c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 205 Determining Pre-Service Teachers’ Astronomy-Related Self-Efficacy Belief Levels Ebru Ezberci Cevik* 1 and Oktay Bektas 2 • This study aims to reveal the astronomy-related self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers studying science education, primary school educa - tion, and social studies education programmes. The study is conducted using the survey design, a quantitative research method. The study sam - ple consists of 322 pre-service teachers in their third or fourth year of a science education, primary school education, or social studies educa - tion programme at a university in T urkey’ s Central Anatolia Region dur - ing the 2016 fall semester. The Astronomy Teaching Self-Efficacy Belief Scale developed by Güneş was used as the data collection tool. SPSS 22 was used to analyse the data, and the analyses benefited from descriptive and inferential statistics. Based on the findings, the pre-service teachers’ total scores for astronomy self-efficacy showed no significant difference in terms of certain variables (i.e., gender, age, year, and having taken a previous astronomy course). However, significant differences were found regarding self-efficacy scores in terms of the programme and hav - ing taken part in astronomy and sky-gazing activity. Concerning the ob - tained results, the following suggestions can be made: pre-service teach - ers should be actively involved during the astronomy course, and their classroom management experiences should be promoted to improve their astronomy self-efficacy belief levels. Keywords: astronomy education, astronomy self-efficacy belief, pre-service teacher 1 *Corresponding Author. Faculty of Education, University of Erciyes, Turkey; ezbercicevik@erciyes.edu.tr. 2 Faculty of Education, University of Erciyes, Turkey. doi: 10.26529/cepsj.1149 206 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels Ravni prepričanja o samoučinkovitosti v povezavi s poznavanjem astronomije pri študentih pedagoških smeri Ebru Ezberci Cevik in Oktay Bektas • Raziskava skuša predstaviti prepričanja o samoučinkovitosti glede zna- Raziskava skuša predstaviti prepričanja o samoučinkovitosti glede zna - nja astronomije pri študentih pedagoških smeri naravoslovja, osnovno - šolskega poučevanja in družboslovnih programov. Študija je bila izvede - na z uporabo ankete, pri čemer se je poslužila kvantitativne raziskovalne paradigme. Vzorec sestoji iz 322 študentov pedagoških smeri naravo - slovja v njihovem tretjem ali četrtem letniku, osnovnošolskega pouče - vanja ali družboslovja na univerzi osrednje turške pokrajine Anatolije v jesenskem semestru leta 2016. Kot pripomoček za zbiranje podatkov je bila uporabljena lestvica prepričanj o samoučinkovitost glede znanja astronomije, ki jo je razvil Günes. SPSS 22 je bil uporabljen za analizo podatkov, pri čemer ta obsega opisno in vzorčno statistiko. Na podla - gi ugotovitev se rezultati statistično pomembno ne razlikujejo glede na spremenljivke spola, starosti, letnika in predhodnega obiskovanja pred - meta astronomije, pomembne razlike pa so dokazane glede na študijski program in sodelovanje pri astronomiji ter pri opazovanju neba. Do - bljeni izsledki dopuščajo naslednje sklepe: študentje pedagoških smeri bi morali aktivno sodelovati pri predmetu astronomije, v nadaljevanju pa bi se jih moralo spodbujati pri upravljanju razreda, da se izboljša tudi njihova prepričanja o samoučinkovitosti glede znanja astronomije. Ključne besede: poučevanje astronomije, prepričanje o samoučinkovitosti glede znanja astronomije, študentje pedagoških smeri c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 207 Introduction The process of learning science involves a combination of observations and interpretations that enable students’ meaningful learning (Pundak et al., 2017). As a result, astronomy has become included in this combination. There - fore, having individuals who have been interested in the sky since an early age continue these interests using the knowledge they gain from scientifically reli - able sources by observing and interpreting is considered necessary. From an international point of view, the debate on how to teach astron - omy within the curricula has been chiefly about whether it should be taught as a separate course or as a part of other fields. In both cases, the topics planned to be taught include the formation of day and night, the seasons, the phases of the moon, eclipses, tides, planets, and stars (T aşcan & Ünal, 2015). Each country expresses the importance they attach to astronomy education in their educa - tion system. For instance, Serbia requires 33 seminars over three years on vari - ous topics in astronomy every second Tuesday throughout the academic year at the Department of Astronomy and 33 seminars held at the Astronomical Observatory (Atanackovic & Arbutina, 2021). In Thailand, new topics such as the celestial sphere, astronomical coordinate systems, and the sun’s apparent motion had been introduced within astronomy to all science classes, as of 2008 (Jansri & Ketpichainarong, 2020). Turkey has drawn attention to the topics addressed in teaching astron - omy. When viewed nationally, it is seen to give relatively high importance to astronomy topics in its primary and secondary school curricula. The Ministry of National Education (MoNE) has started including astronomy topics (e.g., Let’s Get to Know Our Planet; The Earth’s Crust and the Motion of Our Planet; The Sun, Earth, and Moon; The Solar System and Eclipses; The Solar System and Beyond; Seasons and Climate) starting in the third-grade science curricu - lum (2018a). Unlike in previous curricula, the subject areas of the world and the universe have also been included in the first units with the aim of developing students’ sense of curiosity about astronomy and of developing their interest in science. In this respect, having education regarding basic concepts in astrono - my be effectively presented by increasing observation and critical thinking in schools will make an essential contribution to individuals’ meaningful learning and interest in astronomy (Oğuz et al., 2012). In other words, having students take an active role in teaching topics on astronomy is very important in being able to create learning environments that will contribute to meaningful learn - ing and to help students’ critical thinking and discussions of processes in terms of conceptualising knowledge on astronomy (Akimkhanova et al., 2020; Güneş, 208 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels 2010). Teachers who display such an approach attach importance to students’ ideas and show they trust the students so as to increase the value of this impor - tance. As in many other subjects, this aspect allows students to trust themselves in astronomy. Meanwhile, teachers’ self-confidence in performing their duties and competencies in influencing the performance of their students relate di - rectly to their self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1994; Gusken & Passaro, 1994). Self-efficacy belief is based on social learning theory and is expressed as individuals’ ability to take charge of the events that affect their lives (Bandura, 1977). According to Bandura (1997), four main factors affect the perception of self-efficacy in individuals: direct experiences of success, indirect experiences based on observation, verbal persuasion, and psychological and physiological situations. Çakıroğlu et al. (2005) stated that one of the most important topics in teacher training programmes regarding the goal of teaching qualified and ef - fective teachers was providing them with self-efficacy. Meanwhile, Tschannen- Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) argued that teachers and academics (lectur - ers) should have self-efficacy beliefs and that these beliefs should be integrated into teaching strategies. At the same time, they argued that teacher-student communications should be increased and that lessons may become more pro - ductive due to this integration. As seen above, instructors have a great responsibility in developing self- efficacy beliefs. The question that comes to mind is whether instructors have the necessary knowledge and skills for improving self-efficacy beliefs. Pajares (1992) stated that individuals’ self-efficacy beliefs were related to their level of knowl - edge and skills specific to the subject. From this point of view, instructors who lack knowledge and skills in any subject obviously will have difficulty developing their learners’ self-efficacy levels. Similarly, pre-service teachers should have the necessary knowledge and skills to meaningfully and self-confidently teach stu - dents subjects (Bağdiken & Akgündüz, 2018). Thus, similar to what Pajares (1992) found in his study, pre-service teachers with sufficient knowledge and skills in astronomy can be considered to have an adequate level of self-efficacy beliefs. In contrast, teachers and pre-service teachers with sufficient self-efficacy beliefs can transfer their knowledge and skills on astronomy to those who have learned meaningfully (Demirci, 2017; Güneş, 2010). In this context, self-efficacy belief can be said to be the key to realising astronomy-related studies. Although developing self-efficacy beliefs in astronomy is vital for mean - ingful learning, studies on the field of self-efficacy in the literature have primarily involved mathematics self-efficacy (Gülten et al., 2012; İskenderoğlu et al., 2016; Pajares, 1996), science self-efficacy (Akbaş & Çelikkaleli, 2006; Kaya, 2013; Riggs & Enochs, 1990), and academic self-efficacy (Choi, 2005; Ekici, 2012; Høigaard c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 209 et al., 2014; Oğuz, 2012; Yağcı & Aksoy, 2015). In this sense, although studies are found on self-efficacy in science, studies on the field of astronomy are generally related, especially in the context of the current study, to the conceptual mean - ings students have regarding topics in astronomy (Baloğlu Uğurlu, 2005; Bülbül et al., 2013; Cin, 2007; Durukan & Sağlam Arslan, 2013; Göncü & Korur, 2012; Küçüközer, 2007; Şensoy, 2012) and students’ knowledge levels (Bostan, 2008; Kanlı, 2014; Kaplan & Çifçi Tekinarslan, 2013; Taşcan, 2013); the number of stud - ies on astronomy self-efficacy is relatively low (Carter, 2005; Güneş, 2010). Of these, a limited number is found on the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers. For example, only Durukan and Sağlam Arslan (2013), Küçüközer (2007), and Şensoy (2012) have studied conceptual interpretation; Bostan (2008) and Kanlı (2014) studied knowledge levels, İyibil and Saglam Arslan (2010) studied mental models, and Carter (2005) and Güneş (2010) studied astronomy self-efficacy. Other stud - ies have been directed toward students and teachers. In light of the presented literature, the lack of self-efficacy studies on pre-service teachers is noteworthy. When considering that students encounter many concepts related to astronomy during their learning process and are in - troduced to these concepts primarily through their teachers, determining pre- service teachers’ self-efficacy related to these concepts and subjects that will occur in the teaching profession is vital. In this way, the conceptual compre - hension studies related to astronomy in the literature (Baloğlu Uğurlu, 2005; Küçüközer et al., 2010; Plummer, 2006; Trundle et al., 2006; Trundle & Troland, 2005) can be guided by investigating the reasons behind the subject in relation to self-efficacy beliefs on astronomy. Different studies in the literature have obtained various results regarding self-efficacy scores in terms of gender. Akbaş and Çelikkaleli (2006) stated that teacher candidates’ self-efficacy beliefs on science teaching do not vary according to gender, while Cassidy and Eachus (2002) found men to have higher self-efficacy beliefs than women did. In view of these differences in the literature, the current study aims to examine how self-efficacy scores vary with regard to gender. Studies in the relevant literature have used age and grade level as other variables. Özenoğlu- Kiremit’s (2006) study evaluated science teacher candidates’ biology-related self- efficacy beliefs according to age and determined that such beliefs regarding biology teaching increase with age. Similarly, pre-service teachers’ levels of self-efficacy be - liefs toward biology teaching also increased with higher grade levels (i.e., freshman, sophomore, junior, senior). In this context, the variables of age and grade are con - sidered important in determining self-efficacy beliefs. Differentiating between pre- service teachers’ self-efficacy scores based on age and grade will provide significant opportunities for teacher training institutions that consider this. 210 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels Self-efficacy beliefs are fundamental in individuals’ behaviour and are said to be related to the above-mentioned variables based on four sources (Ekici, 2009): first-hand experience of similar behaviour, the opportunity from others to follow the same kind of behaviour, being convinced by an authority, and self-awareness of physiological and emotional states. First-hand experience plays a vital role in self-efficacy (Woolfolk Hoy, 2000), because when people gain work-related experience, they feel more qualified to finish or perform the work (Bandura, 1977). In this sense, the study aims to determine the effect pre- service teachers’ previous astronomy courses and previous experience with as - tronomy and sky observations have on their self-efficacy beliefs on astronomy. Purpose of the research Pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy regarding their confidence in and ex - pectations from astronomy is a crucial element in teaching astronomy subjects to students (Demirci, 2017). In particular, this situation becomes more prominent in science, classroom education, and social sciences involving topics on astronomy. For example, one of the aims of the social studies curriculum is to recognise the general geographical characteristics of the environment and world in which stu - dents live (MoNE, 2018). The publications on teacher qualifications prepared by the School-Based Professional Development Unit of T urkey’ s Ministry of National Education state that classroom teachers should have competence in providing in - formation about scientific developments (MoNE, 2008) and, in this sense, empha - sise that students should gain the ability to recognise the antecedents of scientific concepts such as the basic concepts in astronomy (MoNE, 2009). Similarly, this is essential in science education (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology) because of its relationship to the universe, the world, and nature (Göncü & Korur, 2012). Mean - while, other natural science departments, such as mathematics, are interested in the calculations in astronomy rather than the topics or concepts in the subject. The current study will discuss the need for science and social science teachers to have experience in terms of having an effective astronomy education (Güneş, 2010), the importance of topics on astronomy in science, classroom education, and social sciences departments, and how these pre-service teach - ers will teach this course. Self-efficacy is very important in guiding individuals’ behaviours, attitudes, and taking action. In this sense, unlike the studies on determining attitudes towards astronomy that are frequently carried out in the literature, this current study will complement the other studies by determin - ing pre-service teachers’ ability to use the knowledge and skills necessary for their students to learn in the future. Obtaining information about pre-service c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 211 teachers’ levels of self-efficacy beliefs will shed light on their future teaching. Studies have proven teacher efficacy to be strongly related to many meaningful educational outcomes (Vlah et al., 2021). T eachers’ self-efficacy beliefs about the subject are thought to affect students’ conceptual learning or academic achieve - ment (Nie et al., 2013; Şirin & Metin Peten, 2020). Even if pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy levels cannot be identified at the desired level, the suggestions this study makes can firmly guide new teachers. This is because new teachers can be more productive in their future teaching lives by considering the current study results and the suggestions presented to learn what they need to do to develop their self-efficacy beliefs toward astronomy. In this context, this study aims to reveal the astronomy self-efficacy of prospective teachers studying science edu - cation, classroom education, and social studies education programmes. The research questions are as follows: 1. Does a statistically significant difference exist between male and female pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy total and factor scores? 2. Does a statistically significant difference exist between the self-efficacy total and factor scores of pre-service teachers of different ages? 3. Does a statistically significant difference exist between the astronomy self-efficacy total and factor scores of pre-service teachers in terms of whether or not they have taken an astronomy course? 4. Does a statistically significant difference exist between the astronomy self-efficacy total and factor scores of pre-service teachers in terms of whether they have engaged in astronomy and sky-watching activities? 5. Does a statistically significant difference exist between the astronomy self-efficacy total and factor scores of 3 rd - and 4 th -year teacher candidates? 6. Does a statistically significant difference exist between the self-efficacy total and factor scores of teacher candidates in different programmes? Method Research design The research was carried out as a survey study (i.e., a quantitative re - search design). Survey studies aim to determine participants’ characteristics, such as their opinions, interests, abilities, and attitudes; these studies differ from other studies using larger samples (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006; McMillan & Schumacher, 2006). Studies with larger samples are concerned with how par - ticipants’ views are distributed over the sample rather than why they have par - ticular views (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). 212 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels The primary purpose of survey studies is to describe a current situation (Çepni, 2012). Therefore, the study has used the survey model to determine pre- service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs about astronomy. In addition, this design is appropriate for studying self-efficacy beliefs with respect to different variables. Participants The research sample consists of 3 rd - and 4 th -year pre-service teach - ers studying science, classroom education, and social studies education pro - grammes in Turkey’s Kayseri Province in the 2016 fall semester. The sample consists of 322 pre-service teachers (122 in the science education programme, 110 in the classroom education programme, and 90 in the social studies edu - cation programme). Some departments (e.g. teaching mathematics) have not been included in the study, and the simple random sampling method has been preferred in selecting the sample. Designated pre-service teachers were includ - ed in the study on a volunteer basis. Moreover, the participants were informed that the study results would be presented in scientific publications. In such cas - es, they were also told that their identity would be kept strictly secret, and their approval was obtained. Table 1 shows the frequency distribution of the pre- service teachers in the different programmes with respect to their demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, grade level, and whether or not they had taken an astronomy course or taken part in astronomy/sky-gazing activities). Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants Variable Category Science Education Classroom Education Social Studies Education Age 19–21 years old 79 77 48 22 years or older 43 33 42 Gender Female 103 92 45 Male 19 18 45 Grade level 3 rd 59 47 46 4 th 63 63 44 Took a previous astronomy course Yes 19 12 6 No 103 98 84 Participated in an astrono- my/sky-watching activity Yes 15 10 16 No 107 100 74 Total 122 110 90 c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 213 When examining Table 1, participants in the 19–21-year age group are the most common among the pre-service teachers studying for all three pro - grammes in terms of age. In terms of gender, the science education and class - room education programmes have more females than males, while the social studies education programme has equal numbers of males and females. In terms of grade level, more 4 th -year students were in the science education pro - gramme, while 3 rd -year students were more frequently in the classroom and social studies education programmes. The number of pre-service teachers who answered ‘no’ in terms of having taken astronomy courses was relatively high in all three programmes; similarly, those who answered ‘no’ in terms of partici - pating in an astronomy/sky-gazing activity comprise an even more significant majority in all three programmes. Data collection tool The Astronomy Teaching Self-Efficacy Belief Scale was used as the data collection tool. It was developed by Riggs and Enochs (1990) and adapted into Turkish by Özkan et al. (2002) as the Science Teaching Self-Efficacy Scale. This version of the scale consists of two factors: Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Belief and Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy. Güneş (2010) adapted the scale in his study to examine the relationship between astronomy knowledge with the nature of science and the astronomy self-efficacy belief of pre-service teachers from science and technology and the social studies departments. This version of the scale was also used in the current study. The scale consists of two factors: Personal Self-efficacy in Astronomy Teaching (PSAT) and Expected Results in Astronomy Teaching (ERAT). The scale has 23 items: 13 for PSAT and 10 for ERAT. It is a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree). The items on the scale are intended to measure self-efficacy for general astronomy teaching and are not based on any specific concept in as - tronomy. ‘I think I will always find better ways to teach astronomy’ can be stat - ed as an example item. Güneş (2010) calculated Cronbach’s alpha of reliability for the scale as .80, for the factor of PSAT as .87, and for the ERAT factor as .78. Within the scope of the present study, the items were re-analysed, and the deci - sion was made to subtract six items due to their difficulty and differentiation. Validity and reliability analyses have been performed over a total of 17 items. Within the scope of the content validity study, all the items on the scale were examined by five experts in terms of scientific appropriateness, representa - tional power of the property to be measured, comprehensibility and clarity, and representation of the target group. Three of these experts are faculty members 214 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels in science education, one is a faculty member in classroom education working in the field of astronomy, and one is a faculty member in the department of measurement and evaluation who conducts doctoral studies on measurement and science education programmes and also has studies on astronomy. The ap - propriate changes as proposed by the experts were made to the scale. • Item 8 (Pre-Adjustment): I generally think I cannot teach astronomy lessons effectively. • Item 8 (Post-Adjustment): I think I cannot teach astronomy effectively. Similar to the example above, the expression ‘astronomy’ has been changed to ‘topics in astronomy’ , and the modified sentences were clarified. The experts deemed the addition of the words ‘topics in’ to be appropriate in order to be able to adopt an education-oriented approach. After making these correc - tions, the scale was prepared for application. In terms of criterion validity, the first developed form of the scale had been applied to 3 rd - and 4 th -year undergraduate pre-service teachers in science and social studies education programmes. Similarly, the current study applies the scale to 3 rd - and 4 th -year pre-service teachers in science, classroom, and social studies education programmes. The variables of age, gender, education programme, grade level, having taken an astronomy class, and having partici - pated in an astronomy/sky-watching activity are considered to be related to the self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers. The first form of the scale is compat - ible with the study in terms of department and gender. In both studies, similar stages were followed in the data collection stage. In terms of criterion validity, the results from both scales could not be correlated because the scale in the previous study could not be applied to this sample. Factor analysis was used to determine the construct validity of the scale. The original scale has the two factors of PSAT and ERAT. As a result of the exploratory factor analysis conducted in the present study, the scale was also determined to consist of the same two factors (PSAT and ERAT). In order to test the accuracy of the two-factor structure determined by the exploratory fac - tor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis was applied using LISREL software. Hu and Bentler (1999) specified the critical values for the criteria used in the model fit of the items as CFI > .90, RMSEA < .05, and NFI > .90. As a result of the analysis of the current study, all values were found to have perfect fit limit values, and thus the models of the scale items were found to be appropriate. In order to determine the reliability of the scores obtained from the scale, Cronbach’s alpha of reliability was determined using the SPSS 22 software. As c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 215 a result of the analysis of Factor 1, Cronbach’s alpha was calculated as .794 and as.667 for Factor 2. Cronbach’s alpha for the 17 items was calculated as .752. As this value is acceptable (Pallant, 2007), the scores participants obtain from the self-efficacy scale can be said to be reliable. Data collection process The data collection tool was applied to pre-service teachers in the 2016 fall semester. They participated in the study voluntarily and signed the Social and Humanities Informed Consent Form. The participants were also told that the results of the study would be presented in a scientific publication. As such, they were also told that their identity would be kept strictly confidential, and then their approval was obtained. The pre-service teachers were first asked to fill out the descriptive information (e.g., gender, age, grade level) that was con - sidered helpful in analysing the research on the scale and then to carefully read the statements about teaching astronomy and mark the option indicating their agreement with each statement. The pre-service teachers were given 30 min - utes to answer the scale. The scale was applied to everyone in the sample group within 15 days. Before the statistical analysis, the scales were examined to see if the pre- service teachers had completely filled out the scales, and an analysis was carried out over the 322 scales that were found to be missing no data. The study has observed all the rules in the Higher Education Institutions Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Directive, and no action in conflict with the Actions Against Scientific Research and Publication Ethics was per - formed in the second part of the implementation. Data analysis SPSS 22 was used to analyse the data. Descriptive statistics have been made primarily for the identified sub-problems, and whether the assumptions related to appropriate analysis had been achieved were verified. Inferential statistics have been used for different variables. The descriptive statistics and inferential statistics tables are explained in the Results. Figure 1 displays the independent variables and statistics. 216 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels Figure 1 Inferential statistics used for the variables Results This section presents the statistical analysis findings from the Astrono - my Teaching Self-Efficacy Belief Scale applied to pre-service teachers studying in different programmes in terms of the various variables. The findings are pre - sented according to the respective categorical variables. Investigating Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs According to Gender The descriptive statistics on pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy scores ac - cording to gender are presented in Table 2. Table 2 Descriptive Statistics of Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scores According to Gender n x SD Skewness Kurtosis Min Max PSAT Female 240 12.50 4.10 -.22 -.48 0 20 Male 82 12.33 4.93 -.28 -.47 0 20 ERAT Female 240 9.61 3.05 -.42 -.53 1 14 Male 82 9.84 3.17 -.49 -.64 2 14 Total Female 240 22.12 5.32 -.12 -.49 7 34 Male 82 22.17 6.59 -.56 .62 2 34 c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 217 According to Table 2, the number of individuals in each gender group should be greater than 15 (Pallant, 2007). In addition, a normal distribution is considered to have been achieved as the kurtosis and skewness values are between +2 and -2. Finally, the Levene test results are examined for the homo - geneity of variance (see Table 3). Table 3 Levene Test Results Levene Statistic Sig. PSAT ERAT Total .08 .75 .11 According to Table 3, the Levene test regarding the equality of variances shows the variance for all factors and the scale to be equal ( p > .05) for the anal - ysis of astronomy self-efficacy scores. The results from the independent samples t-test for the data obtained from the pre-service teachers regarding gender are presented in Table 4. Table 4 Independent Samples t-Test Results of Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scores According to Gender x t df p* PSAT Female 12.50 .32 320 .75 Male 12.33 ERAT Female 9.61 -.58 320 .56 Male 9.84 Total Female 22.12 -.08 320 .94 Male 22.17 Note. *p < .05 When examining Table 4, the pre-service teachers’ scores for the PSAT and ERAT sub-scales and total scores were determined to show no significant difference according to gender ( p > .05). Moreover, when considering the aver - ages, the female and male pre-service teachers both have low mean scores. 218 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels Investigating Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs According to Age The descriptive statistics on the self-efficacy scores of the pre-service teachers according to age are presented in Table 5. Table 5 Descriptive Statistics of Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scores According to Age Age (yrs) n x SD Skewness Kurtosis Min Max PSAT 19-21 204 12.57 4.33 -.29 -.40 0 20 22+ 118 12.27 4.31 -.20 -.39 0 20 ERAT 19-21 204 9.68 3.12 -.40 -.64 1 14 22+ 118 9.65 3.01 -.50 -.41 2 14 Total 19-21 204 22.25 5.61 -.25 -.09 6 34 22+ 118 21.92 5.76 -.37 .37 2 34 According to Table 5, the number of individuals in each age group is greater than 15, and the kurtosis and skewness values are between +2 and -2, which shows the normal distribution. The Levene test results have been exam - ined for homogeneity of variance (see Table 6). Table 6 Levene Test Results Levene Statistic Sig. PSAT ERAT Total .93 .42 .72 According to Table 6, the Levene test for the equality of variances shows the variance for the sub-factors and the whole scale to be considered equal for analysing astronomy self-efficacy scores in terms of age ( p > .05). The inde - pendent samples t-test for the data obtained from the pre-service teachers in terms of age is given in Table 7. c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 219 Table 7 Independent Samples t-Test Results of Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scores According to Age Age (yrs) n x SD t df p* PSAT 19-21 204 12.57 4.33 .60 320 .55 22+ 118 12.27 4.31 ERAT 19-21 204 9.68 3.12 .08 320 .94 22+ 118 9.65 3.01 Total 19-21 204 22.25 5.61 .50 320 .62 22+ 118 21.92 5.76 Note. *p < .05 When examining Table 7, no significant difference has been determined to exist between pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy scale sub-factors or total scores with respect to age ( p > .05). Investigating Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs According to Having Taken a Previous Astronomy Class or Participated in an Astronomy/Sky-Watching Activity The descriptive statistics regarding the pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy scores with respect to having taken a previous astronomy class or participated in an astronomy/sky-watching activity are shown in Table 8. Table 8 Descriptive Statistics of Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scores According to Having Taken a Previous Astronomy Class or Participated in an Astronomy/ Sky-Watching Activity n x SD Skewness Kurtosis Min Max Astronomy Course Yes 37 23.78 5.81 -.13 -.90 12 33 No 285 21.92 5.62 -.33 .19 2 34 Astronomy and Sky Activity Yes 41 23.95 5.50 -.46 -.63 12 32 No 281 21.87 5.65 -.28 .20 2 34 According to Table 8, the number of individuals in each group is seen to be greater than 15, and the kurtosis and skewness values to be between +2 and -2. In this context, the group shows normal distribution. The Levene test results have been examined for the homogeneity of variance (see Table 9). 220 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels Table 9 Levene Test Results Levene Statistic Sig. Astronomy course Astronomy/sky-gazing activity .64 .85 According to Table 9, the Levene test for the equality of variance shows the variance for both factors and the whole scale to be able to be accepted as equal for the analysis of astronomy self-efficacy scores related to having taken a previous astronomy class or been involved in an astronomy/sky-gazing activity (p > .05). The independent samples t-test for the data obtained from pre-service teachers regarding having taken a previous astronomy class or participated in an astronomy/sky-gazing activity is given below. Table 10 Independent Samples t-Test Results of Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scores According to Having Taken a Previous Astronomy Class or Been Involved in an Astronomy/Sky-gazing Activity n x SD t df p* Astronomy Course Yes 37 23.78 5.81 1.90 320 .06 No 285 21.92 5.62 Astronomy and Sky Activity Yes 41 23.95 5.50 2.22 320 .03* No 281 21.87 5.65 Note. * p < .05 When examining Table 10, the pre-service teachers’ scores obtained from the self-efficacy scale were found to show no significant difference with respect to whether or not they had taken an astronomy class ( p > .05); however, a significant difference was determined with respect to whether or not they participated in an astronomy/sky-gazing activity ( p < .05). Investigating Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs According to Grade Level The descriptive statistics regarding pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy scores according to grade-level variables are presented in Table 11. c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 221 Table 11 Descriptive Statistics of Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scores According to Grade Level Grade n x SD Skewness Kurtosis Min Max PSAT 3 rd year 152 12.59 4.02 -.22 -.41 1 20 4 th year 170 12.35 4.58 -.26 -.48 0 20 ERAT 3 rd year 152 9.55 9.55 -.38 -.68 2 14 4 th year 170 9.78 9.78 -.49 -.49 1 14 Total 3 rd year 152 22.13 5.17 -.18 -.38 6 32 4 th year 170 22.13 6.09 -.35 -.19 2 34 According to Table 11, the number of individuals in each group with regard to grade level is seen to be greater than 15, and the kurtosis and skew - ness values to be between +2 and -2. In this sense, the group shows normal distribution. The Levene test results have been examined for the homogeneity of variances (see Table 12). Table 12 Levene Test Results Levene Statistic Sig. PSAT ERAT Total .06 .33 .09 According to Table 12, the Levene test for the equality of variances shows the variance for the sub-factors and the whole scale to be able to be considered equal for the analysis of astronomy self-efficacy scores with respect to grade level ( p > .05). The independent samples t-test for the data obtained from the pre-service teachers regarding grade level is given in Table 13. 222 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels Table 13 Independent Samples t-Test Results of Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scores According to Grade Level Grade n x SD t df p* PSAT 3 rd year 152 12.59 4.02 .49 320 .62 4 th year 170 12.35 4.58 ERAT 3 rd year 152 9.55 9.55 -.69 320 .49 4 th year 170 9.78 9.78 Total 3 rd year 152 22.13 5.17 .00 320 .99 4 th year 170 22.13 6.09 Note. *p < .05 When examining T able 13, no significant difference has been determined to exist between pre-service teachers’ sub-factors and total scores with respect to grade level ( p > .05). Investigating Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs According to Department The descriptive statistics regarding pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy scores according to their department are presented in Table 14. Table 14 Descriptive Statistics of Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scores According to Programme Programme n x SD Skewness Kurtosis Min Max PSAT Science 122 14.20 4.10 -.40 -.62 3 20 Classroom 110 11.40 4.17 -.23 -.40 0 19 Social Studies 90 11.40 4.07 -.30 -.01 0 20 ERAT Science 122 9.64 2.85 -.47 -.29 2 14 Classroom 110 10.19 3.12 -.59 -.37 1 14 Social Studies 90 9.08 3.23 -.24 -.90 2 14 Total Science 122 23.84 5.53 -.36 -.23 7 34 Classroom 110 21.59 6.18 -.19 -.09 6 31 Social Studies 90 20.48 5.84 -.36 .59 2 34 When examining Table 14, the highest mean among the total score av - erages is among the pre-service science teachers (x = 23.84), and the lowest c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 223 average belongs to the pre-service social science teachers (x = 20.48). In gener - al, the mean scores of the pre-service teachers’ astronomy self-efficacy are low. The number of individuals in each group with respect to programme/depart - ment is also e greater than 15, and the kurtosis and skewness values are between +2 and -2. In this sense, the group shows a normal distribution. The Levene test results have been examined for the homogeneity of variance (see Table 15). Table 15 Levene Test Results Levene Statistic Sig. PSAT ERAT Total .44 .30 .17 According to Table 15, the Levene test for the equality of variances shows the variance for the sub-factors and the whole scale to be equal for the analysis of astronomy self-efficacy scores with respect to programme ( p > .05). One-way ANOV A results are shown in Table 16. Table 16 One-Way ANOVA Results for Pre-Service Teachers’ Astronomy Self-Efficacy Scores According to Their Department Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p* PSAT �etween Groups 592.70 2 296.35 17.52 .00* Within Groups 5397.28 319 16.92 Total 5989.98 321 ERAT �etween Groups 61.53 2 30.76 3.30 .04* Within Groups 2975.58 319 9.33 Total 3037.11 321 Total �etween Groups 632.75 2 316.38 10.45 .00* Within Groups 9657.77 319 30.28 Total 10290.52 321 Note. *p < .05 Table 16 shows the output from the one-way ANOVA analysis and whether a statistically significant difference exists between the groups’ means. As seen from this table, t significant mean differences are found between groups for the dependent variable of programme/department ( F (2, 319) = 10.450, p < .05; 224 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels F (2, 319) = 17.515, p < .05; F (2, 319) = 3.298, p < .05). When calculating the effect size for the total score, the result is .06. In other words, the pre-service teachers’ department accounts for approximately 6% of the variance in their self-efficacy scores. The results from the Bonferroni posthoc test, which was conducted to determine the differences among the groups, are given in Table 17. Table 17 Post-Hoc Test Results Dependent Variable (I) programme (J) programme Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Bonferroni PSAT Science Classroom 2.25 * .72 .01 Science > Classroom Science > Social Studies Social Studies 3.36 * .76 .00 Classroom Science -2.25 * .72 .01 Social Studies 1.11 .78 .47 Social Studies Science -3.36 * .76 .00 Classroom -1.11 .78 .47 ERAT Science Classroom 2.80 * .54 .00 Classroom > Science Science > Social Studies Social Studies 2.80 * .57 .00 Classroom Science -2.80 * .54 .00 Social Studies .00 .58 1.00 Social Studies Science -2.80 * .57 .00 Classroom .00 .58 1.00 Total Science Classroom -.55 .40 .51 Classroom > Social Studies Social Studies .56 .42 .56 Classroom Science .55 .40 .51 Social Studies 1.11 * .43 .03 Social Studies Science -.56 .42 .56 Classroom -1.11 * .43 .03 As a result of the Bonferroni posthoc test performed in Table 17; depart - mental differences were found between the science and classroom (in favour of science) and between the science and social studies (in favour of science) for PSAT , between the science and classroom (in favour of classroom) and between the science and social studies (in favour of science) for ERAT. When considering the averages in general, the pre-service teachers stud - ying in the various departments have low levels of self-efficacy with regard to astronomy. Noteworthily, the lowest levels occur among the pre-service teach - ers in all three department types for the ERAT factor in particular. c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 225 Conclusion, Discussion and Recommendations This study has been conducted to examine the status of self-efficacy beliefs regarding astronomy teaching for teachers enrolled in science educa - tion, classroom education, and social studies education programmes. The re - sults were evaluated according to different variables (gender, age, programme, grade level, whether or not they had taken an astronomy course, and whether or not they had participated in an astronomy/sky-gazing activity). The study took the variable of gender into consideration for the first sub-problem and has concluded no significant difference to be present in terms of total astronomy self-efficacy scores between the female and male pre-service teachers. Other studies in the literature have also stated that no significant difference exists for self-efficacy beliefs in terms of gender (Akbaş & Çelikkaleli, 2006; Çakıroğlu et al., 2005). As Akbaş and Çelikkaleli (2006) asserted, the reason for no vari - ance in the self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers in terms of gender can be said to result from the increasing success of women’s roles in society and, therefore, no limitation occurs between women and men. However, Anderman and Y oung (1994) and Britner and Pajares (2006) reported finding a difference between males’ and females’ self-efficacy levels. Similarly, Formanek et al. (2019) examined the relationship between stu - dents’ motivation and course participation in an open online course on astron - omy and found males to show higher self-efficacy levels. According to Bandura (2002), the reason for obtaining different findings in studies may be intercul - tural differentiation, because self-efficacy beliefs according to gender may differ between cultures. The current study is limited to a conclusion about whether there is a difference in terms of gender only, and the cultural dimension can be investigated in future studies. The current study concludes that the astronomy self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers do not differ according to age. Considering the studies conducted with different age groups on the relationship between self-efficacy and age, Seferoğlu and Akbıyık (2005) also found no significant difference ac - cording to age in terms of computer self-efficacy perceptions; their reason for this was that participants may be close in age. When considering the same situ - ations, the pre-service teachers of the current study have also been determined to be very close in age, and thus their astronomy self-efficacy levels are thought to resemble one another. In contrast, it was determined that there was no significant difference in the science self-efficacy beliefs of primary school teachers according to the age variable, while there was a significant difference between those younger than 226 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels 25 years old and other groups in the sub-factors of efficacy belief and outcome expectation. It has been determined that this difference is in favour of teachers who are older than 25 for efficacy belief and in favour of those younger than 25 for outcome expectation according to the study conducted by Bozkurt Uluçay and Akıllı (2021). Yıldırım and Karataş (2020) stated that students’ self-efficacy levels decrease as age increases. Research needs to be increased to explain the relationship between self-efficacy and age in the literature better. Similarly, while the current study is limited to the fact that there is no significant difference between the astronomy self-efficacy of pre-service teach - ers who had taken astronomy classes, it is recommended to determine the rea - sons for this situation for future studies. Because, when considering that indi - viduals gain experience from work and will feel more able to finish or perform work they had previously done, those who had experience with an astronomy/ sky-gazing activity will inevitably have higher self-efficacy beliefs. Those who had previously taken a course in astronomy were similarly expected to have higher self-efficacy; however, this study found no difference. In this regard, Bandura (1977) states that the knowledge, skills, and learned strategies will not be functional unless the person can use them under appropriate conditions. According to Pasachoff and Percy (2005), the most effective methods for learn - ing astronomy are based on direct experience and observations. This situation may result from different variables, such as the difference in course content or teaching process, and thus in student academic achievement. Güneş’ (2010) study on pre-service teachers showed a statistically significant relationship be - tween academic achievement and self-efficacy belief in teaching astronomy. Moreover, Susman and Pavlin (2020) stated that in-service teachers expounded on how they felt uncomfortable teaching astronomy topics during the teacher training despite having worked on models of the solar system, moon phases, and eclipses. This result also supports the results from the current study. When considering that students’ self-efficacy beliefs are sensitive to changes in their lifelong learning experiences (Oğuz, 2012), differentiating by one grade level may not be enough to show variations in their self-efficacy be - liefs. In addition, the introduction of similar courses in the field of education that have topics on astronomy in the 3 rd and 4 th years of schooling may be an - other reason for the similarity of self-efficacy beliefs toward astronomy teach - ing in these grades. Unlike the current study, Şenler (2017) studied the self- efficacy beliefs of science teacher candidates regarding science teaching and examined their views on scientific inquiry; it was found that pre-service teach - ers’ self-efficacy beliefs decrease after their second year as their grade level in - creases (i.e., from sophomore year to junior year and from junior year to senior c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 227 year). The reason for this was explained as students’ self-confidence increasing in their sophomore year through their education and field courses, while the more intense lessons in their junior and senior years and increased exam anxi - ety had caused lower self-efficacy. Bailey et al. (2017) stated physiological and affective states also possibly impact self-efficacy. In this case, they stated any change in self-efficacy to be related not only to the existence of a source but also to how the individual internalises the information arising from that source. A difference was observed to occur among the pre-service teacher groups with regard to programme/department for both sub-factors and the total score. This generally was in favour of the pre-service science teachers for all scores (sub- factors and total). When considering that students who developed academic skills regarding science since elementary school are also able to develop com - petencies such as expectations and self-perception, this is thought to have a greater effect on their self-efficacy development when compared to pre-service classroom or social studies teachers. Demirtaş et al. (2011) reached a different result in their study in terms of total scores obtained from the self-efficacy scale, with pre-service teachers studying in the Turkish, social studies, music, and painting education departments perceiving themselves to be better qualified, compared to pre-service teachers studying in the classroom, preschool, science, or elementary mathematics teaching departments. Demirtaş et al. stated the reason for self-efficacy scores being higher is due to those lessons (e.g., mu - sic and painting) being more popular with students. In this sense, saying that studies in the literature on self-efficacy conducted over certain variables such as programme/department have achieved consistent results would be difficult. Ashton (1984) claimed no other teacher trait to show as consistent and close a relationship with student achievement as teachers’ self-efficacy. The importance of this situation was also stated in Walan and Chang Rundgren’s (2014) study. In this context, the importance of determining self-efficacy beliefs in relation to teaching topics on astronomy has been emphasised through the present study’s results. In terms of developing self-efficacy in this sense, self- efficacy beliefs regarding astronomy teaching are important (Bailey et al., 2017) and organising activities and projects where pre-service teachers can gain expe - rience is recommended so that their self-confidence may increase. In this sense, activities suitable for the constructivist approach may be beneficial. For exam - ple, increasing student participation when teaching topics on astronomy and focusing on class management are thought to increase teachers’ self-efficacy. In this sense, it can be said that the importance of practical applications will be remarkable, because the factor that has the strongest effect on the development of individuals’ self-efficacy perceptions is direct experiences (Bandura, 1977). 228 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels Thus, the results of these applications can be analysed in future studies. The current research has used the survey study design for determining the participants’ statuses. The change in pretest-posttest practices of pre-ser - vice teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs regarding astronomy can also be examined by considering different variables. Different studies may also be carried out using qualitative-based research methods to investigate the reasons for their lack of self-efficacy. References Akimkhanova, Zh. Y e., Turekhanova, K. M., Rochowicz, K., & Karwasz, G. P . (2020). Interactive lectures and role playing in teaching physics and astronomy. Journal of Educational Sciences, 64 (3), 84–94. Akbaş, A., & Çelikkaleli, Ö. (2006). The investigation of the pre-service elementary teachers’ science instruction self-efficacy beliefs according to their gender, type of education, and universities.  Mersin University Journal of The Faculty of Education , 2(1), 98–110. Anderman, E. M., & Y oung, J. (1994). Motivation and strategy use in science: Individual differences and classroom effects. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31 (8), 811–831. Ashton, P . (1984). Teacher efficacy: A motivational paradigm for effective teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 35 (5), 28–32. Atanackovic, O., & Arbutina, B. (2021). Astronomy education in Serbia 2017–2020. Publications of the Astronomical Observatory of Belgrade, 100, 203–210. Bağdiken, P ., & Akgündüz, D. (2018). Fen bilimleri öğretmenlerinin teknolojik pedagojik alan bilgisi özgüven düzeylerinin incelenmesi [An Investigation of Science Teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Self-Confidence Levels] Gazi University Journal of Gazi Educational Faculty, 38(2), 535–566. Bailey, J. M., Lombardi, D., Cordova, J. R., & Sinatra, G. M. (2017). Meeting students halfway: Increasing self-efficacy and promoting knowledge change in astronomy. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 13 (2), 1–19. Baloğlu Uğurlu, N. (2005). Misconceptions of the sixth year students of primary education on the earth and the universe. Gazi University Journal of Gazi Educational Faculty, 25 (1), 229–249. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.  Psychological review , 84(2), 191–215. Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V . S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71–81). Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. Academic Press, 1998). Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 151 (2), 269-290. Bostan, A. (2008). Different age group students’ ideas about some basic astronomy concepts. Unpublished Master Thesis, Balıkesir University. c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 229 Bozkurt Uluçay, Ö., & Akıllı, M. (2021). Investigation of primary school teachers’ self efficacy beliefs for science teaching and modeling of source effects. Journal of Uludag University Faculty of Education, 34 (2), 745–777. Britner, S. L., & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of science self‐efficacy beliefs of middle school students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43 (5), 485–499. Bülbül, E., İyibil, Ü.G. & Şahin, Ç. (2013). Determination of elementary school 8th grade students’ perceptions about the astronomy concept. Journal of Research in Education and Teaching, 2 (3), 182–191. Can, A. (2014). Quantitative data analysis in scientific research process with SPSS. Pegem A. Carter, B. (2005). Sources of self-efficacy in an undergraduate ıntroductory astronomy course for non- science majors. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Maryland. Cassidy, S., & Eachus, P . (2002). Developing the computer user self-efficacy (CUSE) scale: Investigating the relationship between computer self-efficacy, gender and experience with computers. Journal of Educational Computing Research , 26(2), 133–153. Choi, N. (2005). Self-efficacy and self-concept as predictors of college students’ academic performance. Psychology in the Schools, 42 (2), 197–205. Cin, M. (2007). Alternative views of the solar systems among Turkish students. International Review of Education, 53 (1), 39–53. Comrey, A. L. (1988). Factor-analytic methods of scale development in personality and clinical psychology. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 56 (5), 754. Çakıroğlu, J., Çakıroğlu, E., & Bone, W .J. (2005). Pre-service teacher self-efficacy beliefs regarding science teaching: a comparison of pre-service science teachers in Turkey and the USA. Science Educator, 14 (1), 31–40. Çepni, S. (2012). Introduction to research and project studies. Celepler Matbaacılık. Çokluk, Ö., Şekercioğlu, G., & Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2010).  Multivariate statistics for social sciences: SPSS and LISREL practices . Pegem Academy. Demirci, F. (2017). Science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs about astronomy subjects teaching: A mixed method research. Unpublished Master Thesis, Ordu University. Demirtaş, H., Cömert, M., & Özer, N. (2011). The relationship between teacher candidates’ attitudes towards teaching profession and self-efficacy perceptions. Eğitim ve Bilim, 36 (159), 96–111. Durukan, Ü. G., & Sağlam Arslan, A. (2013). Analysis of science teacher candidates’ relation to basic astronomy concepts. Fen Eğitimi ve Araştırmaları Derneği Fen Bilimleri Öğretimi Dergisi, 1 (2), 97–109. Ekici, G. (2009). Adaptation of the biology self-efficacy scale to Turkish. Kastamonu Education Journal, 17 (1), 111–124. Ekici, G. (2012). Academic self-efficacy scale: Adaptation to Turkish, validity and reliability study. Hacettepe University Journal of Education , 43(43), 174–185. Formanek, M. Sanlyn, B., Impey, C., & Wenger, M. (2019). Relationship between learners’ motivation and course engagement in an astronomy massive open online course. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 15 2 (15), 1–15. 230 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels Fraenkel, J. K., & Wallen, N. E. (2006). How to design and evaluate research in education (6th ed.) . Mc Graw-Hill, Inc. Göncü, Ö., & Korur, F. (2012). Determination of the misconceptions of elementary students in astronomy based units by three-stage test. Paper presented at the X. National Science and Mathematics Education Congress, Niğde. Guskey, T. R., & Passaro, P . D. (1994). Teacher efficacy: A study of construct dimensions. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 627-645. Gülten, D., Poyraz, C., & Soytürk, İ. (2012). Examining mathematics literacy self-efficacy of pre-service teachers in terms of »study habits«.  Journal of Research in Education and Teaching , 1(2), 143–149. Güneş, G. (2010). The analyse of the relation between astronomy knowledge with the nature of science and the astronomy self-efficacy belief of pre-service teachers. Unpublished Master Thesis, Çukurova University. Høigaard, R., Kovač, V ., Øverby, N., & Haugen, T. (2015). Academic self-efficacy mediates the effects of school psychological climate on academic achievement. School Psychology Quarterly , 30(1), 64–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000056 Hu, L., & Bentler, P . (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal , 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118. İskenderoğlu, T. A., Türk, Y ., & İskenderoğlu, M. (2016). Pre-service elementary mathematics teachers’ awareness of ability to use concrete materials and their self-efficacy in the useage thereof in mathematics education. Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Journal of Education Faculty , 1(39), 1–15. İyibil, Ü., & Sağlam Arslan, A. (2010). Pre-service physics teachers’ mental models about stars. NEF- EFMED, 4(2), 25–46. Jansri, S., & Ketpichainarong, W . (2020). Investigating in-service science teachers conceptions of astronomy, and determine the obstacles in teaching astronomy in Thailand. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 6 (4), 745–758. Kanlı, U. (2014). A research on determining the conceptual understanding of students, teacher candidates and teachers in basic astronomy subjects. XI. Paper presented at the National Science and Mathematics Education Congress, Adana. Kaplan, G. & Çifçi Tekinarslan, İ. (2013). A comparison of knowledge levels of students with and without intellectual disabilities about astronomy concepts. Elementary Education Online, 12 (2), 614–627. Karasar, N. (2011). Scientific research methods. Nobel. Kaya, S. (2013). The change in elementary pre-service teachers’ science teaching efficacy beliefs after science methods course. Mustafa Kemal University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 10 (21), 55–69. Küçüközer, H. (2007). Prospective science teachers’ conceptions about astronomical subjects. Science Education International , 18(2), 113–130. Küçüközer, H., Küçüközer, A., Yüzümezoğlu, K., & Korkusuz, M., E. (2010). Elementary school students’ conceptions regarding astronomical phenomena. e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy, 5(1), 521–537. c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 231 McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2014). Research in education: Evidence-based inquiry (6 th ed.). Pearson Education. MoNE [Ministry of National Education]. (2008). Teacher competencies-Classroom teacher special field competencies. Directorate of State Books. MoNE [Ministry of National Education]. (2009). Primary school 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade life science lesson curriculum and guide. Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. MoNE [Ministry of National Education]. (2010). Social studies course (grades 4-5) curriculum and guide. http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/program2.aspx/program2.aspx?islem=1&kno=38 MoNE [Ministry of National Education]. (2013). Primary school science course (3-8th grades) curriculum. http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/www/guncellenen-ogretim-programlari/icerik/151 MoNE [Ministry of National Education]. (2018a). Primary school science lesson (primary and secondary school grades 3-8) curriculum. http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/Dosyalar/201812312311937- FEN%20B%C4%B0L%C4%B0MLER%C4%B0%20%C3%96%C4%9ERET%C4%B0M%20 PROGRAMI2018.pdf MoNE [Ministry of National Education]. (2018b). Social Studies Course Curriculum (Primary, Secondary, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th Grades). http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/Dosyalar/201812103847686-SOSYAL%20 B%C4%B0LG%C4%B0LER%20%C3%96%C4%9ERET%C4%B0M%20PROGRAMI%20.pdf Nie,Y ., Tan, G. H., Liau, A. K., Lau, S., & Chua, B. L. (2013). The roles of teacher efficacy in instructional innovation: Its predictive relations to constructivist and didactic instruction. educational research for policy and practice, 12 (1), 67–77. Oğuz, A. (2012). Sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının akademik öz yeterlik inançları [Academic self- efficacy beliefs of prospective primary school teachers]. Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International , 2(2), 15–28. Oğuz, S., Kurnaz, M.A., Karatekin, K., & İbret, B.Ü. (2012). Perceptions of classroom teacher candidates on the phases of the moon. Paper presented at the 11th National Primary Education Symposium, Rize. Özenoğlu-Kiremit, H. (2006). Pre-service science teachers’ self-effcacy beliefs in teaching biology. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Dokuz Eylül University. Özkan, Ö., Tekkaya, C., & Çakıroğlu, J. (2002). U nderstanding of science concepts of science teacher candidates, attitudes towards science teaching and self-efficacy beliefs. V . National Science and Mathematics Education Congress, Proceedings Book, Volume II, 1300-1304, Ankara. Pajares, F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Clearing up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62 (3), 307–332. Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings.  Review of Educational Research , 66(4), 543–578. Pallant, J. (2007). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS. Open University Press. Pasachoff, J., & Percy, J. (2005). Teaching and learning astronomy: Effective strategies for educators worldwide. Cambridge University Press. 232 determining pre-service teachers’ astronomy-related self-efficacy belief levels Plummer, J., D. (2006). Students’ development of astronomy concepts across time. PhD Thesis, The University of Michigan, ABD. Pundak, D., Liberman, I., & Shacham, M. (2017). From conceptual frameworks to mental models for astronomy: students’ perceptions. Journal of Astronomy & Earth Sciences Education, 4 (2), 109–126. Riggs, I., & Enochs, L. (1990). Toward the development of an elementary teacher’s science teaching efficacy belief instrument. Science Education , 74(6), 625–637. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730740605 Seferoğlu, S. S., & Akbıyık, C. (2005). A study on primary school teachers’ perceived computer self- efficacy. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 19, 89–101. Susman, K., & Pavlin, J. (2020). Improvements in teachers’ knowledge and understanding of basic astronomy concepts through didactic games. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 19 (6), 1020–1033. Şenler, B. (2017). Examination of pre-service science teachers’ science teaching self-efficacy beliefs and views about scientific inquiry. The Journal of Educational Theory and Practice Research, 3 (2), 50–59. Şensoy, A. (2012). Basic astronomy concepts in terms of different variables. Unpublished Master Thesis, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun. Şirin, M., & Metin Peten, D. (2020). The effects of activity-based astronomy education on pre-service science teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy beliefs. Başkent University Journal of Education, 7 (2), 212–226. Taşcan, M. (2013). Determine of science teachers knowledge level about basic astronomy subjects (The example of Malatya). Unpublished Master Thesis, İnönü University, Malatya. Taşcan, M., & Ünal, İ. (2015). Importance of astronomy education and evaluation in terms of training programmes in Turkey.  Dokuz Eylul University Buca Faculty of Education Journal , 40, 25–37. Trundle, K., Atwood, R., & Christopher, J. (2006). Fourth grade elementary students’ conceptions of standards based lunar concepts. International Journal of Science Education, 29 (5), 595–616. Trundle, K., & Troland, T. (2005). The Moon in childrens’ literatüre. Science and Children, 43 (2), 40–43. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W . (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct.  Teaching and Teacher education , 17(7), 783–805. Uzuntiryaki, E., & Aydın, Y . Ç. (2008). Development and validation of chemistry self efficacy scale for college students. Research in Science Education,39 (4), 593–551. Vlah, N., Velki, T., & Kovačić, E. (2021). Teachers’ self-efficacy based on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in primary school pupils. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.746 Walan, S., & Chang Rundgren, S-N. (2014). Investigating preschool and primary school teachers´ self-efficacy and needs in teaching science: A pilot study. CEPS Journal, 4 (1), 51–67. Woolfolk-Hoy, A. (2000). Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Y ağcı, U., & Aksoy, V . (2015). An analysis of the relationship between academic self-efficacy and teaching self-efficacy of pre-service music teachers. Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Journal of Education Faculty , 1(33), 84–104. Yıldırım, H. İ., & Karataş, F. (2020). A study on the self-efficacy belief levels of secondary school students towards science learning. The Journal of Turkish Social Research, 24 (1), 157–176. c e p s Journal | V ol.13 | N o 1 | Y ear 2023 233 Biographical note Ebru Ezberci Cevik, PhD, is an associate professor in the field of science education at the Faculty of Education, University of Erciyes, Turkey. Her research interests include astronomy education, model and modeling, grounded mental model theory. She has published articles and papers on re - lated topics. She took part in national research projects on science education. Her current research focus is augmented reality, teacher education and high- level thinking skills. Oktay Bektas, PhD, is a professor in the field of science education at the Faculty of Education, University of Erciyes, Turkey. His main areas of research are chemistry education, teacher education, nature of science, peda - gogical content knowledge, test development, and epistemology. Oktay BEK - TAS has nearly 200 articles and papers. Seven of them were published in SSCI indexed journals, and many of them were published in indexed journals such as ESCI and ERIC. He is a chapter writer in two books and an editor in one book. As a project, he took part in 25 projects.