meeting at the faculty. Processing the data First, the data from the assessment scales were weighted: numerical values were assigned to the descriptively expressed levels, ranging from a score of 1, which signified the lowest importance, to a score of 5, which signified the highest importance. The questionnaires were statistical y processed in accordance with the purposes and presumptions of the survey; due to the number of participants (14 students in the first group and 8 students in the second group), the research focused on the basic statistical parameters (mean rank and proportion of answers). Results and discussion In the first set of questions, students assessed the part of their study programme that was related to the objectives of practical pedagogical training and evaluated the competences that they had achieved. 5 4,8 4,6 4,4 4,2 nk 4 Ra 3,8 2017/2018 3,6 2018/2019 3,4 3,2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Objectives and competences Graph 1: Evaluation of the competences of the practical pedagogical training of geography students 188 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Legend of the objectives and competences: (1) Effectively observing and evaluating the pedagogical activities of experienced teachers and fel ow students, and planning pedagogical activities based on this; (2) identifying/defining the learning objectives and adjusting the planning and carrying out of lessons to the needs and capabilities of students; (3) differentiating between students’ level of cognitive, social and emotional development, learning style and strategies, and so forth; (4) applying the principles for a quality preparation, execution and evaluation of learning units; (5) using different methods, forms and techniques of teaching, assessing and grading knowledge; (6) anticipating possible problems during pedagogical work in the classroom and planning how to solve them; (7) critically evaluating one’s own pedagogical performance; (8) applying a research approach to problem solving in teaching and pedagogical activities. In accordance with the fundamental objective of pedagogical studies at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Maribor, upon successful y completing the practical part of their studies, that is graduating, students of double-major second-cycle pedagogical study programmes should possess nine sets of competences. The surveyed students evaluated these competences on a five-point scale based on their personal assessment of how important a certain competence is for the successful work of teachers. Both surveyed generations of geography students evaluated the importance of the competences with scores ranging from 3.7 to 4.8 (the 2017/18 generation) and from 3.8 to 4.6 (the 2018/19 generation). The competences “identifying/defining the learning objectives and adjusting the planning and carrying out of lessons to the needs and capabilities of students” and “using different methods, forms and techniques of teaching, assessing and grading knowledge” were given the highest score of 4.8 by the first surveyed generation. The second surveyed generation, however, rated three sets of competences as the most important (with a score of 4.6): the same two that the first group also rated the highest and “critical y evaluating one’s own pedagogical performance”. The two surveyed groups rated the competence “anticipating possible problems during pedagogical work in the classroom and planning how to solve them” with the lowest score. K. Kolnik & E. Konečnik Kotnik: Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor 189. 5 4,5 nk 4 Ra 2017/2018 3,5 2018/2019 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Objectives and competences Note: Objectives and competences as stated in the Legend of Graph 1. Graph 2: Evaluating self-competence at the end of the practical pedagogical training of geography students In the self-evaluation of the attained competences upon completion of the practical pedagogical training, the surveyed students of the 2017/18 generation assessed their success in the range between the lowest evaluated achievement (with a score of 3.5) for their competence in the field of “anticipating possible problems during pedagogical work in the classroom and planning how to solve them”, and highest self-assessment (with a score of 4.7) for their competence “using different methods, forms and techniques of teaching, assessing and grading knowledge”. The second group of surveyed students evaluated two sets of competences as their lowest self-achievement (with a score 3.6): "applying a research approach to problem solving in teaching and pedagogical activities" and "identifying/defining the learning objectives and adjusting the planning and carrying out of lessons to the needs and capabilities of students". In the self-assessment, the highest score of 4.6 was given to the competence “critical y evaluating one’s own pedagogical performance”. A comparison of the questions about the importance of particular competences for the successful work of teachers and about the self-assessment of the attained competences shows that in both surveyed groups, the greatest differences in the assigned scores can be found in the set of competences from the field “identifying/defining the learning objectives and adjusting the planning and carrying out of lessons to the needs and capabilities of students”. In the first surveyed group (the 2017/18 generation), the gap between the importance of the competence for 190 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS successful work of teachers (4.8) and the achieved competence (3.9) is 0.9 points. In the second surveyed group (the 2018/19 generation), the gap is 1.2 (importance of the competence: 4.6; self-assessed achieved competence: 3.4). The 2017/18 generation of surveyed students evaluated the competence of “using different methods, forms and techniques of teaching, assessing and grading knowledge” with the highest score of 4.8, and also self-assessed its achievement of this competence with the highest score of 4.7. The difference between the two scores is minimal (0.1). The ability to “apply the principles for a quality preparation, execution and evaluation of learning units” was evaluated equally by both generations of respondents with a score of 4.1. The 2018/2019 generation of students surveyed assessed the competence of “critical y evaluating one’s own pedagogical performance” with 4.6 both in terms of its importance for successful work and self-assessment of its achievement. In the second part of the questionnaire three questions were posed. Two questions were based on a five-point assessment scale with which the surveyed students evaluated how important certain study fields are to them when it comes to achieving particular competences. The respondents had the possibility to add two individual y selected subjects from the PDP modules to the list of compulsory study subjects and to evaluate them. The third question was related to the extent of practical pedagogical training; the respondents were able to choose one of three options for writing a short answer and justifying it. Table 1: Evaluation of the importance of sets of study subjects (lectures, seminars and tutorials) for achieving the competence objectives of geography students Sets of study subjects Rank Rank 2017/18 2018/19 PDP module: Pedagogy; Didactics; Learning Psychology and Adolescent Development; Working with Students with 3.7 3.8 Disabilities Didactics of geography set: Didactics of Geography 1, 2 and 3; ICT in Geography Lessons 4.7 4.7 PDP module electives and the number of students that selected them: Lessons and Games 4 Discipline and Managing the Class 4 3.5 3.6 Forest School 3Multimedia 2 Volleybal with Aerobic Exercises 1 K. Kolnik & E. Konečnik Kotnik: Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor 191. The geographical-didactic set of four compulsory study subjects received the highest score (4.7) in both surveyed groups assessing the importance for achieving competence. The two surveyed groups were also very much unified in evaluating the importance of compulsory study subjects of the so-cal ed PDP module (with scores of 3.7 and 3.8) and of five elective study subjects (3.5 and 3.6) that they listed (a total of 14 entries). All 14 respondents (out of a total of 22) listed and evaluated the importance of one elective study subject that in their opinion had a significant impact on the competence of teachers. No one chose and evaluated two elective study subjects. The surveyed students had the opportunity to choose from 15 offered study subjects in the curriculum from a common list of the so-called PDP field. Graph 3: Study subjects that provided the best insight into the future profession and work of a geography teacher 30 25 20 15 re in % Sha 10 5 0 Study subjects 2017/2018 2018/2019 The respondents listed those two study subjects from the previously indicated fields of training for the profession that in their opinion gave them the best insight into their future profession and the work of a geography teacher. Respondents from the 2017/18 generation made a total of 26 responses, attributing the largest share of 192 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS influence to the geographical-didactic set (Didactics of Geography 1, 2 and 3; ICT in Geography Lessons) with 67.7 %. With 19.2 % of al responses, the respondents attributed the second highest importance to three study subjects (out of four in total) from the so-called PDP module. Also on the list of the study subjects which the surveyed students of geography considered to have offered the most insight into their future profession was the elective study subject Forest School, which was listed twice (7.7 %). The second group of respondents also ranked the geographical-didactic subjects the highest with 74.9 % of all answers. Of the four compulsory subjects of the so-cal ed PDP module, only two were selected (Didactics and Working with Students with Disabilities); combined they were attributed 12.4 % of influence on the respondents’ insight into the future work of geography teachers. Two elective study subjects were included in the list, i.e. Discipline and Managing the Class and Forest School, with each of them being listed once. None of the respondents included the compulsory study subject Pedagogy in the list of study subjects, and two of the 15 pedagogical elective study subjects were included. K. Kolnik & E. Konečnik Kotnik: Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor 193. Table 2: Evaluation of the organizational forms of practical pedagogical training and the extent of their realization by geography students Organisational Rank of importance Preserve Increase Decrease form % % % 2017/18 2018/19 2017/18 2018/19 2017/18 2018/19 2017/18 2018/19 Supervised in-class observation 4.5 4.7 54.5 % 50 % 45.5 % 50 % 0 % 0 % Observational pedagogical practice 4.4 3.9 81.8 % 87.5 % 18.1 % 12.5 % 0 % 0 % Continuous pedagogical practice 4.0 4.9 0 % 12.5 % 100 % 87.5 % 0 % 0 % Dispersed pedagogical practice 4.5 4.8 45.5 % 37.5 % 45.5 % 62.5 % 9 % 0 % Teaching lessons independently 4.5 4.5 54.5 % 100 % 36.5 % 0 % 9 % 0 % Number of students 14 5 0 % 194 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS In accordance with the curriculum, the practical pedagogical training of the surveyed students was carried out in five organizational forms. The respondents indicated on a five-point scale how important each organizational form is for them in achieving pedagogical competence. They also indicated whether the extent of a certain organizational form should be expanded, reduced or preserved to the present extent. The students of the 2017/18 generation rated the continuous pedagogical practice with the highest score of 5; the respondents of the other group also rated it the highest with a score of 4.9. Both surveyed groups gave the lowest score to observational practice (4.4 and 3.9, respectively), although their assessment differed more, by 0.5. Respondents in both groups stated in the highest proportion of affirmative answers that they would like to expand the extent of continuous pedagogical practice, whereby respondents of the 2017/18 generation choose this option in 100 % and the other group of respondents in 87.5 %. They also showed a high degree of agreement as far as preserving the present extent of observational practice is concerned (81.8 % and 87.5 %). There are differences between the groups with regard to the proportion of those who would like to increase the extent of dispersed pedagogical practice; a substantially a higher proportion (62.5 %) of respondents from the 2018/19 generation than from the 2017/18 generation (45.5 %) was in favour of this. 9 % of respondents from the latter group also expressed the opinion that the extent of dispersed pedagogical practice should be reduced. Opinions regarding the reduction of the number of teaching lessons independently were also in the same proportion. Furthermore, this study wanted to establish how the respondents substantiated their opinions regarding preserving, expanding or reducing certain organizational forms of practical pedagogical training. In total, 16 respondents answered this question, with two respondents substantiating three organizational forms, two substantiating two organizational forms, and the other twelve substantiating one organizational form. Seventeen substantiations referred to increasing the extent of a certain organizational form, no one justified preserving the extent, and one respondent wrote a substantiation for reducing an organizational form. Their replies are listed in Table 3 in a somewhat abbreviated format, which, however, does not change their informational value. K. Kolnik & E. Konečnik Kotnik: Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, Univer Table 3: Substantiations for expanding/reducing the extent of the forms of practical pedagogical training for geography students Organizational Forms Substantiation: Increase - more opportunities to learn about different types of schools as wel as different types of teachers Supervised in- - each teacher has his or her own way of working and managing the class class -it would be good to have more insight observation - with in-class observation one can get different ideas on how to teach, which is very important, especial y in the beginning - each class is ‘a world of its own’; the more of them one sees, the better one can prepare for diversity - first contact with practical work Observational - as a student one has rarely had/has had little insight into how the pedagogical school as a whole works practice - providing more insight into how one interacts with parents, co-workers, etc. - currently there are many activities and a high workload over a short period of time -for both students and mentors Continuous - the most direct contact with the future profession pedagogical - merely after one week one gets used to the rhythm and the students practice - not enough time to get to know students of different ages - the opportunity to learn about different good practices - in a week one cannot try out some of the more extensive teaching methods, e. g. project work - at least once more for a longer period, since the diversity of the Dispersed teacher's work also changes throughout the school year pedagogical - to gain experience in teamwork practice - opportunities for participating in school projects - one can widen the circle of pedagogical acquaintances, which may prove useful later, when searching for a job Teaching lessons - because one has both a teacher at school and an expert at the didactics independently of the subject at one’s disposal and one can get good feedback Substantiation: reduce Teaching lessons - it is very stressful because one is being evaluated independently In the concluding part, students were asked to freely write down messages, opinions, suggestions, reflections, praises, criticisms, weaknesses and strengths that they thought could help improve the work of students, teachers and mentors in practical pedagogical training in the field of geography. Al of the students responded, but 196 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS their messages differed both in scope (from a few sentences to a ful A4 page) and in content. The following are four examples of messages. Example of message 1: “Especial y during the pedagogical practice in the last semester, I devoted a lot of time to self-reflection and to the planning of my professional development. Although the work is inspiring, I had to weigh my options as far as my competences and employability are concerned. Sometimes planning one’s professional development requires giving up (at least temporarily) one’s personal ambitions or the desire to have a higher purpose. Such stories can have a very tragic ending. Therefore, one’s career path should be formed slowly, careful y and honestly. I have learned that although fears lead to sleepless nights, they send us messages from our sub-consciousness that are worth paying attention to.” (male student, June 2018) Example of message 2: “In the course of al the lectures and seminars I would have liked to have had more guest lecturers/practitioners, as was for instance the case with the subject ICT in Geography Lessons, where in addition to lectures we had practical exercises in the classroom or in the form of fieldwork (GPS, mobile applications). I real y like it if experts from different fields come and talk about their experiences.” (female student, June 2019) Example of message 3: “Teaching lessons independently could be assessed immediately after the pedagogical practice, when one stil has a true sense of how it is to be in the classroom.” (female student, 2018). Example of message 4: “I am satisfied and everyone from the professors to the mentors deserves praise. If 5 years or 2 years ago someone had asked me whether I can imagine myself teaching a class, I would have said no, but now I hope to get a job as a geography teacher.” (male student, June 2018) Conclusion At the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Maribor we encourage students to self-reflect by means of various forms of study, in individual and group dynamics, and especial y with the method of putting together a portfolio. The most important part of the portfolio is the student's critical thinking and assessment of his or her own work and results. The results of the present study clearly show self-reflection to be an element of professional development that was firmly embedded in the personal and professional image of future geography teachers. We deem this to be a significant achievement. K. Kolnik & E. Konečnik Kotnik: Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, Univer The present study had four objectives. With regard to the first research objective, which was to determine how much importance geography students ascribe to developing particular competences during their practical pedagogical training, it can be concluded that both generations of surveyed students decidedly confirm the importance of al competences, since scores range from 3.7 to 4.8. Students ascribed the highest importance to the following competences: “identifying/defining the learning objectives and adjusting the planning and carrying out of lessons to the needs and capabilities of students”, “using different methods, forms and techniques of teaching, assessing and grading knowledge” and “critically evaluating one’s own pedagogical performance”. With regard to achieving particular competences, the surveyed students’ self-assessment is that they achieved a high degree of al the competences, with scores ranging from 3.5 to 4.7. The competences in the fol owing areas were ranked the lowest: “anticipating possible problems during pedagogical work in the classroom and planning how to solve them”, “applying a research approach to problem solving in teaching and pedagogical activities”, “identifying/defining the learning objectives and adjusting the planning and carrying out of lessons to the needs and capabilities of students”. Students expressed the opinion that the competences they developed best were “using different methods, forms and techniques of teaching, assessing and grading knowledge” and “critical y evaluating one’s own pedagogical performance”. In educating future geography teachers at the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Maribor the fol owing are some of the key questions that we, as educators, ask ourselves: whether we successful y teach students how to think actively; whether we lay good foundations for their further professional development; whether we meet their individual needs. Based on how the students in the present survey assessed their own competences, it can be confirmed that the pedagogical study programme of Geography corresponds to the professional needs as perceived by students. The self-assessments of competence attainment show that in the process of the second-cycle study, we sufficiently stimulate and direct professional development. Perhaps most important is the realization that students consider “critical y evaluating one’s own pedagogical performance” as one of the most important competences, as wel as one of the competences they manage to achieve best. 198 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS This research has established that in the framework of the pedagogical study programme, some more attention could be devoted to working with students in order to develop a “research approach to problem solving in teaching and pedagogical activities” and to develop the ability to “anticipate possible problems during pedagogical work in the classroom and planning how to solve them.” In the case of the latter competence, we, first and foremost, see opportunities in the framework of the so-cal ed PDP module, while in the case of the former competence, opportunities exist in the framework of al study subjects. Grimmet (1994, as cited in Niemi & Kohonen, 1995, p. 73; see also Ivanuš Grmek et al., 2007) emphasizes the idea of progressive teachers who primarily see themselves as learners in the process of teaching and learning. The classroom is both a place where the teacher encourages students to learn and a place where they themselves learn a great deal about teaching. The teacher's most important characteristic is therefore the ability to constantly learn through their work -teaching, which he or she is constantly exploring. Eraut (1998, as cited in Day, 1999, p. 58) also points out that in addition to developing competences in the field of accomplishing various exercises, tasks and roles, teachers need to develop the need for continuous professional learning and development both on the individual level and in a social context. The study also identified whether there are differences in assessing the importance of the three sets of study subjects (the so-cal ed PDP module, the geographical didactic module and the module of electives) for attaining the target competences of geography students. The results affirm the concept of the pedagogical study programme at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Maribor, where the general contents of the so-called PDP module form the basis, while subject-specific didactic content is an upgrade of the pedagogical training. According to the surveyed students of geography, the latter is what comes closest to a real professional competence; therefore it is of exceptional and irreplaceable importance for the quality training of students of specific subject areas. With regard to the research objective of wanting to find out how respondents assess the five organizational forms of practical pedagogical training in order to achieve their pedagogical competence, it can be concluded that the surveyed students value all forms of practical pedagogical training very highly, with continuous practice being valued the highest. Although there are minor differences between the surveyed generations of geography students, our research also shows that students want to K. Kolnik & E. Konečnik Kotnik: Evaluation of the Practical Pedagogical Training of Students in the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, Univer increase the extent of al practical forms of study, which they substantiated in diverse and meaningful ways. The need for a greater share of practical pedagogical training is not new; on the contrary, it has regularly been expressed by many generations of students in various forms of self-reflection. With the recent introduction of the Bologna study programmes at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Maribor, there have been positive developments, such as the introduction of dispersed and observational practice (Dvopredmetni pedagoški študijski program druge stopnje Geografija, 2019), however, this trend needs to be developed further in the future -the extent of all forms of practical training needs to be increased. Unfortunately, in the structure of pedagogical study programmes the focus is stil on teachers having a good command of their field of expertise, that is the content that they wil teach. However, how they wil teach they are, to a large extent, expected to learn while already teaching. Thus, a limited number of hours are devoted to general pedagogical–psychological and special-didactic subjects and to pedagogical practice (see, e.g. Ivanuš Grmek et al. 2007; Marentič Požarnik, 2000). As a basis for increasing the extent of practical pedagogical training there is a need to implement systemic changes that would more satisfactorily regulate the cooperation of faculties and schools. References Day, C. (1999). Developing teachers. The chalenges of lifelong learning. London: Falmer Press. Dvopredmetni pedagoški študijski program druge stopnje Geografija [Second cycle double major study program Geography]. (2019, September 16). http://www.ff.um.si/dotAsset/76011.pdf Ivanuš Grmek, M., Javornik Krečič, M., Kolnik, K., & Konečnik Kotnik, E. (2007). Učitelji mentorji in visokošolski učitelji o kompetencah študentov -bodočih učiteljev [Teacher mentors and higher education on competeny of students -future teachers]. Pedagoška obzorja: časopis za didaktiko in metodiko, 22(1/2), 28–42. Klenowski, V. (2002). Developing portfolios for learning and assessment: Processes and principles. Routledge Falmer. Kolnik, K., Konečnik Kotnik, E., Ivanuš Grmek, M., & Javornik Krečič, M. (2007). Mapa dosežkov praktičnega pedagoškega usposabljanja študenta: nova oblika študijske dokumentacije. In A. Vovk Korže, N. Vihar & A. Nekrep (Eds.), Partnerstvo fakultet in šol kot spodbuda profesionalnemu razvoju učiteljev [Faculty and school partnership as encouragement for teachers’ professional development] (pp. 15–22). Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta. Marentič Požarnik, B. (2000). Uveljavljanje kompetenčnega pristopa terja vizijo, pa tudi strokovno utemeljeno strategijo spreminjanja pouka [Incorporating competency approach requires vision 200 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS and professional y-established strategy of changing the teaching]. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 37(1),27–32. Niemi, H., & Kohonen, V. (1995). Towards new professionalism and active learning in teacher development: Empirical findings on teacher education and induction. Tampere University. Sentočnik, S. (1999). Portfolio, instrument za procesno vrednotenje učenčevega in učiteljevega dela [Portfolio, the instrument for process evaluation of the student’s and the teacher’s work], Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 3, Ljubljana, str. 15–20. Thiessen, D. (2002). A skilful start to a teaching career: A matter of developing impactful behaviors, reflective practices, or professional knowledge. International Journal of Educational Research, 33(5), 515–537. Zelena knjiga o izobraževanju učiteljev. Kakovostno izobraževanje učiteljev za kakovost v vzgoji, izobraževanju in usposabljanju [Green book on teacher education. Quality teacher education for quality education and training] (2001). Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za šolstvo, znanost in šport. THE USE OF TEXTBOOKS IN THE TEACHING- LEARNING PROCESS MONIKA MITHANS & MILENA IVANUŠ GRMEK University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: monika.mithans1@um.si, milena.grmek@um.si Abstract The following paper presents the results of The Quality of Slovenian Textbooks (KaUč) project, the main objective of which is to develop textbook quality indicators for practical use in the validation and evaluation processes. The first part of the paper focuses on the definition of a textbook and its role in the process of education, since textbooks stil represent the essential didactic tool in teaching school subjects. The empirical part of the paper explores the textbook use at different stages of curriculum implementation in the Slovenian primary and secondary schools. The results indicate that the primary school Keywords: educators use textbooks in the revision and reinforcement stage, lesson while the secondary school educators mostly use them in the stages, textbook stage of teaching the educational content. Thus, it is concluded quality, that teachers consider secondary school students more mature lesson, than the younger students and assign them more comprehensive textbook, textbook tasks. use. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.10 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 202 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The textbook is the main carrier of the curriculum and represents the dominant role in school subject teaching and learning (Sherman et al., 2016; Hadar, 2017). It is the key schoolbook, used by students on a daily basis (Ivanuš Grmek, 2003; Mullis et al., 2012). Consequently, it is assigned the key role in the system of educational tools (Skela, 2008a). However, the textbook is just one of the tools that help teachers achieve their educational goals. Teachers use teaching aids autonomously and plan individually when and how they wil use them. In addition, teachers no longer have to follow the guidelines of one textbook, as several different textbooks are available for individual subjects. Teachers can choose the one that best suits both their teaching style and the specific characteristics of their students (Justin et al., 2003). Since the textbook is an important element of the teaching-learning process, the textbook politics must become part of the educational politics and receive more professional attention as well as a greater deal of systematic discussion (Turk Škraba, 2006). Learning-oriented curricula does not only bring a great deal of autonomy for teachers, but it also enables various content and pedagogical approaches for the authors and the publishers. In addition, it positively effects the pluralisation of textbook supply (Kovač et al., 2005). Greater autonomy can encourage greater professional commitment, or it can, on the other hand, make teachers focus solely on the education and content solutions found in selected textbooks and other tools, such as workbooks, teaching aids, didactic instructions, worksheets, samples of teachers’ lesson plans, and others. Publishers have been publishing professional teaching materials that include reliable and effective solutions for nearly every dilemma and dimension of the education process (Justin et al., 2003). What is a Textbook? Article 2 of the Pravilnik o potrjevanju učbenikov (2015) defined the textbook as the “basic teaching material to achieve the educational objectives and standards of knowledge defined in the curriculum and the catalogue of knowledge.” According to these rules, school reader books are also classified as textbooks, as they are a col ection of texts selected in accordance with the curriculum goals. Textbooks can either be printed or electronic ( Pravilnik o potrjevanju učbenikov, 2015, Article 2). M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 203. Poljak (1983) considered the textbook as the basic teaching and learning material which enables students to acquire the necessary knowledge, develop critical, creative and dialectical thinking, and develop their mental skills, while Gak (2011) defined the textbook as one of the numerous sources that enables teachers to provide quality teaching. Kovač et al. characterized the textbook as “a textual teaching medium and part of educational tools that aids both, the efficiency of teaching as well as individual learning” (2005, p. 20). Ivanuš Grmek (2003) defined the textbook as a significant teaching-learning book, in which science and/or a certain discipline is transformed in a way that is accessible to al students. Since it is intended for mass use, the principles of the majority must be considered in the creation of textbooks. Furthermore, the language should be adapted to learners’ developmental stage and the content, range of problems and the level of complexity should comply with the particular developmental stage of average learners (Ivanuš Grmek, 2003). Undeniably, the textbook is an important educational tool that mediates knowledge to new generations (Palló, 2006), and can be, according to Marentič Požarnik (1988), classified as one of the external factors of successful learning. It represents a particular kind of professional literature “defined by the content and target audience. On a broader scale, it is defined by the school system, since its content is ‘determined’ by the national curricula and the content and operational objectives of the subject or subject area” (Turk Škraba, 2006). Accordingly, it can be concluded that textbooks have a great influence on the achievement of the curriculum goals (Hadar, 2017). According to Ersoy & Şahin (2012), textbooks continue to remain the educational material that is matched with the mandatory curriculum. The textbook should enhance the teaching-learning process with the use of the didactic-methodological organisation of the content and the adapted visual and graphic material. Both the textbook content as wel as its structure are designed for independent learning and acquiring various levels and types of knowledge. Its contents and structure depend on the school subject and the educational level ( Pravilnik o potrjevanju učbenikov, 2015, Article 2). 204 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Scientific content in the textbook is structured, transformed and simplified appropriately, as students have little prior knowledge of the content provided. Additional y, textbooks fol ow specific rules of the cognitive process wherein the content is didactical y processed and hence understandable to students (Kovač et al., 2005). For this reason, the scientific content, logic, and terminology should be transmitted into textbooks by means of the so-called didactic transformations, which simplify, shorten and select the presented content. The didactic transformation occurs on three levels: the level of goals, the level of the scientific system and the level of the teaching content (Strmčnik, 1997, 2001). The didactic transformation is an extremely chal enging process, since it must produce a functional and coherent textbook for its users (Turk Škraba, 2005). The divergences in textbooks are subject to different understanding of curricula designed on the basis of both specific pedagogical purpose as well as cultural and educational tradition (van den Ham & Heinze, 2018). “In practice, we occasional y (stil ) encounter erroneous definitions. Some teachers, as wel as students and their parents believe the textbook has the role and definition of the curriculum and often mistake the textbook for the curriculum” (Turk Škraba, 2006, p. 31). Hence, the textbook contents in educational practice are often strictly followed (Hadar, 2017). However, despite all its advantages and quality, a textbook can only assist teachers in achieving a certain standard of knowledge determined by the curricula or catalogues of knowledge and should only be one of the sources of knowledge, but under no circumstances a collection of the entire content of the subject (Turk Škraba, 2005). In addition to textbooks, teachers also use other educational tools in accordance with the aim to achieve educational goals determined by the curriculum. Štefanc (2005) defined these additional aids as the material that is either specifically designed for the use in the classroom or individually chosen by the teachers for the purpose of teaching. Characteristics of a Quality Textbook The guiding principles of each school are quality, teaching quality, and the quality of knowledge, which undoubtedly depends on the quality of educational resources that aid both, teachers in the teaching process as wel as students in the learning process (Cigler, 1997); textbooks, as educational resources, represent part of the complex M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 205. system of education processes (Turk Škraba, 2005). A good textbook is the students' most important source of knowledge, since it helps them acquire knowledge and contributes to their personal development (Cigler, 1997). One of the key roles of a good textbook is also to encourage students to acquire knowledge independently (Turk Škraba, 2005). Due to ongoing changes in the world, one of the problems of textbooks is that they quickly become outdated and should be written in a way that they can be used for several years (Šmit, 2011). According to Cigler (1997), a textbook’s appearance should be attractive, especially its cover design, and its language should be appealing to the students. The textbook must also include students’ expressive abilities and characteristics, while enriching their vocabulary (Zupanič, 2014). In addition, it should contain clear messages that motivate students to learn with comprehension, as opposed to learning texts they do not understand by heart. This can be achieved by providing clarity of the content, which is enhanced by images and il ustrations. The content should provide basic facts, definitions and concepts. All illustrations, images and graphs should provide captions that direct students to the essence of their content (Cigler, 1997). Turk Škraba (2005) evaluated textbook quality according to the following three perspectives: (1) From the perspective of the country, which is the provider of the education system and which legal y defines the goals to be achieved by the participants in the education process; (2) from the perspective of the mediators, that is the teachers, who transfer the determined educational content to their students; (3) from the perspective of the users, that is the students, for whom the textbook is intended. The official standards for the quality of teaching materials in Slovenia are defined in Article 3 of Pravilnik o potrjevanju učbenikov (2015). In accordance with these rules, a textbook can be approved if the following standards are met: (1) The textbook is consistent with the statutory goals of the educational system in the Republic of Slovenia; (2) if the goals, knowledge standards, and contents are in line with the current curriculum and the catalogue of knowledge; (3) if it is in line with the contemporary findings of the subject; (4) if it is appropriate from a methodological-didactic point of view; (5) if it adheres to the norms and criteria for school bag weight reduction, adopted by the National Education Institute Slovenia; (6) if it is suitable for the developmental stage and age of participants in the educational process, (7) if 206 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS it is linguistically correct and appropriate, designed aesthetically, and visually and technical y appropriate. Unless the above-mentioned criteria are met, the Expert Council of the Republic of Slovenia for General Education shal not approve the textbook. In addition, a quality textbook should also abide by didactic principles, as they represent the basic guidelines of teaching. According to Strmčnik (2001), didactic principles represent an important theoretical foundation for education. For this reason, they also play an important role in conveying the content of the textbook. Kovač et al. (2005) claimed that the following factors and principles should be followed in the creation of a quality textbook: (1) When evaluating the textbook content quality, it is necessary to take into account the principle of clarity, real-life and logical correctness and the system and structure of teaching; (2) from the perspective of the attitude towards the student, it is crucial to consider the zone of proximal development, and the principles of individualization and education; (3) the principles of activity and difficulty should be followed in terms of student activity; (4) the principle of economics and rationality should be considered in terms of the teaching process organization. Jurman (1999) agreed that the textbook should be designed as clearly as possible and that its author should use examples and illustrations from the real world, while Kramar (2009) pointed out that learning is more successful, if the teaching material is clearly structured and systematic. By al means, a good textbook should be adapted to the students’ developmental stage, as their physical and mental abilities differ. It is also important that students learn gradually. The textbook’s level of difficulty should be adapted to the average student intel igence. However, below- and above-average talented students should be given adapted additional assignments (Jurman, 1999). In accordance with didactic principles, Kovač et al. (2005) are convinced that a quality textbook’s content and design encompass all guiding principles for quality textbooks. A quality contemporary textbook cannot merely be a “mechanical” didactic transformation of scientific content. It should also encourage active learning, a thorough understanding of teaching material, the interconnection of multiple subjects (Turk Škraba, 2006), students’ willingness to learn and be creative, M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 207. and enable them the opportunity for individualisation. The textbook should encourage students to cooperate and contribute to the development of language and values, such as criticism, democracy, tolerance and gender equality (Cigler, 1997). Skela (2008b) claimed that a good textbook awakens students’ curiosity, interest and attention and should not make them feel uneasy. It should help them build self-confidence and motivate them to learn. Educational content in the textbook should be relevant and useful. Above al , the textbook should accommodate students’ different learning styles. The Role of the Textbook in the Teaching-Learning Process The textbook is one of the essential educational tools in the teaching-learning process (Kovač et al., 2005) and is intended for the use of both the students and the teachers (Remil ard, 2005). The research conducted by Herlinda (2014) showed that teachers consider textbook the basic tool in the teaching process. It functions as a teaching or learning tool, providing learning activities for students (Gak, 2011; Štefanc, 2005). Furthermore, it functions both as an informative as well as a formative tool, as it provides knowledge and simultaneously enables the development of competence, skills and values (Kukanja-Gabrijelčič, 2015). In the process of teaching, textbook functions on both, didactical as wel as educational level (Jurman, 1999). It is a crucial learning tool (Hung Lau et al., 2018) as it provides learning resources and contents that should motivate students to learn. Additionally, it is important as a tool for independent learning and reinforcing the learned content (Kovač et al., 2005). The textbook is subject to social control mechanisms, since it represents a source of knowledge that is official y recognized as suitable and objective. The open market for textbooks and a wide range of textbook supply suggest the democratizing of the school space and underline the importance of developing professional criteria for determining the quality of textbooks (Kovač et al., 2005). A quality textbook often represents the basis for a quality lesson, as found by Hadar (2017) in her research analysis dealing with the interaction between textbooks and teachers. The author found that (mathematics) teachers frequently strictly follow textbooks when 208 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS delivering educational content. It is also important to note that teachers using various textbooks implement different didactic strategies. Moreover, textbooks influence the selection of teaching material. Ham & Heinze (2018) found that topics not included in textbooks are rarely discussed in class, as teachers mostly use them as a guiding instructional tool (Hung Lau et al., 2018). Learning from a textbook can only be efficient if it is adapted for students and vice versa, as this is the only way students are able to learn how to use effective learning strategies. Authors can adapt textbooks to match the students’ needs if they consider both the students’ developmental stage as wel as the level of comprehension. Textbooks are written in short comprehensive sentences and in simple and plain language, devoid of unnecessary foreign words. They have a good topical structure, using titles and subtitles, which makes navigation through text simpler. Including various tasks, questions, summaries and glossaries of new concepts, the textbook improves students’ reading comprehension and greater cognitive abilities (Marentič Požarnik, 2019). Hence, Cigler (1997) claimed that the choice of textbook does not only depend on its quality but also on several other factors, one of the most important being the teachers’ wil ingness to adapt their style of work to the style of teaching offered or demanded by the textbook. Another important factor is the students’ ability to recognize the quality of the textbook. In order to design a quality didactic textbook, authors should be well acquainted with contemporary didactics. They should be familiarized with the teaching-learning process structure and its principles. They should fol ow the teaching-learning activity principle and equip the textbook with a variety of activities. This allows students to construct knowledge through their own activity and learn the methods of learning (Poljak, 1983). Additionally, authors should consider the textbook's cover design, language, writing style, and artistic and graphic design (Ivanuš Grmek, 2003). Textbooks should be written in a way that assists students to learn the educational content and simultaneously complement and expand other sources of education. Teachers wil be able to use the textbook effectively at al stages of the learning process, if the textbook is based on a proper didactic design (Poljak, 1983). M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 209. The role of the teacher is crucial in the initial stage of the teaching-learning process. Nevertheless, the function of the textbook should not be disregarded, since it is supposed to include the tasks, which students need to complete prior to learning new educational content. Textbooks adhering to this didactic criterion thus represent a source of information during students’ preparatory work, which they can either do at home, or it can be integrated in the lesson by the teacher. The text including such tasks should be concise, since the introduction to new educational content is rather brief (Poljak, 1983). The importance of the textbook becomes even greater when new educational content is discussed in the classroom. The objective of learning educational contents is to acquire knowledge. Therefore, this stage must be carefully and didactically designed. The content should be designed in a way that encourages students to learn and to complement and broaden teachers’ instructions. Textbook authors should therefore fol ow the framework of desired knowledge and design it logical y. They should highlight key points and present them in a logical sequence in the form of subheadings so that students can understand the basic topical content structure at a glance (Poljak, 1983). As a secondary source, the textbook cannot replace the objective reality, however, the latter can be presented in several ways (original text, sketches, diagrams, and so forth). Furthermore, it should be presented clearly and unambiguously. In addition to the inclusion of facts, generalizations are also important. Students can understand them only through verbal explanation and clarification, which the author should include in the textbook in order to al ow students different ways of generalizing. Another important aspect, relevant to didactic adequacy of the textbook, is considering both students’ developmental stage and the balance between facts and generalizations. Teachers play an important role in this aspect, as they should be wel acquainted with the textbook content and match their teaching style with that content by not merely listing textbook facts and thus increasing students’ awareness (Poljak, 1983). Practice (exercises) and reviewing the educational content are additional components of the teaching-learning process. The textbook should include additional work and exercises, which helps students practice tasks they should master. In order to ensure the sustainability of knowledge, textbooks should be 210 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS designed in a way that al ows students to revise their knowledge. Authors can indicate the importance of certain parts of the text by using various types of font and print. Additionally, reviewing can be indicated by forming generalization, summaries, graphics, and so forth (Poljak, 1983). Students should have the possibility to self-determine the level of acquired knowledge within each lesson. Textbook authors can enable student self-assessment by providing self-assessment exercises. Students can evaluate their knowledge by answering questions and doing exercises that indicate whether they have acquired the operational level of knowledge or whether they have learnt the content merely to reproduce knowledge (Poljak, 1983). To sum up the theoretical part of the study, we defined the textbook as a teaching tool and highlighted the characteristics of a quality textbook and its role in the teaching-learning process. In the following part of the study, we present the results of the empirical research of textbook use in the classroom, obtained by the Quality of Slovenian Textbooks project (KaUč). Empirical Research The Purpose of the Empirical Research Results presented are part of an extensive research carried out by KaUč), the purpose of which is to develop textbook quality indicators for practical use in the validation and evaluation processes. The research deals with textbook use in the teaching process in the Slovenian primary and secondary schools. Our study presents results related to textbook use in the classroom, the use of different types of textbooks, and the use of other teaching materials. In order to clarify the terminology dealing with the Slovenian education system in the following study, we present a brief explanation of the Slovenian basic and secondary education system. M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 211. Slovenian basic education lasts nine years. Students enter primary school at the age of 6 and complete it at the age of 15. The primary school education is divided into three education periods, each covering three grades. First education period includes grades 1, 2, and 3. During this period, all subjects are taught by one teacher, hereafter referred to as the elementary teacher. The second education period of primary school includes grades 4, 5, and 6. Subjects are taught by one teacher in the fourth and fifth grades, but in the sixth grade, subjects are taught by individual teachers, hereafter referred to as subject teachers. The third education period includes grades 7, 8, and 9, and subjects are taught by subject teachers. After basic education, students can choose to enter secondary school, which lasts three to four years, depending on the type of school, but general y, children attend secondary school from the age of 15 to 18. We were given textbook use data for individual subjects by the primary school elementary teachers of the first and partly the second education periods, namely from the first to fifth grade of primary school, primary school subject teachers of the third education period, and secondary school teachers. We selected the textbook use research for those subjects, for which we received the most feedback, including the number of participating teachers and their answers. The textbook use research of first period primary school teachers includes subjects such as Slovenian language, mathematics, social studies, environmental studies and engineering. The second period primary school teacher textbook use research mostly analyses mathematical and science textbooks for subject such as mathematics, natural science, and biology, and lastly, the secondary school teacher research mostly includes language and mathematical textbooks. The Research Sample The Research Sample of the Primary School Elementary Teachers The survey includes 44 elementary teachers in the first and partly second education periods, teaching students from the first to fifth grade. 95.5 % of them are female. On average, the surveyed teachers are 43.8 years of age, with a minimum of 26 and a maximum of 59 years of age. Their average years of service amount to 20.6 years, 212 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS with a minimum of 1 year and a maximum of 38 years. In terms of work experience, this is quite a heterogeneous group of teachers. 61.4 % of the surveyed teachers completed the seventh level of education and 63.3 % of them teach in the first education period. 34.1 % come from the Gorizia region of Slovenia, 27.3 % from the Central Sava region, and 22.7 % from the Southeast Slovenia region. The Research Sample of the Primary School Subject Teachers The survey includes 41 primary school subject teachers. 90.2 % of them are female. On average, the surveyed teachers are 44.2 years of age, with a minimum of 27 and a maximum of 64 years of age. Their average years of service amount to 18.7 years, with a minimum of 3 years and a maximum of 38 years. In terms of work experience, this is quite a heterogeneous group of teachers as wel . 56.1 % of the surveyed teachers completed the seventh level of education. 56.1 % of them teach both in the second and third education period, 39 % only in the third and 4.9 % only in the second period. 36.6 % come from the Gorizia region of Slovenia and 26.8 % from the Central Sava region. The research sample of the secondary school teachers The survey includes 66 secondary school teachers. 77.3 % of them are female. On average, the surveyed teachers are 45.3 years of age, with a minimum of 30 and a maximum of 65 years of age. Their average years of service amount to 18.9 years, with a minimum of 1 year and a maximum of 39 years. In terms of work experience, this group is quite heterogeneous as well. 72.7 % of the surveyed teachers completed the seventh level of education. 61.5 % of them teach in the secondary general education and 21.5 % teach in secondary technical and professional education. 60.6 % come from the Central Sava region of Slovenia and 39.4 % from the Gorizia region. M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 213. Data col ecting and processing procedures We collected the data with the help of an online questionnaire, consisting of sets of questions and sets of evaluating scales. The constructed questionnaire is validated by the up-to-date scientific knowledge and by the practitioner teacher review. The reliability of the questionnaire was ensured by precise, specific questions, clear instructions as wel as with the use of probing questions. The objectivity of the questionnaire is based on the fact that the interviews were conducted via web (individually, without the presence of the researcher). Furthermore, it mostly includes closed ended questions which enables an objective answer processing. Considering the limited sample of respondents, we only used the methods of descriptive statistics (frequency distributions, basic descriptive statistics), since the conditions for generalization methods (inferential statistics) were not fulfilled. Results and Discussion The survey includes titles of al textbooks used by the surveyed teachers. Table 1 below lists textbooks that the surveyed elementary teachers use with their students for individual subjects in grades from 1 to 5. Table 1: Textbooks used in subjects such as Slovenian, mathematics, social science, environmental science, natural science and technology in individual grades from 1 to 5. SLOVENIAN LANGUAGE Grade f Ko pravljice oživijo [When fairy-tales come to life], a textbook, 1. published by Izolit 1 Jaz pa berem 1 [I Can Read 1], a school reader, published by Rokus Klett 1 Na mavrico po pravljico [Fairy-tale on a rainbow], a textbook for the 2nd grade, published by Izolit 1 Na mavrico po pravljico [Fairy-tale on a rainbow], a school reader for 2. the 2nd grade, published by Izolit 4 Kdo bo z nami šel v gozdiček [Who wants to join us in the forest], a textbook for Slovenian literature in the 2nd grade, published by 5 Mladinska knjiga Moje branje -svet in sanje [My reading -world and dreams], a school 3. reader for the 3rd grade, published by Rokus Klett 1 S slikanico se igram in učim [I play and learn with my picture book], a textbook for the 3rd grade, published by Mladinska knjiga 2 214 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Berilo 4, Razširi roke [School reader 4, open your arms], published by 4. Mladinska knjiga 1 Radovednih 5: Berilo 4 [The curious 5: School reader 5], a workbook, published by Rokus Klett 3 Radovednih 5 [The Curious 5], a school reader for the 5th grade, published by Rokus Klett 2 Na krilih besed 5 [On the wings of words 5], a school reader for the 5. 5th grade, published by Mladinska knjiga 1 Znanka ali uganka 5 [Solution or a puzzle 5], a workbook, published by DZS 1 Na krilih besed, Berilo 5 [On the wings of words 5], a school reader, published by Mladinska knjiga 2 MATHEMATICS Grade f 1. Prva matematika [First Mathematics], published by Mladinska knjiga 5 2 Matematika 2 [Mathematics 2], published by Mladinska knjiga 2 3. Matematika 3 [Mathematics 3], published by Mladinska knjiga 2 4. Radovednih pet, matematika 4 [Curious Five, Mathematics 4], published by Rokus Klett 3 Radovednih pet: matematika 5 [Curious Five, Maths 5], published by 5. Rokus Klett 1 Svet matematičnih čudes 5 [The World of Mathematical Wonders], published by DZS 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE Grade f Družba in jaz 1, učbenik za 4. razred [Society and I 1, 4th grade 4. textbook], published by Modrijan 3 Radovednih pet, družba 4, učbenik za 4. razred [Curious Five, Social Science 4, 4th grade textbook], published by Rokus Klett 4 Radovednih pet: Družba 5 [Curious Five: Social Science 5], published 5. by Rokus Klett 3 Družba in jaz 2, učbenik za družbo v 5. razredu [Society and I 2, 5th grade social science textbook], published by Modrijan 6 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Grade f 1. Dotik okolja 1 [A Touch of the Environment 1], published by Mladinska knjiga 2 2. Okolje in jaz 2 [Environment and I 2], published by Modrijan 1 3. Spoznavanje okolja 3 [Discovering the Science of the Environment 3], published by Mladinska knjiga 1 NATURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Grade f Od mravlje do sonca 1, učbenik za 4.razred [From an Ant to the Sun, 4th 4. grade textbook], published by Modrijan 3 Naravoslovje in tehnika 4 [Natural Sciences and Engineering 4], 2 published by Mladinska knjiga M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 215. Raziskujemo in gradimo 4 [We are Exploring and Building 4], published by Mladinska knjiga 1 Radovednih 5: naravoslovje in tehnika 5 [The Curious 5: Natural Sciences 5. and Engineering 5], published by Rokus Klett 4 Raziskujemo, gradimo 5 [We are Exploring and Building 5], published by Mladinska knjiga 2 Most textbooks within the same class are used by the Slovenian language teachers. Social science and natural science and technology teachers mostly use two or three different textbooks, and environmental science and mathematics teachers use one textbook within the same class. Table 2 below lists textbooks for individual subjects used by primary school subject teachers. Table 2: Textbooks used for mathematics, natural sciences, biology, chemistry, physics, geography, history, Slovenian, English, and German languages, art, music, engineering and technology, and home economics. E-učbenik [E-textbook], Rokus Klett 1 BIOLOGY Dotik življenja [The touch of life], Rokus Klet 3 Spoznavam živi svet [Discovering the living world], DZS 2 Spoznavam svoje telo [Discovering my body], DZS 1 Interaktivni učbenik [Interactive textbook] 1 Pipinova knjiga [Pipin’s book] 1 CHEMISTRY Od molekule do makromolekule [From the molecule to the macromolecule] 2 Od atoma do molekule [From the atom to the molecule] 2 Interaktivni učbenik [Interactive Textbook] 1 Kemija danes [Chemistry today], DZS 1 PHYSICS Moja prva fizika 1, 2 [My first physics 1, 2], Modrijan 2 E-učbenik [E-textbook], National Education Institute 1 GEOGRAPHY Raziskujem stari svet 7; Raziskujem novi svet 8 [Exploring the old world 7; 2 Exploring the new world 8], Rokus Klett Spoznavam Evropo in Azijo; Spoznavam Afriko in Novi svet [Discovering Europe 2 and Asia; Discovering Africa and the New World], Modrijan Moja prva geografija [My first geography], Modrijan 1 Raziskujem Slovenijo [Exploring Slovenia], Rokus Klett 1 HISTORY Raziskujem preteklost 8, 9 [Exploring history 8, 9], Rokus Klett 2 216 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Stari in srednji vek [Old and Middle Ages], Modrijan 1 SLOVENIAN Slovenščina za vsak dan 7, 8 [Everyday Slovenian 7, 8], Rokus Klett 2 Slovenščina 8, 9 [Slovenian Language 8, 9, E-textbook] 2 Od glasov do knjižnih svetov [From sounds to literary worlds], Rokus Klett 2 Gradimo slovenski jezik [Building the Slovenian language], Rokus Klett 2 Berilo 7 [School reader 7], Mladinska knjiga 1 ENGLISH Project 2, 3 4, Oxford 5 Touchstone 6, 9 2 Explorers 1 1 Happy Street, Oxford 1 GERMAN Ich und Deutsch 2, 3 [Me and German 2, 3] 2 Wegweiser 1 [Guidepost 1] 1 Nemški jezik za 7. razred [German for 7th grade], Založba Obzorja 1 MUSIC Glasba danes in nekoč [Music today and in the past], Rokus Klett 3 ART Likovno izobraževanje 6, 7, 8, 9 [Art education 6, 7, 8, 9] 1 Likovno izražanje 6, 7, 8 [Artistic expression 6, 7, 8], Debora 1 ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY Tehnika in tehnologija [Engineering and technology] 1 Tehnika [Engineering], DZS 1 Tehnika [Engineering, Izotech] 1 HOME ECONOMICS Gospodinjstvo 6 [Home economics 6], Rokus Klett 3 The results indicate that teachers tend to use one textbook in the classroom for subjects such as mathematics, natural sciences, English, music and home economics, while teachers teaching other subjects tend to use various, mostly conventional textbooks. Table 3 below lists textbooks for individual subjects which are used by secondary school teachers. M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 217. Table 3: Textbooks for subjects such as Slovenian, English, German, Italian, Spanish, mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, information technology, history, psychology, sociology, and philosophy.3 SLOVENIAN f Na pragu besedila 1-4, ROKUS KLETT [At the Text's Threshold 1-4, Rokus 10 Klett] Barve jezika 1, 2, ROKUS KLETT [Language Colours 1, 2, Rokos Klett] 4 Mlada obzorja 1,2,3 [Horizons of the youth 1, 2, 3], DZS 4 Berilo 1-4, Umetnost besede [School reader 1-4, Art of the written word], 3 Mladinska knjiga Branja 1-4 [Readings 1-4], DZS 3 Z besedo do besede 4 [From word to word 4], Mladinska knjiga 1 ENGLISH On screen, Express Publishing 10 Headway pre-intermediate, Oxford 1 Success, Intermediate, Longman 1 Flash on English for tourism, Eli Publishing 1 Flash on English for cooking, catering & reception, Eli Publishing 1 GERMAN Themen aktuel 1, 2, Hueber Verlag 4 Optimal A1, A2, B1, Langenscheidt 3 Studio d, Cornelsen Verlag 2 ITALIAN, SPANISH Nuovo Espresso 1, Alma edizioni 1 Spazio Italia 1,2,3; Loescher 1 Nuevo Ven, Edelsa 1 Pasaporte, Edelsa 1 MATHEMATICS Planum, Spatium, Tempus, Modrijan 12 Matematika 1, 2, 3 [Mathematics 1, 2, 3], DZS 4 Linea nova, Modrijan 3 Matematika za triletne poklicne šole [Mathematics for three-year vocational 1 schools], DZS Matematika 1 [Mathematics 1], DZS 1 BIOLOGY Biologija celice in genetika [Cell biology and genetics], DZS 2 Biologija celce in ekologija z varstvom okolja [Cel biology and ecology and 1 environmental protection], DZS Zgradba in delovanje organizmov [Structure and function of organisms], DZS 1 Evolucija in ekologija [Evolution and ecology], DZS 1 Biologija 1, 2, 3, 4 [Biology 1, 2, 3, 4], Mohorjeva družba 1 Biologija -Ekologija [Biology -ecology], DZS 1 Od celice do organizma [From cell to organism], TZS 1 218 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS CHEMISTRY Kemija, snov in spremembe [Chemistry, Matter and Changes], Jutro založništvo 5 Verige in obroči [Chains and loops], Modrijan 3 Kemijo razumem, kemijo znam [I understand chemistry, I know chemistry], Jutro 1 založništvo PHYSICS Fizika 1, 2, 3 [Physics 1, 2, 3], Mladinska knjiga 4 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Osnove informatike: učbenik za pouk informatike v 1. letniku gimnazij in srednjih šol 1 [Information technology basics: Information science textbook for the first year of secondary school], DZS Računalništvo in informatika 1 [Computer science and information technology 1], 1 E-textbook for information technology in grammar high schools, several publishers: UP, FRI, FERI Informatika: učbenik za srednje izobraževanje [Information technology: Textbook 1 for secondary education, SAJI HISTORY Zgodovina 1, 2, 3, 4 [History 1, 2, 3, 4], DZS 2 GEOGRAPHY Obča geografija [General geography], Modrijan 1 PSYCHOLOGY Psihologija za srednje šole [Psychology for secondary schools], DZS 1 SOCIOLOGY Uvod v sociologijo [Introduction to sociology], DZS 1 PHILOSOPHY Filozofija za gimnazije [Philosophy for Grammar Schools] 1 ART Umetnostna zgodovina [Art History] 1 The tendency of using secondary school textbooks by the same publisher is most noticeable for subjects such as Slovenian language, English language, mathematics, chemistry, physics, and history. As seen below, teachers evaluated the frequency of other materials they use in addition to textbooks with a 5-point rating scale, with 1 being never and 5 being always. Table 4 below shows the use of other teaching materials by the primary school elementary teachers. M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 219. Table 4: Structural percentages (f %) of elementary teachers according to the use of additional teaching materials. n at Teaching l ce ce ce material ironm ural nolog ovenia athem s cia en nv tal en at en nk Sl f % M ic f % So sci f % E en sci f % N sci and tech Ra Workbook 80.0 93.1 69.2 60.0 55.6 1 Printable worksheets 31.6 30.3 14.3 50.0 16.7 5 Publisher's websites 54.1 46.9 66.7 64.0 83.3 2 E-textbook 44.4 43.8 40.0 58.8 41.7 3 Teaching materials available on 43.2 36.4 40.0 61.1 41.7 4 the internet The ranking of educational tools for different subjects in Table 4 above indicates that the workbook is used the most often, followed by publishers’ websites, e-textbooks, teaching materials available on the internet, and lastly, printable worksheets. The results indicate that in addition to the conventional, printed educational tools, elementary teachers increasingly use various electronic tools. The latter are more commonly used for subjects such as environmental science, natural science and technology and social sciences, such as Slovenian language and mathematics. Subject teachers also listed a list of educational tools they use in addition to textbooks. The results are shown in the Table 5. 220 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 5: Structural percentages (f %) of primary school subject teachers according to the use of other teaching materials for mathematics and natural science, biology, and biology and physics. Mathematics Biology and Education materials and natural Biology science f % physics Rank f % f % Workbook 42.5 44.4 50.0 2 Photocopiable worksheets 27.5 11.1 10.0 5 Publisher's website 25.6 22.2 25.0 4 E-textbook 55.3 53.8 55.0 1 Teaching materials available on the internet 47.5 40.7 40.0 3 The ranking of educational tools for different subjects in Table 5 above indicates that primary school subject teachers most commonly use the e-textbook, followed by the workbook in second place, teaching materials available on the internet in third place, publisher’s website in fourth place, and photocopiable worksheets in fifth place. The subject teachers more commonly use electronic materials, the most common being the e-textbook. Table 6 below il ustrates the use of other teaching tools by secondary school teachers. Table 6: Structural percentages (f %) of secondary school teachers according to the use of other teaching materials for foreign (mostly English) and Slovenian language, foreign language (mostly German), and mathematics. Foreign Foreign (mostly language Education materials English) and textbooks Mathematics Slovenian (mostly f % Rank language German) f % f % Workbook 56.6 75.0 69.2 1 Photocopiable worksheets 37.8 50.0 50.0 3 Publisher's website 14.8 5.0 0.0 5 E-textbook 22.2 15.0 15.4 4 Teaching materials available on the internet 51.9 45.0 50.0 2 M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 221. The ranking of educational tools for different subjects in Table 6 above indicates that secondary school teachers most commonly use the workbook, followed by teaching materials available on the internet in second place, photocopiable worksheets in third place, e-textbooks in fourth place, and publisher’s website in fifth place. The secondary school teachers more commonly use conventional additional materials, such as workbooks and photocopiable worksheets, than electronic materials. Teachers evaluated the textbook use of individual subjects with five-point scale questionnaires (from 1 - completely disagree to 5 - completely agree) according to sets of “lesson stages”. Attention was given to textbooks of al subjects taught by elementary teachers. However, the analysis includes only the subjects that were evaluated by more than 20 % of teachers. These are Slovenian language, mathematics, social studies, environmental studies, and natural science and technology. Table 7: Structural percentages (f %) of primary school elementary teachers according to the textbook use characteristic evaluation (agree, completely agree) for individual subjects. Characteristic sets LESSON STAGES I use the textbook for introductory motivation. Slovenian f % 34.5 Mathematics f % 19.0 Social studies f % 33.3 Environmental studies f % 20.0 Natural sciences and technology f % 35.7 I use the textbook to teach the educational content. Slovenian f % 58.6 Mathematics f % 52.4 Social studies f % 60.0 Environmental studies f % 60.0 Natural sciences and technology f % 57.1 I use the textbook to review and reinforce the lessons presented in the classroom. Slovenian f % 75.9 Mathematics f % 81.0 Social studies f % 80.0 Environmental studies f % 73.3 Natural sciences and technology f % 85.7 222 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Characteristic sets LESSON STAGES I use the textbook as a guide for testing and evaluating students' knowledge. Slovenian f % 55.2 Mathematics f % 61.9 Social studies f % 60.0 Environmental studies f % 66.7 Natural sciences and technology f % 57.1 The col ected data indicate that elementary teachers most frequently use textbooks to review and reinforce the lessons (from 73.3 % to 85.7 %), however, they use textbooks less frequently for both testing and evaluating students' knowledge (from 55.2 % to 66.7 %), as wel as for teaching the educational content (from 52.4 % to 60.0 %). Elementary teachers use textbooks in the stage of introductory motivation least frequently (from 19.0 % to 35.7 %). Table 8: Structural percentages (f %) of primary school subject teachers according to the textbook use characteristic evaluation (agree, completely agree) for mathematics and natural science, biology, biology and physics. Mathematics Biology and Characteristic sets and natural Biology science f % physics f % f % LESSON STAGES I use the textbook for an introductory motivation. 33.3 39.3 35.0 I use the textbook to teach the educational content. 59.0 60.7 55.0 I use the textbook to review and reinforce the lessons presented in 79.5 71.4 75.0 the classroom. I use the textbook as a guide for testing and evaluating students' 64.1 64.3 65.0 knowledge. In accordance with the articulation of the lesson, the primary school subject teachers most frequently use textbooks in the stage of reviewing and reinforcing the lessons presented in the classroom (from 71.4 % to 79.5 %), fol owed by textbook use as a guide for testing and evaluating students' knowledge (from 64.1 % to 65.0 %) and the textbook use for teaching the educational content (from 55.0 % to 60.7 %). M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 223. They use textbooks on rare occasions in the stage of introductory motivation stage (from 33.3 % to 39.3 %). Table 9: Structural percentages (f %) of secondary school teachers according to the textbook use characteristic evaluation (agree, completely agree) for foreign (mostly English) and Slovenian language, foreign language (mostly German), and mathematics Foreign (mostly Foreign language Characteristic sets English) and Mathematics Slovenian (mostly f % language German) f % f % LESSON STAGES I use the textbook for introductory motivation. 36.4 38.1 35.7 I use the textbook to teach the educational content. 70.9 81.0 71.4 I use the textbook to review and reinforce the lessons presented in 61.8 57.1 50.0 the classroom. Foreign (mostly Foreign language Characteristic sets English) and Mathematics Slovenian (mostly f % language German) f % f % LESSON STAGES I use the textbook as a guide for testing and evaluating students' 65.5 66.7 50.0 knowledge. The results in Table 9 show that secondary school teachers mostly use textbooks in the stage of teaching the educational content (from 70.9 % to 81.0 %), followed by the stage of evaluating students' knowledge (from 50.0 % to 66.7 %). Less frequently, they use textbooks in the stage of reviewing and reinforcing the lessons presented in the classroom (from 50.0 % to 61.8 %), and least frequently in the stage of introductory motivation (from 35.7 % to 38.1 %). 224 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Conclusion The textbook is a teaching tool that facilitates both effective teaching as wel as independent learning. The teacher can integrate the textbook into al stages of the teaching process. Simultaneously, the textbook also serves as a tool for students' independent learning (Kovač et al., 2005). By interviewing teachers, we explored the textbook use for individual subjects in the teaching stages. However, it should be emphasized that the results gained refer only to certain groups of textbooks, since the selection was conditioned by a research sample of teachers and their professional autonomy while using textbooks in the educational process. Several different textbooks are available for individual subjects, which enables teachers to select the one that is most suitable for their teaching style, as wel as their students' needs and characteristics. The results of our study indicate that in addition to textbooks, primary school elementary teachers and secondary teachers most frequently use workbooks, while primary subject teachers most frequently use e-textbooks. With our analysis, we discovered that the primary school elementary, as wel as primary school subject teachers mostly use textbooks in the stage of reviewing and reinforcing the lessons presented in the classroom. They rely on textbooks in the stage of introductory motivation least frequently. The textbook use practice is somewhat different with secondary school teachers. Their textbook use is dominant in the stage of teaching the educational content. Similarly to primary school teachers, they use textbooks for introductory motivation least frequently. We must be aware of the fact that the textbook no longer represents a book that should strictly be fol owed by teachers and students, since it merely represents one of the tools with which teachers can achieve educational goals (Justin et al., 2003). Secondary-school teachers more frequently integrate textbooks in the stage of teaching the educational content, which is fundamental, as this is when students acquire new knowledge (Tomić, 2003). We believe this is due to the fact that older students have more experience identifying essential information in a text (Justin et M. Mithans & M. Ivanuš Grmek: The Use of Textbooks in the Teaching-Learning Process 225. al., 2003) and find it easier to follow teaching content explanations with the aid of the textbook. Secondary-school professors have confidence in their students and believe that by independent textbook use they wil acquire the required knowledge and upgrade the teachers’ teaching content. However, authors emphasize that the textbook should play a decisive role in the stage of teaching the educational content (Poljak, 1983) regardless of the level of schooling. According to our observation, al teachers refer to textbooks in the stage of introductory motivation least frequently, which is understandable, considering the fact that in the initial lesson stage, the role of the teacher is essential (Poljak, 1983) and students must be motivated to learn from the teacher (Tomić, 2003). In order to promote textbook use in al lesson stages, proper textbook didactic design must be ensured (Poljak, 1983). 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Pregled učbenikov za predmet spoznavanje okolja in mnenja učiteljev o njih [Reviewing environmental science textbooks and teachers' opinions about them] (Publication No. 20681480) [Diploma thesis, Faculty of Education, University of Maribor]. DKUM. 228 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS USE OF ICT IN THE PROCESS OF COOPERATION WITH PARENTS THROUGH STUDENT PERSPECTIVES JURKA LEPIČNIK VODOPIVEC & MARKO GAVRILOSKI University of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenia, e-mail: jurka.lepicnik@pef.upr.si, marko.gavriloski@pef.upr.si Abstract The use of ICT cannot improve cooperation itself, if it is not wel thought-out, coordinated with the educational goals and focused towards increasing the quality of cooperation. General competences of educational workers also include the use of ICT, because they are expected to know how to make the best of the options of modern ICT with the purpose of improving cooperation. The process of developing digital competences in relation to a reasonable and focused use of ICT in education Keywords: cooperation already begins during formal training of teachers. Using the with qualitative SWOT analysis, we examined components and parents, opportunities of cooperation with parents with the use of ICT, use of ICT, which were presented by students of the Faculty of Education of digital the University of Primorska (N = 40). The aim of the research competences, was for students of the Faculty of Education to determine the cooperation components, understanding of cooperation with parents by means of ICT and partnership with search for new solutions. parents. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.11 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 230 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Partnership with parents is a relatively modern phenomenon, which defines the relationship between an educational institution and parents of an individual child. Cooperation with kindergartens or schools is of course as old as modern methods of organized schooling and education, and certainly each period in history, consistent with the values of the environment, technical knowledge and also unwritten rules, brought its own understanding of cooperation. Changes towards closer integration of family and educational institutions started in the second half of the 20th century, with the transformation of the understanding of family as the primary socialization factor. Parents slowly started entering the process of schooling and education, gradually strengthening their position within educational institutions (Lepičnik Vodopivec, 2012). Despite the theoretical definition of cooperation and partnership between an educational institution and parents, the implementation of ideal models always depends on numerous other factors. One of them is the use of ICT resources in the process of cooperation and partnership, so in addition to a historical overview, the paper wil also focus on integration of technology in the process of cooperation and partnership between educational institutions and parents. Importance of parental involvement Parental involvement can be defined as “parental participation in the educational processes and experiences of their children” (Jeynes, 2005). Many studies suggest that there are strong links between academic achievements, social outcomes for children and parental involvement (Epstein, 2001; Jeynes, 2007; Hornby, 2011). Parental involvement is not only about parent-teacher meetings, but also about home-based parental involvement (listening to children while reading, homework supervision). In the last 40 years, this field has been recognized as important (Hornby, 2011), although as early as the first decade after Slovenia’s independence, a linear diagram was in use, showing parents simply as those who drop their children off before and pick them up after the end of an organized educational process. This way children pass from one educational institution to another, until they ultimately find employment and become members of a community. The contemporary diagram suggests mutual integration of three parts, which constantly cooperate in ideal conditions: parents – kindergarten/school – environment/community (Epstein, 2001). J. Lepičnik Vodopivec & M. Gavriloski: Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 231. school/kindergarten child community family environment Figure 1: Integration of different contexts of a child’s learning (Epstein, 2001) In accordance with the model, Epstein (2018) defined 6 different types of parent– school cooperation (also integration or involvement), in order to point out the diversity of involvement of parents in education of their children: communication, voluntary work, family learning (inclusion in a child’s learning process; see also Passey, 2011), making decisions about relevant matters, cooperation with community. This model can also be connected to the ecological theory model, which was applied by Bronfenbrenner (1994) to explain various influences, which shape a child and impact growth, development and character building. When talking about cooperation and partnership with parents, we must bear in mind both Epstein’s model and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, because we must always focus on the child, who is in the centre and is influenced by the integration of various factors. 232 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 2: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (Marjanovič Umek & Zupančič, 2009; Rhodes, 2013) Epstein’s model also coincides with the understanding of the process and development model, according to Kroflič (2001), which can also be transferred to the school as one of more fundamental guidelines of a contemporary kindergarten. This very connection of the model with the cultural and transmission model defines modern upbringing as “a relatively planned system of factors that support the development of children’s personal traits and potentials” (Kroflič, 2001, p. 13). Therefore, at the turn of the century, we talk about changes at the level of understanding, criss-crossing and importance of mutual relations, and communication between educational workers, parents and children. J. Lepičnik Vodopivec & M. Gavriloski: Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 233. ICT and digital competences In the 1990s, the changes in the society and industry were also fol owed by curricular changes, which suggested partnership as an equal relationship between the educational staff and parents towards the exchange of information, objectives, obligations and everything related to educational work. This further results in the strengthening of the active role and responsibilities of everyone included in the promotion of children’s development. But even before educational workers faced up to the chal enge and became qualified for development of partnerships between them and parents, or before this concept ful y came alive within schooling and education throughout the vertical, information communication technologies stepped in – also with the purpose of improving communication and facilitating cooperation. Inclusion of technology in education started already in 1980s (Somekh, 2007), but this didn’t have any relative impact on cooperation with parents. Within the last two decades, especial y in recent years, technology -especial y ICT -that can be used in schooling and education and that also enables the inclusion of parents in education of their children, started developing extremely fast. Learning, adaptation, changed practices and also inclusion of ICT in cooperation and partnership with parents is a long-term process, which requires flexibility of everyone included and possession of specific key competences (Anastasiades & Zaranis, 2017). Educational workers need to have digital competence to use ICT in education (Brečko, 2016), which is also accurate in the process of cooperation with parents. Of course, we have to separate digital competences from digital literacy. Martin and Grudziecki (2006) emphasized that digital literacy consists of three levels: the first level contains digital competences (skil s, concepts, approaches, etc.), the second level covers digital use (professional use) and the third level transformation (creativity and innovation). 234 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Level III: Digital transformation (innovation/creativity) Level III: Digital transformation (innovation/creativity) Level III: Digital transformation (innovation/creativity) Figure 3: Levels of digital literacy Source: Martin and Grudziecki (2006) Digital competence is only a basic level, but it involves a wide range of skills - from the simplest to the most complex, containing critical, evaluative and conceptual approaches. As Martin and Grudziecki (2006) highlighted, professionals have to be careful when using one term or another. When we talk about digital literacy, we need to be aware of all three levels. Besides, digital literacy involves the successful use of digital competences in various life situations. According to this definition, educators, teachers, and other educators should have completed second and third levels in addition to the first level. In the following, we can not only talk about digital competences but, above all, about the digital literacy of all educators. On the other hand, for a successful two-way process, parents should have at least the first level (i.e. digital competences) developed. Involving ICT in the process of parents' involvement General competences of educational workers also include the use of ICT, but this does not mean only a technical application of an ICT resource, but also critical assessment at the level of content (Gavriloski et al., 2018), particularly the relevance of its use with regard to fundamental guidelines and achievement of goals in the process of cooperation and partnership with parents. The application thereof, of course, may also be influenced by attitude towards technology, which may significantly hinder the use of ICT resources in the educational process (Vitoulis, 2017), which can also be transferred to partnership with parents. The use of ICT resources certainly cannot improve cooperation, if it does not include a wel thought-out and coordinated activity of all players with the purpose of increasing the quality of cooperation and partnership. The effect of greater inclusion, active cooperation and proactive and supportive approach of parents to the education of children can J. Lepičnik Vodopivec & M. Gavriloski: Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 235. also reflect in the child’s improved academic achievements and is related to their emotional stability, safety, acceptance and improved self-esteem (Passey, 2011). Greater inclusion in this context does not mean inclusion in schooling, but inclusion in the learning process towards ensuring support and activation of the proactive role of parents (Harris & Goodall, 2007). The key component of partnership is gaining trust, which is the foundation of any form of cooperation (Lamovec, 1993; Lepičnik Vodopivec, 2012; Vec, 2002). Of course, inclusion of ICT in the process of cooperation and partnership with parents does not mean substituting personal contact, but should in this context suggest merely an upgrade, which becomes possible only after the establishment of partnership, and this is, of course, related to trust and requires time and motivational input of everyone included. In the period of quick flow of information and lack of time, it is crucial to understand and apply ICT as a resource that may facilitate some aspects of cooperation and partnership with parents. Dečman Dobrnjič and Černetič (2009) list the following as the reasons for the use of ICT in cooperation with parents: (1) being busy and not having enough time for parent-teacher conferences, so ICT reduces the time needed for communication; (2) speed, accessibility, reliability of information; (3) fast contact, timely action, assistance in decision-making and consultation with parents; (4) traceability of conversation; (5) lower costs for parents; (6) possibilities of greater integration; and (7) exchange of information among parents. Certainly, it is also required to list the reasons against the introduction of ICT, which mainly refer to the lack of personal contact, but also to the probability of misuse of information, insufficient qualification and lack of knowledge of those included, lack of equipment for ICT, and lack of non-verbal communication (Dobrnjič & Černetič, 2009). The reasons for the introduction of ICT in the cooperation and partnership process with parents can be further complemented, considering that (1) ICT enables parents to be involved in their children’s education faster, more reasonably and actively; (2) ICT supports more flexible working arrangements, which also impacts the process cooperation and partnership with parents; (3) ICT enables more flexible matching of information. In accordance with these findings, we propose the following diagram which suggests activation of the use of ICT in the process of cooperation and partnership with parents, if the following conditions are met: (1) trust, which is the fundamental building block of partnership, has been established between a school 236 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS and parents; (2) a dialogue based on trust, respect and responsibility has been established between parents and the child; (3) school teaches the child in accordance with contemporary professional and scientific findings, thereby following modern educational principles, curricula and the White Paper on Education in the Republic of Slovenia. Use of ICT in cooperation and partnership wil be reasonable, reliable, and manageable only upon mutual functioning and integration of al three parts and wil quickly and timely match the chal enges of cooperation between a school and parents. Of course, along with the inclusion of ICT in the cooperation and partnership process, educational workers and parents alike must possess digital competences and have positive attitude towards technology (Lepičnik Vodopivec & Gavriloski, 2002). PUPIL timely ICT reasonable manageable PARENTS SCHOOL Partnership Figure 4: Diagram of cooperation between a school and parents (Lepičnik Vodopivec & Gavriloski, 2002) Definition of the research problem Considering that digital competences and attitude of future educational workers towards ICT are also important in the use of ICT in the process of cooperation and partnership with parents, we wanted to know what possibilities of cooperation with parents with the use of ICT are proposed by students of the second year of the first-cycle university study programme Pedagogy. J. Lepičnik Vodopivec & M. Gavriloski: Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 237. Purpose of the research The purpose of the research was to identify and evaluate students’ suggestions about possibilities of cooperation with parents by means of ICT in order to gain a better understanding of their attitude towards the use of ICT in the process of cooperation with parents and gain a direct insight into research participants’ knowledge of ICT resources. Aims of the research We wish to: − Determine how students understand cooperation with parents; − determine what possibilities of cooperation with parents by means of ICT are suggested by students; − determine what attitude to the use of ICT in cooperation with parents is shown in the suggestions of students; − determine which ICT resources (and applications) students know. Methodology The study used a qualitative approach and a descriptive method. We included 40 students from the second year of the university study program Pedagogy. In the first semester of the second year of the academic year 2018/2019, the research participants designed 11 posters within the subject Partnership with Parents and the Environment and presented the possibilities of cooperation with parents with the use of ICT. Students were familiar with the topic. The time frame for poster production was 1 month (December 2018). The instructions that guided the students were general and al owed them to choose the educational institution (kindergarten or elementary school) as wel as content design. To gather as much information as possible in one place about the possibilities of engaging with parents with the use of ICT, the students were given simple instructions for creating posters. It was the free choice of content and educational institution that encouraged the students in finding options and solutions, as they did not simply follow closed instructions. Such an approach could, of course, remain solely on the strengths-weaknesses axis if the content had not been analysed with a SWOT analysis and the content had not been 238 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS divided into internal (strengths, weaknesses) and external elements (opportunities, threats). The advantage of this kind of analysis is that it provides us with a deeper insight into the problem to make planning easier and better. In our case, it is a matter of planning to integrate ICT in the processes of cooperation with parents. The classic SWOT analysis used within the business sciences defines internal elements as those that are influenced by the individual (or business), while they do not influence external elements, although they may be influenced. The same is accurate in our case since educators influence the internal elements, and mostly respond to the external ones. The posters mostly showed a tendency to understand the use of ICT in the process of cooperation with parents on the axis of strengths-weaknesses, so we placed the results under different components of strengths (information, time, spatial, relational) and weaknesses (information, technological, human, relational). However, such a division alone does not capture the complexity of ICT use and miss the opportunities we must seize and the dangers that need to be heeded. Therefore, the answers below were also analysed using a SWOT analysis. The individual components were content-specific and not predefined. Results and discussion The obtained content was initial y divided between the arguments, which are inclined to the use of ICT in the process of cooperation and partnership with parents, and the arguments, which are not inclined to the use thereof. After that we determined the resulting components within individual sets. In the first set (arguments for the use of ICT), we identified information, time, space and relationship components. Despite the implied critical relationship towards the use of ICT, the need for its use in the process of cooperation and partnership with parents was clearly shown, because ICT is nowadays an urgency. In the second set (arguments against the use of ICT), considering the answers, we have defined information, technological, human and relationship components. The common thread in this set was mainly related to personal contact and lack of trust in a relationship. J. Lepičnik Vodopivec & M. Gavriloski: Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 239. The analysis of results did not stop only in bare comparison of arguments for and against, but further on, using a qualitative SWOT analysis, various components were put up against one another, al owing us to better capture and understand the presented possibilities and solutions for better integration of ICT in the process of cooperation and partnership with parents. The following are examples of two posters out of eleven. While poster 1 uses an approach through strengths-weaknesses in using ICT in collaboration with parents, in poster 2, the use of ICT in collaboration with parents is presented through various options. Analysing the first poster is easier since students have already made sense of the content, although it later turns out that opportunities and dangers have been designated only to internal elements (weaknesses). The students wrote down an example of this as a disadvantage: "ITC cannot determine the importance of information." SWOT analysis showed that this example should be al ocated as danger and an external element. We inserted the contents of the posters into Table 1 for easy review: We got an overview of the proposed type of ICT, the proposed programs or application, other services, and added the explanation. Of course, this is only a matter of technical data, which can help answer the second goal. Figure 5: Poster 1 -Advantages and disadvantages of using ICT in col aboration with parents Source: Own. 240 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Figure 6: Poster 2 -Using ICT in partnership with parents Source: Own. Table 1: Suggestions for using ICT in col aboration with parents with an explanation Program / Type of ICT Application / Explanations Service / Other − email (6x) Notifications. − A shared email address for parents. service − Weekend message (last week event renewal). − Parents can enter an e-calendar through the application. Computer/ − Login with username and password. tablet School website (6x) − Emergency notifications about the cancel ation of a sports day. (2x) A platform that − Access to various documents (e- provides information materials, the schedule, menu, publication). (3x) − Access to some useful forms (e.g. subsidized food form). J. Lepičnik Vodopivec & M. Gavriloski: Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 241. − Photo gal ery. (3x) − Notice of absence (first and last name, class, reason for absence, contact number). − FAQ. − Bilingual or multilingual dictionary. − Notification. − Websites of good books, parenting magazines. − Regular updating of the school website. − A lecture via Skype. (2x) − Introducing your child to kindergarten. Skype (6x) − Parent teacher meetings (3x): − Flexibility (e.g. program when one parent is abroad). − Space and time are no limit. − Maintain personal contact. − eAsistent (5x), Notifications. Lo.Polis, EviWeb − Computer courses for parents to use an e-assistant. service, web portals − E-look (parents' insight into children's grades). − Use of PowerPoints at parent- Ppt (5x) teacher meetings, lectures and workshops for parents. (2x) Computer program − Computer courses for parents to use ppt. Forums, chat rooms − Exchange of views, discussions (4x) between parents and teachers. − Participation of experts. Movie, video (2x) − Parent-teacher meetings. − To present cultures. Review of work throughout the year: Digital stories (2x) − School in nature. − Student Products - Presentation of a specific topic. − Google (browser). World Wide Web − Online (anonymous) surveys. "Friendly Internet" − Facebook (social network). − Parental blog. 242 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS − Security. Interactive whiteboard Electronic course material − Suggestions for parents about Computer Games (2x) appropriate and instructive computer games for children. Workshops − Informing parents about the use of ICT. − Parents could cal teachers on a Call (3x) mobile phone within the agreed hours. Telephone SMS (2x) − Notifications. Survey − For parents. School smartphone app − Movie (2x) TV / DVD − Parent-teacher meetings. (2x) player TV Screen − In the lobby with school announcements and updates (2x). Radio − Connection to local radio. − If one of the parents cannot attend the parenting meetings for any reason, we offer them a videoconference. Web camera − Recordings of children during school activities. We provide the recordings to parents. − Recording lessons. Table 1 lists the types of ICT proposed by students, the second column mentions programs and applications, and the third provides the explanation. Some answers have repeatedly appeared on various posters, which is shown by the numerical frequency in the brackets. Table 1 shows that students do not propose different ways of interacting with their parents through ICT than those already existed. We can conclude that they derive from their own experience, although they focused solely on the Slovenian territory and did not focus on good practices abroad. The most common platform in collaboration with parents is using a website, to which they have added the broadest explanation. Based on the contents of Table 1, we cannot conclude what attitude towards the use of ICT in cooperation with parents is reflected in the proposals of students, as one might mistakenly think that students are only in favour of using ICT in cooperation with parents, which is not true. Only a more detailed SWOT analysis of the poster results gives us a more complex view. J. Lepičnik Vodopivec & M. Gavriloski: Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 243. Table 1 lists only technical resources, programs, applications, and as explanations of individual content. Table 2: First set components (arguments for the use of ICT) Information Time − Quickly and easily accessible information (4x). − Exchange of information among parents. − Exchange of information literacy. − Saves time (3s). − Several parents can be informed at a − Time flexibility. time. − Regular updating. − Precise and reliable information. − Bigger and more transparent database. − Guaranteed anonymity on forums. Spatial Relationship − Facilitates mutual cooperation (parents–teacher). − Space is not restriction. − Motivation of pupils to learn due to − Spatial flexibility. cooperation of parents with school. − Greater motivation of parents due to interactivity and multimedia. As can be seen from Table 2, the majority of the arguments for the use of ICT in cooperation and partnership with parents can be found within the information component, where speed and accessibility of information appear most often. The advantages also relate to the integration among parents with easier and simultaneous provision of information, precision, reliability and creation of a transparent database and information literacy of everyone included. As for other components, three arguments are given in the time and relationship components and two arguments appear in the space component. Saved time is for students one of the key arguments for the use of ICT, which could also be connected to time flexibility. The spatial component is related to this as wel , because space does not represent any restriction, and this correlates with saved time. In the opinion of students, ICT can additional y increase the motivation of parents because of interactivity and multimedia, and strengthened mutual cooperation may have a positive impact on the motivation of pupils to learn. This is exactly what Passey (2011) and Harris and Goodall (2007) pointed out in their research. The reasons listed by students do not differ from the ones already presented by Dečman Dobrnjič and Černetič (2009) in their research. 244 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 3: Second set components (arguments against the use of ICT) Information Technological − Insufficient equipment of schools. − Computer literacy competences are not clearly and formally defined. − Difficulties in determining the − Not everyone has a smart relevance of information. phone/computer. − Lack of appropriate material. − Possibility of network or machine defects. − Not creative -resolves only those problems, which have clear instructions for solutions. Human (competence component) Relationship − No direct personal contact. − Not capable of having emotions and − Does not properly teach the social warm human relations -cannot aspects of education. contribute to mental development. − Cannot develop the discussion on − Not capable of reacting and adjusting. more relevant moral issues. − Responsibility of children to inform − Insufficient qualification for use. parents about grades, no contact. − Some individuals do not regularly − Not capable of recognizing an open their e-mails. individual’s mood. − Does not easily respond to new situations. Considering the answers provided, two components stand out in Table 3 and they were already shown in the first set (information and relationship), while two new ones appear (technological and human, or competence). The arguments against the use of ICT in cooperation and partnership with parents appear to the highest degree in the relationship component, which can be defined as one of the key reasons which do not support the use of ICT alone in the process of cooperation. Insufficient personal contact, absence of emotions, responsiveness and adaptation also appear as reasons against the use of ICT in the research by Dečman Dobrnjič and Černetič (2009). At first sight, the relationship component is related to the human component, but it refers to competences of participants. This means that the person involved must possess certain skil s, if they want to develop partnership on the one side and apply ICT as a resource in cooperation and partnership on the other. The fact that institutions and also homes are not sufficiently equipped with ICT may be the next reason, which fal s into the technological component. Of course, despite the general focus in schooling and education towards improving the computer, J. Lepičnik Vodopivec & M. Gavriloski: Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 245. technological and digital literacy, not everyone has appropriate ICT or related applications, and this represents an obstacle in the flow of information. ICT is subject to various defects and must have constant technological support, because technology itself cannot assess the importance of information and stil needs a human operator. By confronting the reasons for and against, the students mainly displayed criticism in the use of ICT in cooperation and partnership with parents, which is mainly shown in the emphases on the relationship component and human factor or direct human contact, which must, in the future, also represent the foundation from which trust as the foundation of every relationship grows. The answers, despite being in favour of the use of ICT in the process of cooperation and partnership with parents, suggest that ICT cannot substitute mutual and direct contact; it merely represents an instrument that must be properly utilized by everyone involved. Accordingly, we can refer to Figure 1, which defines that use of ICT in cooperation between a school and home is reasonable, reliable and manageable only upon simultaneous functioning of al three parts between students, parents and a school. These arguments were analysed with the SWOT analysis, including some aspects of the use of individual web options for communication shown in Table 4 below. 246 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 4: SWOT analysis of components ADVANTAGES WEAKNESSES Human component – competences (-): Information component (+): − Not creative -resolves only − Quickly and easily accessible problems which have clear information. instructions for solutions. − Exchange of information − It does not teach social among parents. aspects of education. − Accurate and reliable − Cannot develop the information. discussion on more relevant − Guaranteed anonymity on moral issues. forums. − Insufficient qualification for use. − Some do not regularly open their e-mails. Technological component (-): − Insufficient equipment in Time component (+): schools. − Computer literacy INTERNAL − competences are not clearly ELEMENTS Saves time. and formally defined. − Time flexibility. − Not everyone has a smart phone/ computer. − Possibility of network or machine defects. Relationship component (-): − No direct personal contact. Spatial component (+): − Not capable of having emotions and warm human relations, cannot contribute − Space is not a restriction. to mental development. − Spatial flexibility. − Not capable of reacting and adjusting. − Not capable of recognizing an individual’s mood. − Does not easily respond to new situations. − J. Lepičnik Vodopivec & M. Gavriloski: Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 247. Relationship component (+): Information component (-): − Increase mutual cooperation (parents–teacher). − Lack of appropriate material. OPPORTUNITIES THREATS Information component (+): − Improvement of information literacy. Relationship component (-): − Bigger and more transparent − Responsibility of children to database. inform parents about grades, − Presentation of current topics no contact. for parents within a forum. − Conflicts (contradictory − Exchange of opinions within a opinions) within a forum. forum. EXTERNAL − Encouraging critical thinking. ELEMENTS Time component (+): Information component (-): − Regular updating. − Difficulties in determining the relevance of information. Relationship component (+): − Motivation of pupils to learn due to cooperation of parents with school. − Greater motivation of parents due to interactivity and multimedia. If we analyse the arguments from Tables 2 and 3 using the SWOT analysis, we get a completely different image of the understanding of the use of ICT in cooperation and partnership with parents. Of course, the reasons for the use of ICT are stil understood as positive, but we have divided them into advantages and opportunities, while the arguments (also within the same components) against the use of ICT were classified as either weaknesses or threats. This way we can see when ICT can be understood as an opportunity and when as a threat; it is worth noting that the above table was based only on answers of students, and it would be much more accurate following a more extensive and in-depth analysis. While the advantages and weaknesses were defined and mentioned in interpretations of Tables 2 and 3, the content in Table 4 also provides an insight into opportunities and threats. Three components from set 1 (arguments for the use of ICT) can be defined as opportunities, with arguments from the information component again accounting for the most numerous ones. Some of the most significant opportunities 248 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS provided by ICT in cooperation and partnership are information literacy, clear database and increased motivation of pupils to learn due to cooperation of parents with school. The last argument is also mentioned by Epstein (2001), Harris and Goodall (2007), and Passey (2011), because the activation of the inclusion of parents in an educational institution is one of the foundations for a partnership with school and is also greatly linked to pupils’ achievements. The threat column is of course connected to the diagram of cooperation between a school and parents (Figure 4), which suggests that al participants must cooperate with one another, otherwise the use of ICT in the process of cooperation and partnership does not make any sense. Students specifical y pointed out the responsibility of children to inform parents on any relevant information, which is related to the dialogue and relationship between parents and a child. Conclusion The aim of the research was to establish how students understand cooperation with parents, what possibilities of cooperation with parents by means of the use of ICT they suggest, what attitude towards the use of ICT in cooperation with parents is shown in suggestions, and what ICT resources and applications they know. Throughout the research, there has actual y been a critical attitude towards the use of ICT, although the students stated a relatively equal number of arguments for as wel as against the use of ICT in cooperation and partnership with parents. The students see cooperation with parents through conventional forms of cooperation, listing the following ICT resources for the process of cooperation and partnership: the computer/tablet, smartphone, webcam, TV, radio, and also any program, application or other service provided by each type. In this context, they mentioned communication by e-mail, through websites, Skype, eAsistent, forums and chat rooms, the Lo.Polis and EviWeb school portals. Most often they mentioned the fact that parents are timely informed on and have facilitated access to certain documents and other important information, (such as, schedules, e-calendars, menus, publications, galleries, photos, e-grade books). As can be seen from the presentation, students are familiarized with the methods of cooperation as wel as ICT resources, but it still makes us wonder whether given suggestions are connected to the actual situation. Nevertheless, they suggested the following solutions -some already existing, some new: (1) greater provision of (free) computer courses for parents to J. Lepičnik Vodopivec & M. Gavriloski: Use of ICT in the Process of Cooperation with Parents Through Student Perspectives 249. improve their digital literacy; (2) activation of the triadic digital form of cooperation: pupils -parents -teachers; (3) translation of al digital contents related to the institution into various foreign languages; (4) introduction of a child to a kindergarten via Skype; (5) parent-teacher conferences via Skype; (6) introduction of the electronic signature; (7) setting up applications for scanning tests for parents, enrolling/removing a child into/from activities, reporting absence, child’s choice. A significant emphasis of the given research mainly lies in the identification of various components, which are combined in the information, time, spatial and relationship component in the first set (arguments for the use of ICT), and in the information, technological, human (competence) and relationship component in the second set (arguments against the use of ICT). The SWOT analysis has shown that such an overview is important, otherwise opportunities and threats can be confused with advantages and weaknesses. Even though the analysis due to a limited number of persons included in the research cannot offer an in-depth insight, it still suffices for further discussion. However, this opens up questions regarding the actual situation, which is connected to computer literacy of parents and educational workers. Certainly, a clear distinction between various types of literacy (information, digital and media) would not hurt either. The key factors may also be the cultural and economic capital of the family and material inequality with regard to the access to ICT. Even though a critical approach in the use of ICT was implied, we should not forget the co-dependence and mutual activity of individual players (Figure 4), which puts the child at the centre, both in Epstein’s diagram (Figure 1) and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory (Figure 2). Only then can we justify the relevance of the use of ICT in cooperation and partnership with parents. References Anastasiades, P., & Zaranis, N. (Eds.). (2017). Research on e-Learning and ICT in education. Technological, pedagogical and instructional perspectives. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-34127-9 Brečko, B. N. (2016). Spremenjene pedagoške prakse z uporabo IKT [Altered pedagogical practices through ICT use]. Andragoška spoznanja, 22(4), 43–56. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. 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European Journal of Education Studies, 3(5), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.439103 About of authors Jurka Lepičnik Vodopivec https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jurka_Lepicnik_Vodopivec, jurka.lepicnik@pef.upr.si Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Marko Gavriloski, email: marko.gavriloski@pef.upr.si 252 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS PLANNED MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES IN SLOVENIAN KINDERGARTENS DARJA ANTOLIN DREŠAR University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: darja.antolin@um.si Abstract This study aimed to explore the manifestation of planned mathematical activities in Slovenian kindergartens. The study is based on the analysis of the reports written by the third-year ful -time students (n = 57) of the study program Pre-school Education after completing their integrated practical training in various Slovenian kindergartens. An analysis of the reports showed that during the integrated practical training, which included students' 4 full-day visits in kindergartens, a total of 74 planned mathematical activities were carried out by their mentors. As many as 19.3 % of students did not experience a single planned mathematical activity during their practical training. Activities in arithmetic (41.9 %) and geometry (27.0 %) predominated, while there were much fewer activities related to Keywords: measurement (13.5 %) and the so-cal ed “other content” area early (12.2 %). Activities related to algebra were performed the least mathematics, (only 5.4 %). The average number of mathematical activities early childhood education, performed in the groups of children aged 1–3 years was much practical lower (M = 1.00) than the average number of mathematical training, activities performed in the groups of children aged 4–6 years (M mathematics areas, = 1.34) and in the mixedage groups (M = 1.41), but the preschool difference is not statistical y significant. educators. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.12 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 254 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Over the years, after discussing their practical training experiences with pre-service kindergarten teachers and focusing on mathematical activities they had observed in kindergartens, the feedbacks often indicated that mathematics is not as present as other areas of the curriculum. Slovenian Curriculum for kindergartens (Kurikulum za vrtce, 1999) defines six content areas as follows: movement, language, art, society, nature and mathematics. However, the practice is oriented towards the holistic approach to teaching and learning (Marentič Požarnik, 2003, p. 120), and as such, activities in kindergarten strive to blur the boundaries between the areas as much as possible. Nevertheless, recent research findings suggest that the integration of different content areas in Slovenian kindergartens is still far from desired (for example, Antolin Drešar, 2017b). Moreover, in recent research, Antolin Drešar (2017a) examined how future kindergarten teachers perceive the integration of mathematics and other areas of the curriculum during their practical training in kindergartens and found that the integration of mathematics with natural science was perceived the most often, while integration with art was the least perceived among al pairs of possible links. The growing body of research is demonstrating that mathematical skil s acquired by children in kindergarten are the best predictor of later academic success for both boys and girls, regardless of their socioeconomic background (see Claessens et al., 2009; Claessens & Engel, 2013; Geary et al., 2013; Ritchie & Bates, 2013). However, according to Ginsburg (2009) and Hachey (2013), the intuitive mathematical skills that children develop naturally are not enough. The US National Research Council (2009) also stresses that early years teaching must be intentional. Despite strong evidence of the importance of early mathematics, many studies have suggested that decidedly limited mathematics is taught in the early years (Bruce et al., 2016; Clements & Sarama, 2007; Hachey, 2013; Lee & Ginsburg, 2007). Phillips et al. (2009), for example, reported that American early-years educators devote a much smal er proportion of the day to mathematical activities compared to literacy and social studies activities. The research review on pre-school mathematics education in the Slovenian educational environment pointed out research conducted by Nudl et al. (2012); the study examined the amount of mathematical activities in which Slovenian kindergarten children were engaged. The analysis of diaries of mathematical activities written by 130 pre-service kindergarten teachers during their integrated practical training in kindergarten revealed a total of 800 different types of mathematical activities. At first glance, the number seems to be high, but if one considers that each D. Antolin Drešar: Planned Mathematical Activities in Slovenian Kindergartens 255. pre-service kindergarten teacher observed a selected child and recorded each mathematical activity in which the child was engaged, results show that on average, one child participated in 6 mathematical activities in about half a year. However, the total number of mathematical activities may even be overestimated, since it encompasses planned mathematical activities and short, spontaneous activities, such as playing with blocks. In this context, Tepylo et al. (2015) argue that not every playtime activity incorporating blocks can be considered as mathematics-related, even though early years teachers might perceive it as such. Indeed, children may use the blocks in imaginative play or in some other way where they do not focus on the mathematical ideas implicit in the blocks. Mathematical Content Areas in Kindergarten Early childhood mathematics education can be very broad and could include a comprehensive collection of mathematical activities covering various mathematical content areas such as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, measurement and the so-cal ed “other content” area. However, the literature review indicates that early teaching and learning of mathematics is often limited to very basic content such as counting (e.g. Bargagliotti et al., 2009; Ginsburg et al., 2008; Nudl et al., 2012; Rudd et al., 2008). According to Reys et al. (2008), kindergarten mathematics standards and practice in kindergarten classes emphasize early numeracy skil s over more advanced mathematics skills. In addition, Engel et al. (2013) reported that teachers devoted the most mathematics time to basic counting and recognition of simple geometric shapes, although the vast majority of children mastered this already when they entered kindergarten. One study in the US, in which more than 400 early child care providers answered questions about their main mathematics activities, showed that 67 % of them chose counting, 60 % sorting, 51 % recognizing numbers, 46 % patterning, 34 % number concepts, 32 % spatial relations, 16 % creating shapes, and 14 % measuring (Sarama, 2002). As this study shows, geometry and measuring were the least popular. Similar findings are reported by Nudl et al. (2012) on the representation of mathematical activities in Slovenian kindergartens, which indicates that geometry and measuring activities were performed least often. Clements and Sarama (2007) also reported that geometry and spatial thinking are often ignored or minimized in early education. 256 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Multiple reasons may contribute to the imbalance of content areas. According to Lee and Ginsburg (2007), teachers of young children often underestimate children's interests and abilities and assume that simple concrete concepts such as counting with small numbers is the maximum of the children’s capabilities. Moreover, Lee and Ginsburg (2007) also pointed out that early childhood educators do not believe that young children can handle abstract ideas and that they are not ready for various mathematical topics. Consequently, early mathematics is narrowed to basic counting and shapes (Ginsburg et al., 2008). Another reason for focusing on "simple" mathematics may be that kindergarten teachers vary in their understanding of and feelings about efficacy in teaching early mathematics (Copley, 2004; Ginsburg et al., 2008; Greenfield et al., 2009). Current Study The study presented in this paper focuses on planned mathematical activities. As mentioned in the beginning, discussions with students after their practical training often pointed to the lack of mathematical activities performed in kindergartens. Accordingly, the main objective of the study was to explore the manifestation of planned mathematical activities in Slovenian kindergartens and thus contribute to getting a better insight into the amount of mathematics that is taught in Slovenian kindergarten classrooms. Furthermore, the aim of the study was to investigate the representation of planned mathematical activities in content areas to see how balanced the content areas are in Slovenian kindergartens. Method The study is based on the analysis of written reports submitted by 57 third-year ful - time students of the study program Pre-School Education at the University of Maribor, in the academic year 2016/2017, after completing their integrated practical training in various kindergartens throughout Slovenia. The practical training is an important part of the education of future pre-school teachers and is incorporated in al three years of the study program. Part of the practical training is implemented as an integrated practical training and is carried out in each year of the program. As part of the integrated practical training, each student goes to kindergarten one day a week to gain valuable teaching experience by systematical y observing various aspects of the educational work. In the academic year of 2016/2017, the integrated D. Antolin Drešar: Planned Mathematical Activities in Slovenian Kindergartens 257. practical training encompassed students' four ful -day visits in kindergarten. In the framework of Mathematics Education (the course is held in the last semester of the study program) the students are instructed to observe mathematical activities that take place during the integrated practical training. For the purposes of this research, students had to submit reports in which they were required to indicate al planned mathematical activities that were carried out by their mentor. In addition, they had to provide short descriptions of the activities and define the mathematical content area of performed activities. 57 participating students carried out their integrated practical training in 44 different kindergartens in different regions of Slovenia. As Table 1 shows, the majority of students carried out their integrated practical training in the Slovenian Styria region (68.19 %), followed by the Mura region (25.0 %) and three other regions. It should be noted that the majority of students come from Slovenian Styria, where the faculty is located, but some students come from more remote regions such as Upper Carniola, and Coastal-Karst. In recent years, students have been given the opportunity to do their integrated practical training in their home towns, but on the base of the data on kindergartens, it can be concluded that especial y those who are very remote did not choose this option and preferred to pursue the integrated practical training practice in the vicinity of the faculty. Table 1: Frequencies (f) and relative frequencies (f %) of kindergartens in which pre-service kindergarten teachers completed their integrated practical training regarding regions of Slovenia Regions f f % Slovenian Styria 30 68.19 Mura 11 25.0 Carinthia 1 2.27 Central Sava 1 2.27 Southeast Slovenia 1 2.27 Total 44 100.00 Most of the participating students carried out the integrated practical training in the senior kindergarten age group (50.9 %), 19.3 % in the younger age group and 29.8 % in the mixed-age classes. Regarding the location of the kindergartens, the majority of students completed their practical training in urban kindergartens (54.4 %), while the rest of them attended practical training in rural and suburban kindergartens (45.6 258 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS %). The final reports of the students on integrated practical training were analysed, as they represent a rich source of information on mathematics that is taught in Slovenian kindergartens. Students' reports were thoroughly reviewed and all the planned mathematical activities listed in the students' reports outlined. Students were explicitly instructed to follow the planned mathematical activities. The review of the reports revealed that they fol owed the instructions and did not include spontaneous mathematical activities (such as counting in the morning circle) in their records. Given the short description of the activities, it was checked whether students properly defined the content area of each mathematical activity and modified if necessary. Table 2 shows some specific examples from the students' reports that il ustrate correctly defined content areas. D. Antolin Drešar: Planned Mathematical Activities in Slovenian Kindergartens 259. Table 2: Examples of planned mathematical activities that were listed in students' reports and properly defined content areas Age Mathemati Properly group cal activity Short description defined content area The teacher read a fairy tale titled Dotless Ladybugs. She made paper ladybirds with 7 outlined but blank 3–6 dots. She prepared a black stamp and years a larger dice. The child came to the (mixed Dots for centre of the circle, rol ed the dice, Arithmetic age ladybugs recognized the number of dots and group) printed with the stamp as many dots as had fal en on the dice. The next one had to think about how many dots were missing so that the ladybug would have 7 dots. Children sat in a circle and looked at the colors of their T-shirts. Each child had to say what color his T-shirt was, and then he got a smal sheet 5–6 years with the matching color. If the child (senior Colors of had a colorful or striped T-shirt, the “other content” age the T-shirts kindergarten teacher drew lines on area group) his or her sheet. Then they made a bar chart on the floor using their color sheets. They discussed how many children had red T-shirts, how many yel ow T-shirts, etc. 1–2 The kindergarten teacher showed the years old children how to measure the (younger Measuring ingredients for bread with cups and Measurement age and baking spoons (e.g. 4 cups of flour, 2 cups of group) water, 3 teaspoons of salt). In Table 3 we can see a few examples of mathematical activities where students have not defined the content areas adequately. In these cases, they have been corrected as is illustrated below. 260 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 3: Il ustration of planned mathematical activities where the content areas were inadequately defined and needed to be corrected Properly Age Mathematical Inadequately defined group activity Short description defined content area content area The kindergarten teacher presented the children with an A3 size sheet. She folded the sheet and asked 2–3 years them if the sheet was old Creating the same. Then she (younger symmetry invited them to create Algebra Geometry age symmetry. The group) children used the folded A3 sheet and painted something on one half, which was then printed on the other half to create symmetrical pictures. Children played the board game Ludo, but in a slightly different way than usual. 5–6 years Instead of using (senior Ludo with the normal dice, the age big dice kindergarten teacher Numbers Arithmetic group) prepared large dice with dots arranged in patterns that can be found on subitizing dot cards. The children first cut out shapes and then they made a house 3–5 years from these shapes (mixed Making a (squares, triangles and age house using rectangles). Then they Shapes Geometry group) shapes built houses using paper strips of different lengths and thicknesses. D. Antolin Drešar: Planned Mathematical Activities in Slovenian Kindergartens 261. After al students’ reports were reviewed and content areas modified if necessary, the data was processed using the SPSS program for data processing and analysis. Results The results of this study are presented in three parts. The first part reports on the findings that relate to the amount of performed planned mathematical activities in Slovenian kindergartens. The second part presents the results on the manifestation of the planned mathematical activities among different age groups of children. The last part of the results relates to the representation of different mathematical content areas among the planned mathematical activities performed by Slovenian kindergarten teachers. Performed planned mathematical activities The results showed that during the integrated practical training 57 students recorded a total of 74 planned mathematical activities carried out by their mentors. The result, therefore, indicates that during the students' four full-day kindergarten visits, the kindergarten teachers, on average, carried out one planned mathematical activity ( M = 1.30). Table 4 shows that in no cases the number of planned activities carried out by early childhood educators exceeded the number of 3 (14.0 % of pre-service teachers reported 3 planned mathematical activities to be performed during their integral practice in the kindergarten). The largest proportion of students (45.6 %) detected only one planned mathematical activity during their practical training, while 21.1 % of students recorded two planned mathematical activities. The most striking result was that as many as 19.3 % of students did not see a single planned mathematical activity during their practical training. Table 4: Frequencies (f) and relative frequencies (f %) of performed planned mathematical activities reported by pre-service kindergarten teachers Number of activities f f % 0 activities 11 19.3 1 activity 26 45.6 2 activities 12 21.1 3 activities 8 14.0 Total 57 100.0 Note. A total of 74 planned mathematical activities were reported. 262 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Planned mathematical activities among different age groups of children This study focused on the manifestation of planned mathematical activities among different age groups of children. Table 5: Frequencies (f) and relative frequencies (f %) of performed planned mathematical activities reported by pre-service kindergarten teachers among different age groups of children Number of Children aged Children aged Mixed age activities 1–3 years 4–6 years group Total f f % f f % f f % f f % 0 3 27.3 6 20.7 2 11.8 11 19.3 1 6 54.5 11 37.9 9 52.9 26 45.6 2 1 9.1 8 27.6 3 17.6 12 21.1 3 1 9.1 4 13.8 3 17.6 8 14.0 Total 11 100.0 29 100.0 17 100.0 57 100.0 The study showed that as many as 27.3 % of pre-service kindergarten teachers reported that they did not observe a single planned mathematical activity in the group of youngest children aged 1–3 years. If this is somehow understandable in the youngest group, it is quite surprising that more than one-fifth of the participating pre-service kindergarten teachers (20.7 %) found that no mathematical activity was performed in the group of the senior kindergarten children. In all groups of children, regardless of the age of the children, pre-service kindergarten teachers most frequently recorded 1 planned mathematical activity to be performed during their integral practice in the kindergarten. Two planned mathematical activities most frequently occurred in the group of senior kindergarten children (reported by 27.6 % of pre-service kindergarten teachers), while three planned mathematical activities were most frequently observed in the mixed age group (17.6 %) (see Table 5). Table 6: Arithmetic means of planned mathematical activities performed in different age groups of children Age group Mean N Std. Deviation Group of children aged 1–3 years 1.00 11 0.894 Group of children aged 4–6 years 1.34 29 0.974 Mix age group 1.41 17 0.939 Total 1.30 57 0.944 F = 0.699; p = .501 D. Antolin Drešar: Planned Mathematical Activities in Slovenian Kindergartens 263. As Table 6 shows, the average number of mathematical activities performed in the groups of children aged 1–3 years was much lower ( M = 1.00) than the average number of mathematical activities performed in the groups of children aged 4–6 years ( M = 1.34) and in the mixed-age groups ( M = 1.41). However, the difference is not statistically significant ( F = 0.699; p = .501). Regarding the location of the kindergartens (see Table 7), this study revealed that the average of planned mathematical activities performed was slightly higher in rural and suburban kindergartens ( M = 1.31) than in urban kindergartens (1.29), but the difference is not statistical y significant ( F = 0.241; p = .787). Table 7: Arithmetic means of planned mathematical activities performed regarding the location of kindergartens Location of the kindergarten Mean N Std. Deviation Rural and suburban kindergartens 1.31 26 0.788 Urban kindergartens 1.29 31 1.071 Total 1.30 57 0.944 F = 0.241; p = .787 Planned mathematical activities regarding content areas This research was focused on the manifestation of the planned mathematical activities, as well as representation of the individual mathematical content areas. Table 8: Frequencies (f) and relative frequencies (f %) of performed planned mathematical activities regarding different mathematical content areas Content area f f % Arithmetic 31 41,9 Algebra 4 5,4 Measurement 10 13,5 Geometry 20 27,0 “Other content” area 9 12,2 Total 74 100,0 264 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS As shown in Table 8, the results indicate that in terms of mathematics content areas, arithmetic activities prevailed (41.9 %), followed by activities associated with geometry (27.0 %). The activities related to measurement (13.5 %) and “other content” area (12.2 %) were performed to a much lesser extent. Activities in the field of algebra were most rarely conducted (only 5.4 %). The study further focused on the manifestation of planned mathematical activities in different age groups regarding mathematical content areas. Table 9: Arithmetic means of planned mathematical activities performed in different age groups regarding mathematical content areas t ic en ry rea roup et ra etm ther t” a surem eo “O Age g Arithm Algeb ea G nten M co Childre Mean 0.45 0.00 0.00 0.45 0.09 n aged 1–3 Std. years Dev. 0.522 0.000 0.000 0.688 0.302 Childre Mean 0.48 0.07 0.28 0.34 0.17 n aged 4–6 Std. years Dev. 0.634 0.258 0.528 0.553 0.384 Mixed Mean 0.65 0.12 0.12 0.29 0.18 age Std. group Dev. 0.702 0.332 0.332 0.470 0.393 Mean 0.53 0.07 0.18 0.35 0.16 Total Std. Dev. 0.630 0.258 0.428 0.551 0.368 This research indicates that in the groups of the youngest children (aged 1-3 years) no activity in the field of algebra or measurement was performed (see Table 9). The most frequently performed planned mathematical activities in the groups of children aged 1–3 years were activities in the field of arithmetic ( M = 0.45) and geometry ( M = 0.45). D. Antolin Drešar: Planned Mathematical Activities in Slovenian Kindergartens 265. The highest average of performed arithmetic activities was observed in the mixed age groups of children ( M = 0.65). Since algebra is often considered to be one of the most chal enging contents, activities related to algebra would be expected to be most often performed in the group of older children, but our results show otherwise. In the mixed age groups, the average number of activities related to algebra was higher ( M = 0.12) than in the group of the oldest children ( M = 0.07). Moreover, measuring activities were most often performed in a group of older children ( M = 0.28). Discussion and Conclusion The results of this research confirmed the assumption that arose based on annual discussions with prospective kindergarten teachers regarding their observations of the lack of mathematical activities in Slovenian kindergartens. Thus, the findings indicate that there are relatively few planned mathematical activities. Most pre-service kindergarten teachers reported that only one planned mathematical activity had been performed during their integrated practical training. However, the most worrying is the finding that nearly one-fifth of al prospective kindergarten teachers did not see a single planned math activity during their integral practice. It should be noted that the participating kindergartens were informed about the purpose of students’ integral practice and that students previously disclosed with their mentors that they were instructed to specifical y observe and record planned mathematical activities. From this point of view, it would be expected that, as a result, kindergarten teachers might show more engagement and therefore perform more planned mathematical activities than they would otherwise. Where to look for reasons? The analysis of students’ reports that reflected students’ experiences and feelings regarding practical training might reveal at least a few of them. For example, Ana wrote: “Already at the beginning of practical training, my mentor told me that she was quite weak in mathematics so she was very glad when I shared with her some ideas and activities we learned in Mathematics Education.” A similar reason was reported in the study conducted by Ginsburg et al. (2001), who stated that early childhood educators may not feel comfortable or competent enough to teach mathematics. On the other hand, Ginsburg et al. (2008, p. 10) noted that "most early childhood teachers do not place a high value on teaching mathematics." In our research, quite a few pre-service teachers expressed their disappointment regarding the modest amount of planned mathematical activities. According to their observations, some teachers do not carry out planned mathematical activities because they are incorporating mathematics in 266 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS various situations during the day. Thus, Nina stated: "As a negative experience, I would point out that my mentor considers morning circle as a mathematical activity and for this reason, she does not carry out planned mathematical activities." Eva’s observations are similar: “I noticed that in my group mathematics was often involved in spontaneous conversations and during spontaneous play, while planned mathematical activities hadn’t been performed, not even once.” It seems that kindergarten teachers are not aware (enough) that the play does not suffice and that mathematics should be presented to the children in a planned way (Moss et al., 2016). In connection with the research of Nudl et al. (2012), which reported on the frequency of mathematical activities in Slovenian kindergartens, quite a few parallels can be observed. Despite the fact that the present research was carried out 7 years later and focused only on planned activities, it showed almost identical findings regarding the representation of mathematical content areas. Similar to their research, this research indicated the predominance of arithmetic activities as well. Ginsburg et al. (2008) pointed out that limiting early mathematics to counting most likely steams from an underestimation of children's abilities. Furthermore, in accordance with Nudl et al. (2012), this research showed that the least frequently performed activities were in the field of algebra. However, in contrast, the present study revealed progress in the frequency of performed geometric activities. Namely, compared to the 14.0 % rate of geometric activities detected in the research conducted by Nudl et al. (2012), present findings suggest that as much as 27 % of all planned activities were associated with geometry. Considering that some previous studies revealed that geometry is typical y the least known subject for early years teachers (such as Clements & Sarama, 2011; Lee, 2010), the findings of this study are quite encouraging. There are certain limitations of this study that should be considered. First, the manifestation of planned mathematical activities was investigated by analyzing pre-service kindergarten teachers' reports. It would certainly be better if the observations could be carried out directly by the researcher, but in that case, it would be very difficult to cover as many different kindergartens across Slovenia as the current method allowed. Furthermore, in the academic year of 2016/17, the integrated practical training included only 4 full-day kindergarten visits (4 consecutive Fridays). Taking into consideration that some kindergartens may have had other activities previously planned for those days, that could contribute to the relatively low number D. Antolin Drešar: Planned Mathematical Activities in Slovenian Kindergartens 267. of mathematical activities recorded. From this point of view, it might seem that it would be better to analyze students’ reports from their concise 4-week internship. However, that data is unlikely to provide a deeper insight since during the concise internship, students are required to carry out several activities covering all curriculum content areas and therefore the learning process in kindergartens is at that time often adopted to accommodate students' internship agenda. This study pointed out the crucial importance of finding ways how to encourage Slovenian kindergarten teachers to pay more attention to planned mathematical activities. First and foremost, there is a need to raise awareness that the development of intuitive mathematics skills is not enough (Ginsburg, 2009; Hachey, 2013). In addition to promoting awareness of the importance of planned activities, seminars and workshops for kindergarten teachers should remind them of the problematic narrowing of mathematics to numbers and operations (Lee & Ginsburg, 2007) and encourage them to include diverse activities covering other mathematical content areas as well. Furthermore, until recently, there were not many Slovene-language materials on early mathematics available for early childhood educators. The publication of literature that reaches kindergartens and early childhood educators (for example Lipovec & Antolin Drešar, 2019) might at least assist them with new ideas and approaches when planning mathematical activities. References Antolin Drešar, D (2017a). Integration of mathematics with other areas of curriculum in Slovenian kindergartens. In R. Kissné Zsámboki & C. Horváth (Eds.) Diverzitás a hazai és nemzetközi neveléstudományi kutatásokban és a pedagógiai gyakorlatban. Egyetem Kiadó. Antolin Drešar, D. (2017b). Povezovanje gibanja in matematike v slovenskih vrtcih [Integration of movement and mathematics in Slovenian kindergartens]. In A. Bartos, S. Kerec & T. Horvat (Eds.), Razvojni potenciali z vidika prehrane, gibanja in zdravja, (pp. 19–27). Bargagliotti, A. E., Guarino, C. M., & Mason, W. M. (2009). Mathematics in kindergarten and first grade in the United States at the start of the 21st century. On-line Working Paper Series, California Center for Population Research. Bruce, C., Flynn, T., & Moss, J. (2016). Early mathematics: Chal enges, possibilities and new directions in the research. Mathematics for Young Children: Literature Review, 2nd ed. http://tmerc.ca/pub/M4YC_LiteratureReview_25June12_RevisedSept2016.pdf Copley, J. V. (2004). The early childhood col aborative: A professional development model to communicate and implement the standards. In D. H. Clements, J. Sarama & A. M. Dibiase (Eds.), Engaging young children in mathematics: Findings of the 2000 national conference on standards for preschool and kindergarten mathematics education (pp. 401–414) . Claessens, A., Duncan, G., & Engel, M. (2009). Kindergarten skills and fifth-grade achievement: Evidence from the ECLS-K. 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PLoS ONE, 8(1), e54651. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054651 Ginsburg, H., Pappas, S., & Seo, K. (2001). Everyday mathematical knowledge: Asking children what is developmental y appropriate. In S. Golbeck (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on early childhood education: Reframing dilemmas in research and practice (pp. 181–219). Ginsburg, H. P., Lee, J. S., & Boyd, J. S. (2008). Math education for young children: What it is and how to promote it. Social Policy Report, 22(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2379-3988.2008.tb00054.x Ginsburg, H. P. (2009). The challenge of formative assessment in mathematics education: Children’s minds, teachers’ minds. Human Development, 52, 109–128. https://doi.org/10.1159/000202729 Greenfield, D., Jirout, J., Dominguez, X., Greenberg, A., Maier, M., & Fuccil o, J. (2009). Science in the preschool classroom: A programmatic research agenda to improve science readiness. 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Young children’s access to powerful mathematical ideas: A review of current chal enges and new developments in the early years. In L. English & D. Kirshner (Eds.), Handbook of international research in mathematics education (3rd Ed., pp. 153–190). Taylor & Francis. National Research Council. (2009). Mathematics learning in early childhood: Paths toward excel ence and equity. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/12519 Nudl, A., Brezočnik, D., Lipovec, A., & Antolin Drešar, D. (2012). Struktura zastopanosti matematičnih dejavnosti v slovenskih vrtcih [The representative structure of mathematical activities in Slovenian kindergartens]. Matematika v šoli, 18(1/2), 5–14. Phil ips, D. A., Gormley, W. T., & Lowenstein, A. E. (2009). Inside the pre-kindergarten door: Classroom climate and instructional time allocation in Tulsa’s pre-K programs. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24(3), 213–228. Reys, B. J., Chval, K. B., & Switzer, J. (2008). Mathematics standards for kindergarten: Summary of state-level at ention and focus. Paper commissioned by the NRC Early Childhood Mathematics Committee. Ritchie, S. J., & Bates, T. C. (2013). Enduring links from childhood mathematics and reading achievement to adult socioeconomic status. Psychological Science, 24(7), 1301–1308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612466268 Rudd, L. C., Lambert, M., Satterwhite, M., & Zaier, A., (2008). Mathematical language in early childhood settings: What real y counts? Early Childhood Education Journal, 36(1), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-008-0246-3 D. Antolin Drešar: Planned Mathematical Activities in Slovenian Kindergartens 269. Sarama, J. (2002). Listening to teachers: Planning for professional development. Teaching Children Mathematics, 9, 36–39. Tepylo, D. H., Moss, J., & Stevenson, C. (2015). A developmental look at a rigorous block play program, Young Children, 70(1), 18–25. 270 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS TESTING MOTOR PREDISPOSITIONS AND COMPETENCES OF PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN IN THE CZECH AND SLOVAK REPUBLICS JAROMÍR ŠIMONEK1, NORA HALMOVÁ1 & LENKA VOJTÍKOVÁ2 1 Constantine the Philosopher University, Faculty of Education, Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: jsimonek@ukf.sk, nhalmova@ukf.sk 2 Charles University, Faculty of Education, Prague, Czech Republic, e-mail: lenka.vojtikova@pedf.cuni.cz Abstract The aim of this study was to monitor the level of basic movement competences of children at the onset of school attendance, and to compare the results of fitness tests with the ones of genetic analysis for the purpose of sport talent identification. The research sample included 449 pupils attending elementary schools in the regions of Nitra, Slovakia, and Prague, Czech Republic. During the first phase, 271 pupils (152 males, Keywords: basic mean age = 7.438; 119 females; mean age = 7.227) underwent 9 movement fitness tests to determine general physical abilities. Subsequently, competences, fitness 30 best scoring pupils were selected for genetic tests. The results tests, in fitness tests do not match the ones obtained from the genetic gender analysis. During the second phase of the project, 178 pupils (93 differences, genetic males, 85 females) aged 7.31 years (SD±0.93 years) participated, analysis, out of whom 109 were Slovak and 69 Czech pupils. The level of 7-year-old performance of the Czech sample in object control tests is pupils, sports significantly higher than the one of the Slovak sample. Gender talent differences in object control tests were found in favor of boys. identification. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.13 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 272 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Introduction Fundamental movement skil s at an early age of children Gross motor development is an area often overlooked by early childhood educators, including those in special education. During the pre-school and elementary years, a child’s motor ability begins to mature. Physical growth and a child’s history of movement experiences play a fundamental role in influencing shifts in movement patterns. If deficits in gross motor development are not identified and remediated, the child may experience lifelong problems with motor skills (Scheuer et al., 2017). Typical development is marked by wel -observed patterns of motor behaviors, including reflexes, voluntary movements, and goal-directed actions. As a child progresses from infancy through early childhood, parents, teachers and clinicians serve the important role of identifying children with motor deficiencies. Parents and teachers can identify a child with a potential motor impairment. They may also aid clinicians and researchers in assessing and monitoring motor competence as part of a research study or investigation progress (Bardid et al., 2018). Therefore, the evaluation of gross motor development should represent an important aspect of early childhood screening programs. Early childhood is a critical period for the development of fundamental movement skills (Hardy et al., 2010). The acquisition of fundamental movement skills is developmentally sequenced (Branta et al., 1984) and is contingent upon multiple internal and external factors (biological, psychological, social, motivational, cognitive, etc.) and the process of acquisition occurring through a range of active play experiences and structured programs. These skil s al ow children to interact with and explore their environment (Gallahue & Ozhun, 2002). Children who do not master fundamental movement skil s are more likely to experience failure in the motor domain and less likely to participate in sport and games during childhood and adolescence. Studies among primary-school aged children report low levels of fundamental movement skil s mastery indicating the need to implement fundamental movement skills programs during the preschool years (Hardy et al., 2010). J. Šimonek, N. Nora Halmová & L. Vojtíková: Testing Motor Predispositions and Competences of Primary School Children in the Czech and Slovak Republics 273. Furthermore, research among school aged children (Barnett et al., 2008; Barnett et al., 2008; Patterson, 2001) shows that mastery of fundamental movement skills is correlated with higher levels of physical activity, and there is emerging evidence among preschoolers that fundamental movement skil s (Fisher, 2005), and in particular locomotor skills are also positively associated with physical activity. Studies among primary-school aged children indicate low levels of fundamental movement skills mastery (Okely, 2004; van Beurden et al., 2002). Therefore, it appears prudent to examine fundamental movement skil s already in preschool and early-school aged children. Testing motor competences Testing motor predispositions and competences in physical education has gained in relevance over the last decades. In primary schools the aim of testing is to identify students with motor deficiencies and/or to assess motor proficiency levels in general. The term motor competence relates to the development and performance of human movement (Stodden et al., 2008). Motor competence has encompassed a wide variety of terms such as fundamental motor skill or movement, motor proficiency or performance, motor ability and motor coordination (Robinson et al., 2015). Motor competence can also be explained as a person’s ability to carry out different motor acts, including coordination of both fine (for example, manual dexterity) and gross (for example, static and dynamic balance) motor skil s (Henderson & Sugden, 1992). Numerous current research studies reported positive associations between motor competence and physical activity (Holfelder & Schott, 2014; Lubans et al., 2010), and motor competence and health related fitness (Haga, 2008; Stodden et al., 2014). The results of the recently published study by Luz et al. (2017) showed that motor competence has an influential role in the development of health-related fitness during childhood. Working with children to develop motor competence from an early age wil trigger the achievement of better health related fitness, probably through the involvement of children in physical activities, sports and free play activities. Since childhood is a critical period for the acquisition of motor competence and health related fitness, it should be fundamental to promote both 274 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS motor competence and health related fitness to benefit a healthy development of children. Basic motor competences (BMC) are motor performance predispositions expressed as minimum standards empowering children to participate in the movement culture. Or, they can alternatively be defined as a prerequisite for active participation in the culture of movement, play, and sports (Scheuer et al., 2017). They ensure that children and adolescents can participate in the education-related processes of this culture (Gogoll, 2012; Herrmann et al., 2015). BMC express a level of minimal requirements in the form of minimum standards. They determine the lower limit of the ability to move. One should not confuse BMC with motor abilities and sport motor skills. Unlike motor abilities, motor qualifications are always complex and context-bound. Furthermore, they are also more general than specific skills and form a foundation upon which skil s and thus further development of competence are built (Scheuer et al., 2017). The promotion of basic motor competences is a main goal of physical education lessons, since they are essential prerequisites to be able to develop a physical y active lifestyle (Hulteen et al., 2018). There exist several different test batteries to assess basic motor competences of children and adolescents, however, there is not yet a consensus on which constructs comprise motor competence. The choice of test battery depends on different factors, such as the suitability of the test for the age group, the purpose of the measurement and the facilities/environment where the assessment takes place (Bardid et al., 2018). The most recently used batteries include: MOBAK and TGMD batteries. The former identifies three different areas of motor competence: locomotion, object-control, and moving in water, while the latter includes only two areas: locomotion, and object-control. The test of gross motor development – second edition (TGMD-2) was developed to meet the need for a wel -constructed, standardized test. Gross motor development frequently includes movement behaviors that are used to transport the body from one location to another and to project and receive objects, especial y bal s. Hence, locomotion and object control behaviors form the nucleus of the general domain are measured by TGMD-2. In particular, the TGMD-2 measures how children coordinate their trunk and limbs during a movement task performance rather than assessing the end result (such as how fast they ran, how far they threw the bal ). Clark (1994) described multiple, sequential periods, during which qualitative differences are observed in J. Šimonek, N. Nora Halmová & L. Vojtíková: Testing Motor Predispositions and Competences of Primary School Children in the Czech and Slovak Republics 275. a child’s motor behavior (Table 1). He added that individuals move through various periods at different rates, based on the confluence of multiple internal (biological, psychological, motivational, cognitive, social, and so forth) and external factors (the environment). Table 1 Sequential periods reflecting qualitative differences in motor behaviors (Clark, 1994) Time interval Stage Major periods Neonatal (first 2–3 months) 1 Reflexive and spontaneous movements First 12–14 months 2 Preadapted behavior repertoire Preschool and early elementary years 3 Fundamental gross motor behaviors Middle elementary through adulthood 4 Sport- and context-specific movements In the last decade, an increase in sedentary behavior during occupational and domestic activities and insufficient participation in physical activity during leisure time have been reported in many research articles (Epstein, 2001; Troiano, 2008). Developing motor skil competence may be fundamental in developing and maintaining adequate physical fitness into adulthood (Stodden et al., 2009). Children with high motor skill proficiency will have higher levels of fitness and perceived sports competence, which in turn predict greater participation in physical activity, and vice versa (Lubans et al., 2010). Evidence suggests that motor skill acquisition in early childhood may be an essential prerequisite for child physical activity participation and engagement in physical activity later in life (Hulteen et al., 2018; Loprinzi et al., 2015; Luz et al., 2017; Stodden et al., 2009). Failure to develop competency in fundamental movement skil s wil make learning more advanced/specialized forms of these skills more difficult. The importance of the fundamental movement skil s phase is denoted as a time crucial for creating a broad base of skil competences thus promoting the greatest potential for skil transfer to other complexed skills. Along with learning more advanced skills, the levels of competency needed are higher due to the demands of specific activities (Langendorfer et al., 2011). In this context, discussion is on the way concerning which skil s should be taught to children and adolescents in different developmental periods. A partial answer to this topical question is given by Hulteen et al. (2018) who proposed a conceptual model of the development of movement skil s from reflexive movements to specialized movement skills (Figure 1). In this model, reflexive and rudimentary goal-oriented movements provide the basis for further 276 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS development of more complex movement skils. Later on, fundamental movement skills emerge. However, they do not include the full range of skills that may allow children to participate in physical activities and sports throughout their lifespan. In context of this, Hulteen et al. (2018) suggested a new term ‘foundational movement skills’ which better reflects the wide variety of skills in which an individual should develop competency. Foundational movement skil s are thus defined as goal-directed movement patterns that directly and indirectly impact an individual’s capability to be physical y active and can be developed to enhance physical activity participation and promote health throughout life. Explanations: Black arrows indicate previously hypothesized pathways; white arrows and dotted boxes indicate newly hypothesized pathways/components unique to this conceptual model Figure 1 Model of the development of foundational movement skil s for physical activity across the lifespan (Hulteen et al., 2018) J. Šimonek, N. Nora Halmová & L. Vojtíková: Testing Motor Predispositions and Competences of Primary School Children in the Czech and Slovak Republics 277. Sport talent identification through detecting motor competences Detecting motor competences in children can also facilitate identification of sport talented individuals already in the first years of their school attendance. The talent identification process usually involves a physical (anthropometry) and physiological (performance measures: speed, strength, aerobic and anaerobic power) testing battery relevant to the demands of the sport. However, a one-dimensional approach in talent identification based on physical and physiological parameters can be misleading. Rather, a multidisciplinary approach addressing physical, physiological, technical, sociological and psychological predictors should be conducted (Meylan et al, 2010). Sport talent identification through genetic testing Fitness tests formerly used for talent identification at an early age cannot properly find the future talent because the tests results depend on the specific point in time of testing with respect to the athlete’s optimal training level, daily physical state and health (Burgess & Naughton, 2010). If an athlete is not able to show his or her best performance in the test situation, the results do not reflect his or her “real abilities”. Therefore, an alternative approach of talent development instead of the conventional “snap-shot” testing has been proposed. Genetic testing has become a new method of disclosing the background of sports talents (Bouchard et al., 2011). At present, research projects are aimed at integrated measurements of the effect of various genes and environmental effects on one’s genotype. Genetic tests differ in principle from the traditional motor tests, because DNA of an individual does not change during their early childhood. Genetics play an important role in determining the capacity of an individual to go in for sports at the top professional level. The question is which genetic elements influence motor abilities and what is their respective significance. Furthermore, it is necessary to know the related genes as wel as the mechanisms and metabolic paths and their influence. Sports performance is not determined only by a single gene but concurrent interactions of several genes (Sessa et al., 2011). Genetic tests can inform trainers and athletes on the type of physical activity (endurance or speed) suitable for the given individual. The results of fitness tests can provide them only with partial information on the momentary state of fitness of children. However, such information can be fruitful for them when developing individual training programs and in discovering talented children. The 278 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS sole use of genetic analysis can offer only hereditary characteristic of an individual, which, however, need not be developed during the life of the person. The aim of the article was to monitor the level of basic motor competences of children at the onset of their school attendance. Attention was also paid to the comparison of the results of fitness tests with the ones of genetic analysis for the purpose of sport talent identification. Method The research procedure consisted of three different protocols: Fitness Testing (1), Gross Motor Development Testing (2), and Genetic Analysis (3). First phase – fitness testing The research sample included 271 children (152 males and 119 females) aged 6–8 years (mean age = 7.36 years) attending the first grade at 3 elementary schools in Nitra, Slovakia. Basic characteristics of the sample are presented in table 2. Table 2: Basic characteristics of the sample Slovak sample (SK) Decimal Body Body Body mass (n = 271) age Height Mass index Boys ( n = 152) 7.39 126.91 26.75 16.52 Girls ( n = 119) 7.34 125.34 25.24 15.98 Fitness testing for sport talent identification included 8 items: Coordination test with a stick, Arm hang, Standing Broad Jump, 4x10m Shuttle Run, 30s Sit-ups, Sit-and Reach test, Rolling of 3 Balls, 20m Beep Test. Somatic measurements included body height, body mass, and BMI (Šimonek, 2018). The test results were assessed using the 7-point scale according to the procedure by Moravec et al. (2002). The total score of individual children was formed by adding the points from individual fitness tests. The 30 best children who scored highest points (out of the total 271 children) were recommended for genetic testing. J. Šimonek, N. Nora Halmová & L. Vojtíková: Testing Motor Predispositions and Competences of Primary School Children in the Czech and Slovak Republics 279. Second phase – gross motor development testing The research sample consisted of 178 children (93 male; 85 female) aged 7.31 years ( SD±0.93 years), out of whom 109 were Slovak and 69 Czech pupils. Characteristics of the samples are presented in tables 3 and 4. In the second phase of the project, locomotion and fundamental skills of children were tested. Table 3: Characteristics of the sample of Czech pupils (n = 69) Czech sample (CZ) Decimal Body Body Body mass (n = 69) age Height Mass index Boys ( n = 34) 7.39 128.6 27.6 16.6 Girls ( n = 35) 7.33 126.2 25.2 15.7 Table 4: Characteristics of the sample of Slovak pupils (n = 109) Slovak sample (SK) Decimal Body Body Body mass (n = 109) age Height Mass index Boys ( n = 59) 7.27 126.1 27.3 16.8 Girls ( n = 50) 7.24 123.3 25.5 15.9 Gross Motor Development Testing included two subtests (Locomotor and Object Control) that make up the TGMD-2 (Scheuer et al., 2017). By means of these two subtests the level of gross motor development of selected children was assessed. The Locomotor subtest measures the following gross motor skills that require fluid coordinated movements of the body as the child moves in one direction or another: Run, Gal op, Hop, Leap, Horizontal Jump, and Slide. The Object Control subtest measures the following gross motor skil s that demonstrate efficient throwing, striking, and catching movements: Striking a Stationary Ball, Stationary Dribble, Catch, Kick, Overhead Throw, and Underhand Roll. Each gross motor skill included several behavioral components that were presented as performance criteria. In general, these behaviors represented a mature pattern of the skil . If the child performed a behavioral component correctly, the examiner marked a 1; if the child did not perform a behavioral component correctly, the examiner marked a 0. After completing this procedure for each of the two trials, the examiner totaled the scores of the two trials to obtain a raw skill score for each item (run, gallop, hop, etc.). The entire TGMD-2 lasted for approximately 15-20 minutes for one child. 280 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Statistical procedure included arithmetic mean, standard deviation (Tables 5 and 6), and Man-Whitney U-test for independent samples (Tables 7 through 9). Cohen’s d was used to indicate the standardized difference between two means. Third phase – genetic analysis The research sample consisted of 30 pupils with the highest number of points scored in fitness tests. The third protocol represented genetic analysis of samples of 2ml saliva (GeneFix Saliva Collectors). The samples were analyzed using the apparatus HiScan (Illumina Inc., San Diego, USA), which allowed for analyzing 400.000 polymorphisms in a human gene. The values of individual genetic scores were compared with a histogram of genetic score distribution in European population. Software Genomestudio (Il umina Inc., San Diego, USA) and software TANAGRA 1.4.50 were used for data analysis (Šimonek & Židek, 2019). Instruments and analysis: Four separate panels of genetic markers were selected for analysis. An unweighted “genetic score” based on contribution to anaerobic capacity, sport motivation, muscle pain and body mass had been calculated. A score of “0” represented the homozygote for the low-response variant; “1” represented heterozygous and “2” represented homozygous for the high-response allele. In certain variants with significantly higher impact was the genetic score increase to “2” for heterozygous and “4” for homozygous high-response al ele. Sum of genetic score calculated for each haplotype has been enriched by probability to observe a specific haplotype in the European (Caucasian) population. The overal population risk has been visualized as a histogram of given genetic score based on frequencies of al possible haplotypes in the European population. The calculated rate of the genetic score had been confronted with the histogram of genetic score distribution of 30 control individuals genotyped through Il umina chip HumanOmniExpress-24 (23andMe v3, v4, v5) and derived from the project NU3Gen. Results The results of measurements of both locomotion and object control skills in the Slovak sample are presented in Tables 5 and 6. J. Šimonek, N. Nora Halmová & L. Vojtíková: Testing Motor Predispositions and Competences of Primary School Children in the Czech and Slovak Republics 281. Table 5: Statistical data for the Slovak sample LOCOMOTIONS Group/test run gallop hop leap board jump slide TORAL 6.73 6.19 8.42 5.20 6.63 6.61 39.78 BOYS ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 1.9 2.31 2.51 1.27 1.73 1.82 7.1 6.82 6.24 9.02 5.14 6.34 6.54 40.10 GIRLS ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 1.52 2.40 1.56 1.43 2.02 1.81 6.33 OBJECT CONTROL Group/test strike dribble catch kick throw roll TORAL 3.22 3.56 3.68 4.80 3.05 3.68 21.98 BOYS ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 1.46 2.51 1.73 1.71 1.91 1.86 6.02 2.96 2.14 3.44 3.58 2.60 3.00 17.72 GIRLS ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 1.06 2.56 1.70 1.56 1.43 1.37 5.21 Table 6: Statistical data for the Czech sample LOCOMOTIONS Group/test run gallop hop leap board jump slide TORAL 7.12 6.18 8.18 5.26 6.77 6.53 40.03 BOYS ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 1.45 1.76 2.05 1.13 1.15 1.38 5.01 7.13 6.08 8.14 4.94 6.86 6.57 39.71 GIRLS ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 1.20 1.74 1.99 1.22 0.95 1.38 4.99 OBJECT CONTROL Group/test strike dribble catch kick throw roll TORAL 6.27 5.15 4.38 6.59 5.71 4.82 32.91 BOYS ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 1.38 2.13 1.15 1.59 1.58 1.48 6.02 5.31 4.14 3.86 4.09 4.57 4.03 26.00 GIRLS ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 1.70 2.16 1.27 1.99 1.64 1.62 4.78 282 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS When looking at gender differences within the Slovak sample, we can state that they showed higher values in girls in the leap, broad jump and slide tests, while boys scored higher values in the rest of locomotion tests and al object control tests (Table 7). When evaluating gender differences in elementary locomotion tests, no statistical significance ( p > .05) was detected in any of the six tests. On the contrary, when looking at gender differences in overall test results of motor skills, statistically significant difference was observed ( p < .01 = .001; d = .719). In particular tests, the following results were found: No statistical significance was found in the tests of Striking the ball (p > .05 = .528; d = .199), Ball catching ( p > .05 = .547; d = .109), Ball throwing ( p > .05 = .206; d = .266), and Ball rolling ( p > .05 =.107; d = .392), while positive significance was proved in the tests of Dribbling ( p < .01 = .003; d = .538), and Ball kicking ( p < .01 =.001; d = .703). All significant differences were in favor of boys. Table :7 Gender differences in locomotion and skil s tests within the Slovak sample Locomotion P Cohen's d Skills p Cohen's d run .662 -0.02773 strike .528 0.199 galop .951 0.02482 dribble .003** 0.538 hop .619 -0.24392 catch .547 0.109 leap .979 0.08970 kick < .001** 0.703 broad jump .383 0.18249 throw .206 0.266 slide .788 0.00561 roll .107 0.392 Total .844 -0.00602 Total < .001** 0.719 Legend: ** gender differences ( p ≤ .01). Effect size significance: 0.2 – 0.49 = smal effect; 0.5 – 0.79 = medium effect; 0.8 < large effect. Gender differences within the Czech sample showed higher values in girls in the run, broad jump and slide tests, while boys scored higher values in the rest of locomotion tests and al object control tests (Table 8). There was a very slight difference in total values of locomotion tests. When looking at gender differences in elementary locomotion tests, no statistical significance ( p > .05) was detected in any of the six tests. On the contrary, when evaluating gender differences in overall test results of motor skills, statistical y significant difference was observed ( p < .01 = .001; d = 1.239). J. Šimonek, N. Nora Halmová & L. Vojtíková: Testing Motor Predispositions and Competences of Primary School Children in the Czech and Slovak Republics 283. Table 8 Gender differences in locomotion and skil s tests within the Czech sample Locomotion P Cohen's d Skills p Cohen's d run .771 0.00246 strike .020* 0.596 galop .772 0.05035 drible .095 0.455 hop .896 0.01618 catch .140 0.421 leap .231 0.26544 kick < .001** 1.348 broad jump .940 -0.08545 throw .007** 0.685 slide .891 -0.02960 roll .062 0.496 Total .791 0.06127 Total < .001** 1.239 Legend: * gender differences ( p ≤ .05), ** gender differences ( p ≤ .01); Effect size significance: 0.2 – 0.49 = small effect; 0.5 – 0.79 = medium effect; 0.8 < large effect. In particular tests the following results were found: No statistical significance was found in the tests of Dribbling ( p > .05 = .095; d = .455), Ball catching ( p > .05 = .140; d = .421), and Ball rolling ( p > .05 = .062; d = .496), while positive significance was proved in the tests of Striking the bal (p < .05 = .020; d = .596), Ball kicking ( p < .01 =.001; d = 1.348), and Ball throwing ( p < .01 = .007; d = .685), All significant differences were in favor of boys. To compare the level of basic locomotion and fundamental object control skil s between the Slovak and Czech samples comparative analysis was employed. Based on the smal sample size a non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-test was used for finding the differences between the two samples. Logical relations were evaluated using the Cohen’s d test. The results are depicted in Table 9. No statistical differences, with the exception of the Hop test (p < .05 = .027; d = .166), were found in the level of the components of locomotion tests between the Slovak and Czech samples (Table 9). However, statistically significant differences in favor of the Czech sample were observed in object control tests as a whole ( p < .01; .001; d = 1.86), at 5 % level of statistical significance in Ball catching ( p < .05 = .030; d = .349), and at 1 % level of statistical significance in Striking the ball ( p < .01 = .001; d = 1.850), Ball dribbling ( p < .01 = .001; d = .693), Ball kicking ( p < .01; .001; d = .553), Ball throwing ( p < .01 = .001; d = 1.320), and Ball rolling ( p < .01 = .001; d = .629). 284 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Table 9: Differences between the Czech and Slovak samples in locomotion and object control tests Locomotion p Cohen's d Skills p Cohen's d run .131 -0.2677 strike < .001** -1.850 gallop .292 -0.0140 drible < .001** -0.693 hop .027* 0.1660 catch .030* -0.349 leap .549 -0.0145 kick < .001** -0.553 broad jump .931 -0.2481 throw < .001** -1.320 slide .481 -0.0505 roll < .001** -0.629 Total .357 -0.0243 Total < .001** 1.86 Legend: * gender differences ( p ≤ .05); ** gender differences ( p ≤ .01); Effect size significance: 0.2 – 0.49 = smal effect; 0.5 – 0.79 = medium effect; 0.8 < large effect. The results obtained during the second phase of our research showed that, by implementing the obligatory testing of motor prerequisites of children in Slovakia, we obtained a significant sample which can help identifying and selecting young talents in sports. Based on the broad data basis, parents and coaches wil have the better chance to identify a potential sport talent and select them for the particular sport activity both in the sport club or in recreational activity. Selecting the top 10 % of children according to the results of motor tests did not reflect the results of genetic testing since in al 7 different parameters of sport performance the results did not match the ones obtained through motor testing. Some children showed a good level of performance in strength tests but scored low in endurance and coordination tests. It was also found that despite the high level of performance of some children in physical tests, they, on the contrary, showed a high risk of muscle injury and a low level of trainability. These are obstacles to improving sports performance in these individuals. However, based on the analysis of genes and motor prerequisites we offered parents and coaches valid information about their children’s prerequisites to a certain group of sports, particularly oxidative capacity, regeneration speed, injury prevention, anaerobic capacity, motivation for sports, muscle pain susceptibility, and type of energetic metabolism. Discussion and Conclusion The preschool environment plays an important role in fostering and developing children’s fundamental movement skills. The current findings highlight the need for teachers to provide structured opportunities which facilitate children’s development and confidence in performing basic skil s, which may include providing gender J. Šimonek, N. Nora Halmová & L. Vojtíková: Testing Motor Predispositions and Competences of Primary School Children in the Czech and Slovak Republics 285. separated games, equipment and spaces. Playing games that are fun, inclusive and skill-based wil help prepare children to participate in a wide variety of physical activities with greater success and enjoyment. Investments in fundamental skills development programs during early childhood are important because they have the potential to enable children to participate successfully in games and sports during adolescence and adulthood, and once learned, the skil s are retained for life. The overal results of our research suggested that while the level of performance of both samples in basic locomotion is not significantly different, the level of performance of the Czech sample in object control tests is significantly higher than the one of the Slovak sample ( p < .01 = .001; d = 1.86). We hypothesize that one of the reasons for better performance of the Czech children in object control tests was the fact that elementary school teachers in the Czech sample devoted more time in the curriculum to object control skills exercises. Administrators from the Czech partner proved this presumption true. More than one half of the content of physical education lessons in Czech primary school classes is formed by coordination exercises, dribbling, passing, catching throwing, rolling, hitting, striking, and similar. Significant gender differences in favor of boys in object control tests in both countries could be attributed to more frequent involvement of boys in bal games during their free time. Similar results were obtained by Ré et al. (2017). Another explanation can be found in physical and motor development of both genders. Boys and girls develop differently in a few ways, and researchers are always studying the genes, hormones, and brain chemistry that might explain some of these differences. Of course, an individual child's development may not fit neatly within gender lines. Between the big growth stages of infancy and adolescence, boys and girls grow in height and weight at about the same slow, but steady rate. There aren't notable differences between the sexes until late elementary school – that's when girls start to grow tal er faster, although boys catch up and surpass them within a few years. Boys' gross motor skills (running, jumping, balancing) tend to develop slightly faster, while girls' fine motor skills (holding a pencil, writing) improve first (Ding, 2020). Researchers continue to study the developmental differences between boys and girls and what causes them, but it's important to remember that biology alone doesn't determine the kind of son or daughter people wil have. Exposing the child to a wide range of activities and experiences is the best way to support a wel -rounded, active child. 286 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Based on the results of our measurements we can assume that the content of physical education lessons at the primary level of education can contribute to the acquisition of motor competence and health related fitness to a great degree. This period of life is the crucial one for the promoting of both motor competence and health related fitness to benefit a healthy development of children. Professionals responsible for delivering gross motor programs should have a valid and reliable assessment tool, such as TGMD-2, to document the effectiveness of their programs. Teachers should establish realistic expectations for the amount of progress children should make from the beginning to the end of the school year. Based on tests of basic locomotor and manipulative skills, P.E. teachers can suggest sport coaches talented individuals for the regular sport training. However, the main issue is determining which test battery should be used to detect the key competences of young talents. When we have a look at the up-to-date sources (such as Clark, Meylan et al, and others), we can state that since motor capabilities have their sensitive periods only later during adolescence, it is thus necessary to follow and observe the process of learning motor skills of children during their early life. The tempo of motor learning should be one of the main factors indicating the sport talent in an individual. When we consider this assumption to be valid, test batteries comprising locomotor and manipulative skills tests (such as MOBAK and TGMD) should be preferred. However, test results cannot determine the real talent development. Only long-lasting hard training work can bring the success in top sport. In the future research, it is inevitable to pay attention to the potential tempo of development of abilities and skills. A comparison of pretest and posttest results will indicate whether the pupils made significant progress or not. The research attempted also at comparing different methods of sport talent identification. Results of the genetic analysis and measurement of motor abilities of selected children aged 7–8 years suggest that genetic testing of young athletes offers a suitable method of identifying performance prerequisites just before their development. Genetic tests can inform trainers and athletes on the type of physical activity (endurance or speed) suitable for the given individual. The results of fitness tests can provide them only with partial information on the momentary state of fitness of children. We can recommend both ways of identifying sport talents. We assume that genetic testing of young athletes offers a suitable method of identifying performance prerequisites just before their development. However, such J. Šimonek, N. Nora Halmová & L. Vojtíková: Testing Motor Predispositions and Competences of Primary School Children in the Czech and Slovak Republics 287. information can be fruitful for them when developing individual training programs and in discovering talented children. The sole use of genetic analysis can offer only hereditary characteristic of an individual, which, however, need not be developed during the life of the person. Genetic analysis may be considered to be a suitable and practical alternative for fitness-oriented testing of the population. A limitation to this study is the use of only one single test battery of gross motor coordination as the measurement of motor competence. Furthermore, the application of tests only on a sample consisting of children aged 6–7 limits our conclusions on a certain age group. Therefore, future research should investigate cross-cultural differences (not only in two Central European countries) in fundamental movement skil s of a larger age span in order to understand the issues of motor competence in a broader sense. This study provides valuable information on comparison of motor competence levels in children of two countries using the TGMD-2 test battery. Present results show that there are only slight differences in basic locomotor movements between genders. However, significant differences in favor of boys were found in object control tests proving that boys show a higher level of manipulative skills, especially kicking and dribbling the bal . These results can be explained by the fact that boys play with balls in their free time. Girls prefer basic locomotion movements, sometimes accompanied by music. 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A fundamental aspect of art education is the inclusion of artworks in art education lessons. The existing curriculum defines neither the artists nor the number of artworks to be showcased by art education teachers. Also, it does not define the time teachers should dedicate to discussing various artworks, as this is entirely their professional decision. The objective of this research, which focused on students in the third year of art education was to determine (a) what kind of experience with artworks inclusion the students gained during observational teaching practice, (b) which artworks the students find the easiest to show to and discuss with pupils in the second and third cycles Keywords: art of elementary school and to relate to the concepts from the education, curriculum, and (c) what response to the showcased artworks the relation to students anticipated from pupils. We discovered that the art education, experiences of the students included in our sample varied teaching considerably and that the students considered the artworks methods, combining various communication codes to be more appropriate contemporary art for the inclusion in art education lessons in higher grades of practices, elementary school. multimodality. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.14 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 292 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS 1 Introduction Modern artworks -normal y introduced to older pupils in art classes taught by an art teacher -frequently deviate from the traditional modes of expression. Contemporary art practices often incorporate various communication codes. Instead of using merely the visual code, they frequently include the elements of sound, text, or movement. Similarly, younger pupils are also introduced to modern modes of artistic expression to some extent (through school-organised visits to galleries and museums or in their leisure time). They should, however, learn about different modes of expression (not only the traditional ones) in art class as wel . The art curriculum does in no way favour the traditional modes of expression, even though they are considered -with respect to the set art notions and the development level of pupils -crucial and hence strongly represented in the artworks normal y shown to pupils in elementary school. With regard to the operative goals of art education, artworks are the key element used for learning art notions. “Through artworks produced by artists, creations produced by pupils and through models as seen in nature and the environment, pupils learn the notions related to sculpture” (Curriculum 2011, p. 10). A question that arises pertains to the selection of artworks to be shown to pupils. Surely one needs to consider that an artwork needs to be related to the set art task, that is, the theoretical artistic problem, the visual art technique, and the motif or theme -the idea of the work. According to Shulman Herz (2010), an artwork should incite pupils to think about a selected topic and be suited to their age; older pupils can deal with more difficult concepts, while younger pupils have no difficulties accepting non-figurative artworks. She further notes that the artwork must equally attract the teacher, as excitement is catchy and a dialogue can hardly develop unless it is led by an enthusiastic teacher (Shulman Herz, 2010). Enthusiasm for the artwork is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for the integration of contemporary works of art into teaching. Teachers need competencies related to knowledge of professional subjects (studio subjects, art theory, art history, and so forth) and general pedagogical subjects (such as pedagogy, psychology). A gradual incorporation of artworks by artists who have moved away from the traditional modes of expression and who include various communication codes could take pupils one step closer to modern visual arts. Zupančič (2006) devised a set of criteria for the selection of contemporary artworks which could be introduced to pupils: (a) the author and their work have been recognised by art historians as J. Batič: Views of Art Education Students on the Inclusion of Artworks in Art Education Lessons 293. important, (b) the author is a typical representative of their art movement (the same applies to the artwork), and (c) the showcased artwork is explicit, deals with appropriate subject matter, and is suitable in terms of pupils’ further artistic work. Introducing artworks that incorporate various communication codes al ows pupils to recognise multimodality -different communication codes -in works of art. The older the pupils, the easier it wil be for them to identify the meanings conveyed through different communication codes (for example, what information I get through sound, what the visual image is trying to convey, and how to combine both pieces of information together). This wil in turn help children develop their multimodal literacy. In this day and age, multimodality has replaced monomodality in different areas. More recently, the dominance of monomodality has weakened, although it still persists in some practices, for instance in the writing and publishing of academic papers. The trend towards multimodality began with the avant-garde experiments of the early twentieth century, when ‘concrete poetry’ began to express itself not only through words, but also through typography, and when visual artists used new kinds of materials and sought to produce Gesamtkunstwerke which would combine as many forms of expression as possible. (van Leeuwen, 2017, p. 4) Multimodal literacy is the ability to decode the message of multimodal works, that is, the ability to discern the meaning created by a combination of different communication codes. Jewitt (2008) identified the following communication codes: verbal (text), visual (how something appears), spatial (placement within space), gestural (body language), and audio (music, sound effects). Whether a pupil can identify all the layers of an artwork, including its multimodal nature, depends on the teaching methods used by their teacher. When discussing artworks, the teacher needs to take into consideration that pupils wil have different opinions on different artworks, which means they wil experience and judge them differently. The teacher must also al ow the pupils to appreciate each other and be tolerant (Berce-Golob, 1993). A dialogue on the artwork that al ows open discussion between the teacher and the pupils on the motif or theme (idea), form (design and material), and context is a vital component of the method of visual and aesthetic communication and the method of multiplication and elaboration of artistic 294 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS sensibility, which both derive from the specificity of aesthetic communication (Karlavaris, 1987). In addition, artwork discussion relates to the method of complexity and overlapping (Karlavaris, 1987), as one needs to take into consideration that an artwork is a conglomerate of various elements, namely, (a) motif (theme, idea), (b) art technique, style, design and art language (form), and (c) the personality of the author and social impact (context). Hubard (2010) distinguished between two types of dialogue when discussing artwork, predetermined dialogue and interpretive dialogue: Predetermined dialogue is helpful when the goal is to illuminate precise questions such as: How has this artist addressed a particular challenge? What was the original function of this object? What have art experts found significant in this artwork? Because the understanding students are to achieve is specific and pre-identified, the effectiveness of predetermined dialogue is relatively easy to assess. (Hubard, 2010, p. 42) The predetermined dialogue is the most frequent form of conversation used in elementary school art education classes, as this has been indicated already within the curriculum (learning about art concepts through artworks). The interpretive dialogue, on the other hand, has a whole different character: In contrast to predetermined dialogue, interpretive dialogue is not meant to communicate pre-identified ideas, but rather enable students to construct their own meaning in response to an artwork. … Interpretive dialogue addresses the philosophical notion that the meaning of an artwork is not fixed but ever-evolving … (Hubard, 2010, p. 42) Hubard distinguished between “two types of interpretive dialogue: (a) thematic and (b) open” (2010, p. 42). In a thematic dialogue, the teacher selects a topic, usually a more general one (for example, human relations), and uses carefully selected questions to direct pupils in their study of the artwork (Hubard, 2010). The essence of an open dialogue is in that it recognises an artwork as complex and multi-layered. J. Batič: Views of Art Education Students on the Inclusion of Artworks in Art Education Lessons 295. … [A] fixed theme can limit the relevance that certain viewers might otherwise find in a particular work. In open dialogue, multiple avenues for inquiry emerge organical y from the viewers' responses. The teacher does not come to the dialogue with a theme or a tight set of questions to ask. (Hubard, 2010, p. 43) An open dialogue when it comes to discussing art is particularly important with respect to contemporary art practices. Desai (2002) noted that “art teachers need to move beyond the consideration of the physicality of the art object per se to a contextualized understanding of the object in terms of the social, political, economic, and cultural conditions of production and appreciation” (p. 318). One of the methods that helps pupils to identify multiple layers and the complexity of an artwork is the method of aesthetic transfer, developed by Duh and Zupančič (2013), the objective of which is to transfer the aesthetic message contained in an artwork to pupils in the course of art education practice. According to the authors, this method consists of three stages: perception, reception, and reaction (Duh & Zupančič, 2013). They further noted that the first phase aims at the child getting as clear perception of the artwork as possible (p. 75), while reception aims at children expressing the results of perception in words, thus becoming aware of them and internalising them (p.76). The last stage of the method of aesthetic transfer is reaction which the authors define as “individual productive response to an artwork” (Duh & Zupančič, 2013). Shulman Herz (2010) underlined that the first contact with an artwork should be completely open, as any preliminary questions might lead to presuppositions that impact the child’s interpretation. The author further outlined some vital elements of artwork observation: (a) setting the first question (What do you see? What have you noticed?), (b) pupils having sufficient time to observe the artwork in detail, (c) pupils discussing the artwork in pairs, so anyone gets their chance to speak, and (d) pupils making a list of 10 to 15 things they observed in the artwork. What follows is a set of interpretative questions (such as, what could have made the artist select this motif? Do you have any ideas on how the artist wanted to change the way people think?). Shulman Herz (2010) emphasised that it is always about hypotheses and guesses, where children need to base their ideas on what they have seen in the artwork (for example, what in the artwork made you come to this idea?). 296 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS One of the problems with this is definitely the time that is al ocated to art education in elementary school. The basic activity of pupils in art classes is practical work. The artworks that a teacher decides to include in art lessons must adhere to curriculum goals. What children normal y learn through artworks is the concepts related to art theory. Predetermined dialogue is the most suitable choice for this method of introducing artworks to children. However, two of the goals that are listed in the art curriculum under general goals are: (a) children develop their ability to form criteria for the evaluation of artwork and general visual art problems of the environment, and (b) children develop a sensitivity towards art cultural heritage and cultural diversity (Curriculum, 2011, p. 4). To attain these goals, one must resort to interpretive dialogue which is normal y more time consuming. At the same time, it al ows pupils to form their personal response to the artwork. The interpretive dialogue is particularly important with contemporary art practices which include elements of multimodality and require a step back from the usual practice of artwork observation and discussion. Which artworks art teachers wil choose, how they wil discuss the art with their pupils, and how much time they will dedicate to artwork discussion may as wel depend on practical experience these teachers have gained in the course of their studies, the views they hold on specific artworks, the age of pupils they teach, and so on. 2 Methods 2.1 The research problem and research questions The objective of this survey was to col ect the views of art education students on specific artworks (the focus was on both traditional and contemporary art forms) with particular regard to their possible inclusion into art classes. (1) What kind of experience with showcasing artworks in classroom have the students gained in the course of their observational teaching practice? (2) Which of the showcased artworks do they find the easiest to show to and discuss with children (in the second and third cycles of elementary school), and relate to the notions from the art curriculum? J. Batič: Views of Art Education Students on the Inclusion of Artworks in Art Education Lessons 297. (3) What do the interviewees feel would be the attitude of the children towards the showcased artworks? 2. 2 Survey sample This survey included all students in their third year of the first-cycle Art Education programme (convenience sample). An electronic survey was sent to a shared e-mail of the students. The request for taking part in the survey was received by 16 students, al of which agreed to participate. The questionnaire was ful y completed by 14 students, while two of them failed to provide answers to two parts of the questionnaire. As regards the gender of the survey sample, al respondents were female students (there are no male students in this particular year). The majority of the students in the sample is aged 21 (62.5 %), followed by 22 (18.8 %), 23 (12.5 %), and 24 (6.3 %). 2.3 Data col ection and processing In November 2019 a questionnaire which included a five-point Likert scale was developed; it was used to determine how the respondents perceived the information they gained on various artworks discussed in class in the course of their observational teaching practice. The second part of the questionnaire included two artwork reproductions and a video, fol owed by ten statements regarding the three artworks and possible answers ( I strongly disagree, I disagree, I do not know/cannot decide, I agree, I strongly agree). The participation in the survey, which was conducted in November 2019, was voluntary and anonymous. The data were analysed at the level of descriptive statistics. In this survey I used the following artworks, according to their different modes of communication: (1) Henri Matisse, The Goldfish1, 1911. Henri Matisse (1869–1945) was a French artist who is considered to be one of the greatest artists of the twentieth century. Crepaldi described The Goldfish as follows: 1 Photo available at https://www.henrimatisse.org/goldfish.jsp (July 11, 2019). 298 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The motif of a vase with red fish is in many paintings by Matisse almost always placed in the forefront. The reflections of fish in the water are surrounded and highlighted by sparkly colours of flowers and leaves in the garden. The entire composition plays with el iptical and circular movements, repeated through and reinforced by the round table. (Crepaldi, 1998, p. 57) (2) Peter William Holden, SoleNoid, 2009, an audio-visual robotic installation (Holden, n.d.). Holden says about his work that he is exploring ways of dissolving the boundaries between cinematography and sculpture. He notes: In my recent investigations of this theme, I've been working with computational devices combined with robotic elements to create mandala-like kinetic sculptures. I consider these kinetic sculptures to be solely the medium I work with and just the first step in the process to achieve what I believe is the true focal point of my work. That focal point being the ephemeral animations - choreographies that are created when these sculptures are in motion. (Archive of Digital Art, para. 1) Holden’s instal ation comprises eight robotic arms, each holding a tap shoe that can move in various directions (toe tap, heel tap, etc.). Holden elaborates: “Each movement produces its own characteristic sound. The sculpture alternates between … a preprogrammed composition by Marko Wild” and the sound produced through interaction with the audience that can play the installation via the keyboard placed next to it. “Hitting one of the teardrop-shaped keys on the keyboard triggers a short sequence of movements and functions similarly to a sequencer. These sounds and movements can effortlessly be patched together by the audience to produce a new composition” (Holden, n.d.). (3) Sašo Vrabič, Portret Erika, 2016 – 2017, oil on canvas. The portrait of Erik by a contemporary Slovenian artist Saša Vrabič is a commissioned artwork composed of words. According to Ivančič Fajfar, the piece incorporates an intervention of the person portrayed: the inscriptions are taken from a notepad in which Erik kept record of his daily events for a month. Sašo Vrabič skilfully turned the child’s handwriting into a font, which was then used on a slightly toned white underpainting to draw/write out a convincing portrait (Ivančič Fajfar, n.d.). J. Batič: Views of Art Education Students on the Inclusion of Artworks in Art Education Lessons 299. 4 Results and discussion 4.1 Experience with showcasing artwork reproductions in the classroom The first set of questions was answered by al students ( n=16). The students generally noted that they had learned many new things during the course of their observational teaching practice. As much as 50 % of the respondents agreed and 43.8 % strongly agreed with the respective statement. As regards the statement “The teacher showed many different artwork reproductions over the course of the practical training”, the opinions were split. Over a third of the respondents disagreed (37.5 %) or strongly disagreed (6.3 %) with that statement, nearly a third (31.3 %) did not know or could not decide, while one fourth of the respondents agreed with it (25 %). The students included in the sample completed their observational teaching practice at different schools, therefore they had different art teachers as mentors. The number of showcased artworks and the time dedicated to artwork discussion is entirely in the hands of educators and thus, various practices are used. Over one half of the respondents (56.3 %) disagreed with the statement that the teachers had shown at least one quality artwork reproduction per art class, while nearly a third of them (31.3 %) agreed with the statement. A minor share of the students (12.5 %) did not know or could not decide. Further, half of the students agreed (37.5 %) or strongly agreed (12.5 %) with the statement that the art teacher had conducted art lessons nearly without including artwork reproductions, and one fourth (25 %) did not know how to answer or was unable to decide. A good fourth of the students, on the other hand, disagreed (18.8 %) or strongly disagreed (6.3 %) with the statement. We can conclude, based on the results, that the students have seen different practices during their observational teaching practice – from teachers who did include artworks in art education lessons to those that paid no particular attention to artworks. As regards the statement “The teacher showcased artworks reflecting contemporary art practices (instal ations, videos, etc.) in higher grades (eighth and ninth)”, the majority of the students replied with I do not know/cannot decide (43.8 %), while roughly the same proportion of them disagreed (37.5 %) or strongly disagreed (6.3 %) with it. A minor share of the respondents (12.4 %) agreed with the fact that the teachers in higher grades also used artworks reflecting contemporary art practices. 300 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS One quarter of the students (25 %) disagreed with the statement that the teacher had shown artwork reproductions which were based predominantly on traditional art forms, while a greater proportion of the students disagreed with the statement (37.5 %) or did not know/could not decide (37.5 %). That leads to a conclusion that those teachers who did, in fact, showcase artworks in class, mostly resorted to artworks using traditional modes of expression and only rarely to artworks reflecting contemporary art practices. The answers of the students are such one would expect, given that for pupils to develop a relationship with visual arts, they need to be introduced to various artworks (considering time, space, mode of expression, etc.). The statement “The teacher encouraged the pupils to give their opinion and discuss the artwork while observing it” also revealed much diversity of opinion. Half of the respondents disagreed (43.8 %) or strongly disagreed (6.3 %) with the statement. Over a third (37.5 %) of the respondents agreed with it and only a minor share (12.5 %) did not know or could not decide on whether or not the teacher encouraged the pupils to give their opinions and join the discussion. A large proportion of the respondents agreed (37.5 %) or strongly agreed (6.3 %) with the statement that the teacher directed students largely to a discussion about visual art elements. Nearly a quarter disagreed (18.8 %) or strongly disagreed (6.3 %) with that. Nearly a third of the respondents (31.3 %) did not know the answer or could not decide on this matter. The col ected responses indicate that teachers encouraged the pupils to focus primarily on the formal aspects of the artworks rather than on giving their opinions. The responses are hardly surprising, as it is observed in practice that art education in elementary school has been losing its educational value. 2 4.2 Henri Matisse, The Goldfish (1911) The set of questions regarding the artwork by Henri Matisse was answered by 15 students ( n=15). 2 Possible causes might lie in numerical school grades and the Nacionalno preverjanje znanja (NPZ) [National Assessment of Knowledge] examination. The latter focuses on testing the knowledge of art-theory related concepts, which is easier to assess (see https://www.ric.si/mma/N191-551-3-1/2019061310502833/). In the future, it would make sense to analyse positive and negative effects of the NPZ examination on the way art education classes are conducted in elementary school. J. Batič: Views of Art Education Students on the Inclusion of Artworks in Art Education Lessons 301. Table 1: Henri Matisse, The Goldfish, 1911 I strongly I do not know Henri Matisse, The Goldfish, 1911 disagree. I disagree. / cannot I agree. I strongly decide. agree. TOTAL F f% F f% f f% f f% f f% f f% I could easily show this artwork to students in the second cycle. 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 15 100% 0 0% 15 100% I could easily show this artwork to students in the third cycle. 0 0% 0 0% 1 6.7% 12 80% 2 13.3% 15 100% I could easily discuss this artwork with students in the second cycle. 0 0% 0 0% 2 13.3% 12 80% 1 6.7% 15 100% I could easily discuss this artwork with students in the third cycle. 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 13 86.7% 2 13.3% 15 100% I could easily relate this artwork to the concepts from the second cycle 0 0% 0 0% 5 33.3% 10 66.7% 0 0% 15 100% curriculum. I could easily relate this artwork to the concepts from the third cycle 0 0% 0 0% 3 20.0% 11 73.3% 1 6.7% 15 100% curriculum. Students of the second cycle could not relate to this artwork. 0 0% 11 73.3% 4 26.7% 0 0% 0 0% 15 100% Students of the third cycle could not relate to this artwork. 0 0% 10 66.7% 4 26.7% 1 6.7% 0 0% 15 100% This piece is a regular example of an artwork that can be shown to students 0 0% 1 6.7% 7 46.7% 6 40.0% 1 6.7% 15 100% in the second cycle. This piece is a regular example of an artwork that can be shown to students 0 0% 1 6.7% 7 46.7% 6 40.0% 1 6.7% 15 100% in the third cycle. 302 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The results in Table 1 indicate that the students could show The Goldfish by Henri Matisse to pupils in the second and third cycles of elementary school without reservations and do not expect any problems discussing the artwork with the class. Most of the respondents feel they could easily relate this artwork to the notions from the art curriculum. Over half of the respondents believe that pupils would be able to relate to this artwork. Nearly half of the respondents, however, could not decide whether this artwork was a typical example of artworks that are normal y shown to pupils in the second and third cycle of elementary school. This has been expected, as The Goldfish is a figural work with a motif that children can relate to. Furthermore, he students could easily recognise the formal features in this artwork, such as colour, colour relations, and composition. It is therefore not surprising that they could relate it to the curriculum. J. Batič: Views of Art Education Students on the Inclusion of Artworks in Art Education Lessons 303. 4.3 Peter William Holden, SoleNoid, an audio-visual robotic installation (2009) Table 2: Peter Wil iam Holden, an audio-visual robotic instal ation (Sole Noid, 2009) Peter William Holden, an I strongly I do not know audio-visual robotic instal ation disagree. I disagree. / cannot I agree. I strongly agree. TOTAL (SoleNoid), 2009 decide. f f% f f% f f% f f% f f% f f% I could easily show this artwork to students in the second cycle. 0 0.0% 7 43.8% 3 18.8% 6 37.5% 0 0.0% 16 100% I could easily show this artwork to students in the third cycle. 0 0.0% 1 6.3% 3 18.8% 9 56.3% 3 18.8% 16 100% I could easily discuss this artwork with students in the second cycle. 0 0.0% 7 43.8% 3 18.8% 6 37.5% 0 0.0% 16 100% I could easily discuss this artwork with students in the third cycle. 0 0.0% 2 12.5% 2 12.5% 11 68.8% 1 6.3% 16 100% I could easily relate this artwork to the concepts from the second cycle curriculum. 0 0.0% 6 37.5% 5 31.3% 5 31.3% 0 0.0% 16 100% I could easily relate this artwork to the concepts from the third cycle curriculum. 0 0.0% 2 12.5% 3 18.8% 10 62.5% 1 6.3% 16 100% Students of the second cycle could not relate to this artwork. 0 0.0% 4 25.0% 4 25.0% 8 50.0% 0 0.0% 16 100% Students of the third cycle could not relate to this artwork. 0 0.0% 7 43.8% 5 31.3% 4 25.0% 0 0.0% 16 100% This piece is a regular example of an artwork that can be shown to students in the second 0 0.0% 14 87.5% 2 12.5% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 16 100% cycle. This piece is a regular example of an artwork that can be shown to students in the third 0 0.0% 7 43.8% 6 37.5% 3 18.8% 0 0.0% 16 100% cycle. 304 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The results in Table 2 show that a good half of the respondents had no reservations showing the artwork by Peter Wil iam Holden, SoleNoid, to pupils in the third cycle of elementary school, but not to pupils in the second cycle. Similarly, half of them feel they could easily discuss it with pupils in the third cycle but expect difficulties with pupils in the second cycle. As for the correlation between the artwork and the curriculum, the results were rather similar. There were interesting answers pertaining to students’ opinion on whether or not children could relate to this artwork. While a half of them believe that pupils in the second cycle could not relate to this artwork, only a quarter of the respondents assume the same for pupils in the third cycle of elementary school. Most of them opposed the statement that this was a typical example of artworks normal y shown to pupils in the second cycle of elementary school, whereas the proportion of those that felt this was not an artwork typical y used with pupils in the third cycle was under a half. Based on their answers, it is safe to assume that the artwork could be used with older pupils (in the third cycle) with less difficulties. The artwork in question represents a major departure from traditional modes of expression, as it incorporates movement and sound and is thus more difficult to analyse through discussion. A conversation about visual elements and materials used is certainly not sufficient, so the teacher should plan an interpretive dialogue that would encourage critical thinking and allow pupils to express their opinions. J. Batič: Views of Art Education Students on the Inclusion of Artworks in Art Education Lessons 305. 4.4 Sašo Vrabič, Portret Erika, 2016 – 2017 Table 3: Sašo Vrabič, Portret Erika, 2016 – 2017 I strongly I do not know Sašo Vrabič, Portret Erika, 2016 – 2017 disagree. I disagree. / cannot I agree. I strongly decide. agree. TOTAL f f% f f% f f% f f% f f% f f% I could easily show this artwork to students in the second cycle. 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 3 20.0% 12 80.0% 0 0.0% 15 100% I could easily show this artwork to students in the third cycle. 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 14 93.3% 1 6.7% 15 100% I could easily discuss this artwork with students in the second cycle. 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 5 33.3% 10 66.7% 0 0.0% 15 100% I could easily discuss this artwork with students in the third cycle. 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 6.7% 13 86.7% 1 6.7% 15 100% I could easily relate this artwork to the concepts from the second cycle curriculum. 0 0.0% 1 6.7% 8 53.3% 6 40.0% 0 0.0% 15 100% I could easily relate this artwork to the concepts from the third cycle curriculum. 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 3 20.0% 11 73.3% 1 6.7% 15 100% Students of the second cycle could not relate to this artwork. 0 0.0% 7 46.7% 6 40.0% 2 13.3% 0 0.0% 15 100% Students of the third cycle could not relate to this artwork. 0 0.0% 12 80.8% 3 20.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 15 100% This piece is a regular example of an artwork that can be shown to students in the second 0 0.0% 5 33.3% 8 53.3% 2 13.3% 0 0.0% 15 100% cycle. This piece is a regular example of an artwork that can be shown to students in the third 0 0.0% 3 20.0% 7 46.7% 5 33.3% 0 0.0% 15 100% cycle. 306 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The students’ responses the artwork Portret Erika by Saša Vrabič were similar to those for the artwork by Henri Matisse (see Table 3). The students had no reservations about showing this particular artwork to pupils in the second and third cycles of elementary school. Over half of the respondents felt they could discuss the artwork with pupils in the second cycle without difficulties (though one third did not know or could not decide on this question). In regard to the pupils in the third cycle, most of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that they could easily discuss this artwork with them. There was slightly more difference in opinion as regards relating the artwork to curriculum goals. Over a half of the respondents chose I do not know/cannot decide with the statement “I could easily relate this artwork to the concepts from the second cycle curriculum” (though a large share of them agreed with it). On the other hand, the majority of the respondents thought they could easily relate this artwork to the concepts from the third cycle curriculum. Nearly a half of them opposed the idea that pupils in the second cycle could not relate to this artwork, and the majority disagreed with this statement with respect to pupils in the third cycle. There was a considerable difference in opinion regarding whether or not this artwork was a typical example of artworks shown in the second and third cycles of elementary school. Although this artwork incorporates both image and text, which makes it less common compared to traditional modes of expression, the students had no reservations as pertains to showing it to pupils in the second and third cycles of elementary school and discussing it with them. Some problems may appear only with regard to relating the artwork to curriculum goals. It can be assumed that the students found the artworks which combined various communication codes (the second and the third artwork in the survey) intuitively more appropriate for older pupils. Conclusion The experience which students of art education gain in the course of their studies and their viewpoints derived therefrom can have a significant impact on their future work as educators. How they wil include artworks in their classes, prepare for and execute the discussions about artworks depends also on the models they have been introduced to during their studies (both as part of their observational and integrated teaching practice). The replies provided by the students indicate that the experience with artwork inclusion, which they gained through observational teaching practice, varies considerably. However, the students do see the potential in including the J. Batič: Views of Art Education Students on the Inclusion of Artworks in Art Education Lessons 307. artworks showcased in this survey, in art lessons. An observation worth mentioning is that they consider the two artworks that combine several communication codes (word, sound, movement) to be more appropriate for art lessons in higher grades of elementary school. Owing to a smal survey sample, the results can by no means be generalised. However, they can be used as a starting point for further research regarding the inclusion of artworks in art lessons. A problem arises in the sixth grade and the entire third cycle when the number of art lessons gets halved. The teaching methods (see Berce-Golob, 1993; Duh & Zupančič, 2013; Hubard, 2010; Karlavaris, 1987; Shulman Herz, 2010) that consider introducing artworks and artists in class require a certain amount of time which art teachers do not have (anymore). References Archive of Digital Art (ADA). Peter Wiliam Holden – artist profile. https://www.digitalartarchive.at/database/artists/general/artist/holden.html Berce-Golob, H. (1993). Likovna vzgoja. Načini dela pri likovni vzgoji: priročnik za učitelje na predmetni stopnji osnovne šole [Art education. Methods of work in art education: A manual for teachers at the elementary level of elementary school]. DZS. Crepaldi, G. (1998). Matisse: slepeči blesk fovističnih barv.[ Matisse: master of pure colours, his life and paintings] Ljubljana: DAG Grafika. Desai, D. (2002). The ethnographic move in contemporary art: What does it mean for art education? Studies in Art Education, 43(4), 307–323. Duh, M., & Zupančič, T. (2013). Likovna apreciacija in metoda estetskega transferja [Art appreciation and the method of aesthetic transfer]. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje, 6(4), 71–86. Holden, P. W. (n.d.). SoleNoid audio-visual installation. https://www.peter-william-holden.com/artwork.html Hubard, O. M. (2010). Three modes of dialogue about works of art. Art Education, 63(3), 40–45. Ivančič Fajfar, M. (n.d.). Sašo Vrabič: Portret Erika [Sašo Vrabič: Portrait of Eric]. https://artis.si/SasoVrabicPortretErika/SasoVrabicPortretErika.html Jewitt, C. (2008). Multimodality and literacy in school classrooms. Review of Research in Education, 32(1), 241–267. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X07310586 Karlavaris, B. (1987). Problemi učnih metod pri likovni vzgoji [Problems of teaching methods in art education]. Sodobna pedagogika, 38(3/4), 179–183. Shulman Herz, R. (2010). Looking at art in the classroom: Art investigations from the Guggenheim Museum. Teachers College Press. Učni načrt, Likovna vzgoja. [ Curriculum, Art Education.] (2011). [PDF file]. Retrieved from http://www.mizs.gov.si/ Van van Leeuwen, T. (2017). Multimodal literacy . Viden om Literacy, 21, 4–11. https://www.videnomlaesning.dk/media/2127/21_theo-van-leeuwen.pdf Zupančič, T. (2006). Metoda likovnopedagoškega koncepta: priročnik za učitelje [The method of visual art pedagogical concept: A teacher's manual]. Ljubljana: Zavod RS za šolstvo. 308 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS THE NOVEL AND THE FILM WONDER DRAGICA HARAMIJA University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: dragica.haramija@um.si University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: dragica.haramija@um.si Abstract This paper is an analysis of a literary work and a secondary media, a film, using the example of the children’s novel Wonder by R. J. Palacio. The author published her novel Wonder in 2012 (in the US). A full-length film with the same title ( Wonder) premiered in November 2017. The paper discusses the children’s novel -a bestsel er that received numerous awards (their official website lists about 50 awards by the end of 2015, which the book either received or was shortlisted for) and was translated into multiple languages -and the film adaptation, taking into account the basics of intermediality, narrativity, and Keywords: reception theory. Wonder is a novel and a film discussing social Wonder, and family relations that promote empathy, or, as headmaster empathy, literature, Tushman says in his speech at the end of the school year, always media, trying to be a little kinder than is necessary. R. J. Palacio. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-358-6.15 ISBN 978-961-286-358-6 310 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS 1 Introduction The article presents an analysis of the literary work and its transfer to a second medium, film, which is one of the options for discussing literature and (other) media as component parts of culture and arts education. The primary interest of this analysis is in the differences between the book (the language mode) and the film which uses several codes of communication, and in how the film presents the narrative through various codes of communication, that is what was said in the film (everything that is included in the language code) and what was presented visual y or acoustical y. The analysis also deals with the question of how much of the original story was kept in the film. The novel Wonder was the fourth most-sold novel on Amazon in 2017 (following the film premiere, more than five million copies were sold in the United States alone1). The work received numerous awards; the official website lists approximately fifty awards that the book received or was shortlisted for by the end of 2015 (the data has not been updated). By the end of 2015, the novel was published in more than forty countries around the world. The most surprising fact is that the novel Wonder is the author’s debut. She explained that she wrote the novel after meeting a child similar to Auggie. She had made a mess of the meeting: her younger son was scared of the child, so she took both her children and left instead of speaking to the child and setting a good example. She explained: “It made me wonder what it must be like for that child, facing a world every day that doesn’t know how to face you back.” (About the author, n.d.) The author also disclosed that she picked the name August for the main character because she likes the name, and she gave August the last name of one of her favourite children’s book authors, Philip Pul man. The novel was the inspiration behind the campaign Choose Kind. It stems from the quote by an American psychologist, dr. Wayne W. Dyer (1940–2015), who famously wrote, “When given the choice between being right and being kind, choose kind.” 1 The data was collected from the novel’s Wikipedia article (Wonder [Palacio novel], n.d.). Based on the data collected from WorldCat (on July 7, 2019), 183 editions of this novel have been published so far, including 99 English-language editions, 14 French editions and 12 Chinese-language editions. The data also includes one Slovenian edition (translated in 2014 by Boštjan Gorenc – Pižama). D. Haramija: The Novel and the Film Wonder 311. For the comparative analysis of the novel and film, the children’s novel Wonder was selected; the novel became the source for the motion picture with the same title. It was written by R. J. Palacio, whose full name is Raquel Jaramillo Palacio. Her official website (About the author, n.d.) states: “A first generation American (her parents were Colombian immigrants), Palacio was born on July 13, 1963 in New York City. Her birth name is Raquel Jaramil o (Palacio was her mother’s maiden name).” Palacio is an author and a graphic designer specializing in book cover design. She has also illustrated a number of her own stories, including a Peter Pan retelling. Palacio has published multiple literary works, among which the novel discussed here is the most important. In addition to Wonder, Palacio has published three more books about August Pullman: 365 Days of Wonder: Mr. Browne’s Book of Precepts (August 2014), Auggie & Me (October 2015), which “includes print editions of the original e-book novellas: The Julian Chapter, Pluto, and Shingaling. Palacio’s newest work, a picture book called We’re Al Wonders, which she both wrote and illustrated, introduces Auggie -and the themes of kindness and empathy and tolerance -to younger children” (About the author, n.d., para. 4). 2 Method The article presents the analysis of a literary work and a second medium, film, through the example of the children’s novel Wonder by J. R. Palacio. The analysis of the novel includes the methodology of studying literature, which involves defining the topic, theme, motifs, (both main and secondary) characters, narrators, narrative perspective, structure, story, as wel as literary time and space. The analysis of the film includes a multi-modal analysis of various codes of communication in the film (language code, gestural and symbolic codes, spatial code, and the acoustic code of communication) and the method of micro-analysis of the film, that is its structure (scene analysis) and its narration. The method of comparing the literary work and the film rests on the theory of intermediality. The concluding part of this article, while taking into account the reception theory (and especial y the reception abilities of young readers), presents the opportunity for developing the students’ social sensibilities while discussing the novel and the film. 312 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS 3 Results The basic message of the novel and film Wonder, accepting diversity, speaks to al generations of children and adults. A reflection on the story from the novel and the motion picture demands a simultaneous reflection on human (or rather, the readers’ or viewers’) values and interpersonal relationships. The campaign Choose Kind, which was formed on the basis of this novel, is aimed at publishers, teachers, parents, and young readers who discuss the story at school (a part of it is aimed specifical y at teachers) or read it at home (it includes incentives to read the novel in the community). 3.1 The novel Wonder The main literary character of the novel is ten-year-old August Pullman (whose birthday is October 10). Everyone cal s him Auggie. He is an intel igent boy who loves natural sciences and space and is a big fan of George Lucas’ Star Wars. This iconic series of films is referred to throughout the story, establishing an intermedial relation between the novel and the films (especial y with the fifth part of the series, The Empire Strikes Back). At the beginning of the novel, he explains about his appearance (Palacio, 2014, p. 3): “I won’t describe what I look like. Whatever you’re thinking, it’s probably worse.” The novel is divided into eight chapters which are titled after the literary character who functions as the first-person narrator of that chapter. Thus, Chapters 1, 6, and 8 have the title “August”, Chapter 2 is titled “Via”, Chapter 3: “Summer”, Chapter 4: “Jack”, Chapter 5: “Justin”, and Chapter 7 “Miranda”. The six first-person narrators cast light on the events from their own perspectives. The main theme of the novel -inclusive relationships -is presented synthetical y, so that in places, the description of one event is repeated from another perspective. In most cases the narration from each of the characters al ows the reader to fit together the pieces into a cohesive whole. Various narrators or literary characters describe the same event in different ways because their experience is different. Each character’s narration is based on their own experience and their own perception of a certain event, which is why the literary characters are described indirectly -their characteristics are not presented upfront. Instead, readers can gather hints about their personalities based on what they describe, how they describe it, what they notice, what they emphasize, D. Haramija: The Novel and the Film Wonder 313. and so forth. August, his older sister Via, her boyfriend Justin, and Via’s friend, Miranda, retrospectively talk about events that happened before the beginning of the novel -about August’s birth, his il ness, his anxiety from strangers’ reactions to his face (which is the reason why Miranda bought him a space helmet; Justin remembers seeing him at the café), while August, Summer, and Jack describe the events that happened in school. Justin, Via’s boyfriend, is a secondary literary character to whom other narrators (everyone but Summer) tel a secret, which al ows the characters to solve misunderstandings and disagreements. The main character of the novel is crucial in establishing interpersonal connections among other narrators. The relations between the literary characters show relationships, their actions and reactions, which is why they are the basic motifs of the novel. In Chapter 1, August shows his feelings at his first contact with school and future schoolmates; the basic relationship between them is marked by what occurs on Halloween. August explains that he will dress up as Boba Fett from Star Wars but changes his mind in the morning and puts on The Bleeding Scream costume (no one recognizes him, so they freely and loudly gossip about him, which August hears; he is especially hurt by what his friend, Jack Will, says). His visit of his sister’s school performance is also an important motif. In Chapter 8, two motifs are especial y important: the incident at the camp (older children from another school attack August and Jack, but their schoolmates come to the rescue), where his schoolmates close ranks around him after he is bullied (the bullies call August “Gollum”), and the event at the end of August’s first school year (with the principal’s speech and the award). In Chapter 2, Via (Olivia) explains the family tree (especially their father’s parents, who were Jews from Russia and Poland, and their mother, who is Brazilian) and August’s illness (the entire family carries the mutated gene, but it presented in August only). Via also summarizes the crucial event of Hal oween, where August heard others talking about him, and convinces her brother to stay in school. 314 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS In Chapter 3, Summer explains why she became August’s friend on the first day of school -she pitied him, thus she hung out with him, but soon realized that he was funny, kind, and smart (Palacio, 2014, p. 119): “He’s just a kid. The weirdest-looking kid I’ve ever seen, yes. But just a kid.” She is the character who unveils what the plague means (in the beginning, almost al August’s schoolmates take part in the game; the game is played for the purpose of ignoring and teasing August with the rule of whoever touches him, he/she wil become like August; this is a clear example of verbal violence). She is August’s confidante, so he tel s her why he does not want to spend any more time with Jack: on Hal oween, Auggie heard Jack gossiping about him. Summer also gives Jack the hint: “The Bleeding Scream.” (The Bleeding Scream is the mask that August wore on Hal oween, and at the same time it is a metaphor for the ugly and for death.) In Chapter 4, Jack reminisces about how he first met August (and thought his face was monstrous). He only finds out in December that, on Hal oween, August overheard Jack saying nasty things about him. He then understands August’s hurt feelings and sadness. Jack hits Julian, who called August a freak, then apologizes to August. They become friends once more. This triggers the boys’ war, where they are ignored by almost all their schoolmates, started by Julian. Justin, Via’s boyfriend, learns three crucial bits of information in Chapter 5: Jack explains the boys’ war to him, causing Justin to threaten Julian; Miranda confides in him that she and Via used to be friends and that she was the one who bought August the space helmet that he wore for two years, and that Via does not want to invite her family to the performance because everyone would gossip about August behind her back. Miranda was Via’s best friend who knew and accepted August since his birth. She changes her group of friends but later gets close to Via again (and even lets her have the main role in the school performance). Some of the secondary literary characters, August’s family -his mother, father, and sister, are extremely important. The sister sometimes feels left out because their parents must devote more time to Auggie, but she is also very understanding. Along with Via, some of the most important secondary characters are the first-person narrators, especially August’s friends, Jack and Summer. D. Haramija: The Novel and the Film Wonder 315. Jack Will and August meet before school even begins, when the school’s principal, Mr. Tushman, asks three students to show August around the school (those roles fall to Jack, Charlotte, and Julian). Jack is the only one who remembers August from when they were little, because he got scared of him at the café. He first refuses to go to school and show August around. He changes his mind because of what his mother says (Palacio, 2014, p. 137): “Jack, sometimes you don’t have to mean to hurt someone to hurt someone. You understand!” Soon, August’s looks cease to bother him, and they become friends. Their friendship is first broken on Hal oween (their schoolmates are gossiping about August, and Jack, who wants to be accepted, follows their example) but then deepens when Julian insults August, prompting Jack to fight him. Summer is the kindest character and is never selfish or calculating. Her view on accepting diversity is very clear, which influences August a lot. She supports him throughout the story and even sits with him during their first lunch break. Together they form a “summer” table (Summer, August). Julian is the most negative character, a fact that August recognizes upon their first meeting. Julian pushes past August when they are visiting the school, and he almost falls (Palacio, 2014, p. 30): “‘Oops, sorry about that!’ said Julian. But I could tel from the way he looked at me that he wasn’t real y sorry at al .” Soon after the school year begins, Julian asks August if he wears a braid like Jedi initiates from Star Wars; August confirms this and tells him his favourite character is Jango Fett. Julian then asks him: “‘What about Darth Sidious?’ he said. ‘Do you like him?’ […] Maybe no one got the Darth Sidious thing, and maybe Julian didn’t mean anything at all. But in Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, Darth Sidious’s face gets burned by Sith lightning and becomes totally deformed. His skin gets all shrivelled up and his whole face just kind of melts. I peeked at Julian and he was looking at me. Yeah, he knew what he was saying.” (Palacio, 2014, p. 44) Julian is the boy who comes up with “the plague” and “the boys’ war”. He is the only one who does not accept August, not even at the end of the school year, and instead transfers to another school. Among other secondary characters, the principal Mr. Tushman and the teacher Mr. Browne are important as examples of acceptance: 316 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS the principal always acts correctly and gives an impactful end-of-the-year speech, while the teacher helps with his famous ‘Mr. Browne’s precepts’. The literary space of the novel is New York City, specifical y Manhattan. Important micro-locations include the Pul man family home, Beecher Prep School, and the nature camp at the Broarwood Nature Reserve in Pennsylvania. The literary time is specifically limited; the story unfolds within one school year. It begins just before school starts and ends with the event at the end of the school year. August Pullman goes to fifth grade and is enrolled in regular schooling for the first time in his life. The novel’s chapters include some inserted stories (mostly retrospective) that deal with August and feature the warm relationships in the Pul man family, confrontations with people who do not accept him, and similar. Chapter 1 (August) takes place from one week before school starts up until Hal oween (including the holiday). Chapter 2 (Via) features a retrospective of her relationship with her brother, with Hal oween and August’s confession being the key events. Chapter 3 (Summer) takes us from the first day of school to Hal oween. Chapter 4 (Jack) starts with the principal’s cal before school starts, instructing him to show August around the school, and ends in January, when the boys’ war begins after the winter break, and includes a retrospective of his feelings from when he first saw August as a child. Chapter 5 (Justin) takes us from the beginning of the school year, when he meets Via, to the moment when the high school performance roles are distributed among students. Chapter 6 (August) starts in January and ends with the school performance (in May). Chapter 7 (Miranda) is mostly retrospective but also focuses on the school performance. Chapter 8 (August) focuses on the nature camp and the end-of-the-school event. Based on its themes and motifs, Wonder is a contemporary children’s novel with audience crossover potential -it is not intended to be read by young readers only. The author deals with issues of empathy, tolerance, and friendship, which are al connected to values. 2 Values are human beliefs (Schwartz, 1992, 2012) or rather criteria for judging behaviour, both our own and the behaviour of others (Licardo, 2016). The divide between values and personal characteristics is presented in two 2 Shalom H. Schwartz (1992, 2012) argues that values are studied by all scientific disciplines that are human-focused. Those theories study values as criteria by which people choose and judge actions as wel as accept people (including themselves) and events. Schwartz lists equality, the feeling of acceptance, and social power, which are the cornerstones of empathy, to be among universal values. D. Haramija: The Novel and the Film Wonder 317. first-person narrators, Jack and Miranda. They are both friendly people, but they want to hang out with ‘popular’ schoolmates at certain times, so they ditch the friendships that they cultivated and valued. Jack likes August, yet he agrees with the antagonist, Julian, on Halloween, just to fit in. Miranda throws away her long-lasting friendship with Olivia. Both Jack and Miranda are very positive characters, so they learn from their mistakes, fix them, and renew their friendships. The teachers of Beecher Prep School are good characters as wel , among them especial y the principal and the English teacher, Mr. Browne. The novel’s appendix includes “Mr. Browne’s Precepts” and “Postcard Precepts” (Palacio, 2014, pp. 311– 313). All of Mr. Browne’s maxims are col ected in one place -each month, the teacher gives his students a basic idea on the basis of which they have to write an essay. The precepts are the baseline for the values and developing empathy throughout the novel; they include famous thoughts from important authors such as Confucius, Virgil, Sappho, John Donne, and James Thurber, the scientist Blaise Pascal, the cleric John Wesley, lines from a bal ad cal ed “Light and Day” by The Polyphonic Spree, an inscription on an Egyptian tomb, and words by a famous lecturer and author of numerous self-help books, Dr. Wayne W. Dyer. The latter wrote (quoted from Palacio, 2014, p. 311): “When given the choice between being right and being kind, choose kind.” His idea was chosen for the aforementioned campaign, Choose Kind, that was inspired by Wonder. Before the start of each chapter, the page which bears the name of the narrator also includes quotes, and snippets of song lyrics from popular hits (cited in order of appearance in the book): the songs “Wonder” by Natali Marchant, “Space Oddity” by David Bowie, “Beautiful” by Christina Aguilera, the novel The Lit le Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, the tragedies The Elephant Man by Bernard Pomerance, and Hamlet by William Shakespeare, and the songs “Beautiful Things” by Andain, and “Beautiful Child” by Eurythmics. Each quote showcases the personal characteristics of the narrator of each chapter. There is an intertextual relation between the chosen quotes and their placement in the novel; the quotes that are snippets of song lyrics also establish an intermedial connection to music. 318 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS August Pullman is presented at a crucial time in his life, when he first enters regular schooling, which is not easy. Despite being a gifted child, he is general y not wel - accepted among his peers because of his appearance -most of his schoolmates participate in a game called the plague. The meanest of all schoolmates is Julian, though he loses al his friends by the end of the story (and transfers to another school). Peer bullying is mostly verbal (Julian’s comments on August’s looks, nasty messages that he writes to August and Jack), but also includes rejection and ignoring (the boys’ war). Twice, physical violence erupts -when Jack hits Julian for calling August a freak, and at nature camp, when the older boys attack August and Jack but are stopped by August’s school mates. This last fight is the key event after which August is accepted as an equal (Palacio, 2014, p. 282): “When I went back to school the next day, the first thing I noticed was that there was a big shift in the way things were. A monumental shift. A seizmic shift. Maybe even a cosmic shift.” At the end of the novel, the principal quotes Henry Ward Beecher, the school’s namesake, in his speech (Palacio, 2014, p. 304): “Greatness […] lies not in being strong, but in the right using of strength … He is the greatest whose strength carries up the most hearts … […] by the attraction of his own.” Then he continues: “Without further ado, this year I am very proud to award the Henry Ward Beecher medal to the student whose quiet strength has carried up the most hearts. So wil August Pul man please come up here to receive this award?” August Pul man receives a standing ovation and is ful y accepted in his environment, by his peers, for the first time in his life. On the way home from the event, his mother whispers (Palacio, 2014, p. 310): “You really are wonder, Auggie. You are a wonder.” 3.2 Film Wonder The film Wonder is a transfer of the novel Wonder into a second medium. It has a narrative basis which includes a presentation of human subjectivity; with this, Zorman (2009) warns that it is not enough to limit the film to pictures and literature to words. 3 Buchbinder (2011) and Bergala (2017) come to a similar conclusion, claiming that films cannot be observed simply from a linguistic perspective. 3 Barbara Zorman mentions various film theories and cites the monograph Novel into Films (The Metamorphosis of Fiction into Cinema) by George Bluestone as one of the first works that systematically study film adaptations of literary works. She also mentions Christian Metz, Alexander Astruct, and Marie Claire Ropars as the founders of European film theory in the second half of the 20th century. D. Haramija: The Novel and the Film Wonder 319. Wonder is a 2017 American comedy-drama film, directed by Stephen Chbosky and starring Jacob Tremblay (August), Millie Davis (Summer, one of Auggie’s best friends), Noah Jupe (Jack Will, Auggie’s best friend), Bryce Gheisar (Julian Albans), Julia Roberts (mother), Owen Wilson (father), Izabela Vidovic (August’s sister), Mandy Patinkin (Mr. Tushman), Daveed Diggs (Mr. Browne). The screenplay was written by Jack Thorne, Steven Conrad, and Chbosky, and the music by Marcelo Zarvos and Bea Miller. The film score features several well-known songs, including Natalie Merchant’s song "Wonder" (the song is played during the film’s end credits). A quote from this song is also printed at the beginning of the novel. The film does not expressly show the location of the events, nor are the locations named, with the exception of the Broarwood Nature Reserve in Pennsylvania and Coney Island, which are real geographic locations (this leads the viewer to assume that the Pullman Family lives in New York City). This gives the film a more universal appeal, as the story could have unfolded anywhere: at any school, beach, park, or street. Filming took place in several locations in British Columbia, Canada, and Coney Island, NY (the New York City skyline is recognizable). The film portrays the environment of a smal elementary school that August goes to, and a large high school where his sister Olivia is enrolled (this second school space is shown as quite cold compared to the elementary school spaces). Clothing and footwear are used to show the economic status of the children; the relations between the rich (who pay steep tuitions and therefore probably believe they can get away with anything) and the less fortunate (who go to the private school because they receive scholarships). Emotions are mostly shown through facial expressions and gestures (the signs are quite straightforward, as this is a family movie). Understanding the characters is heavily influenced by the choice of the actors who portray them. Film logic dictates that all previews and trailers included Julia Roberts, who plays August’s mother, in first place, even though August (who is played by a much lesser-known Canadian child actor, born in 2006) is the main character of the film. The story unfolds chronological y, and the structure of the film is synthetic with a scenic perspective. It includes retrospective inserts of specific narrators; the inserted stories involve the personal viewpoint of the narrator on the main character or a certain event. Each narrator is announced with a title: Auggie, Via, Jack Will, and Miranda. Their inserted stories interrupt the synthetic story of the film, but they also complete it. 320 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS The first scene shows space and an astronaut in a spacesuit. The camera then pans over to a helmet and then to a child wearing a helmet who is jumping on the bed (his movements are similar to the astronaut’s). The film begins with a first-person monologue by August, who introduces himself; the text is identical to the first chapter of the novel, which is told by the main character and bears the title “Ordinary.” His story briefly touches on his birth, mentions the twenty-seven operations he’s had, and focuses on exploring the school and the first school day. The film especial y stresses August’s interest in space -he wears a space helmet and has star stickers on his ceiling, the rug in his room has our solar system printed on it, and his pillow and bed covers feature a spacesuit. The school environment focuses primarily on the principal, Mr. Tushman, the home room teacher, Mr. Browne, and the evil schoolmate, Julian Albans. On his first school day, Auggie arrives to school wearing a helmet. When kids look at him “like that”, he imagines he is an astronaut, and everyone is applauding him. In Mr. Browne’s class, when August makes his introduction, Julian asks him whether he wears the braid because he is a Star Wars fan. August confirms the fact and tel s him his favourite character from the series is Jango Fett. Julian then asks him what he thinks of Darth Sidious; at that moment, the character from Star Wars is shown, so the viewers immediately understand Julian’s nasty comment, even if they are not familiar with the film series. Chewbacca, another Star Wars character, always appears in the film when there is talk about diversity. August cuts his braid off in the evening and says he does not want to go to school anymore. His family is very understanding, they talk about everything, and his sister Olivia is always ready to comfort him. Next up is Olivia’s view of the events of the first school day -it is her first day of school as wel , since she is starting high school. She realizes that Miranda does not want to be her friend anymore and she feels lonely. In the depths of her loneliness, when she thinks nobody cares about her anymore, Via goes to Coney Island, which she used visit with her late grandma. She remembers a very nice day they spent at the beach. On the first school day, she meets Justin. They soon become a couple and attend the drama club together. D. Haramija: The Novel and the Film Wonder 321. Auggie’s mother suddenly realizes she has a lot of spare time, because she used to take care of Auggie since his birth. She had also home-schooled him up until that year. She decides to finish the studies she had dropped because of August’s illness. Then we see the photo shoot for August’s class. At science class, August lets Jack cheat off his test, so Jack sits with him at lunch. They start to hang out together, which makes August’s mom very happy. August’s happiness is once again represented by a happy, jumping astronaut. Daisy the dog destroys August’s Boba Fett (a Star Wars character) costume for Hal oween, so he puts on last year’s costume, The Bleeding Scream. Since no one expects him to be wearing that costume, he overhears some gossiping at school, and runs back home. He hears Jack tell Julian that he would not be August’s friend if August did not force him to, and that he would kill himself if he looked like August. Via comforts August and they go trick-or-treating together -Hal oween has always been Auggie’s favourite holiday. He no longer wants to be friends with Jack. What follows is Jack Will’s tale, which begins with the day when his mother convinces him to show the new schoolmate around because the principal asked him to. Jack remembers August from childhood and he soon realizes four things: that August is a great kid, that it is easy to get used to his face, that he is smart, and that he is funny. After Halloween, August does not let him sit at his table while Jack still does not understand why August is angry with him. Summer joins August at his table because she wants to hang out with him and she does not approve of the way their schoolmates bul y him (the plague). Miranda gets the main role in the play, with Via as her substitute. Via is disappointed with Miranda because they are not friends anymore. At the same time, she is happy that Justin is now her boyfriend. Miranda is lonely as she no longer has Via, so she calls August, telling him she misses him and his entire family. Miranda’s narration is linked to memories of how happy and safe she felt with Via’s family, and how she bought the space helmet for Auggie. Her own primary family is shown to be very cold (her parents are divorced, and her mother is an alcohol addict). 322 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS Next up is a scene where the kids go sledding; Summer and August are enjoying themselves, even though August still will not speak with Jack. Jack finds an abandoned sled -he later finds out that his rich schoolmate threw it away. He realizes he does not belong in the group of boys who hang out with Julian. During recess, he asks Summer to tel him why August wil not be friends with him anymore. Summer mentions The Bleeding Scream in a whisper. Jack remembers what he said on Hal oween and that he saw the mask of The Bleeding Scream in class for a moment. He connects the dots and final y understands why August is hurt. In science class, the teacher hands out science project assignments and tel s Jack and August to work together. Julian says he could work with him; Jack resists the idea, so Julian asks him why he would want to cooperate with a freak. Jack attacks him and is suspended from school for two days (even though the principal knows he was defending his friend). Miranda, now distanced from Via, realizes on performance day that she does not have anyone coming to see her perform. Even though she was supposed to play the main role, she lets Via have it, pretending she does not feel well. Via understands that this is a very unselfish act on Miranda’s part, so they become friends again. The scene shows the conclusion of the performance, with Via’s effective monologue on the meaning of being; Via performs it as though it was addressed to her mother. After the event, everyone gathers at the Pullmans’: August, Via, their mother and father, as wel as Justin and Miranda. Al six of them are in a good mood, and the scene exudes friendliness, love, and peace. August and Jack make the best science project -they present a camera obscura. This makes Julian like them even less. The resolution of the film’s story presents the meeting of Julian Albans’ family with the principal; the mother is not concerned about the fact that her son had spent the entire school year causing grief to August -she feels that “such children” do not belong in school -and also to Jack. The parents decide there and then that they wil enroll their son in a different school. Julian understands what he did was wrong and apologizes to the principal; he would like to remain at the school but his parents do not allow it. D. Haramija: The Novel and the Film Wonder 323. The nature camp is especial y important for the developing friendships among the schoolmates. When two older boys attack Jack and August, their schoolmates jump in to help. Trust and an inclusive relationship develop between them. The last scene of the film shows the end-of-the-school event during which the principal awards August with the Henry Ward Beecher medal. Just before August walks up to the stage, his mother whispers to him that he real y is a wonder. Chewbacca is standing on the stage next to the teachers. August’s happiness is represented by a character dressed in a spacesuit. 4 Discussion and Conclusion Wonder is a novel and a film about social and family relations that encourages empathy, or, as principal Tushman says in his end-of-the-year speech, the effort to be a bit nicer than is necessary. In Wonder, Auggie’s teacher Mr. Browne presents a monthly precept, the first (in September) is the thought by Wayne W. Dyer about the choice between “right” and “kind”. In her novel, Palacio used famous quotes from Virgil, Confucius, and Pascal, as well as an inscription from an Egyptian tomb, etc. She later presented them in more detail in the novel 365 Days of Wonder: Mr. Browne’s Book of Precepts (2014). The comparison of the novel and the film shows some crucial differences in the representation of the story, which stems from the differences between the two mediums, or, as McFarlane (1996) states, that literature is entirely based on the verbal code while film includes verbal, acoustic, and visual codes. Compared with the film, the novel has multiple layers of motifs and themes, even though both versions share the narrative structure of the story and the film version (or transfer) includes the main motifs from the novel. The intermedial relation between the novel and the film does not only mean the work was transferred from one medium to another, but rather concerns the understanding and construction of multimodal messages that appear in each medium. Intermediality is a phenomenon where understanding the work in one art medium is crucial for understanding the work in a different medium (Juvan, 2000; Coats, 2018; Rek, 2019). The film is mostly focused on three themes: accepting diversity, peer violence, and the role of the family (with emphasis on the mother’s role, likely because of the casting choices). There are fewer narrators in the film, and they are announced with titles: Auggie, Via, Jack Will, and Miranda. In the 324 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS film, Summer and Justin are never narrators, and Charlotte’s role is diminished. The inserted narrations of the four narrators are short, followed by the continuation of the story, without a break; the first-person narrator does not quit, but the perspective changes, moving from first-person to general. The novel presents the children’s/teenagers’ (the narrators’) perspective, their feelings and understanding of certain events, while the film does not use the children’s/teenagers’ perspective as much -the story is much more linear. Music also has a significant impact in the film. The film music was not simply written as an accompaniment to each scene but rather paints emotions in each important event. The songs that were not written for the movie (and are wel -known, popular hits), are also important, for example songs by Bruce Springsteen, Jacques Gauthe & The Creole Rice Jazz Band, Rupert Lang/Vancouver Children’s Choir, and Bea Mil er. The film does not use the songs that appear in the novel. Vanesa Matajc (2011, p. 26) cites Johansen’s (2002) four aspects of intermediality, which can be connected to the chosen novel and film: (1) the physiological aspect - the book belongs to the visual media and the film to the audio-visual media, (2) the physical aspect -both the novel and the film include language, while the film also includes music, space, gestures, symbols, and similar; this is the multimodal system of codes of communication, (3) the technological aspect -the book has written language in it, while the movie uses al the art forms, and (4) the sociological aspect -the novel and the film both emphasize empathy. A large part of intermediality in the book involves quoting or at least referencing bodies of work, such as well-known books, films (or film characters), rock ballads. Juvan (1999, p. 398) warns that “quotes only have communication value if the literary and cultural intertextual code is global or at least partial y common to both the author and the readers.” Further on are presented several obvious references. There is a reference to the series of graphic novels, Diary of a Wimpy Kid, written and illustrated by Jeff Kinney (the first instalment was released in the US in 2007). August from Wonder is a bit younger than the main character Greg Heffley from the Wimpy Kid series. However, Greg too is experiencing something new: he is starting his freshman year of high school and he wants to prove himself; the stories take place in the school environment and represent adolescent troubles in a humorous way. The game cal ed ‘the plague’ from Wonder (the schoolmates must not touch August and have to wash their hands quickly if they accidentally brush against him) is very D. Haramija: The Novel and the Film Wonder 325. similar to the game cal ed ‘Cheese Touch’: if someone has Cheese Touch, they must not be touched and are stuck with it until they pass it on by touching someone else. The attitude of schoolmates towards Greg Heffley is thus very similar to the attitude of schoolmates towards August. Hal oween is also mentioned in the Wimpy Kid books, even though it has a much more significant role in the novel Wonder. Both novels mention The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900), a children’s novel written by author L. Frank Baum and illustrated by W.W. Denslow. Wonder also includes an intertextual reference to the novel The Hobbit (1937), which is a children’s fantasy novel by the English author J. R. R. Tolkien, and an intertextual reference to the tale The Ugly Duckling, written by Hans Christian Andersen. At art class, the principal asks August why he drew a duckling during a class when they had to draw a self-portrait of themselves as an animal. The principal expected August to answer that he wanted to become a swan one day, but the boy answers that he resembles a duck. There are references to popular music and the narrator’s personalities, as well as references to excerpts from famous texts, which are used as the introductory motto in each chapter of the novel, and texts that are presented in the novel and the film as Mr. Browne’s Precepts. The story also includes references to the film series Star Wars by film director George Lucas; the first movie was made in 1977 and quickly became a worldwide pop-culture phenomenon. For the novel Wonder, two characters are especial y important: Jango Fett (August’s favourite character) and Darth Sidious (Julian compares August to him). The film Wonder also includes Chewbacca. The film also stresses the importance of references to space flights and astronauts. Without understanding the intermedial connections, the (young) reader/viewer cannot understand certain parts of the text/film. Coats states: Intertextuality does not just refer to the practice of making specific al usions to other texts though that is part of its definition. However, it also refers to specific and nonspecific connections between texts and contexts that readers and viewers recognize on both conscious and unconscious levels. In other words, the sites of a text’s production, form and audience response are webbed and mutual y informing, so that we can never say that we are reading or viewing a straightforward, linearly conceived adaption of an 326 NEW HORIZONS IN SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH ASPECTS OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DIDACTICS original source text, and nor can we analyze it purely on those grounds. (Coats, 2018, p. 222) Depending on the young readers’/viewers’ reception capabilities, it is prudent to take into account their overall development, general knowledge, as well as the literary works and films that they know already, so that they can understand (construct) the multiple layers of the story and its message. References About the author J. R. Palacio. (n.d.). https://wonderthebook.com/about Andersen, H. Ch. (2018). Grdi raček [The ugly duckling]. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. Bergala, A. (2017). Vzgoja za film: Razprava o poučevanju filma v šolah in drugih okoljih [Education for Film]. Ljubljana: Društvo za širjenje filmske kulture Kino!: Membrana. Buchbinder, D. (2011). From ‘Wizard’ to ‘Wicked’: Adaptation theory and young adult fiction. In K. Mal an & C. Bradford (Eds.), Contemporary children’s literature and film: Engaging with theory (pp. 127–146). London: Palgrave Macmillian. Chbosky, S. (Director). (2017). Wonder [Film]. Lionsgate Films. Coats, K. (2018). The Bloomsbury introduction to children’s and young adult literature. London, New York: Bloombsbury Publishing Plc. Diary of a wimpy kid by Jeff Kinney (n.d.). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diary_of_a_Wimpy_Kid Haramija, D. (2017). Vrednote v sodobni mladinski prozi [Values in contemporary children’s prose]. Otrok in knjiga, 44(99), 15–28. Juvan, M. (1999). Medbesedilnost – figure in vrste [Intertextuality -figures and types]. Slavistična revija, 47(4), 393–415. https://srl.si/ojs/srl/article/view/COBISS_ID-12026210. Juvan, M. (2000). Intertekstualnost [Intertextuality]. Ljubljana: DZS. Kinney, J. (2011). Dnevnik nabritega mulca [Diary of a wimpy kid]. Ljubljana: Grlica. Licardo, M. (2016). Teacher’s role in child’s introducing into social environment. Maribor: Faculty of Education. Lucas, G. (Director). (1977). Star wars [Film]. Lucasfilm Ltd. Matajc, V. (2011). Literatura in elektronska komunikacija: intermedialnost sodobnega romana [Literature and electronic communication: The intermediality of the contemporary novel]. Ars@Humanitas, 5(1), 25–39. McFarlane, B. (1996). Novel to film: An introduction to the theory of adaptation. Oxford: Claredon Press. Palacio, R. J. (2014). Wonder. London: Penguin Random House (Corgie books). Rek, M. (2019). Media education in Slovene preschools: A review of focus studies. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 9(1), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.659 Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in Experimental Psychology, 25, 1–65. Schwartz, S. H. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1116 Star wars: The official site. https://www.starwars.com/. Tolkien, J. R. R. (2000). Hobit [The hobbit]. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. Wonder (Palacio novel). (n.d.). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder_(Palacio_novel) Wonder Educational Planner (2019). Retrieved from https://wonderthebook.com/assets/downloadables/Wonder_EduPlanner14_WEB.pdf Zorman, B. (2009). Senca besede: Filmske priredbe slovenske literature (1948–1979) [The shadow of the word: Film adaptations of Slovenian literature (1948-1979)]. Koper: Založba Annales. Document Outline Multiplication Standard Multiplication Algorithm Alternative Algorithms Area multiplication algorithm Lattice multiplication algorithm Line multiplication algorithm Comparing alternative algorithms Aim of the Study Method Design of the study Sample Instrument Data analysis Results The correctness of the products Students’ strategies Time efficiency Ivančič Fajfar, M. (n.d.). Sašo Vrabič: Portret Erika [Sašo Vrabič: Portrait of Eric]. https://artis.si/SasoVrabicPortretErika/SasoVrabicPortretErika.html Jewitt, C. (2008). Multimodality and literacy in school classrooms. Review of Research in Education, 32(1), 241–267. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X07310586 Blank Page Blank Page