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The paper presents activities that were carried out in the framework of the project “Virtual reconstruc-
tion and making a model of a Macedonian tomb in Ohrid” with the main aim of promoting and pre-
senting archaeological cultural heritage inaccessible to the broader public. Creating the virtual recon-
struction and digital 3D model gave the Macedonian tomb in Ohrid “visual access”. Thus, despite being 
completely isolated, the tomb is now accessible to everyone for inclusive learning and acquiring new 
knowledge or simply as a tourist attraction of exceptional regional cultural and historical significance.
Key words: Ohrid, Macedonian tomb, virtual reconstruction, 3D Model
Izvleček
V prispevku so predstavljene aktivnosti, ki so bile izvedene v okviru projekta »Virtualna rekonstrukci-
ja in izdelava makete grobnice makedonskega tipa v Ohridu« z glavnim ciljem promocije in predstavi-
tve širši javnosti nedostopne arheološke kulturne dediščine. Ustvarjanje konceptualne virtualne rekon-
strukcije in digitalnega 3D modela je makedonski grobnici v Ohridu omogočilo »vizualni dostop«. 
Tako je grobnica kljub popolni izoliranosti postala dostopna vsakomur za inkluzivno učenje in prido-
bivanje novih znanj ter preprosto tudi kot lokalna turistična zanimivost posebnega kulturno-zgodo-
vinskega pomena.
Ključne besede: Ohrid, grobnica makedonskega tipa, virtualna rekonstrukcija, 3D model
Virtual accessibility of the Macedonian tomb in Ohrid 
Virtualna dostopnost grobnice makedonskega tipa v Ohridu
Ivan Malezanov
National Institution for Protection of Monuments of Culture and Museum Ohrid, North Macedonia 
malezanov.im@gmail.com
Martina Blečić Kavur
University of Primorska, Faculty of Humanities, Slovenia 
martina.blecic.kavur@upr.si
57
Introduction
Ohrid is a region of outstanding cultural and historical value, dating back to pre-historic times. Classical antiquity was a 
period when the area was of great importance. 
Perhaps the main reason for this is the fact that 
the historic Candavian road and the later Ro-
man Via Egnatia passed through the territory, 
connecting the western Adriatic with the eastern 
Aegean and the southern Balkans (Битракова 
Грозданова 1988, 37–52; Митревски 2013, 
234; Bitrakova Grozdanova 2021). Consequent-
ly, many archaeological sites reflect the status of 
the place and the importance of the people who 
lived there during the Macedonian rule and the 
flourishing of Hellenistic art. The monumental 
tomb of the Macedonian type in Ohrid is an ex-
cellent example of this hypothesis.
The tomb was found on the hill Varosh 
above the Ohrid Lake, at the site “Karagjulev-
ci” (fig. 1), directly above the ancient theatre. For 
many years, this tomb was forgotten and inacces-
sible to the public, probably due to the impossi-
bility of its physical presentation since the struc-
ture is located on private property (Битракова 
Грозданова and Кузман 1999; 2017; Kuzman 
ht t ps://doi .org /10. 26493/2350-54 43.10(2)57-66 © aut hor/aut hors
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2009; cf. Guštin and Kuzman 2016). Therefore, 
a detailed and systematic archaeological inves-
tigation of the area is almost impossible under 
these circumstances. This gave rise to the idea of 
producing a modern documentation, presenta-
tion, and promotion of the Ohrid archaeological 
monument, which is physically inaccessible to 
the general public but is crucial for understand-
ing the ancient cultural heritage of this region. 
Another Macedonian tomb is located quite 
far from Ohrid (66 km), in Staro Bonche, in the 
northern Pelagonian plain (Jakimovski 2011; 
2015, 32–41; cf. Guštin and Kuzman 2016). De-
spite their distance and architectural differences, 
according to the current state of research, they 
are the only examples of this type of preserved 
funerary architecture in Northern Macedonia 
(fig. 1).
In this study, an introductory overview of 
the funerary architecture of the Macedonian 
tombs is presented, as well as a history of research 
and previous findings interpreting the Macedo-
nian tomb at Ohrid. The architecture, techni-
cal description and state of preservation of this 
building are then discussed. The virtual recon-
struction, visual restoration and 3D digital mod-
el of the tomb are described in detail. Finally, we 
emphasize how persons with disabilities and all 
types of special needs can make full use of vir-
tual reconstructions and 3D models. Thus, these 
results support the main goal and perspective 
of the international project Accessible and Digi-
tized Cultural Heritage for persons with disabili-
ties (Lilcikj et al. 2022; cf. Karovska and Minov 
in this publication), to which this issue of Studia 
universitatis hereditati is dedicated.
Macedonian tomb in Ohrid
Macedonian tombs appear in the Late Clas-
sical and Hellenistic periods, from the 4th to 
the 2nd century BCE as a type of burial, first of 
kings and then of the upper classes. In the are-
as that were under Macedonian influence or un-
der Macedonian occupation, numerous tombs 
are known. The best known are the tombs near 
the great centres of that time e.g. at Vergina, 
Lefkadia, Derveni, Amphipolis, or Philippi in 
northern Greece (fig. 1; Tomlinson 1977; Mill-
er 1982; Andronikos 1993; Tsimbidou-Avlonitou 
2005; Borza and Palagia 2007; D’Angelo 2010; 
Schmidt-Dounas 2016). Most Macedonian 
tombs were plundered, so that especially the un-
looted tombs at Vergina and Derveni are impor-
tant sources of information on burial customs 
and social organisation in ancient Macedonia 
(Sismanidis 1997; Tsimbidou-Avlonitou 2005; 
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Figure 1. The distribution of the Macedonian tomb sites mentioned in the text (on the basis of Google Earth 2022; 
elaborated by M. Blečić Kavur).
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cf. Palagia 2022). The emergence and develop-
ment of such Hellenistic funerary architecture is 
associated with the wealth and expansion of the 
Macedonian kingdom (D’Angelo 2010; Stam-
pouloglou et al. 2019; cf. Palagia 2022). Macedo-
nian tombs were constructed underground and 
covered by an artificial tumulus. They have the 
following architectural elements: a rectangular 
burial chamber and/or one or two antecham-
bers, a dromos, a passage leading to the entrance 
of the main chamber where the funerary rites 
are performed, and a monumental façade (Mill-
er 1982; Schmidt-Dounas 2016; Stampouloglou 
et al. 2019; Stampouloglou et al. 2020; Palagia 
2022).
The first detailed analysis of the Macedonian 
tomb at Ohrid was conducted in 1996 and subse-
quently published by Vera Bitrakova Grozdano-
va and Pasko Kuzman (Битракова Грозданова 
and Кузман 1999; 2017; Kuzman 2009). They 
presented the history of the research and its use 
during World War I, when it was a hiding place 
for Bulgarian soldiers. The first research was car-
ried out in the 1950s by Vasil Lahtov, who reo-
pened the tomb and installed an iron gate in the 
dromos for protection. In 1984 Vlado Malenko 
started an excavation in the antechamber. No 
small finds of material culture were found, so it 
is assumed that the tomb was plundered in the 
past. Based on its characteristic architectural ele-
ments and solid construction, it has been dated to 
the late 4th or early 3rd century BCE (Битракова 
Грозданова and Кузман 1999; Kuzman 2009; 
Bitrakova Grozdanova 2022). As far as the archi-
tectural and decorative elements are concerned, 
the tomb at Pydna is the most similar (Sisman-
idis 1997; Stampouloglou et al. 2019; Stampou-
loglou et al. 2020), which has already been pre-
sented and argumented in the interpretation of 
the Ohrid tomb (Битракова Грозданова and 
Кузман 1999; 2017).
Architecture and state of preservation
In 2021, a group of young archaeologists, stu-
dents, civil engineers and expert archaeologists 
conducted the project entitled “Virtual recon-
struction and model of a Macedonian tomb in 
Ohrid” (fig. 2). The project promoter was the As-
sociation for the Protection and Sustainable De-
velopment of the Environment Regional Green 
Centre Ohrid, in cooperation with the NI Insti-
tute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments and 
Museum Ohrid with the support of the Ministry 
of Culture of the Republic of Northern Macedo-
nia. It was divided into three phases – field docu-
mentation, analysis and digitization of technical 
documentation, and virtual reconstruction, res-
toration and modelling of the tomb.
During the first activity, the tomb was tech-
nically recorded and digitally photographed 
with modern technology (fig. 2). A total station 
could not be used for the technical documenta-
Figure 2. The survey and documentation of the Ohrid tomb (photo I. Malezanov, D. Angjelkovski).
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tion due to time constraints and the difficult ter-
rain. Therefore, a laser distance measurer was em-
ployed to determine the dimensions of the tomb. 
In addition, numerous photographs were taken 
with a DSLR camera, which were necessary for 
the creation of 2D drawings and 3D models of 
detailed geometric documentation.
The last analysis in 2021 documented that 
the ground plan of the tomb consisted of a dro-
mos (2.3×0.83 m), an antechamber (1.65×2.8 m) 
and a chamber (3.95×3.11 m) (fig. 3). The ante-
chamber and the main chamber are covered by 
a continuous barrel-vaulted roof. In the cham-
ber there are traces of two burial beds (klinai) on 
which the deceased were placed. The tomb was 
built from massive hewn limestone blocks, and 
no binding material was used in its construction. 
The limestone blocks are arranged in four rows 
in the opus quadratum technique, while the fifth 
row of stone slabs is slightly inclined towards the 
dromos to support the roof beams (fig. 3–6). Be-
tween the antechamber and the chamber there 
is a trapezoidal door with typically made stone 
jambs rising diagonally and supporting a lin-
tel that overhangs them (fig. 5, 6; Битракова 
Грозданова and Кузман 1999). The floor of the 
Figure 3. Ground plan and cross-section of the Macedonian tomb in Ohrid (produced by A. Boyadzieva 
and K. Denkovski, elaborated by M. Blečić Kavur).
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61Figure 4. View of the northwestern wall of the chamber (photo by I. Malezanov; virtual reconstruction produced  
by K. Denkovski).
Figure 5. View of a) the entrance from the antechamber to the chamber, b) the exit from the antechamber to the dro-
mos, c) the exit from the chamber, and d) the northeastern wall of the chamber (produced by K. Denkovski, elaborated 
M. Blečić Kavur).
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tomb is made of hydraulic mortar, which is still 
preserved in the chamber. In the antechamber, 
unfortunately, the floor has not been preserved 
due to the contemporary use of the tomb or due 
to earlier research. The wall decoration in the an-
techamber and in the chamber consists of stucco 
and mortar painted different colours, of which 
the Pompeian-red predominates (fig. 4–6).
On the 2.89 m high northwest wall of the 
chamber are a 10 cm high plinth and a 1.24 m 
high stucco orthostat imitating marble slabs. 
The area above the 1 m high orthostat is paint-
ed red (fig. 5). In previous researches, the high-
est part of the wall was depicted with blue paint 
(Битракова Грозданова and Кузман 1999, 13; 
2017), which was not confirmed during the field 
documentation, as the last 55 cm do not have any 
painted surface.
The exit wall of the chamber has the same 
dimensions. The door is 80 cm wide and the 
stone structure on which the door was installed 
has an interesting detail on the side of the cham-
ber, which tells us that one of the stone blocks 
broke during installation, so it was fixed with 
iron, that is, a kind of clamp. On the other hand, 
the entrance from the antechamber to the cham-
ber has a 1.27 m high orthostat, identical to the 
one in the chamber. The red paint covered the 
same height, while the unpainted part is only 
40 cm high. Finally, the exit wall from the an-
techamber to the dromos, similar to the north-
western wall, has a 10 cm high base, an orthostat 
of 1.24 m, a 1 m band paint red and an unpainted 
part of 40 cm (fig. 5).
On the southwest side of the chamber, the 
floor and wall show traces of destruction, prob-
ably by illegal excavators. At the entrance itself, 
above the antechamber, the roof is also badly de-
stroyed. This probably happened during the First 
World War, as evidenced by the inscriptions on 
the southwestern wall of the chamber.
It is interesting to note that during this ac-
tivity the temperature inside the tomb was meas-
ured regularly and indicated a constant tem-
perature of 14°C. However, in the presence of 
three people, the temperature inside the tomb 
increased by 4°C, which means that it reached 
18°C in only 10 minutes. Since the temperature 
inside the tomb fluctuates, daily visits would af-
fect the humidity and damage the wall paint-
ings. This is another reason why the tomb should 
be conserved and presented in a virtual edition, 
such as a 3D model based on visualizations.
Virtual reconstruction and 3D model
The next phase was the creation of a virtual re-
construction of the tomb, i.e. the analysis and 
digitization of the technical geometric docu-
mentation. Besides digital documentation, vir-
tual reconstruction is very important because it 
is the only way to visualize the tomb under the 
currently available conditions. The aim of this 
activity was to present the documented tomb to 
a wider public. Thus, an information board with 
a short description of the tomb and a QR code to 
access the virtual reconstruction was placed near 
the site.
The third activity, also aimed at the pub-
lic presentation of the tomb, was the creation of 
an ideal reconstruction, virtual restoration and 
model of the tomb, for which the textured 3D 
models are necessary. Three-dimensional digi-
tization has become an integral part of cultur-
al heritage documentation and brings significant 
benefits to studies of reconstruction and resto-
ration of architectural structures, archaeological 
sites, and historical monuments (Stampouloglou 
et al. 2019). Thus, a model of the Ohrid Tomb 
was produced using a 3D printer and later artisti-
cally painted (fig. 7). In this way, researchers and 
visitors can now better understand the original 
appearance of the monument, even though safe-
ty reasons prohibit actual physical restoration of 
the tomb. With the 3D model, we also wanted to 
show how the tomb looked in three dimensions 
so that people with different types of disabilities 
could see and touch it. We can now touch and 
feel the tomb in detail, especially its construc-
tion and the architecture. This result allowed 
equal participation in the broader cultural activ-
ities of Ohrid. It therefore provides an excellent 
opportunity to involve different audiences (chil-
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dren, persons with disabilities, seniors...) in the 
promotion of the common quality of life associ-
ated with our social and cultural values.
Figure 7. 3D model of the Macedonian tomb in Ohrid 
(produced by I. Malezanov).
Conclusion
Macedonian tombs were luxurious funerary 
monuments for the Macedonian elite and aris-
tocracy. In addition to ancient Macedonia, these 
tombs have been found in Thrace, Thessaly, Asia 
Minor, and Euboea (Miller 1993; D’Angelo 2010; 
Schmidt-Dounas 2016; Palagia 2022). In con-
trast to the magnificent Macedonian tombs with 
attractive facades, such as those at Vergina, Pel-
la, Agia Paraskevi, Agios Athanasios, etc. (An-
dronikos 1993; Sismanidis 1997; Tsimbidou-Av-
lonitou 2005; Stampouloglou et al. 2020; cf. 
Palagia 2022), the tomb of Ohrid has a simple 
facade. Nevertheless, due to its solid construc-
tion, the techniques of interior decoration and 
the use of colours and stucco, it undoubtedly be-
longs to the Macedonian tombs with the near-
est example, the tomb of Pydna (Битракова 
Грозданова and Кузман 1999; cf. Stampou-
loglou et al. 2020). Consequently, an exception-
al dignitary and his wife were most likely buried 
in it (Кузман 2010, 58–59). Therefore, the inter-
pretation that it is the burial of a historical fig-
ure Aeropos, depicted in ancient written sources 
as the ruler of Lychnidos in the 3rd century BCE, 
has also been offered (Битракова Грозданова 
and Кузман 1999; Блажевска 2013, 677; Bitrak-
ova Grozdanova 2021, 426). However, the so-
called provinciality of the building, the reduc-
tion of the architectural and decorative elements 
as well as the simplicity of the facade speak for 
a dating of the tomb into the 3rd century BCE, 
which could be confirmed at least hypothetical-
ly by the assumption of lavish burial of Aeropos 
at this place.
For many years this Macedonian tomb in 
Ohrid was forgotten or neglected because it was 
not accessible to the public. With the produc-
tion of the virtual reconstruction, a visual resto-
ration and the 3D model of the tomb, we wanted 
to present to a wider public why this tomb is so 
important for the whole Ohrid region. The fact 
is the elite of Lychnidos were buried in the Mac-
edonian way in the 3rd century BCE, adopting 
Figure 6. Ideal virtual reconstruction and visual restoration of the entrance from antechamber to the chamber  
and the exit from the chamber (produced by K. Denkovski).
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the innovations of Hellenistic monumental fu-
nerary architecture.
Archaeological heritage belongs to all, and 
access to it should be guaranteed to all. The Eu-
ropean Commission (2003) sees accessibili-
ty and inclusion as key to sustainable develop-
ment and believes that it enhances the quality 
of life and makes the environment more livea-
ble (Kajda, Michalik and Kobiałka 2015). There-
fore, it is necessary to provide people with disa-
bilities with various opportunities to participate 
in economic, social and cultural life (UNESCO 
2020). Not only people with disabilities, but also 
the entire population is affected by accessibil-
ity: Parents of young children, the elderly, peo-
ple with temporary mobility limitations, etc. 
The lack of accessibility prevents them from ex-
periencing and understanding their own herit-
age. With the aim of increasing accessibility and 
making changes in this regard, we have succeed-
ed in presenting the significant archaeological 
heritage of Ohrid to a wide audience and tour-
ists through virtual reconstruction and visual 
restoration. We believe that such an approach is 
our future standard, both in the profession and 
in the promotion of the (in)accessible heritage.
Summary
The Macedonian tomb in Ohrid symbolises one of the 
most important architectural representations of the 
tomb buildings from the Hellenistic period in the ter-
ritory of Northern Macedonia. Architecturally, the 
tomb consists of a dromos, an antechamber and a cham-
ber. The entire tomb is made of stone blocks without 
binding material and is decorated with stucco deco-
ration and mortar. The largest area is covered by Pom-
peian red paint, which was found in the middle zone 
of the tomb’s walls. The tomb is dated to the 3rd centu-
ry BCE and was probably commissioned by a resident 
of Lychnidos who belonged to the aristocracy or rulers 
of the city at that time. Traces of two klinai were found 
inside, which means that two people were buried in the 
chamber.
For many years this Macedonian tomb in Ohrid was 
forgotten and/or neglected because it was not accessible 
to the public. With the realization of the virtual recon-
struction, a visual restoration and the 3D model of the 
tomb, we wanted to present to a wider public, especial-
ly to persons with different types of disabilities, why this 
tomb is so historically important for the whole Ohrid 
region. The tomb is now accessible to everyone for in-
clusive learning and acquiring new knowledge about ar-
chaeology, or simply as a tourist attraction of cultural 
and historical significance.
Povzetek
Makedonska grobnica na Ohridu je eden najpomemb-
nejših arhitekturnih predstavnikov grobnih stavb iz 
helenističnega obdobja na ozemlju Severne Makedo-
nije. Arhitekturno je sestavljena iz dromosa (hodnika), 
preddverja in komore. Celotna grobnica je izdelana iz 
kamnitih blokov brez veziva in je okrašena s štukatur-
nim okrasjem in ometom. Največjo površino pokriva 
pompejanska rdeča barva, ki je bila najdena v srednjem 
pasu sten grobnice. Datirana je v 3. stoletje pr. n. št. in jo 
je verjetno naročil prebivalec Lihnida, ki je pripadal ta-
kratni aristokraciji ali vladarjem mesta. V notranjosti so 
bili najdeni sledovi dveh klinei, kar pomeni, da sta bili v 
grobni komori pokopani dve osebi.
Dolga leta je bila ta ohridska grobnica pozabljena in/
ali zanemarjena, saj ni bila dostopna javnosti. Z izvedbo 
virtualne rekonstrukcije, vizualne obnove in 3D-mode-
la smo želeli širši javnosti, zlasti osebam z različnimi vr-
stami invalidnosti, predstaviti, zakaj je ta grobnica tako 
zagodovinsko pomembna za celotno ohridsko regijo. 
Grobnica je zdaj dostopna vsem za vključujoče učenje 
in pridobivanje novih znanj ali preprosto kot turistična 
znamenitost kulturnega in zgodovinskega pomena.
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