GREECE

THE

CONOUESTS OF ALEXANDER

AND THE

PTOLEMIES IN EGYPT

a brief Historical Outline

to which is appended a short sketch of

Greek Literature in its Bearing on the Literature of the Arabs

compiled from Various Sources

by

Printed by Ig. v. Kleinmayr & Fed. Bamberg in Laibach

1894 .

Preface.

VV hen the compiler of the following pages was engaged,
nearly five years ago, in teaching the history of the western
nations of olden times to some of the classes in the Khediviah
School, the only available text-book on the subject was Tytler’s
Eiements of General History.  That book being too
deep, even for the highest class in the Egyptian Preparatory
Schools, almost every other sentence on its pages was found
to be far beyond the other pupils’ comprehension, both as to
the subject-matter and the form of its language; for it is a
learned work, which in the words of the author contains “the
outlines of a course of lectures delivered for many years in
the University of Edinburgh”, and is the result of that eminent
historian’s “endeavors to unite with the detail of faets so much
of reflection, as to aid the mind in the formation of rational
views of the causes and consequences of events, as well as
of the policy of the actors”.

With no other hand-book for the class, the compiler of
the present outline was at that time suddenly thrown upon
his own resources: he worked up, as best he could, a few
brief notes, which may be described as a peep into the history
of Greece and Rome; those notes he dictated to the class in
the few hours set apart for history. They were, however, so
condensed — for they had to be dictated word by word —
that the pupils could not comprehend their import unless
supported by oral dilation.

Two years later, he was again unexpectedly called upon
to teach the history of Greece, Alexander’s Conquests, and
the Ptolemies to the class of the Seeond Preparatory Year.

IV

This time the profound work of Prof. Tvtler had been replaced
by tbe History Primer of the Macmillan Series. This book too
was found, after a conscientious trial during many lessons, to be
well-nigh wholly urisuitable, because not designed for tbe needs
and capacities of Egyptian pupils, it being on the one band
too concise, and on the other too learnedly and idiomatically
simplified. Thus again the compiler of the following pages
was thrown upon his own resources: indeed he was for a while
baffled. To dictate notes, as he had done two years before,
was impossible, unless he had time enough to speli out every
fourth word. Hence he day by day mimeographed a history
of Greece, Alexander’s Conquests, and the Ptolemies in Egypt,
especially for the pupils of the Khediviah School, and čast
the book in such a mould as his eight years’ experience in
teaching young Egyptians had taught hi m would be best
suited to their capacities and exceptional oriental and con-
fessional needs.

The leading thought, to which he made ali his efforts
in this direction subservient, was to make an outline which
the pupils could use to advantage, both as to the historical
matter and also as to the English wording, during each of
three distinct stages in their youth: to make, primarily, a
simple book for the Class of the Second Year, which, according
to the existing Syllabus, has to study the history of Greece
and Alexander the Great, of the Ptolemies and Rome; to make,
secondarily, such a handbook as would be fit for the same
pupils to read and review in the Fifth Year of their schooling,
prior to the examination for the Secondary Certificate; and to
make, finally, a comprehensive frame-work, into which fuller
details could be afterwards properly fitted, should the pupil
ever in after-life wish to pursue the subject more deeply.

Ploetz’s method, followed in his accurately exhaustive
Epitome, and which consists in placing before the pupil the
facts only, in a series of eliptical phrases, grouped around

v

comprehensive headings, gives no connected narrative which
the learner can read straight along, and leaves the task of
animating the dry facts to the exposition of the teacher’s v i v a
voce  lecture. Tliis method presupposes the pupiFs thorough
familiarity with the language that is the medium of instruction:
it takes for granted that both learner and instructor are dealing
with history in their mother-tongue. Whereas bere, in Egyptian
schools, the reverse is the čase: for half the time, at least,
the pupiFs attention is turned towards understanding the ex-
pressions of the foreign language, while the teacher is as often
taken up in explaining the meaning of terms and the con-
struction of sentences. A handbook in history, if it is to be
of real use to Egyptian pupils, must evidently be clothed in
the form of a connected narrative; for it is at every step a
combination of two distinct operations: the imparting of

historical knowledge, and the familiarization of the pupil with
the foreign language. As a fact, the classes in the Egyptian
Schools do not get enough of connected reading in their varied
studies — tables, schedules, and synoptically condensed schemes
fill up a great part of their exercise-books, whilst the text-
books they have are seldom used by either teacher or pupil,
experience having led both to hope little from the use of a
book the matter and form of which are meant for British
youths studying in the mother-tongue.

The following connected historical narrative has grown
up slowly under the writer’s hand and is based, in its general
plan, on the eighteenth edition of the Compendium of History
by Prof. Th. Dielitz, Director of the Berlin Realschule; the
other sources from which the details have been compiled are
too many to be here separately acknowledged. It has been
prepared for young Egyptians; and as such it breaks new ground.

The peculiar feature in it is the A p p e n d i x, which
seeks to show how great was the influence of Greek literature
upon the famous Arab authors of the Middle Ages.

VI

Both manuscript and proofs-sheets have been revised by
Mr. Th. M. Chinn , against whose wishes uniformity in tbe
spelling of proper names has not been aimedat; the compiler’s
experience teaching bi m that the pupil had better from the
outset see this class of words in some of the different forms
they will assume as soon as he comes to read other books on
the subject.

Cairo, September 1894.

Edward A. van Dyck.

E r r a t a:

Page 3, paragraph g  read thus: one on the Corinthian and the other
two on the Saronic &e.

Page 19, Note at bottom, read: Zeugos  = &c.

Page 30, add at bottom: but cf. p. 16.

Page 47, last line, read: “Miletus”.

Page 64, line 19, read: bequeathed.

♦

History of Greece.

Introduction:

Geographical Sketch.

South of the Balkan mountains, and between them and
the Aegaean Sea, lies the region called Thrace.  Through it
flows the river Hebrus or Maritza. West of Thrace lies the
region called Macedon.  Through it flow the two rivers
Strymon and Axius. The two chief cities of Macedon were
Philippi and Pydna. To Macedon belongs the peninsula of
Chalcis, with Mount Atlios. West of Macedon, and between
it and the Adriatic Sea, lies New-Epirus or Illyria.  The
Pindus Mountains separate Macedon from New-Epirus. On
the coasts of Thrace and Macedon were many Greek colonies.

Greece itself is separated from New-Epirus and Macedon
by the Acroceraunic and Cambunic mountains.

Greece, though a small country, is much cut up into
small regions by many mountains, and by the surrounding sea.
The following are the chief of the s e regions:

1. Northern Greece is divided by the Pindus Mountains
into a western and an eastern part. The vvestern is called
Epirus,  i. e. the Main-land, and the eastern is called Thessaly.
Thessaly is a fertile basin. Northern Greece is separated from
Middle Greece bv Mount Oeta.

2 .  Middle Greece is also called Hellas,  whence the Greek
people have generally called themselves Hellenes.  — It is
separated from the isthmus called the Peloponnesus by two
gulfs, the long Gulf of Corinth and the Gulf of Athens, which

1

2

is also called the Saronio Gulf. Hellas was divided into eight
sraall regions. These regions, beginning on the west and going
eastwards, are:

a)  Acarnania, which was little cultivated, and was in-
habited by a rude people. In it is the mountainous Cape
Actium.

b)  Aetolia, in which dwelt a semi-barbarous, warlike people.

c)  Locris, which consisted of three parts, eacli separate
and distinct from the others. Two of thein lie along the Straits
of Euboea, and begin at the pass of Thennopjdae. This pass
was one of the entrances to Hellas.

d)  Phocis, with Mount Parnassus and the fainous city
called Delphi,  and another city called Elatea.

e)  Doris, the smallest of ali the regions or districts, lies
between Mount Oeta and Mount Parnassus.

f)  Boeotia, i. e. Cattle- land, is both mountainous and
marshy. Of the nine famous cities that lay in Boeotia, only
three need be mentioned here. They are: Thebes, Plataeae and
Chaeronea.

g)  Attika, i. e. Coastland, a country in which the olive-
tree is plentiful. The Capital city is Athens. Only two other
irnportant places need be named here. These are: Marathon
and Eleusis.

h)  Megaris, with thfe chief city Megara, on the narrow
neck of land that unites the Peloponnesus with Attika.

3. The Peloponnesus is joined to Hellas by the Isthmus
of Corinth, which is only 6 kms. broad. The Peloponnesus is
divided, like Hellas, into eight smaller regions, as follows:

a)  Arcadia is a mountainous pasture-land in the middle
of the peninsula. Chief cities: Mantinea and Tegea.

b)  Laconica is mountainous. Through it flows the river
Eurotas, on which once stood the famous city of S p ar ta.

c)  Messenia is mostly a fiat and fertile land. Chief town:
Messene. Two ancient fortresses stood on rocky hills: Ithome,
in the heart, and Ira on the north-west of the region.

3

d)  Elis was the sacred or holy land of the Greeks,
through wliich flows the river Alpheus. In Elis and on the
river Alpheus was the most holy of ali Greek places. This
plače bore the name 01ympia,  was sacred to the god Zeus,
and had many temples.

e)  Achaia is the narrow strip of coastland on the south
side of the Gulf of Corinth, and had a dozen important tovvns.

f)  Sikyon, a very small district and town, lay between
Achaia and Corinth.

g)  Corinth, having threc harbors, two on the Corinthian
and the other on the Saronic or Athenian Gulf, lay betvveen
Sikyon and Megara.

h)  Argolis. Chief towns: Argos, Mycenae, Tiryns and
Epidaurus. (Argos = Flat-land.)

4. The Grecian Islands. On the west coast of Greece
are the Ionian Islands;  of which only four need be herc
named. They are: Corcyra, now called Corfu, Ithaca, Cepha-
lonia, and Zakynthus, now called Zanthe. In the Saronic
Gulf  there are severa! islands, the two largest being Salamis
and Aegina. On the eastern coast of Hellas is the very long
island of Euboea.

In the Aegaean Sea, which stretches from Greece to Asia
Minor, there are dozens of islands. The group of islands lying
between Euboea and Crete is called the Cyclades.  The most
noted islands of this group are: Paros, Naxos and Delos.

On the coasts of Thrace and Asia Minor is the other
group of islands, which is called the Sporades:  Thasos,
Samothraki, Limnos, Lesbos, Chios, Samos, &c.

N.B. Cyclades = the encirpling islands.

Sporades = the scattered islands.

The largest and most southerly of ali the islands is Crete.

5. Greek Colonies, which were mostly wealthy mercantile
(trading) cities, \vere founded nearly everywhere along the shores
of the Mediterranean Sea. The number of these colonial citics
having been very great, mention can here be made of some

l*

4

of tlie most important only, such as: Cvme; and Mitylcne on
the island of Lesbos; — Miletus, Ephesus and Smyrna; Hali-
carnassns and Rhodes; — Byzantium, now called Constantinople;
— Trapezus, now Trebizond; Tarentum, Rhegium and Nea-
polis in Lower Italy; — Syracuse, Catana and Agrigentum in
the island of Sicily; — Massilia, now Marseilles, in Gaul or
France; — Saguntum, in Spain; — Cyrene, better known to
the Arabs as Qayrawan, in Africa, opposite Greece.

Greece proper is a small country surrounded by islands.
The coastline is everywhere indented, like a saw, by bays,
gulfs and inlets. The interior is cut up by mountains into
numerous small regions and valleys. Greece has not a single
large river. The Acheloos, now called Aspropotamo, in Epiros,
is the largest river of Greece, being near!y 200 kms. long.

The history  of the ancient Greeks is divided into
three great periods, as follows:

1. From the beginning to the Doric Migration, i. e., from
an unknown date represented by X to the year 1104 B.C.

2. From the Doric Migration to the beginning of the
Persian Wars, i. e., from 1104 to 500 B.C.

3. From the Persian Wars to the Loss of Greek or
Hellenic Independence, at the Battle of Chaeronea, i. e., from
500 to 338 B.C.

The first  of the three periods of Greek History must
be bere treated of in the most general manner.

I. The Heroic Period of the Greek People.

(From X to 1104 B.C.)

It is said that the oldest  inhabitants of Greece were
Pelasgians;  these were perhaps of the Aryan Race, and
closely related to the race that first peopled Italy. They stood
upon a low level of civilisation, and received the elements of
a higher culture by their intercourse with the East, and particu-

5

larly vvith the Phoenicians. The memory of this origin of their
civilisation from the East is preserved in the Tales of the Heroes
who founded their cities. Some of these heroes were: Kekrops,
Danaos, Pelops and Kadmos.

The Ionians, a people related to the Pelasgians, emigrated
from Asia Minor and settled on the east coast of Greece, on
the Island of Euboea, in Attika, on the Isthnms of Corinth,
and elsewhere.

Ali the various Pelasgian peoples who attained to a higher
degree of culture are comprised under the common name of
A e o lian  s;  whereas the warlike nobilitv is known as the
Achaians.  The times in whicli they lived are called the
Heroic Period of the Greek People.

The Trojan War, which commenced in 1184 B.C., was
the tirst undertaking in which ali the Hellenes took part.
Pariš, one of the sons of Priam king of Ilion, had gone on
a visit to king Menelaus of Sparta, and had ran off with
Helena, the wife of the latter. The noblest Princes of Greece
united to bring her back. Their chief leader was Agamemnon
of Mykenae, brother of Menelaus. Other great leaders were
Odysseos of Itliaka, and Diomedes of Argos. The united Greeks
sailed off for Troas in a fleet of over 1000 ships. The war
lasted, with many interruptions, for ten years. Troy, which
is Ilion, was destroyed, and the victors returned to Greece.
One of them, Odysseos of Ithaka, while on the return-voyage,
was carried in his ship, by winds and storms, to the far-off
shores of Africa. After ten years of adventure, wandering,
and hair - breadth escapes, he found his way back to his little
kingdom and home. Over two centuries afterwards, the poet
Homer worked up one of the most interesting episodes of the
Trojan War, namely the falling-out of Agamemnon and Achilles
during 51 days, into an epic poem in 24 Cantos or Songs;
he also \vorked up the wanderings of Odysseos into another
poetic tale, in 24 Cantos also. These two Ilomeric poems,
called respectively the Iliad and the Odyssee,  have had
the greatest influence not only upon the development of Greek

6

culture but also upon the growth of artistic taste among ali
European peoples, even down to the present day. They are
the finest poems of their kind that the fancy of man has yet
created in any age and in any tongue. The Iliad is a war-
tale, fnll of dangers, hatred, bloodshed, and revenge. The
Odyssee is a tale relating adventure, and describing countries,
people, and quict home-life.

II, Second Period of Greek Hlstory.

From the Doric Migration to the Commencement of the Persian Wars.

1104 to 500 B.C.

In the year 1104 B.C., the Dorians, led by the Heraclides,
migrated from the central parts of Hellas (Midde Greece), and
overran the Peloponnesus. The Dorians were Greeks; the
Heraclides were their chiefs, or ermrs. They defeated the
Achaeans, and founded several States (governments). The first
States which they founded were: Argos, Sparta and Messene.
At a later date they also founded Sicyon and Corinth. But
they did not conquer ali the peninsula; for the Pelasgians,
the ancient inhabitants of the Peloponnesus, maintained their
independence in the mountains of Arcadia, the central region
of the peninsula. The Achaeans of the conquered regions
became the subjects of the Dorians, their conquerors. Some
of the Achaeans settled on the northern shore of the Pelo¬
ponnesus, and that region was thereafter called Achaia. In it
thcy founded tvcelve cities. The Ionians, who were also Greeks,
and who had been driven out by the Achaeans, were received
by the Athenians and lielped by them. After a time the Ionians
spread over the islands of the Aegaean Sea, and settled in most
of them.

One of the consequences of this migration and conquest
was that many Greeks emigrated from their old homes and
founded new colonies in Asia Minor. Some of these colonists

7

\vere Aeolic Greeks, others were Ionic Greeks, and others
again were Doric Greeks — ali, so to speak, different tribes
of the same people. The colonies soon grew to be as wealthy,
powerful, and civilised as their mother country.

After tlie Doric Migration, the Dorians and the lonians
became by far the most powerful of the Greek tribes. At the
head of the various Doric States was S p ar ta. At the head
of the different Ionic States stood Atliens.

Bon ds of Union*

Altliough the Greeks were cut up into a great number
of small States, each almost wholly independent of the otlier,

stili they were one and the same people, having the same

language, religion and customs. There were especially four
points of union which greatly helped to keep the Greeks
togetker, howcver much they were separated in other tliings.
These four points of common interest were:

1. The Delphic  Oracle.** This was at Delphi, soutli
of Mount Parnasšus. — There is to this day at that plače

a spring of water gushing out of a cleft in the rocks. Not

only water, but carbonic acid gas, rises out of this crack.

Over it the priests used to plače a stool having three legs,

called a tripod. On the tripod a priestess was made to sit,
till she became drunk by the gas. When in this State, she

was supposcd to be inspired; and whatever answer she made

to a question was thought to be the answer of the god Apollo.
Greeks from ali parts of the country, and even from far-off
lands, \vould come to consult the Delphic Oracle on weighty
matters, or before undertaking an important work. Thus, for
example, Croesus, the last King of Lydia (capital city Sardes),
was alarmed at the rapid growth in power of Cyrus king of

* Compare the ‘Common Bonds’ among the Arab tribes, in my History
of the Arabs and their Literature, p. 36.

** Al-Mashurali, al-Fatwa, al-Fal, al-Inba.

8

Persia; for Cvrus had overthrovvn Astvages king of Mediti.
Croesus thought to attack the Persians. But before doing so,
he sent rick presents to Delphi, and consulted the orade there
as to whether he should attack the Persians or not. The
ansiver of the orade was ambiguous. It said that if Croesus
crossed the river Halys (the largest river of Asia Minor), he
would destroy a grčat kingdom. But the orade did not say
which  kingdom. Croesus crossed the river Halys, in the
year 549 B.C., and fought the Persians in a battle near Pteria,
but then retreated to Sardis. Cyrus king of Persia pursued
him, besieged Sardis for 14 days, entered it, and took Croesus
prisoner. Thus what the orade had foretold in ambiguous
words did really take plače; for a great kingdom was over-
thrown, but not the one which Croesus had understood.

2. Another point of union, common to ali the ancient
Greeks, was the A m p h i c t y o n i c L e a g u e. The Amphictyons
were the neighboring people of a sanctuarv (temple); and when
these people, composed of different tribes, united together in
a league to protect the sanctuary or temple, such a league
was called an Amphictyony. The most famous Amphictyony
in Greece was that of Delphi and Thermopylae, and was called
the Amphictyonic League. It had been formed by the union
of the twelve  Greek tribes, namely, the Dorians, the Ionians,
the Boeotians, the Thessalians, the Phocians, the Locrians,
the Dolopans, the Aenians, and four others. Each tribe or
people had two votes or voices at the ineetings; and their
colonies also belonged to the league. The aim and object of
this union was: the protection of the sanctuaries of the god
Apollo at Delphi, and of the goddess Demeter at Anthela;
the common celebration of certain feasts; and the respect or
upholding of certain rules and principles in the dealings of
the tribes one with the other. These rules and principles, which
were to guide them in their dealings, were: to utterly destroy
no city; no one was to cut off the water-supply of a city,
neither in time of war nor in time of peace, and the like.
Every year two meetings or assemblies of the League were

9

held, one in Spring at Delphi, and the other in the Autumn
at Anthela. At these meetings ali disputes were to be settled,
and ali offences against the rights of the others or against
the sanctuary were punished by fines or by exclusion from the
League. If any city would not yield, and undergo the punish-
ment, ali the others declared a “holy war” against the refract-
ory one. The number of States that were members of this
Amphictyonic League slowly grew to seventeen.

3. A third point of common union, that kept the many
separate Greek States together, and made them feel that they
were one people, though each was independent of the others,
were the socalled “Hegemonies”.  The Greek word hege-
mony means leadership.  The strongest of the Greek States
was considered as the leader of the others, and had the hege-
mony or leadership over the whole league, both in times of
war and in times of peace. From very early times Sparta
had the hegemony over ali the States in the Peloponnesus;
and during the Persian wars Sparta’s hegemony extended over
the fighting strength of ali the Greeks. After the Persian wars,
Athens obtained the hegemony at sea by forming a Maritime
League. Athens then tried to get the hegemony on land also,
so as to unite ali Greece under her supremacy. Sparta became
jealous of Athens. This led to the Peloponnesian War, in
wbich Athens lost her hegemony for ever, and Sparta got it
back again. But Sparta misused her power so much that the
other States became dissatisfied and opposed her. Thebes then
acquired the hegemony for a sliort time; and at last ali Greece
came under the supremacy of Macedonia.

4. The Common Feasts  and Gam  e s were a fourth
point in which the Greeks felt that they were one people.
They had many holy places in various parts of the land;
they had also many temples ali over the country, each temple
being specially dedicated to one or more of their many gods
and goddesses. Each sacred plače was visited by many persons,
more especially on the feast days, every plače having its feast
at a stated time or season; and on such occasions different

10

gam e s were played. The 01ympic (James  were thc most
important of ali. 01ympia was a small district sacred to tlieir
god Zeus (or Jupiter). This district lay on the river Alpheios
within the region called Elis in the northwestern part of the
Peloponnesus. Oljmpia was a beautiful spot, laid out in gardens,
and having numerous fine buildings and works of art. The
central point of the sacred precincts was the Altis. In it stood
the great temple of the Olvmpian god Zeus or Jupiter, the
temple of the goddess Hera, the sanctuary of Pelops, and other
buildings — the entire Altis was surrounded by a wall. Close
by, lay the open places and buildings for the games, and
dwellings for the officials. Here were celebrated, once every
four years, the 01ympic Games, which had been first instituted
(introduced) in the 9th century B.C.

As these games were celebrated once every four years, the
Greeks (after 776 B.C.) got into the habit of reckoning time
in periods of 4 years, which were called 01ympiads.  Hellenes
from ali parts of Greece, and from the colonies, took part in
the games. There were gymnastic and athletic games, wrest-
ling, chariot-races, and races on horseback. The winner gained
a wreath of olive twigs, and became a highly honored person.
He might have a statue of himself set up in 01ympia; poets
sang his praise in verse; and his native city honored him with
special privileges and marks of distinction. Numbers of
spectators (lookers-on) poured in from ali parts. The differcnt
Greek States sent special envoys to these festive games. So
long as these lasted, there was a general truce among ali the
Greeks, somewhat like the 3 or 4 months’ truce called “ashhur-
al-karam” in ancient Arabia. Before the games vvere begun,
however, the religious ceremonies were first performed. — Other
games that were frequented by the Greeks took plače

at Delphi (the Pythian games);

Argos (the Nemean games); and

Corinth (the Isthmian games).

The Greek Colonies  also helped greatly to further
trade, increase wealth, and develope political life among . the
Greek people. The most powerful colonies in the east and

11

northeast of the Aegacan Sea were the Ioni  c colonies, on
the coast of Lydia. Their common sanctuary was the temple
of the god Poseidon, the god of the Sea, on the mountainous
promontory of Mycale. The most prominent among them were
Miletus and Phocaea. Miletus was a city with four harbors, and
had a splendid fleet of ships; its trade was carried on mostly
with the North and East. Miletus founded, on the Sea of
Marmara and on the Black Sea, over one hundred colonies.
Phocaea carried on trade chiefly with the coasts of Italy, France
and Spain. Chios and Samos were wealthy trading cities,
whose war fleets often consisted of more than one hundred
ships. Much later on in the history of Greece, that is to say
when Alexandria became the greatest city of Greek learning,
and during the Roman times, Byzantium, whick is now Con-
stantinople, Ephesus, and Rhodes were both rich and powerful.
The more important of the Ionic colonies were on the east
coast of the Aegaean Sea; whereas to the south, east, and west
of Greece flourished numerous Doric  Colonies. Among these,
Crete  was the most distinguished for its early growth in
political organisation. This island was the first plače of ali
Greek regions that made laws and rules, and set up for itself
a fixed form of government. King Minos of Crete was famous
for the laws he gave to the Cretans. Cyrene, on the north
coast of Africa opposite Greece, was a flourishing colony. In
Sicily the chief Greek cities were Agrigentum on the south,
and Syracuse on the south-east. The chief Greek settlements
in Lower Italy were: Tarentum (Doric); Sybaris and Croton
(Achaean); Rhegium, Cumae and Neapolis (Ionic). Ali these
places soon became rich by trade and through the products
of the fruitful soil. Most of the colonial cities were famous
for the wise laws by which they were governed. Pythagoras,
the Greek philosopher who was born at Samos, removed to
Croton in Lower Italy about 529 B.C. He was the founder
of the widely-spread Pythagorean League.

12

Sp ar ta.

Sparta was the chief city of the region called Lacedaemon,
which occupies the southeastern portion of tlie peninsula named
Peloponnesus. The city lay (or stood) on the right bank of
the river Eurotas; the Acropolis *, with the temple of the
goddess Athena Chalkiokos, stood upon a moderately elevated
and prominent hill. Ali around the city were gardens and
orchards. After the Dorians conquered Laconia (= Lacedaemon)
in 1100 —1104 B.C., they founded Sparta, on the site of the
old Aehaean Capital Amyklae.

The Dorian conquest of Lakonia was, however, incomplete.
The ancient inhabitants of the land, the Achaeans, held their
own in a great part of the country, and the Dorians mixed
with thera. There were in Sparta two royal families: a)  the
Eurypontides and b)  the Agiades. Moreover the latter were
of the old Aehaean stoek. The mixture of races and the
rivalries of the royal families caused confusion and trouble in
the State. There were the Doric Spartiates, who ruled; the
Aehaean Lacedemonians, who were free landowners but had
not the right of citizenship; and lastly there \vere the Helots,
who were slaves.

About the year 810 B.C., there arose a great man among
them, who put an end to this confusion by the wise la\vs that
he introduced. This man was Lycurgos,  son of king
Eunomos, of the family of the Proklides. He had gathered
knowledge and experience during his travels, and especially
by his visit to the island of Crete, where the Dorians ruled
over the ancient Cretan inhabitants. According to the organi-
sation introduced by Lycurgos, the Doric population, that is
to say the Spartiates, had the supremacy over ali others.
They were bronght together in the center of the land. Besides
the Spartiates there were two subordinate classes of the in¬
habitants, a)  the Perioekes, . and b)  the Helots. — ThePerioekes
were the Lacedemonians; they were personally free, but they
had no political rights, that is to say they had nothing to do

* Acropolis ~ the liigh and fortified part of a Greek city.

13

with tlie governing of tlie country. Moreover they had to
pay taxes to the State, and were called out along with the
Spartiates to defend the land in time of war. — The Helots
were bondmen, or slaves, of the State, and were cliiefly
employed in tilling the lands of the Spartiates, and had to
accompany the latter in war. In time of war the Spartiates,
as being the real warriors, were heavily armed, while the
Helots carried only light rveapons.

At the head of the Spartan State were two ki n g s, one
from the tribe of the Eurysthenides, and the otker from the
tribe of the Proclides; and as these two were the leaders of
the army, they had in time of war unlimited power over it.
In time of peace they wcre the High Priests, and had to offer
certain sacritices and perform certain religious rites. The two
kings had other honorary functions, and were furthermore
the presidents of the assembly or m a d j lis called the Gerusia.

The Gerusia  was an assembly or madjlis  composed
of 28 men, who had to be at least sixty years old. The
members of the Gerusia were chosen (elected) by the assembly
of the people. The Gerusia discussed ali affairs of the State,
and the assembly of the people had only to decide by saying
“Yes” or “No” to the proposals.

The A s s e m b 1 y o f the People  was convoked by the
Kings regularly at every new moon, at which time a review
of the army was held. This assemblv elected the tive Ephors
(Overseers). Ali Spartiates over 30 years of age were admitted
to the assembly of the people, whicli met once a month under
the presidency of the ephors.

Side by side with the Gerusia was a supervisory board
composed of F i v e Ephors.  They could summon before
their judgment-seat any official, even the king himself; and at
a later period in the liistory of Sparta, the Ephors got nearly
ali the power of government into their hands.

Ali Spartiates were eligible to public offices, that is to
say that any Spartiate might be chosen to fill a government
position; they could also take part in the assemblies of the

14

people. Tliis is what is meant. by saving that the Spartiates
enjoyed political rights.

The Perioekes, who were the descendants of the subdued
Aehaeans, had to pay tribute or taxes on their land. This
land was divided into thirty thousand  equal parts. The
land of the Spartiates was divided into 9000 equal parts, and
was tilled by the Helots.

The object that Lycurgos had in view in making this
Constitution was to plače the Spartiates at the head of the
State, and keep tliem in the position of masters. They were
to be kept as much as possible on an equality as citizens;
they were to be trained as soldiers and warriors; they were
to learn to obey  the laws of the State. Their time was to
be occupied in hunting, and in wrestling, or in taking part
at the assemblies of the people, and in the religious offerings
(sacrifices) and other ceremonies. It was considered a shame
for a Spartiate to work at a trade or to be engaged in Com¬
merce and navigation. Gold and silver money was forbidden,
only iron money was allowed. No Spartiate was permitted to
travel in foreign lands, and no foreigner might remain in Sparta
unless on special bnsiness. The education of the voung  was
the business of the State. At the age of seven years boys
were to partake of the puhlic meals. The common or public
meals were called Syssitia; and every Spartiate had to con-
tribute his share towards tliem. The boys were taught to say
what they had to say in as few words as possible; and this
was called Laconism. (So that a Laconic answer ineans an
ansvver in the fewest words possible.) Marriage was obligatory;
and those wlio did not marry, or who married too late in life,
or who made an unfitting marriage, were called to account.

In short, Lycurgos wanted the citizens to be brought up
from their youth as stern warriors; but not only that, he
■vvanted to make them perfectly obedi  en  t warriors of the
State; so that, though fewer in number, they should be able
always to rule the subdued inhabitants of the older race.

After the Spartans liad accepted this new Constitution,
Lycurgos left the city, and finally died at Delphi.

15

The laws of Lycurgos gave grčat strength to the Spartan
State. This strength soon made itself felt in the two Wars
w i t h M e s s e n i a. Disagreements about the frontiers were
the cause of the Messenic Wars. In the first, from 743 to
724 B.C., the Spartans besieged and took the mountain fortress
of Ithome; the chief families of Messenia left their country
and emigrated, while those who remained lost ali political
rights. — In the Second Messenian War, which lasted from
685 — 668 B.C., the Messenians defcnded themselves in Ira,
or Eira, a rocky fortress in the northwest of Messenia, for
eleven years, under their hero Aristomenes, but were at last
overcome and reduced to the condition of Helots. Many
Messenians emigrated to Zankle, in the island of Sicily; and
since then that plače has been known by the name of Messana
or Me s si n a.

Sparta carried on long and tedious wars with Arcadia
also; and not until 600 B.C. did the Spartans force the city
of Tegea to acknowledge their hegemony. But before that,
they had slowly helped ali the other Peloponnesian States to
put down their Kings (called tyrants), and to establish an aris-
tocratic form of government similar to their own. Thus Sparta
acquired the hegemony over ali the Doric States of the Pelo-
ponnesus; and this hegemony slie kept for a long time.

Although Sparta lield the political leadership of the Pelo¬
ponnesian League of States, she left to the Eleans the direction
of the religious ceremonies at 01ympia. This was a matter of
great importance, for the 01ympian games \vere the feast common
to ali the States that were united under Sparta’s supremacy.

During Sparta’s highest power the full number of in-
habitants of the three classes was about as follows:

1. Spartiates, the warriors and lords . . 40,000

2. Perioekes, free Lacedemonians . . . 120,000

3. Helots, slaves or bondmen ....  200,000
Total number of Inhabitants of Sparta . 360,000

16  —

Athens.

Athens, until the time of the Doric Immigration, was
ruled by kings. It is said tkat Cecrops was the first king,
and the founder of law and order in Athens (about 1500 B.C.).
Theseus, the son of king Aegeus of Attika, freed Athens, about
the year 1250 B.C., from the supremacy of king Minos of
Crete, and united the twelve Attie Demes (or common-wealths)
into one State,  with Athens as the capital city. This union
was celebrated by a yearly feast called the Panathenaeae.

Athens lay about 8 kilometres from the sea. Its ports
were three: Peiraeus, Munyckia, and Phaleron. (They were
afterwards united with Athens into one great fortress by the
“long walls”.) In the middle of the city rose a rock on which
stood a fort; the whole, rock and fort, was called the Akropolis
(= city on the rock). The Akropolis was about 154 metres
above the level of the sea, and about 100 metres above the
valley of the small river Ilissos; it was only 300 metres long,
and 130 metres broad in the widest part. Under Kymon of
Athens the Akropolis was finally fortified by a wall running
ali round it; on this rock stood the most ancient sanctuaries
(sacred buildings) of the city. At the time of the Persian Wars,
in the third period of Greek liistory, those old sanctuaries were
destroyed, and were then rebuilt by Perikles. The new buildings,
such as gateways, temples, statues, picture - galleries, &c., were
most beautiful  works of architecture. The greatest of
ali was the temple called the Parthenon, dedicated to the
worskip of the virgin goddess Athene. Around the Akropolis
lay the city, and west of it on a hill rose the building called
the Areopagus, where the assembly of the Archons met. About
the year 400 B.C., Athens contained ten thousand houses and
21,000 free male citizens; so tliat there must liave been in ali
about 180,000 inhabitants.

When the Dorians invaded Attika, about 1060 B.C.,
the king of Athens was Kodros. The orade had said that
the victory would belong to the party whose king should be

17

killed. So Kodros disguised liimself as a peasant and went
out into the camp of the Dorians, where he purposely picked
a quarrel and was killed. Thereupon the Dorians, when tliey
found out who he was, despaired of victory and withdrew from
the plače. Tkus Attika was not conquered by the Dorians.

As none was found worthy of the high office of king, to
succeed Kodros, this dignity was abolished, and M e d o n was
elected (chosen) Archon. Archon means Shaykh.  Medon
was the son of Kodros, who had olfered up his life to save his
city. The Archons were at first elected for the term of their
life; tlien, after 752 B.C., they were elected for ten years;
and tinally, after 682 B.C., tliere were elected every  year
n in e Archons, from the ancient families of the Eupatrides, who,
togetlier witli the Court called the Areopagus, formcd an
aristocracy, which oppressed the Athenians. This oppression
by the aristocracy often caused disturbances.

To try and put a stop to these tumults and disturbances,
D r a k o, a famous Athenian lawgiver and one of the Archons
or shaykhs, got a list made, about 624 B.C., of the rules
generally observed in legal questions, and especially of the
rules usually followed in the punishment of crimes and offences;
— that is to say a list of the customs of the people, which
tliey claimed were the rule to be followed in such cases, so
that they should not be judged according to the arbitrary will
of the aristocratic rulers. Drako’s laws had specially to do
with the punishment and expiation (atonement) for manslaughter
and murder; judgment had to be passed by a College of
51 persons, who represented the coimnonwealth and werc called
Ephetes. But Drako’s laws were so severe that they became
proverbial; and the people in those days said that they were
written with blood. For ali this. they did not put an end
to riot and disturbance.

Kylon,  one of the Eupatrides, took advantage of the
general discontentment. He was the son-in-law of Theagenes,
tyrant (ruler) of Megara, the small State on the narrow neck

2

18

west of Athens. In the year 612 B.C., Kylon tried to seize
the Akropolis, and thus become tyrant (ruler) of Athens. His
attempt failod; he himself fled; his followers were killed; some
of them were even murdered, at the instigation of Megakles
of the noble Alkmaeonide Family, at the holy altars and at
other sacred places, whither they had taken refuge, even after
promises had heen made that their lives should be spared.
Because of this cold-hlooded slaughter, after a promise given,
the whole family of the Alkmaeonides, on the proposal of
Solon, was banished; and the city was expiated from the guilt
by the priest Epimenides, who was brought from the island
of Grete.

During these troubles the peoplc of Megara had taken
possession of the neighboring island of Salamis, which on
the advice of Solon  was reconquered by the Athenians, in
598 B.C. Solon also induced Athens to take part in the so-
called holy or Delphic war. This was a war carried on by
the Amphictyonic League against the city of Krissa and its
seaport Kirrha in the region of Phokis. The cause of the holy
war against Phokis, from 600—590 B.C., was that the city
of Krissa had extorted transit-taxes from the many pilgrims
passing through that town on their way to the holy Delphic
Oracle; it ended in the destruction of Phokis and the establish-
ment of the Pythian games, to commemorate the victory.

In 594 B.C. Solon, then the first Archon of Athens, gave
the Athenians laws  against the oppression of the poorer citizens
by the wealthy land-owners, against the enslavement of the
debtor, and against the taking of usurious interest on money
lent. Indeed Solon did so much for the Athenian State that
most of the next paragraph must be devoted to descrihing his
Services.

What Solon did for his fell ow-citizens:  The
population of Attica fell, according to the old Ionic classification,
in to three Classes,  to wit: The Eupatrides, who were nohle
land - holders; — the Geomores, or fellahs, who tilled the soil

19

and paid a tax, or who took the land on lease; they were
muzari’in; — and the Demiurgs, who worked at a trade.

After the abolisliment of the royal (kingly) dignity, already
referred to, the supremacy passed over into the hands of the
first class, the Eupatrides. But when the other classes began to
become better off, and demanded to liave a share in the govern-
ment, there arose many riots and disturbances, and there were
formed three Parties, the Pediaeans, the Parals, and the Dia-
krians.* Out of ali this confusion Solon souglit to bring order
and contentment, by giving to the Athenian State a Con-
stitution; this Constitution laid the foundation for the rapid
growth and development of Athens. After he had abolished
the cruel laws of Drako, and reduced the debts of the poorer
citizens, after he had lowered the value of the money-coins,
and ensured the personal freedom from enslavement of the
debtor and his family, Solon divided the people according to
their wealth and property into F o ur Classes,  and fixed
the taxes to be paid to the State according tq the amount of
taxable landed property; he also fixed the right to take part
in the government of the State according to the amount of
the taxable landed property. To the first  of the four classes
belonged the Five-hundred-bushel-men, that is the great land-
holders, mostly of the Eupatrides, whose yearly harvest-gathering
yielded 500 bushels of barley, or a quantity of Oil and Wine
equal in value to the same. To the second  Class belonged the
Three-hundred-bushel-men, or knights, who gained or earned
at least 300 bushels and could further keep a war-horse, or
charger. To the third  Class belonged the Zeugites, who had
a yearly yield of 150 bushels, of dry measure or liquid measure,
and kept a yoke** of oxen. The fourth  class were the Thetes,
whose revenue wa.s less. — The citizens of the fourth class were
free from tax, and hence not bound to the regular military
Service, but they could not obtain any office; the other classes
served as knights and as heavily-armed warriors.

* Al-Zawat; al-Ru’at; al-Tujjar.

** Zeuz = zaug, faddan-baqar.

2 *

20

Education was left to eacli individual; stili the State
maintained public Grymnasiums (schools), in which the youth
were trained in bodily exercises. At the age of 18 years
a youth was enrolled (inscribed) in a Phratria,  and on at-
taining the age of 20 years he could exercise ali the rights
and functions of a citizen. — But foreigners (strangers), exerci-
sing (carrying on) Commerce, or following a trade in Athens,
were called Metokes,* and were not permitted to acquire landed
property; nor did they have any civil rights; and yet they
were bound to bear ali the different kinds of taxes and burdens,
like the citizens. They might not appear in person before
the law-court, but had to be represented; such a representative
was called a prostates. Ali menial (low) labor was performed
by slaves who might be bought and sold.

The highest power of the State was exercised by the
Assembly of the People, which was called the Ekklesia.
Every Athenian citizen might join this assembly. It made
laws, dedared war, and decided upon peace; it passed judgment
upon crimes against the State, chose the State officials, and
fixed the taxes. A permanent Committee of the Assembly of
the People was chosen, and was called the Council of the
Four- Hundred. It administered the public atfairs, prepared
ali that was to be laid before the Assemblv, and presided over
the meetings of the same. The members of the Committee of
Four-Hundred were chosen by lot from among the citizens
who were over 30 years old.

The executive power remained in the hands of the
Archons.  They were yearly chosen by lot, out of the citizens
of the first Class (500-bushel-men). Three of them had special
branches of the administration, and the other six archons were
presidents of the law-courts of the people.

The most important of ali the courts was the Areopagus.
It consisted of members chosen for life. These had to be men
who had been previously archons and had fulfilled without

* Cf. the musta-min in Muslini Law.

21

blame tlie duties of their office. The Areopagus had to watch
over the upholding of the existing lavvs, and the maintenance
of good morals; it also passed judgment in heinous or Capital
crimes. It could stop the measures of the Council of 400 and
of the Assembly of the People, whenever those measures
appeared to it to be hurtful or contrary to law. Such a stop-
ping was a “Veto" which means: “I forbid.” Ali other com-
plaints (suits) were decided by the courts of the people; and
for these courts six thousand citizens from ali the four classes
were designated each year by lot.

Solon was deemed one of the seven wise men of the
ancients, and was honored both as a poet and as a friend of
the people. He banished himself from Athens of his own free
will, after he had made the Athenians promise to change
nothing for ten years in the legislation, and travelled abroad,
visiting Egypt and other places.

Soon after Solon’s departure, Peisistratos  raised him¬
self to be Tyrant of Athens, from 560 — 528 B.C. Although
Peisistratos was twice driven out of Athens, he strengthcned
the Constitution of Solon by his mild and just rule. He
gathered the Homeric Songs and greatly encouraged the in-
tellectual progress of the people by his love of Culture. Pei-
sistratus was of a high Athenian family and a relative (kins-
man) of Solon. He was a man of ability and cunning, and
knew how to gain the goodwill of the people by promising to
raise them out of their low and down-trodden state. Of his
three sons, the one named Hippias succeeded him as tyrant
of Athens. Hipparcli, another son, was murdered during the
rebellion of Harmodius and Aristogiton. Hegesistratos, the
third son, obtained the rulership over Sigeion on the Hellespont.
In 510 B.C., Hippias, the tyrant of Athens, was driven out
by the family of the Alkmaeonides, under the lead of Kleis-
thenes, and with the help of Sparta. Hippias Hed to Persia
and took refuge with Darius.

Kleisthenes,  the Head of the Alkmaeonides, re-
established the Solonic Constitution, but introduced several

22

changes in it. The most important were: 1. Attika was di-
vided into 100 Demes or communities, every ten of vvhich
were formed into a Phyle; — 2. the Council of 400 was in-
creased to 500, i. e. 50 members from eacli Phyle; — 3. the
Archons and Councillors were chosen by lot,  and not by
election as theretofore; — 4. The practice of ostracism  was
introduced. — These reforms in Solon’s Constitution secured it
against democracy on the one side and tyranny on the other.

Summary: The incursion of the Thessalians into Thessaly
was followed by the immigration of the Boeotians into Boeotia,
and of the Dorians into Middle Greece, where they founded
the Delphic Amphictyonic Leagues; it was also followed, in
1104 B.C., by the Conquest of the Peloponnesus by the Dorians.
The people who were crowded out of their old homes by this
immigration, emigrated to Asia Minor, where they formed the
Aeolic, the Ionie and the Doric colonies, about 1050 B.C.
The wars of these new-comers against the older inhabitants in
Asia Minor furnished the subject for the Story of the Trojan
War, which the great poet Homer worked up into a Poetic
Tale, but -vvhich he referred back to earlier times.

The oldest form of government among the Greeks was
the Patriarchal Kingdom, which in most of the States of Grreece
passed over into an 01igarchy, and then into an Aristocracy.
Among the Grecian States of the earlier times, the most power-
ful was Doric Sparta, whose form of government was reorganised
about 808 B.C. by the Legislator Lykurgos.  This reorganisation
is called the Constitution of Lykurgos.

The Spartans in two wars, from 743 — 724 and from
645—628  B.C., subjugated the Messenians, and acquired the
leadership over the Peloponnesian States. They made use of
this superiority to keep up the aristocratic form of government.

In Athens, after the regal authority was abolished,
archons  were put in power. Archon means mudabbir,
h a k i m. Solon,  one of these archons, gave the Athenian
State, in 594 B.C., a moderate democratic (or timocratic) Con¬
stitution. According to it, the citizens were dividcd, on the

— 23

basis of their wealth, into 4 classes, whereof only 3 classes were
admitted to state offices. Yearly elected Archons, Bulis or
Councillors, and Assemblies of tbe People, exercised, togetber
with tbe Areopagus, tbe bigbest governmental autbority. Tbe
Areopagus, a very ancient body of men, was a sort of bigh
court of punishment.

Peisistratus usurped the power and became the sole ruler,
from 560 -—527 B.C. His son Hippias, about 510 B.C., was
driven out of Athens witb the aid of tbe Spartans. Tbereupon,
in 508 B.C., Kleisthenes re-established, in a moderate and more
democratic form, the former Solonic Constitution. — In tbose
days the Greek Colonies spread ali over the Mediterranean,
and rapidly attained to a highly flourishing condition. The
national unity of the Hellenes was maintained by the Priest-
hood of the Delphic Temple (Sanctuary and Oracle) of Apollo.

III. Thlrd Period of Greek Hi$tory.

Prom the Beginning of the Persian Wars to the Loss of G-reek Freedom*
at the Battle of Chaeronea. Prom 500 to 338 B.C.

a)  The Persian or Medic Wars.

Prom 500 to 469 B.C.

The numerous Greek States, that were so often fighting
one another, found it necessary to unite together to oppose
the Persians. It was the fear of a Persian invasion that made
them feel that they were ali brothers and members of one great
nationality, which the foreign enemy wished to destroy. The
Persian Wars first led the Greeks to unite in one common
action. And this union laid the foundation for the Greatness
of Greece. But, unfortunately, it was the Persian Wars also
that awakened among the Greeks the idea of the necessity for
a Hegemony or leadership of one State  over the others, or

* Independence.

24

rather over ali Greece. This idca, after thc wars with the
common foreign enemy were ended, led to a series of wars at
home, between the two rival States, Athens and Sparta, in
which most of the other States were involved.

The Persian Wars arose out of the expedition undertaken
by Darius against the Skyths. In that expedition he penetrated
into Europe as far as the Danu.be ; Thrace and Macedon were
brouglit under Persian supremacy; the Aleuades in Thessaly,
the Thebans, and the Argeians were inclined to submit volun-
tarily to the Persian king; and there seemed to be hardly any
call for the use of force. But in 500 B.C. the Ionian revolt
broke out, i. e., the revolt, against Persian rule, of the Greek
Ionian cities of Asia Minor that had been subdued nearly
50 years before by Harpagos, the general of Cyrus. The
Ionian revolt was encouraged and lielped by Athens and Eretria
(a city on the island of Euboea). The Greeks burned the city
of Sardis in the year 500, but were afterwards defeated olf
the island of Lade; and the city of Miletus was taken by the
Persians and destroyed; ali the men were killed, and ali the
Ionians were subdued again. The Phocaeans alone emigrated
and founded Massilia, which is now called Marseilles. Darius
sent envoys (messengers) to the European Greeks, demanding
of them “earth and water”, that is to say he called upon them
to acknowledge him as the Lord of their lands and rivers.
The envoys (messengers) who went to Athens were thrown into
wells, and those wlio went to Sparta were čast into a cave or pit.

The First Attack  of the Persians was in the year
492 B.C. Darius sent Mardonius with an army and a fleet,
to punish Athens and Eretria for having helped the Ionian
Revolt, and also to conquer ali Greece. But the fleet was
wrecked in a storm on the promontory of Mount Athos, and
the land-army was scattered or quite cut up by the tribes in
Thrace.

The Sečo n d Attack  of the Persians upon the Greeks
of Europe began in 490 B.C. The leaders sent by the Persian

25

King were two, Datis and Artaphernes. This time the round-
about land route taken by tke first expedition was avoided,
and the army of one hundred thousand men was brought over
by the fleet to the island of Euboea. They destroyed the city
of Eretria, and easily subdued the Cyclades (surrounding islands).
They then landed at the small plain of M ar at h on in Attika,
bnt were there met by ten thousand Greeks, ali of whom were
Athenians, excepting one thousand who had been sent by the
Plataeans. Miltiades,  the leader of the Athenians, ventured,
with the 10,000, to attack the immense Persian army. He
obtained a brilliant victory on the plain of Marathon (on the
12th Sept. 490  B.C.). The Spartans had delayed so long in
sending their troops that when they did arrive the great battle
had been already fought and ended without their help.

A. revolt  of the Egyptians in Egypt against the Persian
rule, and then the death of Dareius in 485, put back (delayed)
the renewal of the attempts to conquer Greece. But the Persians
continued to arm and prepare for the invasion of that land;
for so long as European Greece was free, it would always
stir up and help revolts in Asia Minor and Egypt.

Miltiades, the Athenian hero of Marathon, was at first
highly honored by his fellow-citizens, but was aftenvards thrown
into prison (where he died), for having failed to take the island
of Paros. After Miltiades, two men took the lead in the affairs
of Athens, the aristocrat Aristides and the democrat Themistocles.
But Aristides had soon to give way to Themistocles; and the
latter greatly increased the Athenian fleet by using ali the
revenues (receipts) from the mineš in building ships, with which
to oppose the Persians. Most of the other Greek States,
however, failed to prepare themselves to ward off the danger
which was tlireatening them from the Persian si de.

The Third Attack,  in 480 B.C. — Xerxes, king of
Persia, had gathered in Asia Minor an immense army, number-
ing nearly a million of men, and a vast fleet of about 1200 ships,
with whicli he thought he could surely crush the little Greek

26

nation. In seven days and seven nights the army was led
across the Hellespont (Dardanelles) upori a bridge of boats,
and Xerxes soon subdued Thrace, Macedon and Thessaly.

In the autumn of the preceding year the Greeks had held
a meeting of the League on the Isthmus and had decided on
taking common measures for defence. But Argos and Boeotia
had not taken part in the deliberations; Coreyra, Crete and
Sicily had refused to help; the old rivalries of the Tribes
hindered the work of preparation. Sparta was jealous of
Athens. The Athenians loved their country so muck, that in
order to conciliate the Spartans tkey put their entire fleet under
the command of the Spartan chief. But Sparta sent only
three hundred men, under Leonidas,  to guard the pass of
Thermopylae,  whither a whole army should have been
sent to stop the Persians from penetrating into Hellas. The
three hundred Spartans together with seven hundred Thespians,
under Leonidas, heroically defended the pass of Thermopylae,
but were after a time betrayed by one named Ephialtes, who
showed the Persians a mountain path over which tliey secretly
sent part of the army, and were thus able to attack the pass
at both ends. Leonidas and his little band were cut to pieces.

During these events on land, the united Greek fleets
fought two naval battles off Artemesium on the island of Euboea;
but without gaining any decisive advantage over the Persian
invaders. The Greek fleet then betook itself to the Saronic Gulf.

Xerxes devastated Phocis; Locris and Boeotia submitted.
He then invaded Attika, whose inhahitants fled to the islands
of Salamis and Aegina, and to Troezene in Argolis. Upon
the advice of Themistocles the Athenians abandoned the citv;
the Peloponnesians fortified the Isthmus. Xerxes devastated
Attika and burned Athens. The Greek fleet took up its position
near the island of Salamis.  The Spartans wanted to limit
tliemselves to defending the Peloponnesus, but Themistocles
forced them, by threats and coaxing, to risk a naval battle
with the Persian fleet whieh was twice as strong as the Grecian.
On the 20tli of Sept. 480 B.C. the Greek ships gained a brilliant

27

victory over the Persian fleet, most of which was šunk. As
at the battle of Marathon, so here at that of Salamis the victory
was due in a great measure to the Athenians; and this again
made the Spartans more jealous of them than ever.

On seeing that his fleet was destroyed, Xerxes fled to
Asia Minor, leaving Mardonius with 300,000 men in Thessaly.
The next year, in the Spring of 479 B.C., Mardonius succeeded
in taking Athens again; for the Peloponnesians again delayed
coming to the help of the other Greeks. At last, in the
summer of that year, the Greek army was brought together
under the lead of Pausanias and Aristeides; and in the month
of September a battle  was fought at P lata  e a e in Boeotia,
in which the Persian leader Mardonius fell, and the Persians
suffered a severe defeat. The Persian camp witli immense
booty fell into the hands of the defenders; and Thebes in
Boeotia was severely punished for having so easily submitted
and joined the enemy.

On the same day that the Battle of Plataeae was fought,
the men of the united Greek fleet, led by the Athenian Xan-
thippos and by the Spartan Leotychides, stormed the camp of
the Persian Marines on the promontory of Mykale  in Asia-
Minor (opposite the island of Samos) and destroyed their ships,
tlius breaking the naval supremacy of the Persians in the
Aegian Sea. By this victory the Greek colonies throughout
Asia-Minor were f r e e d from Persian rulc.

The Athenians then formed, witli many of the other
States, and especially with the freed cities of Asia-Minor and
the islands, the Athenian Maritime League for the De-
fence of Greek F r e e d o m and Independence.

After Themistocles had built the walls  and the Piraeus,
Athens became the first naval Power in Greece; and she of
course had the hegemony of the Maritime League, ali which
only increased the jealousy of Sparta.

Pausanias the Spartan, Cimon son ofMiltiades the Athenian,
and Aristides the Athenian, conquered, in 477, the island of

28

Cyprus, and then  Byzantium  (Constantinople). But owing
to tlie haughty and overbearing conduct of Pausanias, most of
the members of tke League joined themselves to Athens, whicli
thus obtained the hegemonv, and took charge of administering
the common treasury of the League. The island of D e 1 o s,
on which stood the temple and orade of the god Apollo, was
chosen as the treasury of the League.

The Persians again tried in 465 to recover the freed cities
of Asia, but they were defeated both on 1 a n d and o n w a t e r
near the river Eurymedon  (Kupru-Su) on the Southern coast
of Asia Minor. Cimon son of Miltiades the Athenian was the
victorious leader in this double battle (on land and on water).

Cimon (or Kimon) then zealously carried on the offensive
war against Persia, and brought about the sending of an
Athenian expedition toEgypt,  to support the rebellion
of Inaros the prince of Marea (near Lake Mamit). This was
the s e c o n d rebellion of the Egyptians against the Persians;
it occurred during the reign of Artaxerxes I Makrocheir or
Longimanus (who reigned from 465 — 425  B.C.).

After the Battle of the Eurymcdon, the Persians were
too weak to carry on the wars against the Greeks; and the
latter were so taken up \vith their jealousies and wars amongst
themselves that the Persian or Medic Wars came to an end
vvitkout  a formal treaty of peace.

Themistocles, the great Athenian, was hated and perse-
cuted by the Spartans, and by many Athenians who were his
enemies; in 466 he had to flee from his country and seek
refuge in Persia, where he died. Pausanias the Spartan was
charged with treason, and died of hunger in 467 in the temple
of Athena at Sparta.

But why are the Persian Wars deemed so important in
the Workl’s History? Because they were the great encounter
between Oriental and Hellenic culture.  If the Persians
had crushed the Greeks, Persian despotism would have crushed
ali Greek freedom and learning.

29

b)  Athens at Her Highest Splendor.

Prom 469 to 431 B.C.

Kimon of Athens was the Head of the Aristocratic Party,
and increased the power of his city by conquests. Pericles,
the son of Xanthippus, gained moi’e and more influence over
the common people by his unselfishness, largemindedness, and
eloquence of spcech. While he directed the affairs of the
Athenian State, the hegemony of Athens was almost a complete
supremacy over the other States. A great part of the Greek
islands, coasts of Thrace, and Asia-Mmor had to pay a share
of the contributions to the common War Treasury; but these
contributions were in reality a tax or tribute paid to the
Athcnians for their protection. Indeed the War Treasury of
the League was in the year 461 transferred from the small
island of Delos to the city of Athens. Sparta, out of jealousy,
was ever ready to support the discontented allies and ali ene-
mies of Athens.

The unanimity (concord, harmony) between the two rival
States was for a time re-established by the help vvliich Athens
offered to Sparta in the third Messenian War. This offer of
help came about in the follovviug manner. The Spartans had
suffered greatly by an earthquake that had laid most of their
houses in ruins; and the helots or slaves had seized this mis-
fortune of the Spartans as a favorable moment for them to
rebel. The war of the Spartans against the revolted helots
was the Third Messenian War, which lasted from 464—455 B.C.
Kimon of Athens induced the Athenians in 461 to send an
army to help the Spartans. But as the latter were too proud
to accept the proffered aid and sent the Athenian army back,
the people of Athens became greatly enraged with Kimon for
inducing them to make an offer that was haughtily rejected;
so they banished him; but he came back again to Athens in 456.

The city of Corinth on the isthmus, and the city of
Epidamnus on the Adriatic Sea in Southern Illyria, helped
the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gfulf against Athens; but

30

in the same year the Athenians subdued Aegina completclv,
after a great naval victoiy.

Aftenvards the Phocians quarrelled with the Dorians;
and both the Spartans and the Thebans took the part of the
latter; whereupon the Athenians went, in 457 B.C., to oppose
the Spartans (who were returning from Hellas to the Pelo-
ponnesus), and met them at Tanagra on the river Asopos in
Boeotia. In the battle of Tanagra  the Athenians were defeat-
ed; but in the ensuing (following) year they gained a victory
over the Boeotians near Oenophvtae in Southern Boeotia near
the frontier of Attika. Thereupon Boeotia, Phocis, and Eastern
(Opuntian) Lokris joined the Athenian Maritime League. Ali
these events increased the power of Athens and intensified the
jealousy of Sparta.

In order to renew the war against Persia, Kimon of
Athens brought about a truce  (a stay of arrns or hostilities)
between his city and Sparta; he died in 449 B.C., during the
conquest of the island of Cyprus. After Kimon’s death, Pe-
rieles,  the great Athenian patriot, again subdued the States
of the League which had tried (partly supported by Sparta)
to shake off the Athenian yoke. Athens thus subdued the
great island of Euboea and the city of Megara in 445 B.C.;
and Samos and Byzantium in 440 B.C. Thereupon Pericles
increased the contributions of the States (to the War Treasury
of the League) for the war against Persia, at a time when this
war itself had ceased.

The yearly revenues from ali sources amounted to
1000 talents = L. Eg. 235,000. Kimon built the temple of
Theseus. Perikles adorned the Akropolis with splendid build-
ings, the ruins of which remain to this day.

The population of Athens was at that time about  as follows:

Citizens, over 18 years of age and bearing arms 25,000

Other Citizens. 75,000

Metokes. 45,000

Slaves. 400,000

In ali about  545,000

31

c)  The Peloponnesian War.

From 431 to 404 B.C.

Tli is was a war between the two rival States, Athens
and Sparta, each of which wanted to have the hegemony, or
leadership, in Greece. The cause which first  ga ve rise to
the war was as follows. The people of the island of Corcyra
(now Corfu) were at war in the year 435 with Corinth over
the possession of the colony of Epidamnus, in Illyria on the
Adriatic coast. Both Corinth and Corcyra sought the help of
Athens. The latter decided to help the Corcyrians, and at
first sent them ten ships of war, which took part in the naval
battle that was fought in the year 432 near Sybota. About
the same time the inhabitants of Potidaea, near Mount Athos
on the peninsula of Chalcis (or Chalcidice), separated themselves
from the Athenian Maritime League and were supported by
Corinth. But the Athenians were so strong that they blockaded
(= surrounded, besieged) the city of Potidaea. The people of
Megara also, a city lying very near to Athens, complained
that the Athenians were ruining their commerce; the people of
the island of Aegina wanted to be freed from the Athenians.

These States complained of Athens at the Meeting or
Assembly of the League which was held at Sparta in 432 B.C.
This Assembly decided that Athens was in the wrong, and
that not only ought she to give up Aegina, but also that the
Athenian Maritime League ought to be dissolved. Athens
refused. Thereupon the Peloponnesian Meeting of States decided
to prepare t'or war. The allies of Athens were: Macedonia,
the city of Plataeae in the south of Boeotia, the islands of the
Archipelago, and the Asiatic colonies, i. e. nmch scattered.

Sparta pretended to fight for the cause of freedom against
Athenian supremacy; so that, besides the Peloponnesian States,
Sparta had the following allies: Megaris, Lokris, Phocis, and
Boeotia. — The Peloponnesian Party had an army of 60,000 Hop-
lites, but very few ships and very little money. — Athens had
300 war- ships, 30,000 Hoplites, 6000 talents of silver in the
treasury and a yearly revenue of fully 2000 talents.

32

The Peloponnesian War began by an attack which the
Thebans made by night upon Plataeae; but they were repulsed,
and 300 Thebans fell. Thereupon, in the year 431, the Pelo¬
ponnesian army, under king Archidamos of Sparta, invaded
Attika with 60,000 allies, and plundered and ravaged that
region, doing the worst damage by cutting down the olive-
trees, vvhich begin to bear only in the 16th year after planting.
These invasions were repeated in the years 430, 428, 427, and
425 B.C. The Athenians took revcnge for the ravaging of
their district by sending out ships, vvhich plundered the cities
on the coasts of the Peloponnesus.

Pericles lmd advised the Athenians to abandon the district
of Attika, and to shelter themselves behind the long walls that
united the city of Athens vvith Piraeus, the harbor. As so
many people were thus crowded together in so small a space,
a frightful plague  broke out in Athens, in the year 430 B.C.,
and among the thousands who were taken off by this disease
was Pericles liimself, who died in 429 B.C. The lead of the
Athenians, on the death of Pericles, was taken by C1 e o n who
was the head of the rabble (the low, vulgar people) and who
hoped to keep his liold upon the masses by humoring their
whims and by encouraging thern to continue the war against
Sparta.

In the year 429 B.C. the island of Lesbos was most
cruelly punished for having tried to separate itself (secede)
from the Athenian League; in the year 427 B.C. the Spartans
and Thebans destroyed Plataeae. Then in 425 B.C. the Athen¬
ians captured a large number of distinguished Spartans on
the island of Sphacteria, on the west coast of Messenia. But
in 424 B.C. the Athenians were defeated by the Thebans near
Delion, a seaport town of Boeotia; and in that year the Spartan
leader Brasidas pressed the Athenians sorely in Macedon and
Thrace, until at last both Brasidas the Spartan leader, and
Cleon the Athenian leader, fell in 422 B.C. in a battle near
Amphipolis in Macedonia.

33

On tlie death of Cleon, tlie leader of the Athenian common
people, one named Nicias, the Head of the Aristocratic Party,
obtained the lead in Athens; he soon succeeded in making
peace  with Sparta. This peace was concluded in the year
421 B.C., and was to last fifty years; the State of things
before  the outbreak of the war was to be re-established;
the captives and the occupied places were to be given up.

The events from 431 to 421 B.C. are the first period of
the Peloponnesian War.

But Corinth, Elis, Argos, and Mantinea were dissatisfied
with the peace; for Athens stili kept her supremacy over the
sea. So they forrned a new Peloponnesian League. Mean-
while Alcibiades,  a renowned Athenian, had accjuired the
greatest influence in liis native city. He too, like Cleon, hoped
to aggrandize himself by war. Consequently he induced the
Athenians to join this new Peloponnesian league, the object of
which was to oppose the oppressive supremacy of Sparta. The
Athenians joined the league against Sparta, although they had
just before made peace for fifty years with that State. The
Spartans, however, gained a victory in 418 B.C. over the allies,
near Mantinea in Arkadia; and the new league broke up.

Stili, Alcibiades stirred up the Athenians, in 415 B.C.,
to t,ry and extend their power at sea by gathering ali their
forces in an expedition,  to be sent against Syracuse  in
Sicily. Syracuse was a powerful and wealthy city. Just as
the great Athenian fleet was ready to start, — 134 ships, and
36,000 men, of whom 5100 were hoplites — under the command
of three, namely Alcibiades, Lamachus and Nicias, in the night
betvveen the lOtli and 11 tli of May 415 B.C., the hermes*
were found mutilated, or disfigured. This was a grčat religi-
ous outrage and profanation. After the fleet had sailed, and
wlien Alcibiades was absent from Athens, his opponents and
enemies accused him, in his absence, of being the author of

* Square pillars of marble, set up along the roadsides, bearing busts
of the god.

3

34

the outrage. To save his life he fled and went to the Spartans.
He advised them to send sliips to help the Syracusans. The
Athenian fleet was in the year 413 completely shattered by
the people of Syracuse. In the meantime the Spartans had
fortified Dekelea (north of Athens) in Attica, and concluded
an alliance with the Persians, by whicli the Spartans declared
themselves willing to give up to the Persians ali the (Ireek
cities of Asia Minor whioh they had formerly possessed.
Athens’ attack upon Syracuse had lasted two years, and had
ended in a terrible loss of ships. This was the Second
period of the Peloponnesian War.

Athens manned a new fleet; but she had already been
so weakened by the former wars and losses that she never
again recovered.

The third stage of the Peloponnesian War is called the
Dekeleian period. It began with the Spartan occupation of
Dekeleia and the alliance with the Persians. The Athenian
army recalled Alcibiades, who had fled to the Persian Satrap
Tissaphernes. Alcibiades gained a victory in 411 B.C. over
the united Persians and Spartans at the city of Cyzikos in
Little Phrygia on the Propontis (or Sea of Marmara); and in
408 B.C. he subdued the coasts of Asia Minor. After taking
Byzantium, he held a triumphal entry into Athens. But in
407 B.C. he was again banished for the following reasons.
During his absence in Athens, he had left the fleet in command
of Antiochos, who against the instructions of Alcibiades ven-
tured to attack the enemy’s fleet under Lysandros, the Spartan.
Antiochos was defeated near N o t i o n , the harbor of Kolophon,
on the Lydian coast; the Athenians held Alcibiades responsible
for the defeat, and deprived hini of his command, wliereupon
he went to Thrace.

A great naval battle took plače in the year 406 B.C.,
between the Athenian and Spartan fleets, near the three small
islands called the Arginusae,  which lie between the large
island ot Lesbos and the coast of Asia Minor. The Athenians
were victorious, and the Spartan leader Kallikratidas was killed.

35

The Athenian army leaders liad neglected to gather and bury
the bodies of the Athenians wlio had been killed in the figlit;
for this, six of them were condemned to death and executed.

By this victory the Athenians were made eareless of their
enemy’s power; and in the year 405 B.C. they lost their last
fleet near Aegospotamoi.  This name means the Goat-river;
it is applied to a small creek and town on the Thracian
Chersonese (peninsula), between the Dardanelles and the Thra¬
cian Gulf. Here, near Aegospotamoi and in the straits of the
Dardanelles opposite Lampsakos, the Spartan army leader
Lysandros destroyed the last Athenian fleet, in the month of
December 405 B.C. By this defeat the Athenian power was
broken, and the Peloponnesian War was virtually decided in
favor of Sparta. But the Athenians would not surrender. So
the victorious Spartans besieged Athens itself by sea and by
land. The Spartan leader was Lysander. After sustaining
a long siege the Athenians were forced by hunger to surrender,
in the Spring of the year 404 B.C.

The conditions of peace,  which the victorious Spar¬
tans forced the Athenians to accept, broke the power of Athens
for ever. They were: Teariug down the Harbor Walls and
Long Walls between it and the city of Athens; Surrender of
what stili remained of the Athenian Fleet; Abandoning of ali
supremacy outside of the Region of Attika; Athens to join
the Peloponnesian League under Sparta’s hegemony, and furnish
troops in time of need; Recall of the Banished.

The next summer Lysander overthrevr the Athenian Con-
stitution (old form of government), and forced the Athenians
to accept, as their rulers, Thirty Men, called the 30 Tyrants.
To support the authority of these tyrants, and to protect them,
seven hundred Spartans occupied the Acropolis of Athens.
These tyrants banished some and killed others of the best
Athenian citizens. Athens was crushed for ever.

The Peloponnesian War of Rivalry betweeu Sparta and
Athens had lasted 27 years. What was the result? Athens
was ruined; but Sparta was almost wholly exhausted. Ali

3 *

36

the other States of Hellas and Peloponnesus were also greatly
weakened by their co-operation in the war. Jealousy and
hatred had been so awakened among the Greek States that it
was no more possible to unite them in one common League.
Ali Greece was weakened.

S umni ar y for the First Part of the Third Period of
Greek History.

The cause of the Medic Wars was the Revolt of the
Greek Colonial Cities in Asia Minor against Persian m is rule,
and the Support they received from Athens, 500 B.C. After
the first Persian military expedition had completely broken
down in 492 B.C. at Mount Athos, the Athenians, in 490 B.C.,
gained a brilliant victory over the Persians at Marathon.

They thereupon built a fleet, at the urgent representations
of Themistocles. In 480 they forced Xerxes to retreat from
Thermopylae  in Middle-Greece, whither he had penetrated
witli the intention of annihilating the Greeks. Xerxes had to
retreat from Thermopylae, because the Greeks had defeated
his fleet, near the island of Salamis, in a great naval battle.
The Greeks then attacked and defeated the Persian land army
near Plataeae, and the navy a second time at the promontory
of Mykale, thereby removing ali danger to their freedom from
the ambition of the Persians.

The Greek cities in Asia Minor were liberated from the
Persian yoke, and were united in 476 B.C., together with the
islands of the Aegian Sea, into a m ari tim e confederation
under the leadership of Athens. This union was the work of
Aristides,  an Athenian statesman and general of the first
rank. Kymon  successfully carried. on the war against the
Persians, and was victorious in 466 B.C., both on water and
on land, near the river Eurymedon, Kupri-su.

While Sparta was engaged in opposing the revolt of the
Helots and Messenians (the 3d Messenian War, from 464 to
455 B.C.), Athens rose under Peric  le  s to the highest point
of her glory and power. Science and Art were brought to the

37

liighest degree of perfection. In 449 the Persian wars were
ended by Kymon’s double victory at Salamis, on the east side
of' Cyprus.

Growing jealousy between Sparta and Athens led to the
Peloponnesian War,  from 431 — 404 B.C., between the
Doric - Spartan confederacy on the one side, and the Ionic-
Attic confederacy on the other. This war broke the power
of Athens, but it at the same time weakened the wliole of
Greece. In it the Peloponnesians and Boeotians took part with
Sparta. It was a fight for the liegemony or leadership in ali
Greece, and may be conveniently divided into 3 stages.

IstStage: the Archidamian War, from 431—421. In
the first few years the Peloponnesians, under the command of
King Archidamos, devastated Attika, whilst the Athenians
undertook naval expeditions to the coasts of the Peloponnesus.
The strength of the Athenians was, however, weakened by
the plague during the years 430 — 427 B.C. After the death
of Perikles in 429, unbridled Demagogy was rife in Athens
— the demagogues goading on the people to war. In 425 B.C.
the Athenians took Pylos and Sphakteria, but were defeated
near Delion in 424 B.C. 5  and again at Ampliipolis in 422.
Whereupon Athens and Sparta concluded the treaty of peace
known as the Peace of Nikias, which re-established the state
of things that had existed before the war.

2 nd Stage: The influence of Alcibiades, an able Athenian
general, and a brilliant speaker, but of an ambitious, frivolous
and treachcrous character, had since the year 420 stirred up
new dissensions. From 415 to 413 B.C., the Athenians under¬
took the disastrous expedition to Sicily, in which both their
fleet and their army perished.

3 d Stage: the Dekelian War, from 413 — 404 B.C. The
Spartans established themselves at Dekeleia in Attika, stirred
up (incited) Euboea and the islands and cities in Asia Minor
to rebel against Athens, and built, with the help of the Persians,
a fleet; whilst in Athens partv strife ran so high that in the
year 411 B.C. the Solonic Constitution was for a time set aside.

38

During the years 411 and 410 B.C., Alkibiades gained several
victories, but was again banished in 407, after the defeat near
Notion. The victory over the Spartans in 406, near the Argi-
nusae on the west coast of Asia Minor South of Lesbos, was
not followed up by the Athenians; they lost their last fleet
near Aegospotamoi in 405, and the city of Athens was con-
strained in 404 to surrender to Lysandros unconditionally (at
discretion). The Attic Maritime Federation was dissolved, the
long walls were razed, and the fleet, saving 12 ships only,
was surrendered. The Athenian power was destroyed, and
thenceforth Sparta had the Hegemonv over the Grecian States;
but the strength of Greece as a whole had been shattered.

d)  The Hegemony of Sparta, and then the Hegemony

of Thebes.

From 404 to 362 B.C.

Thrasybulos, an Athenian army leader of note during
the latter part of the Peloponnesian war, and one of those
whom the thirty tyrants had banished to Thebes, gathered 70
of his friends with their followers and invaded Attika, took
the fortress of Phyle, and seized the harbor of Piraeus He
then defeated the thirty tyrants, drove them out, and re-
established in Athens the ancient Solonic Constitution of
government. 403 B.C.

About this time there lived at Athens the good and wise
Socrates,  one of the best men the world has ever seen.
He was born at Athens in 470 B.C., and was the son of the
sculptor Sophroniskos. He took part in three campaigns during
the Peloponesian War. Although he had learned his father’s
trade, Socrates ali his life cared little for it, but loved rather
to teach by conversation, that is to say ora!ly by cjuestions
and answers, and by talking with his pupils. He taught
gr a ti s, i. e., not for pay. He taught that one should
believe in a God, because Nature shows that there must be
a God. He taught that the soul lives for ever, although the

39

body dics. And further, he taught that one must always try
to be good and do good; that one must prefer good and truth
to evil and falsehood. In short, he placed good and trutb over
one’s own personal advantage. Ali this witliout any revealed
writings, vvithout tke knowledge of any inspired prophetical
books. In tke 65th year of his age ke was ckosen a member
of tke Athcnian Council of Five Hundred. He opposed tke
unjust demands of tke 30 Tyrants. — In 399 B.C. kis cnemies
accused kim of teacking tke youths of Athens to despise tke
gods (and tke statues of the gods). He was so good a man
that many kated him just because of his goodness. So when
the accusation was brought against him, tkat his belief and
teacking was quite contrary to tke belief and polytheism of
the Greeks everywhere, tke tribunal of the peopile (tke Heliasts)
condemned him to die by drinking a cup of poison. Socrates,
wko was in prison, did not try to escape, as his friends urged
kim to do, but drank the cup and diod, in 399 B.C. Of kis
many pupils, the greatest was Plato the philosopher; aftervvards
tke greatest of Plato’s pupils was Aristotle, the philosopher;
and stili later, one of Aristotle’s pupils was Alexander tke Great,
son of Philip II king of Macedon.

During the period of Sparta’s hegemony, after 404 B.C.,
many Greek warriors entered the Service of the Persians as
mereenaries, and took part in tke Persian dispute, for the throne,
that arose between the king Artaxerxes II Mnemon and his
younger brother Cyrus, wko was then Satrap of Armenia.
Cyrus gathered a large army, among which were 13,000 Greek
mereenaries, and marched against tke king. The chief army-
leader of the Greek mereenaries was Klearchos. Among them
was also one named X en op h o n, a Greek kistorian. Ile was
born in 440 B.C. at Athens, and had been a pupil of Socrates,
the wise and good martyr. After the Peloponnesian war and
the downfall of his native city, Xenophon went to Sardis in
Asia Minor to Cyrus, and joined the Greek mercenary troops.
The battle between tke armies of the rival brotkers (Artaxerxes
Second Mnemon and Cyrus) was fought near Kunaxa, on

40

the Euphrates, north of Babylon. Cyrus was killed in that
battle, and his army became tliereby discouraged. The Persian
army leader Tissaphernes killed Klearchos and the other Greek
leaders of the mercenaries. Thereupon Xenophon led back
the ten thousand Greeks, that had survived out of the original
13,000. He retreated with this small army through a hostile
country from Kunaxa, through Mesopotamia and Armenia, to
the sliores of the Black Sea, a distance of 1600 miles. Xeno-
phon afterwards wrote a beautiful account of this wonderful
retreat, which he called the “Anabasis”. From the Black Sea
coast, he led them back to Thrace and joined the army of the
Spartan king Agesilaos, under whom he fought both in Asia
Minor against the Persian Satrap Tissaphernes, and at the
battle of Koronea in 394 B.C. against the Boeotians, when
King Agesilaos of Sparta, returning from Asia Minor, cut his
way through to the Peloponnesus. (Cf. p. 41.)

During Sparta’s hegemony also, arose the Corinthian
War,  which lasted from 394 — 387 B.C. Before speaking of
this war, a few words must be said about the Athenian Alci-
biades. After the Athenians had deposed him (see above, p. 34,
3d period of Peloponnesian War), he went to a fortress in
Thrace. \Vhile the Athenian fleet was lying off Aegospotamoi
in the Dardanelles, in the year 405, Alcibiades warned them
against an unexpected attack of the Spartans, but his advice
was scouted. After the fall of Athens he fearcd Spartan re-
venge, and flod to Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap of Phrygia,
But, at the demand of the Spartan general Lysander, the
victorious leader at the battle of Aegospotamos, Alcibiades’s
country-house was surrounded, and set on tire; and as ho came
out he was pierced with arrows (404 B.C.). After this di-
gression it is best to return to the Corinthian War.

When the Spartans had crushed Athens and thus regained
their former leadership over the whole of Greece, they treated
ali the other States with haughtiness, plundered the treasuries
of the League, and forced some of the States to give up their
old constitutions of government and introduce the oligarchical

41

form, in which the power over ali the peoplc is gafhered into
the hands of a few of the Aristocracy. Such conduct aroused
the hatred of ali the Greeks. They availed theniselves of the
absence of the Spartan king Agesilaus to form a league against
Sparta. That king had gone to Asia Minor, to war against
the Persians. He fought them victoriously in Asia Minor from
396 to 394 B.C. The Persians, in order to make ali the
trouble they could, and oblige king Agesilaus to abandon Asia
Minor, stirred up the Greeks against him. And thus Corintli,
Thebes, Argos, and Athens united against the power of Sparta.*
In 394 or 395 a battle  took plače, between the Spartans and
the allies of the Corinthian Coalition, at Haliartus  in Boeotia;
the Spartan leader Lysander was killed; and at about the same
time the Lacedaemonian (Spartan) fleet was defeated at the
Battle of Cnidus  in Karia by the Athenian leader Conon
and the Persian Satrap Pharnabazos.

The Spartans upon this recalled their king Agesilaus from
Asia Minor. On his way back, Agesilaus passed through
Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly. On reaching Coronea in
Westcrn Boeotia he was met, in 394, by the armies of the
Coalition; he defeated them in the famous battle of Coronea.
Meanvvhile the united Athenian and Persian fleets, under Conon
and Pharnabazus, plundered the coasts of Laconia, and in 393
they destroyed the Spartan fleet near Cnidus. Conon also
rebuilt the Long Walls from Athens to the Piraeus, with Persian
money. But the victory of Agesilaus at Coronea had gained
for the Spartans the preponderant power on land. And thus
after some years of fighting the Spartans forced the Greeks to
conclude peace, in 387, with the Persians. This is called the
p e a c e o f A n t a 1 c i d a s ; for he was the Spartan admiral or
leader of the fleet vvlio concluded it, he having been sent for
that purpose to Suša, the winter residence of the Persian kings.

By the shameful treaty ofAntalcidas the Greeks ga ve up
to the Persians ali the Grecian cities in Asia Minor, as well as

* And were supported with Persian money.

42

the islands of Clazomenae and Cyprus ; the Athenians retained
the islands of Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros; and ali the other
Grecian States and Islands were to be independent, Sparta and
Persia garanteeing their independence. Such was the shameful
(ignominious) end of the Corinthian War.

War between Thebes and Sparta. This war lasted from
379 — 362 B.C. It arose thus. The Spartans had,  in the
yea.r 383, occupied the fortress of Thebes called the Cadmeia.
The Spartan army leader Phoebidas had occupied it with his
troops when he was conducting them against 01ynthus.* This
occupation of their fortress, the Thebans could not endure.
Many Thebans had taken refuge in Athens. One of them,
Pelopidas, gathered a large number of Thebans; in 379 B.C.
they liberated Thebes from the Spartan rule, and drove the
Spartan troops out of the fortress called the Cadmea. The
Thebans established their supremacy over Boeotia, and then
concluded a treaty with Athens against Sparta. A new Con-
federacy or League was formed, and about 70 Grecian States
or communities joined it. The Spartans were repeatedly de-
feated. — In 371 was fought the battle of L e uk t ra. In this
battle the Theban leader Epaniinondas  defeated and killed
the Spartan leader Cleombrotos. Epaminondas then delivered
Messenia from the Spartan yoke. (See above pp. 15, 29.)

The Hegemony of the Thebans lasted from 371—362 B.C.
Pelopidas and Epaminondas were the greatest of the Theban
leaders. The wars against Sparta continued, and the armies
of the Theban League invaded the Peloponnesus three or four
times. The fourth expedition of the Thebans against the Pelo-
ponnesians occurred in the year 362 B.C. During this war,
occurred the Battle of Mantinea. In this battle Epaminondas,
the Theban, was victorious over the Spartans and their allies,
but he himself was killed. Pelopidas too had been killed in

* 01ynthos, in Chalkidike, liad tried to extend its authority over
several neighboring States, who appealed to Sparta; Phoebidas occupied it
in 379.

43

365 B.C., while figliting against Alexander of Pberae, tlic
tyrant of Thessaly. After the loss of her two great men, Thebes
rapidly lost her power. Ali Greece was weakened and weary
of continued warfare, and thus a general peace was brought
about between tbe many Grecian States, Sparta alone refusing
to accept it; for she was unwilling to acknowledge tbe in-
dependence of Messenia. But there was no longer a hegemony
or leadership of one State over tbe others.

About this time Agesilaos king of Sparta took some ships
and went to Egypt to assist tbe Egyptians in their rebellion,
under Tachos, against tbe Persian king Artaxerxes III Ocbos.
Tacbos, or Teos, was tbe successor of Necht-hor-beb. Tbe
Egyptian fleet was tben commanded by tbe Athenian leader
Chabrias. Agesilaos died, in 358 B.C., on bis voyage borne.

Retrospect. Athens’ power had been broken by tbe
Peloponnesian War. But during tbe period when tbe Thebans
were fighting tbe Spartans, Athens again raised berself to be
tbe Head of a numerous League or Confederation. Nevertheless
the Athenian State was undermined; for tbe ancient patriotism
and morality bad given plače to selfishness and luxury. Sparta
too, at the time when she had accpiired undisputed supremacy
in Greece, tbrough her victory over Athens, bad already in
her the germs of decay. These gerins lay in the loss of her
ancient simplicity of manners; and wben she began to build
sliips and introduee tbe precious metals, her citizens began to
love wealth and licentiousness. — Morality and patriotism were
preserved a while longer in Thebes; but with tbe deatb of
Epaminondas the glory of Thebes also passed away.

e)  The Rise of the Macedonian Power, and the Loss
of' Greek Freedom.

Philip II, king of Macedon, ruled from 360 to 336 B.C.
He was the son of king Amyntas II. Philip introduced tbe
system of keeping a standing army,  and of arranging the
foot - soldiers in the battle-order called the phalanx,  that is

44

to say in closely-packed rows, one beliind tbe other, 8 men deep
with spears 16 ft. long. He had extended his small Maeedonian
Kingdom westwards to the Adriatic Šea, and eastwards to the
river Strymon; be had conquered Potidaea, Amphipolis, 01yn-
thus, and Thessaly; he had bribed the Athenian orators, and
had thus deterred the Athenians from taking any decided action
against his plans of subjugating the rest of Greece. Philip
was only waiting for a favorable moment and good pretext to
conquer Greece, which was ali divided against itself.

Two wars occurred which gave him the wished-for oppor-
tunity to interfere in Greek affairs. First, there occurred from
357 — 355 B.C., the Social War* of the Athenian League
against Athens; and, secondly, there arose the Second Holy
War, against the Phocians, which lasted from 355 — 346. The
Phocians had been condemned by the Amphictyonic Council
to pay a very heavy fine for having used the holy land of
Cirrha, which land had been consecrated, or made waqf, to
the Temple of the god Apollo at Delphi. The Phocians plun-
dered the treasures in the great temple at Delphi; and this
gave tkem the means to employ mercenary troops. With tbese
troops they were enabled to maintain war for a long time
against the Thebans, Locrians, and Thessalians. The Thebans
called in the king of Macedon, Philip, to lielp them. This was
prccisely what he wanted. Philip defeated the Phocians, and
destroyed their cities; and in 346 B.C. the Phocians were
deprived of their right to have two votes  in the great Am-
phictyonic Council, their two votes being given to Philip of
Macedon.

The great Athenian orator, Demosthenes, in his eloquent
speeches against Philip (these speeches were called the Philip-
pics) warned the Athenians against the growing power of that
king. Notwithstanding ali the patriotic warnings of Demos¬
thenes, the orator, Philip, king of Macedon, was, in 339 B.C.,
elected by the Amphictyons as the army leader of the Grecian

* Chios, Kos, Khodos, and Byzantion against Athens.

45

forces in the Third Holy War. This was a war directed against
the Locrians, to punish them for unlawfully cultivating the
waqf  lands of the temple. Philip defeated the Locrians, and
occupied the city of Elatea in Phocis. The Greeks were
alarm ed by Philip’s successes, and awakened to comraon action
against him by Demosthenes. So at last the Corinthians, the
Thebans, and the Athenians United against Philip. A battle
was fought in 338 near Chaeronea  in Boeotia in whieh they
were defeated by him. By this battle the Greeks lost tlieir
freedom and independence, and the hegemony over them passed
into the hands of the Macedonian king.

At a national assembly held at the city of Corinth in 338,
at which ali the Greeks were represented except Sparta, who
would not take part, Philip was chosen leader, with full powers,
of the Grecian forces whicli were to carry on the war against
the old enemy of Greece, the Persians. The Macedonian Hege-
mony soon turned into an oppressive supremacy. Philip was
murdered in 336, and was succeeded by Lis son Alexander.

Summary for the Secontl Part of tlie Third Period in
Greek History. After the Peloponnesian War, Sparta had the
lead, and introduced oligarehical institutions everywhere in the
Greek States; in Athens, too, the rule of the Thirty Tyrants
was introduced, who were, however, expelled in 403 B.C.

The Corinthian War was ended by the Peace of Antal-
kidas. This was a war waged against Sparta by Corinth,
Thebes, Athens, and Argos, who were supported with money
furnished by the Persians; and peace was concluded by the
Spartan ‘nauarchos’ Antalkidas, in 387 B.C., with the Persian
king Artaxerxes Mnemon. By it the Greek colonial cities, on
the Continent of Asia Minor and in Cyprus, were sacrificed,
and came again under Persian sovereignty; whereas ali other
Greek cities were to have tlieir autonomy, or self-government.
Theneeforth Sparta becamc stili more haughty and violent
towards the other Grecian States.

In 379 B.C., Thebes rose against the Spartan despotism;
and, under the leadership of Epaminondas, she was vietorious

46

in 371 over tlie Spartans near Leuktra.  The Thebans
penetrated in 370 into the Peloponnesus, re-established the
Messenian State, and acquired the IPegemony or Leadership.
Epaminondas was again victorious in 362 at Mantineia, but
fell in the battle. Owing to internal disorder and strife, Sparta’s
power had begun to sink.

The Second Holy War, against the Phocians, from 355
to 346, afforded king Philip II of Macedon the opportunity of
intervening in the affairs of the Greeks. Having been entrusted
by the Amphictyonic Council with the conduct of the Third
Holy War against the Locrians, he defeated the Greeks, who
had been too slow in rallying together, near Chaeroneia,
in 338 B.C., and thus obtained the coveted hegemony.

The Holy Wars were carried on, in execution of the
decisions of the Amphictyonic League, for the protection of
the Delphic Oracle and Sanctuary against the rapacious neigh-
boring peoples. There were three such wars: 1. Holy War
from 600 — 590 against Krissa; 2. Holy War from 355 — 346
against Phocis; and 3. Holy War from 339 — 338 against
Amphissa in Ozolian Lokris. (See pp. 18, 44, 45.)

IV. Conquests of Alexander the Great,

Eleven Years of Warfare.

Alexander is a Greek name; it tneans “protector of men”.
Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia and son of Philip II by
his haughty wife 01ympias, was born in the year 356 B.C. at
Pella, the Capital eity of the Macedonian kingdom. He received
a scientihc education, his teacher having been the famous Greek
philosopher Aristoteles, whose writings on Logic were translated
eleven eenturies later into Arabic during the reign of the
Abbaside Calipli al-Mamun. Alexander was extremely fond
of poetry, and loved espeeially to read the epic poems of
Homer, the greatest of ali Greek poets. He always took with
him on his military expcditions a copy of the Homeric songs.

47

At the battle of Chaeronea,  in Boeotia, which his father
Philip fought, in 338 B.C., against tlic Greeks, and by which
Greece lost its independence, Alexander, then only 18 years
old, was the leader of the horse (cavalry); through his bravery
the Thebans and Athenians had been defeated, and thus Mace-
donia had become the leading State in ali Greece.

When his father, king Philip, was murdered in 336 by
Pansanias, a disaffected captain in the king’s body-guard, Alex-
ander succeeded to the throne under very difficult circumstances;
for many of the Greek States did not wish to submit to the
supremacy of Macedon. Alexander, nevertheless, soon got the
mastery over his opponents by his energy and decisive action.
His father before him had already compelled the Greeks to
choose him as the Commander-in-Chief of the Grecian forces
in the war which he intended to wage against the Persians.
Alexander likewise compelled the Greeks to appoint him in
the same capacity and for the same purpose.

After having put down a revolt of the Greeks by destroy-
ing the city of Thebes in Boeotia, Alexander undertook, in
the year 334 B.C., tlic invasion of Asia, the overthrovv of the
mighty Persian king, and the conquest of his vast eastern
kingdom. He was then only 22 years old. He entered upon
this daring undertaking with an army of only thirty - tlionsand
foot (infantry) and five thousand horse (cavalry). They crossed
the Hellespont (Dardanelles) near Abydos. The great and once
powerful Persian Empire had become weakened by age, and
was fast crumbling to pieces through the differences of race
and the unjust and cruel rule of its wicked kings.

Alexander was met near the rivulet called G rani  k os,
in Troas, by the first opposing armies under Memnon, the leader
of the Greek mercenary troops in the service of king Darius III
Kodomannos, and under the Persian Satraps. Near this small
stream, the young Macedonian king routed them completely,
in May 334 B.C., and Asia Minor fcll into his hands. He
then took the cities of Miletus and Halicarnassus, and spent
the winter in Phrygia. (See Miletus’ at end ot Appendix.)

48

While waiting for the snows to thaw off of the mountains,
he visited the temple in the city of Gordium in Phrjgia, to
consult the orade there on the prospects of his success. An
ox-yoke with a knotted cord was thrown to him, which was
supposed to have been tied by Gordios, an ancient king of
Phrygia, the ends of the cord being quite hidden in the knot;
and the orade said to Alexander that the world would belong
to him who could unloose the knot. After trying for some
time Alexander said: If I cannot unravel the knot, I will cut
it. So taking his sword, he cut the gnarled cord in tvvo, and
the ends showed themselves, whereupon the knot was easily
loosened. Since that day the saying : “to cut the Gordian knot”
means ‘to settle by force what cannot be otherwi.se overcome’.

In Nov. 333 B.C., Alexander opened for himself the way
into the interior of the Persian dominions by the great battle
of Issos,  a town on the gulf of the same name on the
Southern coast of Cilicia. A great number of Persians were
killed in tliis memorable battle; others were either taken pris-
oners or fled. Darfus III Kodomannos himself escaped, but
liis wives and daughters fell into the liands of the victor.
Alexander did not mareh at once into Persia itself, but chose
rather first to destroy the Persian maritime power  on the
Mediterranean Sea. So he turned southwards. And while
Darius ded across the Euphrates river, the invader marched
rapidly into Syria and Phoenicia, which he conquered in
332 B.C. Macedonian troops occupied the ancient and wealthy
commercial and industrial city of Damascus, the capital of
Western Aramaea, to which the Persians had transferred a
great portion of their treasures. The island-city of Tyre had
refused to admit a Macedonian garrison within its walls, and
was taken only after a siege that lasted seven months. The
city of Gaza also, in Philistia, withstood the conqueror for two
months. Samaria and Jerusalem opened their gates without
fighting. The seaports were easilv secured.

1‘ rom Gaza he marched in seven days to Pelusium, the
gate or key of Egypt, and thence to Memphis. The Egyptians

49

hailed Ilira as their deliverer from the hated Persian yoke.
Here, as everywhere else, the Macedonian king, who was a
heathen and a polytheist like ali the people of those days except
the Jews, honored the native faith by offering sacrifices and
holding feasts in honor of the statues, gods and holy animals.
This conduct gained for him the good-will of the Egyptian
priests; they remembered how, 200 years before, the Persian
conqueror Carnbyses had stabbed the sacred hlačk buli Apis
and burned the statues of the gods in the ancient temple of
Pattah at Mempliis. So when Alexander went to the Oasis of
Siwa, to worship in the temple of 'Ammun, the Egyptian priests
declared him to be a son of that god: ‘Sen'Ammun, NeferNuter.’

Alexander founded the city of Alexandria  on the site
of the ancient frontier fort called Rhakotis opposite the island of
Pharos. There were good reasons for choosing this spot for
laying out a new seaport town in Egypt. The old harbor at
Pelusium, on the eastern corner of the Delta, had become so
shallow that ships could hardly enter it. Tlie other ancient
sea-port at Taniš was no longer near enough to the sea; and
Naukratis on the Canopic branch of the Nile was also too far
inland. The experience of thousands of years had taught the
Egyptian engineers that there is in the Mediterranean, along
the coast of the Delta, a slow steady current which sets from
west to east. This current carries with it some of the immense
masses of mud which the Nile brings down; and the mud
settles always to the eastward of the Nile mouths, owing to
the set of the current. Alexander, by choosing the extreme
western corner for his city and harbor, laid them west of ali the
deposits of Nile mud. That he was right, is abundantly proved
when it is remembered that the Alexandria harbor lias not
been made shallow during the past 2200 years, whereas the
quite modern harbor and its entrance at Port - Sa’id fills up
with Nile-mud so rapidly that dredging machines have to be
kept working ali the time to clear a channel for the ships that
pass into the Suez Canal, whilst the Pelusium harbor has
alrnost disappeared, and Taniš now stands several miles inland.

50

During Alexander’s operations in Palestine and Egypt,
Darius, wlio fled across tlie Eupkrates, had gone to Babylonia
and had gathered another large army in Assyria. Wishing to
give his enemy no time to choose tke plače of attack, Alexander
in the Spring of 331 B.C., led his army tkrough Syria and
thence into tke heart of tke Persian Empire. He crossed tke
Eupkrates river near Thapsacos (whick means the ford or
Crossing-plače), marcked across northern Mesopotamia, and
crossed over tke river Tigris without meeting with any oppo-
sition. On going across tke Tigris near Bedzabdek he met
with tke Persian army in tke plain of Arbela  in Assyria.
near Gaugamela, not far from the ruins of tke great city of
Nineveh. Here, on tke lst day of Oct. 331 B.C., the tkird
decisive battle was fought. The rigkt wing of the Persian
army advanced victoriously and captured the Macedonian camp.
Alexander, however, witk the phalanx, broke into the main
body or centre of tke enemy, and put tkem and tke Persian
king to flight. The others fled. Ali the treasures, chariots,
and weapons of Darius were taken. The Persian power was
broken. Darius fled to Ekbatana. Alexander marcked south-
wards from Arbela, to occupy the chief  cities. The satrap
Mazaeos opened the gates of Babylon to tke victor. Suša with
ali its treasures was easily taken. Persepolis and Pasargadae
were conquered. The farnous palače in Pasargadae took lire
and was burnt down. Darius abandoned Ekbatana and fled
northwards. That city fell without a blow into Alexander’s
hands.

In the Spring of 330 B.C., Alexander set out in pursuit
of Darius. He left Parmenion, one of his generals, in Ekbatana.*
Darius was taken prisoner by some of the disaffected satraps
and was murdered by Bessos, one of them. Alexander sent
the king’s body to Persepolis and had it buried there.** He

* To guard the conqueretl treasures that had been brought together
from Suša and Pasargadae and amounted to 50,000 talents, or about
L. Eg. 11,750,000; or as others say 120,000 talents, amounting to more than
L. 28,200,000.

** The ancestral burial-place of the Achaemenids.

51

thenceforth considered himself as the successor of tlie Persian
kings. During tke year 330 he took possession of the three
provinces of Aria, Drangiana, and Arachosia, and founded
the city of Alexandria, now called Qandahar. He spent the
winter season (of snow and ice) at Prophthasia in Drangiana.
Here he discovered a plot against him in the army. Alexander,
while subjugating the people, wished to gain their sympathies.
So he adopted the manners and ways of the Persians, and
appointed some to offices. This course awakened jealousy and
mistrust among the Macedonians. Many of tkem demanded
their share of the spoil and their return to their komes. The
most active in this movement were the general Parmenion and
his son Philotas. They had even gone so far as to plot against
Alexander’s life. Both were discovered and killed.

In the Spring of 329 B.C., Alexander continued his
march upon Bactria. He crossed the high mountain-passes of
the Hindu-Kush, and penetrated into Sogdiana. Going furtker
north, he reached the river Jaxartes, on the banks of wkicli
he founded the city which he called Alexandria eschate, i. e.,
the furthermost Alexandria. He crossed that river and sub-
jected the Skyths. While in the city of Samarqand he mur-
dered, in a fit of wild madness, his friend Klitos wlio had
rescued him from death at the battle of the Granicus. This
was in the year 328. — In 327 he completed the conquest and
subjection of Sogdiana. On the fall of the fortress of Prince
Oxyartes, the beautiful daughter of the latter, II o x a n a, fell
into Alexander’s hands. He married her, to show the conquered
people that he wished the Macedonians of the west and the
Asiatics of the east to unite in friendship and by marriage,
and thus become one people under one ruler.

Alexander stili thirsted for conquest. He wanted to bring
the wonderful land of India under his scepter. Towards the end
of the year 327 B.C., he set out with an army of 120,000 men
for that country. Crossing the Hind-Kush mountains a second
time, he went down the valley of the Kophen (Qabul), and

i*

52

entered the Indian territory or the region of the river Indus.
Here he found that the advance-guard of his army had already
built a bridge of boats over the river. Taxiles, an Indian
prince, joined him. Without difficulty he reached the river
Hydaspes (now called Jilam) in the Penjab. Here Poros with
a vast army tried to stop him from marching further eastwards.
Alexander and his army crossed the river in the sight of the
enemy. The latter, although having many war elephants,
were defeated. By kind and noble treatment of king Poros,
whom he had taken captive, Alexander won his friendship,
and Poros became thenceforth his true and faithful ally.
Alexander led his hosts across two more streams. But when
the river Hyphasis was reached, the soldiers refused to go any
farther. He here set up 12 altars, and celebrated his conquests
by feasts and games.

Returning to the Hydaspes, he caused two thousand boats
to be built, and with a part of the army embarked in tliem;
the rest of the troops were led on land along both banks of
the Hydaspes, by the generals Krateros and Hephaestion, and
then down along the Indus river to Pattala. Ali the people
through whose regions they passed were subdued.

From the mouth of the Indus Alexander sailed out a
distance into the open sea, and offered sacrifices to the gods.
He then despatched Nearchos with the fleet along the coast
to the Persian Gulf. He himself took the other part of the
army and began his return-march by land, in 325 B.C. He
passed through Gedrosia and Karamania. After a sixty-days’
march of great hardships and privations through the deserts
he reached Karamania, and there joined Krateros, who had
follovved the easier route by the north through Drangiana.
In Karamania he learned that Nearchos with the fleet had
arrived safely in the Persian Gulf.

Alexander arrived at Suša quite unexpectedly, the people
there thinking he could not get back so soon from India. He
continued his endeavors to unite the conquering and the con-
quered into one great nation. He wanted to weld the West

53

and the East into one great Macedonian - Persian universal
Empire! With this aim in view he married Stateira, Darius’s
daughter. At the same time he got 80 of his Macedonian high
officials and 10,000 other Macedonians to marry Persian wives.
And further, in order to complete his army, he took 30,000
of the ‘Barbarians’, enrolled them, armed them with Greek
weapons, and drilled them according to the Macedonian manner
of warfare. This again awakened the anger and jealousy of
the Macedonians. When king Alexander was at Opis on the
Tigris, in 324 B.C., and wished to dismiss the veterans, that
they might return home, a mutiny broke out among the troops;
they a 11 demanded to be sent home again. Alexander quelled
the revolt by himself springing in among the rioters and killing
thirteen of the ring - leaders. He then promised to meet the
wishes of the troops, but at the same time surrounded himself
with Asiatic soldiers. The Macedonians were appeased, and
begged the king’s pardon. A great feast of reconciliation was
held, and only 10,000 veterans were discharged and sent home
under Krateros.

Alexander stili went on with his plans for the future
conquest of Arabia, the circumnavigation of Africa, and the
conquest of Italv—for the realisation of the dream  of setting
up a world-wide monarchy. 'Azrael, the receiver of souls,
under the cover of a high fever, took him off on the 1 lth of
June 323 B.C. at Babylon. Two years afterwards, his body
was removed from Babylon to Memphis and finally interred
at Alexandria in Egypt, by the first Ptolemy.

He left no successor competent to rule over the vast
empire. Shortly after his death, Roxana bore him a son who
was named Alexander Aegos. This infant child was proclaimed
king, but was murdered, twelve years aftervvards (in 311 B.C.),
by Kassandros, one of the Macedonian army-leaders.

For Summary see end of Chap. VI, ‘Egypt under the
Ptolemies’.

54

V. The Period of the Wars between Alexander’s
Army-Leaders.

From his Deatli in 323 B.C., to the Battle near Ipsos in 301 B.C. (22 years).

In Alexander’s army were some able generals, several of
whom had alreadj served in Macedonia under his father, king
Philip. These generals saw that Alexander’s infant son could
not rule over the vast empire, which extended from Greece
to the Persian Gulf, and from the oasis of Siwa to the Indus
River. So they at first agreed to divide the empire into several
great parts, whieh were to be ruled over, and administered
by them, till the infant son should have grown up. Soon,
however, they began to quarrel over the division of the empire,
and ended by waging war one against the other. After 1 o n g
and w e a r y w a r s it was divided among them as fo!lows:

Perdikkas was to be the regent  in the name of the two
incapable kings. These were: (1) Alexander the Great’s half-
brother, Philip Arrhideus, who was aftervrards, murdered in
317 B.C., and (2) Alexander the Great’s post-humous son,
Alexander Aegos, by his wife Roxana, who were afterwards
both killed in 311 B.C.

Antipater and Krateros \vere to administer Macedonia
and the adjoining eountries.

The other army-leaders received provinees as follows:

Ptolemy son of Lagos received Egypt.

Antigonus received Great Phrygia, &c.

Eumenes, Alexander’s coniidential scribe, received Paphla-
gonia and Kappadokia.

Leonnatus received Phrygia on the Hellespont.

Lastly, Lysiinachus, received Thrace.

Perdikkas, the regent, was planning to marry Alexander’s
sister and declare liimself the king. But most of the other
leaders formed a federation against him, and he was killed,
in B.C. 321, by his own troops.

55

The new regent, Antipater, undertook a fresh division of
the provinces among the leaders. By it Seleukos obtained the
Satrapj of Babylonia.

After the death of Antipater, the seeond regent, war arose
between his son Kassander and the aged Polysperchon con-
cerning the regency  of the Empire. Antigonus, who had
received Great Phrygia, united with Kassander and was victori-
ous in Asia Minor; Kassander was victorious in Europe.

But as Antigonus sought to bring the whole empire under
his sway, war broke out between him and the rulers of the
other provinces. This war lasted 14 years, from 315—301 B.C.,
during which Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes
assumed the title of ki n g. Their example in this respect was
followed by Ptolemy Lagos, by Seleukos, Lysimachus and
Kassander. (See p. 58.)

In these wars between the Macedonian generals, first over
the regency and then over the supremacy itself, ali the members
of Alexander’s royal family had either died, or had been
murdered. His ambitious and cruel mother Olvmpias was
sentenced to death at the instigation of Kassander; and she
was actually stoned to death, in 316 B.C., by the relatives of
those whom she had previously murdered.

After much fighting, the war against Antigonus was
brought to an end in the year 301 B.C. by the Battle  near
Ipsos  in Phrygia. Antigonus fell, his son Demetrius Polior¬
cetes ded. Antigonus Gonatas,  the son of Demetrius, at
last gained permanent possession of Macedonia, in 277 B.C.

The Macedonian generals and other followers in the army
of Alexander the Great, both army-leaders and common troops,
were the ruling class  almost everywhere throughout the vast
dominions. The Greek language, Greek arts, Sciences, and
philosophy took the plače of the ancient castern civilisations,
— i. e. among the educated and the upper classes, but hardly
among the great bulk of the people.

Five great States,  or Kingdoms, to which should be
added the Republic of the island of Rhodes, and the Grecian

56

Oantons, arose out of Alexander the Great’s concprests.
They were:

1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies or Lagides, with the Capital
at Alexandria.  305 — 30 B.C.

2. Syria, under the Seleucidae, with the Capital first at
Seleucia  on the river Tigris, and then at Antioch  on the
Orontes river in Northern Syria. 301 — 85 B.C.

3. The kingdom of Pergamos, under the Attalides, with
the Capital at P er gam um in Mysia in the northwestern corner
of Asia Minor. 282—129 B.C.

4. Bithynia, with the Capital atNicomedia  (now called
Ismid). 281 — 74 B.C.

5. Macedonia, under the descendants of Demetrius Polior-
cetes, Capital Pella,  till 168 B.C.

6. Island of Rhodes, till 44 A.D.

7. The Greek Cantons, with the Athenians at their head.

For summary see end of next Chapter.

VI. Egypt under the Ptolemies, or the Macedonian

Dynasty.

The last Egyptian king of the Thirtieth Dynasty was
Nccht-nebf (Nectanebos II). Hc reigned from 361 — 345 B.C.
He was driven out of Egypt into Aethiopia by the Persian
king Artaxerxes III surnamed Ochos. This king re-subdued
Egypt, which thus again became a Persian Satrapy, as it had
been under Cambyses and four of his successors.

Artaxerxes Tliird was succeeded by Darius Third Kodo-
mannus. He was the last of the Persian kings, and the monarch
whose armies Alexander of Macedon defeated at the river
G r a n i k o s, and whom he defeated near I s s o s and again on
the plain of Arbela  near Gaugamela. [1. Egvpt under Alex-
ander, 333 — 323 B.C. — 2. During the Wars of the Diadoches,
323 — 305 B.C.— 3. As a Kingdom, 305 — 30 B.C.— In ali,
the Macedonian Supremacy over Egypt lasted 303 years.]

The Ptol e m i e s or Lagides  were a dy nasty of Mace¬
donian origin, who ruled over Egypt from 323 B.C. to 30 B.C.,
— about 293 years. There were in ali eleven or thirteen Ptolemies.

57 —

General Survey of Macedonian Dynasty in Egypt.

a) Macedonian Conquest of Egypt. B.C.

1. Alexander, witk the 2 Ram’s horns, took Egypt in 333.

b) Kings in Name only, bnt not in Fact.

2. Philip Arrhidaeus, Alexander’s Stupid Half-brother 323.

3. Alexander Aigos. (He and Philip only nominally) 317.

c) The Three potverful Ptolemies.

4. Ptolemy I Lagi Soter I, officially as king . 305 — 285.

5. Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Sister-Lover) . . . 285 — 247.

6. Ptolemy III Euergetes I (Well-Doer) . . . 247 — 222.

d) Cominencement of Deeliue of Macedonian Dynasty.

7. Ptolemy IV Philopator I (Father - Lover) Try-

phon, the Glutton. 222 — 205.

e) Fnrther Decline, and Roman Intervention.

8. Ptolemy V Epiphanes (Illnstrious) ....  205 —181.

9. Ptolemy VI Eupator (Good-Father) a few months . 181.

10. Ptolemy VII Philometor (Mother-Lover) . . 181 — 146.

f) Increased Interference of Rome.

11. Ptolemv VIII Philopator II a few months . . . 146.

12. Ptolemy IX Euergetes II, Pkyskon, the Fat,

in 170 B.C., and then alone from . . . 146 — 117.

13. Ptolemy X Soter II Latliyrus (the Uirty) . . 117 — 81.

14. Ptolemy XI Alexander II (103 B.C.) sent to Cyprus —.

15. Ptolemy XII Alexander III (short time only) . .

g) Roman Influence paramonnt in Egypt.

16. Ptolemy XIII Philopator III Neodionysos, the

Flute-Player Auletes. 81 — 52.

h)  Fnrther Complications with Romans, and final Overthrovv
of the Macedonian Dynasty.

17. Cleopatra VI Philopator. 52 — 30.

The Graeco - Macedonian Rule over Egypt lasted from
333 to 30 B.C. Alexandria was the Capital; Heliopolis,
Memphis and Thebes became of secondary importance.

58

323 B.C. — Ptolemy I son of Lagus, surnamed
Soter, which means Saviour or Deliverer. This epithet was
given him by tho people of the Rhodian Republic because of
the lielp hc had afforded tbem, during the wars of the Dia-
doches (successors of Alexander), against Demetrius Poliorcetes.
Ptolemy defeated Antigonus and Perdikkas, wbo bad tbreatened
to bring bis province, i. e. Egypt, under their rule; whilst be
wished to govern it independently of them.

After the murder of Alexander Second Aegus, whom
Kassander killed, Ptolemy assumed the title of k i n g, in
305 B.C. He thus governed Egypt as satrap from 323 —305;
and as king he ruled over this country from 305 — 284 B.C.
He took part in the decisive battle near Ipsos in Phrygia in
301 B.C. which closed tlie period of the Diadoches or successors
of Alexander the Conqueror. By that battle Ptolemy obtained,
besides Egypt, the Island of Cyprus and Cyrene (Qayrawan).

He actively carried on the enlarging of the city of
Alexandria  that had been founded by the conqueror. Great
temples and magnificent palaces were built; and soon Alexandria
became one of the most beautiful Capital cities and roval resi-
dences in the world. — [Alexander had founded several other
cities which he called Alexandria. For example: 1. in Troas;
— 2. near Issos, and stili called Alcxandretta; ■ 3. in Ara-
chosia, and now called Qandahar; 4. in Areia, and now
called Herat; - 5. in Baktria, on the Paropamisos; — 6. in
Baktria also, on the Jaxartes, and now called Khojent; and
lastly, 7. on the Indus. But of ali tbese Alexandrias the most
important is the one in Egypt.] — The architects who planned
and laid out the city in 332 were Deinochares (or Dinocrates)
and Kleomenes. It had regular streets Crossing each other at
right angles, and was 30 stadia long, by 10 stadia broad, or
about 19 kilometres in circumference. The city consisted of
two chief parts or quarters: the Brucbeion in the northeast,
and the Rhakotis in the soutliwest.

1. The Brucbeion was the larger and finer of the two,
and vvas inhabited by the Greeks; in it were: the royal palače:

59

tho world-renowned Museum, with its library of 400,000 rolls
of books; tbe Mausoleum or Šema, the burial plače of the
kings, where the remains of Alexander the Great were also
interred; the Gvmnasium; the two needles or obelisks; and
the hippodrome near the Canopic Gate (now called Bab-Sharqi).

2. The Rhakotis, the part inhabited by the lower classes.
In it were the Akropolis and the Serapeum,* in which latter
was another valuable library. Outside the western gate lay
the vast underground Nekropolis, or burial plače. In the
middle of the city was a large open plače. In front of the
city lay the rocky island called Pha ros,  which was joined to
the mainland by a dyke called the Heptastadion. On the
higher rock in the northeast corner of the island stood the
lighthouse,  which was built in the third century before
Christ by the architect Sostratos, and was 130 metres liigh.
A wood tire was kept burning ali night on the top of this
splendid tower and could be seen to a distance of 300 stadia
(about 50 — 60 kilometres). This was perhaps the first light¬
house ever built. The museum  was a vast editice founded
by Ptolemy for the use of the learned teachers and their
numerous pupils, as well as for keeping the manuscript rolls.
Alexandria soon took the plače of Athens as the seat of Greek
Literature. Euclid,  the famous mathematician, was a personal
friend of the king.

Whilst the old Egyptian tongue continued as before to
be the language of the natives throughout Egypt, the Greek
tongue was the language spoken at Court and used by the
educated classes and in the government ofiices. Two years
before his death the aged Ptolemy Soter abdicated the throne
in favor of his son.

285 — 247 B.C. — Ptolcmy Second Philadelphus
succeeded his father. He desired to increase trade and Com¬
merce; so he sent ships, manned by hardy sailors and bold

* Its site is marked by Pompey’s Piilar, now known as ‘amud-al-

sawari.

60

captains, who explored the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.
He founded the seaport town of Arsinoe, near the modern Suez.
Between the years 264—258 B.C. he penetrated into Ethiopia.
He also brought Phoenicia under Egyptian rule. The great
undertaking, begun by Pharaoh Necho (ruled from 610 to
594 B.C.) son of Psametik I of the Sa’i'te or 26tk dynasty, —
the great undertaking of digging a canal, which was to unite
the Red Sea with the Nile and thus with the Mediterranean,
was again taken up and carried out. During the reign of
Ptolemy Second Philadelphus a Greek translation of the Hebrew
Sacred Books was made. This translation into Greek is called
the Septuagint (or LXX), because it is said to have been made
by seventy learned Jews.

Manetho  and his successor Eratosthenes  were the
librarians. Manetho, an Egyptian priest from Sebennytus, Sa-
manud, was well acquainted with the Greek Language and with
the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic, liieratic and demotic writings,
as well as with the religion of the old Egyptians. Ptolemy II
Philadelphus charged him with compiling, from the Egyptian
inscriptions, rolls and other documents, a full history of Egypt
from the earliest times, and with writing this history in Greek.
Manetho wrote it in four books or parts. This great work,
called “The Histories of Egypt”, enjoyed a high reputation in
after times but it was afterwards lost, it perished; and only
Manetho’s Lists of Egyptian Dynasties and Kings, with the
numbers of years of each king’s reign, have been preserved to
our times. Eratosthenes, Manetho’s successor as librarian at
Alexandria, was not only a mathematician, but also an astro-
nomer and a geographer; of his learned works only small parts
of his chronological book called the Laterculus (little brick)
have remained to our day.

The contemporary of Ptolemy was E r g a m e n e s, or
Arq - Ammun, the powerful king of Ethiopia. Ptolemy II put
down a rebellion headed by his brother Magas who was
governor of Cyrene (Qayrawan). He also carried on a war
against Antiochus Second, king of Syria, one of the Seleucidae.

61

247—222 B.C.  — Ptolemy Third Euergetes. He
was entitled Euergetes, which means the Well-doer or Beneficent,
by tlie Egyptian priests, because lie brougkt back from Asia
some statues of Egyptian gods that had been taken away by
the Persians during their domination over Egypt. This king
marched with his armies through Syria, crossed the Euphrates,
conquered Babylonia, Susiana, and Persia, going as far as
Baktria. On his return he brought back the images of the
Egyptian gods that Cambyses had carried off. He also retook
the Upper Nile Valley as far as Ibrim, above Koroško. He
died after a reign of 25 years.

The first three Ptolemies reigned over Egypt a littlo more
than one h u n d r e d years. During their reigns Egypt became
povverful and wealthy, and the seat of Greek learning. After
them, the Macedonian Dynasty in Egypt began to decline
rapidly in morals and in power.

222 — 205 B.C. — Ptolemy Fourth Philopator.
He called hiinself Philopator, which means the Lover of his
Fatker; but the people gave him the epithet “Tryphon”, which
means “Glutton”, because of his gluttony and drunken habits.
His predecessor had laid the foundation for the new building
which was to take the plače of the ancient but ruined temple
of the god Hor at Edfu;  he continued the work thus begun.
Indeed ali succeeding Ptolemies, down to Neo-Dionysos, con¬
tinued this great work during 180 years; and the Edfu temple
n o w stands, in almost perfect preservation, to testify to the
čare the Ptolemies had for architecture and for the ancient
Egyptian religion.

Ptolemy Philopator Tryphon carried on a long war against
Antiochus the Great of Syria (one of the Seleucidae), and de-
feated him at the Battle of Raphia  (216 B.C.), a city on the
coast of Palestine and southwest of Gaza. But notwithstanding
this victory, the war ended unfavorably; for Egypt lost its
supremacy over Phoenicia and over the places it had possessed
in Asia Minor since the days of Ptolemy Euergetes the con-

62

queror. The power of the Graeco-Macedonian Dynasty of the
Ptolemies had begun to decline. And about this time Rome,
the great Power in the west, hegan to interfere in the internal
affairs of Egypt. When Ptolemy Philopator Tryphon died,
his son and legitimate successor was only five years old.
He was:

205- 181 B.C. — Ptolemy Fifth Epiphanes.  This
title means “the Glorious, or the Illustrious”. Being a mere
child, he could not rule, but needed a tutor, or regent,, to
direct the government of the country for him. The first tutor
or regent was Agathocles. But the people were dissatisfied
with him. After three days of great riot and disorder, Aga¬
thocles was divested of the Regency. The next regent for
the infant king was Tlepolemos. He too was soon set aside.
The third regent was Aristomenes, by birth an Acarnanian
Greek. The young king’s minority lasted 8 years. During
this period the revolt of the dissatisfied people had grown to
be almost a full rebellion. The rebels assembled at Lykopolis,
a town in the Buširite nome in the Delta. During this period
also Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, had attacked and
retaken ali the towns in Phoenicia and Syria that had till then
remained subject to Egypt.

Agathocles the deposed regent went to Aetolia in Greece,
to enrol Greek mercenaries for the Service of the Egyptian
army. He returned to Egypt from Aetolia in 202 B.C.,
bringing with him 6000 Aetolian mercenaries. In view of ali
these troubles the guardians or regents of Ptolemy Epiphanes
invoked the aid of the Roman Senate.  The Romans sent
to Egypt a deputation, at the head of which was the Roman
Patrician Aemilius Lepidus.

Scopas, at the head of the Egyptian army, invaded Pa¬
lestine. Antiochus the Great and his army met Scopas and
his army on the banks of the river Jordan. A battle was
fought in 201 B.C. near the city of Banias.  Scopas was
defeated and retreated behind the walls of Sidon with ten
thousand soldiers. Antiochus besieged it, and Scopas capi-

63

tulated. Antiochus then took Samaria and Jerusalem. — When
the eight years of Ptolemy’s mi nori tv were over, he was crowned
king of Egypt, March 27, 197 B.C. He died at the age of
29, and in the 24th year after his father’s death, in the winter
of the year 181 B.C.

181 B.C. — Ptolemy Sixth Eupator.  He reigned
less than one year. His name is, therefore, often omitted
in the lists. He was probably murdered by his brother and
successor Ptolemy Philometor.

181 — 146 B.C. — Ptolemv Seventh Philometor.
He went to Syria, to fight the Seleucid king of that country,
and was there taken prisoner and kept captive till 170 B.C.
During his captivity, his mother Cleopatra ruled over Egypt
and associated ker son, Ptolemy IX Euergetes II, with her.
Then, after he returned from captivity, the two brothers (that
is to say Philometor I and Euergetes II) ruled jointly or to-
gether from 170— 164 B.C.

In the year 164 the Roman Senate obliged Euergetes II
to retire to Cyrene; and he did not come back to Egypt until
after the death of his brother Philometor I, in 146 B.C. —
But before Euergetes II could come back, P tole m y VIII
Philopator Second,  the son of Philometor, arose and
opposed his return. Philometor Second ruled less than one
year; so his name too is often omitted in the list of Ptolemies.

146 —117 (or 170—117,  see above). — Ptolemv Ninth
Euergetes Second  called Physkon, which means “the
Fat”. This king took his si s ter Cleopatra Second to wife;
but not only this, — he also took her daughter  Cleopatra
Third to be his wife. From 141—131 he had them both as
his wives. In 130 B.C. he was driven away; but in 127 he
was recalled to power. He repaired the temple of the goddess
I si s on the island of Philae,  and built the temple of Ape
at Thebes. He also built the roof of the temple at Edfu.

117  — 81 B.C. — Ptolemy Tenth,  called also Soter
Second, and surnamed Lathyrus. He ruled jointly with his

— 64

mother Cleopatra Third surnamed Kokke. She favored her
younger son Alexander. So he was sent away to the island
of Cyprus, in 114 B.C. Cleopatra Kokke then drove away
her elder son Soter Second, in 107 B.C. Bnt he returned
in 89. While he was away, her younger son, Alexander, was
brought back from Cyprus and associated with her as Ptolemy
Eleventh. About the time of Soter’s return the city of Thebes
was partially destroyed, in consequence of a revolt of the in-
habitants.

Ptolemy Eleventh Alexa,nder Second married
his step-mother, Berenice Third- then he killed her, and was
for tliat deed driven away to Arabia (to the land of Punt).

P t o 1 e m y T w e 1 f t h A1 e x a n d e r Third  appeared as
ruler for a very short time.

81—52 B.C. — Ptolemy Tliirteenth Philopator
Third,  called also Philadelphus Second, and also surnamed
Neodionysos. The people further called him Auletes, i. e.,
“the Flute-player”. — Ptolemy Eleventh had made his last will
and testament, and had in it bequeated Egypt to the Romans.
But they tolerated Ptolemy Thirteenth, and let him rule. His
wife was Cleopatra Fiftli called Tryphaena; his daughter was
Berenice Fourth. He killed her, and then went to Rome.
During his absence the t e m p 1 e of E d f u was finished.
He returned to Egypt and died in 52 B.C. This king began
to re-build the temple of the goddess Hat-hor at D and ar ah;
it was not finished till 175 years later; it stands on the site
of a much more ancient temple that dated from the days of the
earliest Egyptian dynasties of the Ancient Empire.

In 58 B.C., Cato the younger, a Roman, was sent to
take possession of the island of Cyprus. In 63 B.C., Pompey,
another Roman, conq nered Syria. (See Roman History.)

52 — 30 B.C. — Cleopatra Sixtli  called Philopator.—
She was the daughter of Ptolemy Thirteenth Neodionysos the
Flute-player. She married her brother Ptolemy Fourteenth,
in 51 B.C.— She was only 17 years old when she assumed
the power. Her brother was only nine years of age. He had

65

a favorite officer named Achilles. The young Ptolemy and
Achilles drove Cleopatra awa.y. She fled to Syria. Caesar,
the great Roman, had defeated his rival, Pompey, at Pharsalus
in Thessaly (Greece) on the 9th of August 48 B.C.; and
Pompey fled to Egypt. On landing at Pelusium, Pompey was
murdered, in September 48, by the envovs of the young
Ptolemy. Caesar, the great Roman, pursued Pompey to Egypt.
When he came to Alexandria, he found that Cleopatra had
gathered an army in Syria and was going to attack her brother.
Caesar prevailed upon Ptolemy and Cleopatra to make peace,
and she returned. Her brother fell one day into the river and
was drowned.

While Caesar was at Alexandria, a revolt  of the
Egyptians broke out; he and his Roman troops were besieged
for some time in the Brucheion. — Caesar was much taken
by Cleopatra’s beauty. She in 47 B.C. bore him a son whom she
called Caesarion. Before the birth of this son, however, Caesar
had gone back to Rome. Cleopatra went to Rome on a visit,
and was Caesar’s guest there. She then married her other
brother Ptolemy Fifteenth, in 47 B.C.; but she killed him in
44 B.C., i. e., the same year in which Caesar was murdered
at Rome (see Hist. of Rome). She probably did this in the
interests of her son Caesarion Ptolemy Sixteenth. Caesarion
had been born about 46 B.C.

After Caesar had been murdered at Rome, three Roman
leaders quarrellcd and fought over the division of power in
the great Roman State. These three were Mark Antony,
Octavian the nephew of Caesar, and Lepidus. The Romans
called upon Cleopatra to send ships of war and troops to help
them in fighting a Roman named Cassius, who had a large
army in Greece. Cleopatra sent men and ships under the
command of Serapion, her governor over Cyprus. But Sera-
pion, instead of helping the three Romans (Mark Antony,
Octavianus and Lepidus), lielped their adversary Cassius and
his ally Brutus, the murderer of Julius Caesar. At the battle
near Philippi in Thrace, Mark Antony was victorious, in the
year 42 B.C. 9

66

He then ravaged Asia Minor and Syria. He soon sent
word to Cleopatra summoning her to meet him at Tarsus in
Cilicia, to answer the accusation that she had sent Serapion
to fight against him and not for him. She appeared in 41 B.C.
before Mark Antony at Tarsus, with her ships and troops, in
ali the pomp and magnificence of an Eastern Queen. Mark
Antony fell in love with her, and followed her to Egypt. He
forgot his wife who was in Rome. She was Octavia, the sister
of Octavianus, and of the noble Roman family of the Caesars.
Further, Mark Antony gave to Cleopatra several provinces in
the East. Ali these doings aroused Rome’s displeasure.

Meanwhile Octavian had become the greatest man in
Rome. The Roman Senate declared war against Antony and
Cleopatra. This war lasted during 31 and 30 B.C.—Antony
and Cleopatra gathered ships and troops, and went to Ephesus
near Smyrna, thence to Athens, and thence to Patras on the
gulf of Corinth. But they had delayed so long, that Octavi¬
anus completed his preparations and transported his troops
from Italy across the Adriatic to Epirus. On the 2nd of Sept.
31 B.C., the fleet of Octavianus defeated the Egyptians near
Actium  (La Punta), at the entrance of the small gulf of
Ambrakos. Cleopatra fled with her ships; Antony followed
her. The army on land surrendered to Octavianus without
a blow. Cleopatra returned to Egypt, and Antony followed
her. She at one time thought of transporting her treasures
and ships from the Mediterranean to Suez* and of fleeing down
the Red Sea; but she soon gave up this plan, for the canal
from the Nile to the Red Sea had been long neglected and
was filled up with sand. Octavianus went to Asia Minor, and
marched through Syria to Egypt, in the year 30 B.C. Antony
killed himself. Cleopatra hoped that her bodily charms would
conquer Octavianus, as they had won Caesar and Antony; but
Octavian was not to be beguiled by the arts of women. He

* i. e. Arsinoe.

67

wanted to take her as a prisoner to Rome, to grace his
triumphal entry. She poisoned herself.

Thus ended the XXXIInd or Macedonian Dynasty of
Rulers in Egypt.

In 30 B.C. Octavianus made Egypt a Roman Province.
He became sole ruler of the great Roman State.* He had
Cleopatra’s children killed; — he caused Caesarion also to be
murdered, for this boy was Caesar’s real son, whereas he liim-
self (Octavian) was only the nephew and adopted son of the
great Julius Caesar.

Summary. Philip II was the founder of Macedon’s mili-
tary superiority. Alexander dealt the death-blow to Greek free-
dom by the destruction of Thebes. His meteor-like appearance
and disappearance in the Orient is unique in the world’s history.
In less than a dozen short years he invaded, conquered and
subdued the regions lying. between the Afričan Saharah and
the Indus, the Jaxartes and the Persian Gulf. No other army-
leader has ever made such quick and long marches, fought so
many decisive battles, and crushed such a vast empire in so
short a time. But not only as an overthrower is he great;
he founded an empire of Greek Culture in the East that lasted,
off and on, 7 or 8 centuries. The Greek garrisons that he
stationed in almost every important plače planted Greek Art,
Architecture, Science and Culture in the old eastern countries,
where the Persians had already almost broken up the ancient
religions and civilizations — namely in Egypt, Palestine, and'
Syria, in Babylonia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, as well as in
parts of Iran.

The Macedonian generals, that divided his empire among
them and founded dynasties, their Courts, the higher officials,
and the educated Greeks, who were afterwards born and lived
in the conquered regions o u t s i d e of Greece, were thenceforth
called Hellenists;  and the period of their supremacy, both

* i. e. on the downfall of his two rivals Antony and Cassius.

5 *

68

in government and culture, is called the Hellenistic  Age.
The two greatest and longest-lived dynasties were the Ptolemies
in Egypt, and the Seleucidae in Syria and Mesopotamia. The
chief centers of Hellenistic learning were Pergamum and
Alexandria; Damascus, Tyre, Beiriit and Antioch were after-
wards other but less influential centers.

The city  of  Alexandria  in Egypt is his most lasting
monument. For 7 or 8 centuries after the fall of Greece and
his death, it was the great center of ali Hellenistic learning.
The labors of the learned men of the Alexandrian School
preserved and enriched the knowledge acquired by their ancient
predecessors in the East and the West. To their School be-
longed Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, and afterwards Romans also.
They greatly developed the Sciences of Grammar (Language),
Medicine, Geography, Physics, Mathematics (especially geometry
and astronomy), and the Natural Sciences. Jews and Syrians
translated some of the best books of the Alexandrians into
Hebrew and Syriac. And afterwards, that is eleven centuries
after the loss of Greek freedoin, the first 'Abbasid Caliphs —
particularly al-Ma-mun  — and their learned men, introduced
mucli that is excellent in Greek Literature into the learning
of the Arabs. This is one of the good and lasting fruits of
Alexander’s lightning-like and stupendous carreer. But the
influence of the Hellenists and their civilization hardly ever
extended eastwards beyond the Euphrates; for the kingdom of
Parthia, under the Skythian family of the Arsakides, from
256 B.C. to 226 A.D., formed a broad barrier against the spread
of western learning and culture farther eastwards into India
and China.

N.B. The following chapters are condensed summaries.

69

VII. Greece Under Macedonian Supremacy tlll its
Subjugatlon ly tli Rom*.

From 338 to 146 B.C.

Philip II of Macedon, who had been chosen in the year
337 B.C. as Commander- in-Chief against Persia, acquired the
Hegemony over ali Greece. His son, Alexander the Great,
succeeded him in this authority. Alexander’s great conquests
have been already dealt ■vVith in a separate chapter. After his
death at Babylon in 323 B.C., the Greeks sought to regain
their freedom, but were defeated in the Lamian War,  from
323 — 322 B.C. Most of the Greek States took part in this
war. It was mainly an attempt to besiege Antipatros in Lamia
(Zaytuni); he finally defeated the Greek allies at K ran n o n.
Thus Greece reinained subject to Macedon. Antipater was one
of the generals of Philip II; and Alexander had entrusted him,
in 334 B.C., with the Regency over Macedonia during his
absence on his world-wide conquests.

The Achaian League, formed in 280 B.C., aimed at the
liberation of Greece, but becarne involved in open enmity with
the Aetolian League and with Sparta.

In 221 B.C., the Macedonian king Antigonos Doson
defeated the Spartans near Sellasia, whereby Macedonia’s
sovereignty over Greece was stili more firmly established.
This sovereignty or supremacy was overthmvvn by the victory
of the Romans, near Kynoskephalae in 197 B.C., over Philip V
of Macedon. After tliat victory Rome’s influence became para-
mount in Greek affairs, and the way was paved for Roman
sovereignty. Later on, in 146 B.C., the Roman Consul Mum-
niius broke up the Achaian League and destroyed Corinth*;
Greece was brought directly under Roman rule and made into
a province  under the name of Achaia.

* See ‘Corintli’ towards the close of this book.

70

Vlil. Greece under Roman Rule tlll the Fali of the
Byzantine Empire.

Prom 146 B.C. till 1460 A.D.

Although sience and art continued to flourish for a long
time in the Land of Greece, and although the Komans, more
particularly several of the Emperors, favored Greece highly,
the Greek people nevertheless sank into sloth and sensuality.

The storms and waves, brought on by the migratory
races that overran ali Europe, fell hard upon Greece also, into
which many Sclaves came; and at a later time many Alba-
nians, too, settled in the land, so that the Greek race was
crowded back. In the XIth century of the Christian Era,
the Norman conquests began; and after the Fourth Crusade,
Frankish Knights set up a number of Frankish Feudal Princi-
palities in Greece, for example those of Achaia, Athens, and
Naxos. About the beginning of the XIVth century, however,
ali Greece, except the Duchy of Athens, was again joined to
the Byzantine Empire.

In 1456 Athens, and in 1460 ali the Morea,. saving the
seaports of Lepanto, Nauplia, Monemvasia, and some others,
that the Venetians had occupied, were conquered by the Turks.

IX. Greece under Turklsh Rule to tlie End ot the
War of Independence.

Prom 1460 to 1828 A.D.

The Turkish supremacy over Greece was opposed by the
Venetians only, who lield the Morea from 1699—1718 and had
carried on many wars against the Turks. At first the Turkish
rule was not heavy and oppressive; but it grew to be more
so as time went on, owing to the rapacity and venality of the
governors, and owing to the loss by the people of tlieir right

71

of ownership in the soil,  whereby tlie Greeks were forced to
devote themselves wholly to Commerce.  Ali tkat kept the
feeling of Greek nationality alive was their language, their
religion, and their priestliood.

Under Russian favor there was formed, in 1814, the
Secret League of the Hetaeria. It was a society of modern
origin, having been iirst started in 1795 by one named Con-
stantine Rhigos, to prepare the way for the liberation of Greece;
it spread in Russia, and had its headquarters at Odessa. After
the premature outbreak of the Greek Rebellion in 1821, tliis
society ceased to exist. The League had spread rapidly
throughout Greece. Although the rising of the Greeks was
put down in Wallacliia and Moldavia in June and August 1821,
the Rebellion burst out at the same time in the Morea. Kolo-
kotronis and Mauromichalis formed at Kalamata a provisional
(temporary) government, kown as the Senate of Messenia; and
the Congress at Epidaurus proclaimed, in January 1822, the
Independence of the Greek People. The rebellion spread to
the islands; in June of that year the Akropolis of Athens fell
into the hands of the Greeks, who gained several naval vic-
tories under Miaulis. Whilst the Greek Cause met with the
disapproval of the Governments of the Powers, it was warmly
supported by puhlic opinion throughout Europe; Philhellenic
societies were formed, money was collected, and volunteer
troops were organised.

But on the 5th of Feb. 1825, Ibrahim Pasha, son of
Muhammad-’AIi Pasha of Egypt, landed with Egyptian troops
at Modon; and by the end of the year he had conquered
nearly ali the Morea, which he pitilessly devastated. Rashid
Pasha took Athens by storm on the 17th of August. The
important fortress of Missolungi fell on the 29th of April 1826.
The independence had been scarcely gained, when it was
apparently lost again irretrievably. The Ultimatum of the
Sublime Porte of June 9. 1826, which declined or rather
rejected ali intervention of the Foreign Powers, occasioned
the London Treaty of July 6. 1826, between Russia, England,

72

and France, for the Pacification of the East; it was an agree-
ment between these Powers as to the common Mediation they
were to offer to the Porte.

Whereas the Porte declined to accept their mediation,
and as Ibrahim Pasha refused to evacuate the Morea, the
Turko - Egyptian fleet was attacked at Navarino,  on the
20th of October 1827, by the fleet of the Allies and destroyed;
and Ibrahim Pasha was forced, in 1828, to retnrn to Egypt.
At the same time Count Capo d’ Istrias was appointed Chief
of the newly-formed Grecian State.

X. Greece an Independent self-governing State and
Kingdnm, slnce 1828 .

By the London Protocoi of Feb. 3. 1830, Greece \vas
declared to be a sovereign Kingdom, and its boundaries were
fixed. Count Capo d’ Istrias, who meanwhile had sought to
introduce a strictly absolute order of government, was murdered
on the 9th of October 1831. Hereupon the three Protecting
Powers appointed, on the 7th of May 1832, the young Prince
Otto of Bavaria as King of Greece, and provided for a Regency
until he should come of age. On the 30th of January 1833,
Prince Otto landed at Nauplia, with Bavarian troops. The
administration was organised after the European pattern. In
1835 King Otlio himself assumed the reins of government,
transferred his residence from Nauplia to Atliens, and granted
in 1844 a Constitution, having been brought to accord the
latter by a revolt in 1843. This Constitution, liowever, tended
only to increase disorder and factious špirit, so that the politi-
cal opposition of parties brought about repeated ehanges of
ministry, thus retarding both the consolidation of the royal
power and the arrangement of the finances.

At the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish war of the Crimea
in 1853, public opinion in Greece declared itself veliemently

73

for Russia. But the arrival of an Anglo-French fleet in the
Piraeus, and the landing of a Frencli Brigade, forced the Greek
Government to remain neutral (May 26. 1854). The troops
of Occupation did not leave the Piraeus till the 27th of
February 1857, when the Crimean War had come to an end.

King Otho had no hold upon the country; he was un-
popular. During a journey which he made in 1862 to the
Peloponnesus, a provisional government, constituted on the 22nd
of October at Athens, declared him to be deposed,  and con-
voked a constituting national assembly. The king left Greece
on the 24th of October, without formally abdicating the throne.

On the 22nd of December 1862 the National Assembly
was opened at Athens; it confirrned the dethronement of King
Otlio and the Bavarian Dynasty (Feb. 16. 1863), and chose,
in the stead of Prince Alfred of England who declined the
proffered crown, on the recommendation of the protecting
Powers, Prince William of Denmark to be king (March 30),
who assumed the power on the 30th of October as George
the First, and presented Greece with the Ionian Islands as a
gift from England.

The party division in the Chamber of Deputies, however,
continued; and ministerial changes were frequent. When the
revolt in Grete broke out in 1866, it was supported by Greece;
the decision of the Powers, however, forced Greece in 1869
to give up its claims to Crete. In the Russo-Turkish war of
1877 and 1878, Greece at England’s advice remained neutral,
and obtained therefor at the Berlin Conference of 1880 the
promise of an extension of territory, which promise was in
1881 made good by the union of a part of Epirus and the
greater part of Thessaly with Greece (13,000 sq. km. with
290,000 inhabitants). When the war broke out in 1885 between
Bulgaria and Servia, the Greek Minister Deliyannis armed
the Greek troops, to extort from Turkey a cession of territory,
but he was obliged by the Powers, in 1886, to disarm them,
whereupon Trikupis took the lead of the Greek government.

74

XI. Greek Literature

in its

Bearing on Arabic Literature.

The ancient Greek Language was at one time spoken,
not only in Greece itself, but also in a great part of Asia Minor,
in Lower Italy, in the island of Sicily, and throughout the
numerous Greek colonies. As it became less and less spoken,
it became more and more artificially cultivated by the Learned,
mueh in the same way as educated Arabs nowadays endeavor
to keep up the knowledge of the literary Arabic of by-gone
days by the careful perusal of their classical works.

This study of the Old Greek language originated at
Alexandria, under the Ptolemies, and then in the Byzantine
Empire, and was brought thence to Italy in the XVth century
by the refugees, after the fall of Constantinople into the hands
of the Ottomans; it first began to be earnestly cultivated in
Germany towards the beginning of the XVIth century.

Although the Arabs have never devoted themselves to
the study of the poetry of the ancient Greeks, as the Europeans
have done, yet they did drink deeply from the fountains of
Greek philosophy and Science; and they did this during their
glorious literary period under the earlier 'Abbaside Caliphs.
Under the sixth of the ’Abbasides, Al-Ma-mun, some of the
best Greek works on philosophy, science, and logic were care-
fully translated into Arabic and eagerly studied. Indeed the
influence of Greek learning and thought upon the intellectual
development of the Arabs during the best period of their his-
tory was almost as great as the influence exercised upon tliem
by the learning and thought of the Persians and Indians.
A short sketch of Greek literature should, therefore, be both
interesting and instructive to the Egyptian pupil, especially if
it give him some idea of those Greek writers and their books
that have been most prized by the Arabs.

75

In poetry, historical writing, and oratorv, Greek Litera¬
ture is unsurpassed; in pliilosophj and the exact Sciences it
has been the bas is for ali succeeding times. Tbis Literature
begins with a mythical  pri  m e val  period, to which belong
tbe names of the Bards, such as Orpheus, Museos, Eumolpos,
Linos, and others, and then extends over two other periods
of the highest excellence: the first, the poetic period, from
Homer to the commencement of the Persian Wars, 900 to
500 B.C.; and the second, the Attic period, from 500—300 B.C.

These periods of Creative genius are then followed by
a t h i r d, of systematizing and criticism, called the Alexandrian
Period, during whic.h Alexandria in Egypt was the chief seat
of the researches of the Learned. Tliis third period falls into
two main divisions, which are: 1. The Ptolemaic times, from
300 to 30 B.C.; and 2. from the times of the Roman sup-
remacy to the invasion of the Arabs, 30 B.C. to 640 A.D.
After this, the period of the Byzantines, in the Middle Ages,
forms the transition  from the ancient to the modern Greek
literature. Of the mythical period nothing will be said bere.

I. Poetic Period, from Homer to the Persian Wars,
about 900 — 500 B.C.

Of the 30 or 40 poets of this period, we shall mention
only a very few: Homer,* about 900 B.C.; — Solon,** 559; —
and Aesop, about 600, the latter being likened to Luqman,
the great Arab philosopher, poet, and prophet.

Of the philosophers of this period, Thales, in 600, taught
that Water  was the elementary principle; Anaximandros,
in 570, taught that Matter,  unlimited and without quality,
was the primal element; Anaximenes, 540 B.C., taught that
Air was the simple element; and Heraklitos, 500 B.C., held
thatFire  was the first element. Pythagoras,*** 532 B.C., was
perhaps the greatest philosopher of that period. The Ionic
Logographs were the first to turn their attention to History.

*p. 5. **p. 18. ***p. 11.

76

Hild Period: The Attie Age, 500 — 300 B.C.

The poets of this period, vvhether specially distinguished
for Tragedy, Satire, or Comedy—i. e., for dramatic  poetry

— or for Lyrical poetry and song, were over 20 in number.
No names given hei'e.

Of the numerous philosophers, we shall mention only
a few: Demokritos, 460 — 360 B.C.; — Socrates,* 399 B.C.; —
Plato, 348 B.C.; — Aristotle,** 322 B.C.; — Diogenes, 324 B.C.;
Ženo, 260 B.C.; — Epicurus, 268 B.C.; — Pyrrho, 275 B.C.;
•— and Theophrastos, died 285 B.C.

The noted Historians \vere: Herodotus, 424 B.C.; —
Thukydides, 400 B.C.; — Xenophon,*** 355 B.C.; — Ktesias,
330 B.C.; — and Ephoros, 370 B.C.

Of the ten Attie rhetoricians we shall only mention
Lysias, 338 B.C.; Demosthenes,f 322 B.C.; and Lvkurgos, 323.

The most noted writers npon natural Science were Hippo-
krates, 377 B.C.; Aristotle the philosopher, 322 B.C.; and his
pupils Theophrastus and Aristoxenos.

Illd Period: The Alexandrian Age, 300 B.C. to 640 A.D.

The Learned of this period are so many that I shall
mention only those whose names tlie pupils are likely to meet
with in the course of their Arabic and English studies.
Poetry:  The Bucolics: Theocrit, &c.

History:  Polybios, 122 B.C.; — Dionysios of Halicar-
nassos, 8 B.C.; — Diodorus Siculus, about the Birth of Chr.;

— Plutarch, 120 A.D.; — Arrian, in the Ilnd Cent. A.D. 5 —
Appian, 150 A.D.

Geography:  Eratosthenes,ff 195 B.C., the Librarian at
Alexandria, and the successor of Manetho, the Egyptian national
historian; — Strabo, 25 A.I).; — and Claudius Ptolemy, Ilnd
Cent. A.D. (Šahib kitab-al-Magisti.)

Grammar:  Aristarchos, 153 B.C.; — Dionysios, the
Grammarian, 100 B.C.

* p. 38. ** p. 46. *** p. 39. f p. 44. ff p. 60.

77

Rhetoric: Dion Chrysostomos, about 300 A.D.
Mathematics:  Euclid, 300B.C.;—Archimedes, 212B.C.
Astronomy:  Eratosthenes, see above under Geography;
— Aristarchos of Samos; — Hipparcbos; — and Ptolemy, see
above under Geography.

Medicine:  Heropbilos; — Erasistratos; — Dioskorides,
in the Ist Cent. A.D.; — and Galenos, Ilnd Cent. A.D.

Philosophy:  1. Peripatetiker: Alexander Aphrodisias,
the Exegete, 198—211 A.D.

2. Platonists: Plutarch; and Galen,

3d Cent. A.D.

3. Neoplatonists: Plotinus, 3d Cent. A.D.
and Porphyrius, 233— 305 A.D.

Romance:  I mention none.

Botany:  Nikolaos of Damascus, both in botany and
philosophy.

Oonclusion.

Those Greek authors whose works vvere either wholly
or in part translated in to Arabic,  dnring the flourishing
period of Arabic Literature, or afterwards. are, so far as I know,
the following:

1. Two out of the 4 Physicists, viz. Thales (?) and Ana-
ximenes(?j; and also Pythagoras. — Homer,  (p. 5).

2. Demokritos; — Sokrates, p. 38; — Plato; — Aristotle;
Theophrastos; — Diogenes (?); — and Epicurus (?).

3. Hippokrates.

4. Euclid; —Archimedes; — and Claudius Ptolemy.

5. Dioskorides; — Galen; — Empedocles; — and Hera-
clitus (?).

6. Plotinus, Porphyrius, and some others of the Alexandrian
Neo-platonian School of philosophers, such as:

a)  Kostos son of Lukas; a book on Agriculture.

b)  Alexander Aphrodisias, the Exegete.

c)  Nikolaos of Damascus.

d)  John the Grammarian.

7. Herodotus, translated into Arabic only during the last
decade, i. e., between 1880 and 1890, by a Syrian.

78

Here follows a sliort sketch of the life of most of them.
A question (?) means tliat the equally obliging as learned
librarian Dr. V o 11 e r s could not affirm that works of the
author have been translated into Arabic.

Thales  (?), in Arabic Tališ, a Greek philosopher, the
founder of the Ionic School, one of the 7 wise men of Greece,
was born about 640 B.C. at Miletus in Asia Minor; he was
a mathematician and astronomer, and calculated the eclipse of
the sun in 610 B.C. before it oceurred; he designated water
as the beginning of ali things. His motto was: “know thy-
self”. Said to have visited Egypt, to acquire learning from
the Egyptian priests, and to have calculated the height of the
pyramids.

Anaximenes  (?), a Greek philosopher of the Ionic
School, who flourished about 556 B.C., and deemed aether
to be the primal substance of ali things.

Pythagoras,  Arabic Fythaghurus, a Greek philosopher,
the founder of the Italic School, taught between 540—500 B.C.,
born in the island of Samos, removed in 529 to Kroton in
Lower Italy, the founder and the leading špirit of the widely-
spread Pythagoreian League,  which pursued ethical and
political aims, such as the upholding of the Doric - aristocratic
forms of State government, and the members of which excluded
themselves from the masses of the common people by symbolic
rites, such as the strict probation of those who sought to be
admitted, a regulated way of living, an alternate change between
gymnastic and intellectual exercises. The Pythagoreian
Philosophy  tried to account for the order of the world on
mathematical principlos of existence; it sought to reduce the
principles of ali phenomena to the relations of number, of
measure in space, and of harmony. The cosmogeny of this
philosophy assumed the existence of ten*  divine spheres of
the heavens, which were supposed to revolve, according to
harmonious relations, in the bounded sphere - shaped universe,

* Cf. al-aflak al-sab’at in Arab Science.

79

around the central fire, the source of light and heat, and that
out of these revolutions arises the ‘mušic of the spheres’. The
farthest removed from the central fire is the heaven of the
fixed stars, the next the 5 planets, one nearer than the other,
then the sun, then the moon, and then the nearest the earth
and counter - earth. The followers of this School believed in
the immortality of the soul and the gradual purification of it
by transmigration.

Demokritos,  a Greek philosopher, from the city of
Abdera in Thrace, b. about 460 B.C. and f about 360 B.C.
He assumed that the ultimate elementary basis of the \vorld
is an infinite number of atoms, out of whose collision and
combination have arisen the various “aggregates”. He ridiculed
the follies of mankind, and held that the highest happiness
lies in a full quiet of the soul. Fragments only of his writings
have remained.

Sokrates,  Arabic Suqrat, the most renowned of the
wise men of the Greeks, bom 470 B.C. at Athens, was the
son of the sculptor Soplironiskos, and learnt his father’s art;
but he devoted his life to giving instruction (without remune-
ration and by conversation, hence called the Sokratic method
of teaching) in a sort of philosophy; he took part in three
campaigns during the Peloponnesian War, became in his 65th
year a member of the Athenian Council of Five-Hundred, and
as sucli opposed the unjust demands of the Thirty Tyrants;
in 399 he was accused by the poet Melitos, the orator Lykon,
and the tanner Anytos as a despiser of the gods and a deluder
of the young, and was condemned by the popular court of
the Heliasts to drink the poisoned cup. He was the founder
of Dialectics, having fixed and detennined the conception of
Science and of true scientific method; but ho limited his own
researches to the field of ethics. He supported the belief in
the existence of God by a reverential contemplation of Nature,
and taught that the soul is never-dying. The book entitled
the Apology (defence) of Socrates, attributed to Plato, has
preserved an account of his doctrine and belief.

80

Plato, in Arabic Aflatun, the most renowned of ali
Greek philosophers, son of Ariston, of a noble family, born
in 429 B.C. at Atbens, a pupil of Sokrates. After Sokrates
bad been condemned, Plato left Athens, travelled in Qayrawan,
Egypt, Italy, and Sicily, formed a close friendship in Syracuse
witk Dion, the brotber-in-law of tbe elder Dionysios, returned
in 389 to Athens, and taught in a gymnasium outside the city,
in tbe so-called Akademia. At Dion’s invitation be again
visited Syracuse twice; be died in 347. Plato’s Pbilosopby
is contained in 44 “Dialogues”, wbereof at least eiglit are, by
many, considered to be not really bis. It is the further devel-
opment of the doctrine taught by Sokrates. Its central point
is tbe doctrine of ideas.  According to Plato, ideas  are
Creative entities which underlie actual phenomena and the real
formation of ali things. He held that what actually exists is
not a perfect and full expression of tliose ideas; and that they
are the standard, but that the actual falls short of them. The
chief of these ideas is the idea of Good, which is God; the
world is so ordered and arranged that it answers and corre-
sponds to the idea of Good. Ethics are the doctrine of virtue
and of that whicli is possessed, i. e., property. The chief
virtues are four: Wisdom, Prudence or Thoughtfulness,

Courage, and Justice; their image and copy appears in the
State, which is a community or commonwealth to whose in-
terests ali individual interests, even those of the farnily, must
be subordinated. Plato’s School of thought, called the Aka-
demy, soon turned into a skeptical reckoning with probalities.

Aristotle,  a famous Greek philosopher, born in 384 B.C.,
at Stagira in Macedon, hence often called the Stagirite, son of
Nikomachos, who was the physician and intimate (trusted)
friend of king Amyntas II of Macedon. Aristotle was for
20 years one of Plato’s pupils; after 343 B.C. he was the
teacher of Alexander the Great. In 335 B.C. he founded in
the walks of the Lyceum a philosophic School, known as the
Peripatetic School, so called on account of Aristotle’s habit of
sometimes delivering his lectures while walking about. He

81

left Athens on being accused of atheism (disbelief in the gods
of the Greeks), and died in 322 B.C. at Chalkis on the island
of Euboea. He is, in contradistinction to the idealist Plato,
the founder of a new Realism in Greek philosophy. His
system is based upon the two propositions tliat the mind gets
its ideas from experience, and that tbose attributes or qualities
tbat are recognised and perceived by experience possess trutb.
He is the originator of philosophical terminology and of most
of the definitions that are stili current, the founder of Logic,
Psychology, Rhetoric, and Prosody; he is the father of Natural
History and Metaphysics. His book on physics is one of his
weakest works. His Ethics and Politics, in 8 books, do not
rise to the ultimate and highest principles. Aristotle’s philo-
sophy was for a long time lightly thought of; through the
attention bestowed upon it by the Arabs, it gained new con-
sideration; and then during the Middle Ages, when it was
first re - introduced into Europe through the medium of the
Arabic translations, it again enjoyed great regard. Of his
writings, at least 400 in number, many have been lost. The
Organ  o n,  in 14 books, contains a collection of his vrorks
that treat of Logic.

Theophrastos,  a Greek philosopher, b. about 390 B.C.
on the island of Lesbos, a pupil of Aristotle, and after the
latter’s death the ITead of the Peripatetic School, d. about
286 B.C. His chief work was the Delineation of Morals or
“Ethic Characters”. He was also the founder of Botany; his
work on this subject is called “Natural History and Plants”.

Diogenes of Sinope(?), a famous Greek philosopher
belonging to the School of Cynics, born in 414 B.C., was a
pupil of Antisthenes at Athens; he tried to carry out in prac-
tical life the principle that to need nothing is divine; he was
seized by pirates, sold, and carried off to Korinth as a slave,
and then lived there and at Athens in a tub or barrel. The
anecdote of Alexander the Great’s visit to Diogenes is well-
known; he died in 324 B.C.

6

82

Diogenes of Laerte (?) in Cilicia, a Greek writer,
about 300 after  Chr. He wrote a work in 10 Books “on tke
lives, teachings, and sayings of distinguisked men”; tkis work
is of great importance as a history of pkilosopky.

Epicurus (?), a Greek pkilosopker, born 342 B.C. at
Gargettos near Athens; about 305 B.C. ke opened a sckool in
kis garden near Atkens; f 270 B.C.; ke taugkt tkat blessed-
ness and kappiness were to be found in gladness, i. e., in
freedom from ali pain, wkick is got by bodily kealtk, mode-
ration in sensual pleasures, and tke avoidance of ali injustice.
Fragments only of kis works kave remained to our day.
Epicurean  is a word now used to designate one wko is
fond of sensual pleasures.

Hippokrates,  Arabic Buqrat, the most renowned of
ancient physicians, born in 460 B.C. on the island of Kos,
Turkish Istankoi, a Graeco-Doric island on the southwestern
coast of Asia Minor; travelled in Greece, Asia Minor, Skythia,
and Libya; f sometime between 377 and 364 B.C. at Larissa
(in Thessaly ?).

Hippokrates  (?) of Ckios, a mathematician of tke
Vth cent. B.C., taugkt at Athens, wrote a system of geometry
wkick he called “Stoicheia”, and discovered a geometrical figure
for tke squaring of the circle.

E u c 1 i d, Arabic Aqlidus, tke fatker of geometry, studied
under Plato at Atkens, and afterwards lived at Alexandria,
about 300 B.C., during the reign of the first Ptolemy. His
works contained a most exact and thorough exposition of tke
entire field of tke mathematical knowledge of those days. Of.
those works, his “Stoicheia”, i. e., the Elements of Pure Mathe-
matics, in 13 books, are to tkis day a model of excellence as
a book for teaching this Science.

Euclid  (?), a Greek philosopker during the Peloponnesian
War, from Megara west of Athens, a pupil of Sokrates and
tke founder of tke Megarian School of philosophy. He laid
down the principle that only Good really is, and that ali else
is not.

83

Archimedes,  a matbematician from Syracuse in Sicily,
born about 287 B.C.; he greatly enriched mathematics and
physics by important discoveries, such as tbat the cone, tlie
lialf-spbere, and the cylinder of the same base-area and hight
are to each otber as 1:2:3;  that the relation of the peri-
phery to the diameter is less than 22 : 7 and more than
223 : 71; the hydrostatic law, knovvn as Archimedes’s principle;
the water-raising screw, and the like. He did great hurt to
tlie Romans, that were besieging Syracuse, by the machines of
his own invention (for hurling bodies), and was killed in
212 B.C.  on the taking of that city.

Ptolemy, Claudi  us,  an astronomer, matbematician,
and geographer, probably born at Ptolemais Hermii, south of
Ikhmim in Egypt, now called al- Manshiyyah, and lived at
Alexandria about 140 after  Chr. His chief astronomical work,
known by the name of al-Magest,  formed during the Middle
Ages the basis of ali astronomical knowledge; his geograpliy
was also bighly esteemed.

Dioskorides, Pedanios, a physician about the middle
of the First Cent. after Chr., from Anazarbos in Cilicia, was
the author of an elaborate work on Materia Medica. It is
particularly valuable in regard to botany, as most of the medi-
cines which he mentions are taken from the vegetable kingdom.

Galenos, Claudius,  a physician of antiquity, born
131 A.D., at Pergamum, north of Smyrna, practised medicine
first in his native city and then at Rome; died about 200 A.D.
His works lili some 20 volumes.

Empedokles,  a Greek philosophcr, from Agrigentum
in Sicily, lived some time betvveen 492 and 432 B.C. He
used to deliver his lectures on his doctrine in a poetic form,
and taught that Matter arises out of the mixture and separation
of the 4 elements in their love and strife, the 4 elements being
earth, water, air, and fire. Only fragments of his productions
have been preserved.

Herakleitos  (?), Skoteinas = the dark or obscure one,
a Greek philosopher from Ephesus, south of Smyrna, lived

6 *

84

about 500 B.C., and \vrote the philosophical work entitled
“Musae”, in which he represented fire as the cause of ali things,
and the world as the play or change of the arising and passing
away of things out of fire and by or through fire. Fragments
only preserved.

Plotinus,  205-—270 A.D., a renowned Neo-Platonic
philosopher from Lykopolis (Assiut) in Egypt, belonged to the
Alexandrian School, removed in 244 A.D. to Rome and taught
there. His lectures drew crowds of hearers from far and near.
Arab philosophy is taken mostly from Aristotle and Plotinus.
Excerpts from the Enneads of Plotinus were translated into
Arabic about 840 A.D., and were called the Theology of
Aristotle. This book stili exists in Arabic. Al - farabi, died
950 A.D., a famous Arab philosopher, held this so-called
Theology of Aristotle to be genuinely Aristotclian, and thus
accepted the Emanation Theory  of Plotinus in his philo-
sophy. Whereas between Aristotle and the pseudo-Aristotelian
Theologv, which is in fact taken from the Enneads of Plotinus,
there lie some 550 years. (Fr. Dieterici, ‘Theologie des Aristo¬
teles’  , Arabic and German, Berlin, 1882, 1883.)

P o r p h y r i u s, Malchus, a Greek philosopher from Tyre,
and a pupil of Plotinus of the Neoplatonic School, flourished
bct\veen 233 and 305 A.D., the author of several works,
among which is the Eisagoge or Isagoge, i. e., Introduction to
the Science of Logic, the Arabic translation of which is stili
used as a text-book in the Azhar University at Cairo.

Alexander Aphrodisias, the E x e g e t e or Explainer,
a Peripatetic philosopher from Aphrodisias, which is Ninoe and
Gera, in Ivaria (in Asia Minor); taught at Athens between
198 and 211 after Chr.; is famous as the explainer (exegete)
of the works of Aristotle, such as his Commentary to the
latter’s “Metaphysics”; also his “Natural Questions”.

D i o n y s i o s the Thracian, a Greek grammarian from
Alexandria, who wrote, about 100 B.C., the first scientific
Greek grammar.

85

John the Grammatist, flourished in the early part
of the Vllth Centurj after Christ, i. e., during the period of
the Culture and Literature of the Byzantine Empire. He was
a learned explainer of the Works of Aristotle.

Homer, the most ancient and most celebrated of Greek
poets, lived betvveen 950 and 900 B.C., born probably in Ionia,
a Greek kingdom on the west coast of Asia Minor opposite
the islands of Chios and Samos, the father and master of epic
poetry. His poems are the Ilias  and the Odyssee. Portions
translated into Arabic. (Cf. pp. 5, 6.)

Herodotus,  the earliest Greek historian, and the father
of historieal writing, born 484 B.C., at Halikarnassos in the
south of Ionia on the west coast of Asia Minor, made long
journeys into Asia and Africa, was in 456 and for some time
afterwards in Greece, went in 433 to Thurii previously ca-lled
Sybaris, a Greek city in Bruttium in Lower Italy, where he
died about 424 B.C. His work, written in the lonic dialect
of the Greek language, comprises the history of the Orient
and of Greece, and more particularly that of the Persian or
Medic Wars, till 479 B.C. Numerous editions and translations
into many languages. He visited Egypt about 450 B.C. when
it was under the Persian domination.

Cor inth.

This famous city, situated in the northernmost part of the Pelopon-
nesus, was the chief town of the region called Corinthia. The isthmus of
Corinth connected it with Middle Greece. The Corinthian territory, which
comprised the greater part of the narrow neck of land and only a very small
part of the Peloponnesus, was stony and dry, and hence fit for little else
beside the growing of the olive- tree. Owing, hovvever, to its favorable situa-
tion, on the Saronic and on the Corinthian Gulfs, it was of great importance
for the growth of trade and navigation. — The ancient city stood in the
middle of its small territory at the northern foot of a steep rock, which rose
to the height of 500 metres and upon which was built the stronghold called
Akrocorinthos. This citadel was strongly fortified, and had an abundant
spring of water, which rendered it almost, impregnable; its position at the
entrance into the Peloponnesus gave it great strategical importance. On the

86  —

Saronic Gulf, Corinth liad two harbors, Kenchreae and Schoenus; on the
Corinthian Gulf, one only, namely Lechaeon.* The abundance of purple shells
in the Saronic Gulf drew the trading Phoenicians from very early times to
tbis part, where they settled and introduced, among the ancient Pelasgian
inhabitants, the vvorship of several of their deities, such as Athene Phoenike,
Aphrodite ('ashtarut), Melikertes (malik - al - ardh), as well as the arts of
weaving and metal-casting.

The older name of the city was Ephyra.  The oldest Greek in¬
habitants were called A e o 1 i a n s ; their first king is said to have been
Sisyphos. In 1074 B.C., the Heraklide Aletes,  of the Dorian conquering
raee, overthrevv the supremacy of the Aeolians; and thenceforth the invading
D o r i a n s constituted the ruling nobility of the State. The language too
was influenced by the change of masters, and thus the Dorian dialect pre-
vailed, although trade, navigation and transit brought together in Corinth
a large population wliich was not Doric.

Of the Doric aristocracy, the most powerful were the Bakchiades,
the descendants of King Bakchis. After the overtlirow of the Aeolic kingdom,
tliey formed an oligarchical supremacy  of 200 families, from among
whom a Prytan  (za’im, nažir) was elected once a year.

With the help of the numerous non - Doric population, hovrever, the
01igarehy was overthrown, in 657 B.C., by theTyrant Kypselos.  Under
his rule, and after him under the reign of his son Periander,  Corinth’s
maritime and colonial power attained its greatest glory. Numerous colonies
were founded in the western seas, such as Chalkis on the Corinthian Gulf;
Solion and Anaktorion in Akamania; further northwards Ambrakia, Korkyra,
Epidamnos, and Apollonia; Syracuse in Sieily; and Potidaea in Chalkidike.
A war-fleet of triremes was built. For the transport of ships from Lechaeon
to Schoenos, a tramway with wooden rails, called the Diolkos, was laid
down across the narrow Isthmus.** The potter’s wheel and disc was “in-
vented”. Manufacture and industry were highly developed.

In 582 B.C., P sam m et i c h o s, the nephew and successor of Peri¬
ander, was overthrown witli the help of the Spartans, and the old Dorian
Constitution was re-established.

In early times Corinth was on friendly terms with Athens; but after
the Persian wars, Corinth grew jealous of Athens’s increasing maritime power
and Commerce, and joined the League of the Doric States. As early as the
year 458 B.C., Corinth began a war against Athens, whieh, hovrever, failed.
Then vrhen Athens interfered between her and her colonies on the west coast

* On page 3, paragraph g,  read thus: one on the Corinthian and
the other two on the Saronic, &c.

** In 1893 A.D. the ship-eanal was completed, after 10 years of labor,
and now steamers pass through it.

87

of Epirus, Corinth stirred up the Peloponnesians, in 431 B.C., to begin the
great and fatal war, wliich ended, it is true, in the defeat of Athens, but
did not secure to Corinth the hoped-for result of beeoming in her tum the
first and greatest maritime power in Hellas. On the contrary, Corinth’s trade
liad suffered so much during the war that she had to subordinate herself to
Sparta; and the latter handed over the government of Corinth to an Aristo-
cratic party whose sympathies were Doric and Spartan.

Corinth, therefore, joined with Argos, Thebes, and Athens in an uprising
against Sparta’s overbearing hegemony; thus arose the Corinthian War,
which was earried on more especially in and around Corinth, and during
which the city suffered much. Even this war did not secure to Corinth the
coveted independence and power. After the Peace of Antalkidas, the aristo-
cratic Party, which had been overthrown in 392 B.C., was re-established.

In 366 B.C., Timophanes  seized the power, but was overthrovvn
and murdered by his brother Timoleon.

In 337 and 336 B.C. the congresses of the Greeks were held in Corinth,
at which king Philip II of Macedonia and then his son Alexander were
successively chosen as the Leaders of the army against Persia.

During the Macedonian supremacy, Corinth and its Citadel were
always held by a strong Macedonian garrison, whence they were called “one
of the fetters of Greece”. Trade passed more and more into the hands of
Rhodes, which began to flourish about that time.

Corinth once more enjoyed a period of glory after it had joined the
Achaean League, in 243 B.C., which held its congresses tliere. Vast and
splendid buildings adorned the eity; at that time it contained half a million
of slaves.

After the downfall of the Achaean League, Corinth was totally
destroyed, in 146 B.C., by the Roman general Mummius; for a full century
it lay in ruins; a few temples only and the citadel had been spared. At
last, in 46 B.C., Julius Caesar restored it as a Latin Colony under the name
‘Colonia Juha Corinthus’, and made it the Capital city of the Province Achaia
and the seat of the pro-consul. The eity flourished anew, through its trade
and industry. At last, in 1858 A.D., old Corinth was wholly destroyed by
an earthquako. The modem city is built upon the site of the ancient harbor
Lechaeon.

88

Milet us.

This renowned city, on the Karian coast in Asia Minor and on the
Lamian Gulf, south of the mouth of the river Maeander, was colonized by
the Ionians, who were attraeted to it by its favored position, and wrested it
during the times of the great migration from the older inhabitants, the Karians.
It soon rose to be a flourisliing commercial and industrial city. — The period
of its greatest power was during the VHIth and Vllth eenturies B.C., at
whieh time its ships navigated the whole of the eastern Mediterranean. The
Milesians founded numerous colonies — o ver 80 — on the coasts of the Pro-
pontis (Marmara Sea), of the Pontos Enxeinos (Black Sea), and of the
Maeotis (Sea of Azow); they also had a permanent settlement at Naukratis,
near Dassuq, in Egypt. Arts and Sciences were cultivated; the famous
philosopher Thales,  the geographers Anaximenes and Anaximandros, and
the chronicler (or logograph) Hekataeos lived in Miletus.

After the city had been subjected for a time by the Lydians, it was
brought under Persian suzerainty. The Persians put down the democratic
form of government and set up tyrants over Miletus. In the year 500 B.C.,
the tyrant Aristagoras, profitting by the Ionian revolt against Persian rule,
endeavored to restore the city to its former independence. The uprising
failed. Miletus withstood the Persians to the utmost; but after the defeat of
the Ionian fleet in 494 B.C. olf Lade close to the eity, it was taken by the
Persians, who removed the inhabitants to the Tigris river. Thenceforward
the power of Miletus sank. Alexander the Great destroyed it. — To the south
of Miletus, near a plače ealled IJidvrna, there was a renowned Oracle of
Apollo, the sun-god, under the čare of the powerful priestly family of the
Branchides. — Naukratis, an important trading port in Lower Egypt, on the
Canopic Branch of the Nile, is said to have been founded by the Milesians
about 650 B.C., and to have been the only plače in Egypt where Greeks
were permitted, in ancient times, to settle and carry on trade. The rise of
the eity of Alexandria under the Ptolemies brought about the deeay of
Naukratis.

Table of Contents.

Page

Introduction: Geographical Sketch.

Thrace; Macedon; Illyria.

Chief Regions..

1. Northern Greece: Epirus and Thessaly.

2. Middle Greece, or Hellas.

Acarnania.

Aetolia..

Locris.

Phocis: Delphi.

Doris.

Boeotia: Thebes; Plataeae; Chaeronea.

Attika: Athens; Marathon; Eleusis.

Megaris: Megara.

3. Peloponnesus: Isthmus of Corinth.

Arcadia: Mantinea; Tegea.

Laconiea: river Eurotas; Sparta.

Messenia.

Elis: 01ympia.

Achaia.

Sikyon .

Corinth.

Argolis.

4. The Grecian Islands.

Ionian Islands.

Islands in Saronic Gulf.

Euboea.

Cyclades; Sporades.

Crete .

5. Greek Colonies: Cyme and Mitylene; Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna

Halicamassus; Rhodes; Byzantium; Trapezus.

Tarentum, Rhegium; Neapolis; Syracuse, Catana, Agrigentum;
Massilia; Saguntum; Cyrene.

90

Page

I. The Heroic Period, from X to 1104 B.C.

Pelasgians; Heroes; Ionians; Aeolians; Achaians.

The Trojan War; and Homer’s Poems.

II. Second Period: From the Doric Migration to the Commencement

of the Persian Wars, 1104 — 500 B.C.

The Dorians overrun the Peloponnesus.

They there found several States.

Sparta the Head of the Doric States.

Athens the Head of the Ionian States.

Four Common Points of Union.

1. The Delphic Oracle.

2. The Amphictyonic League.

3. The Hegemony, or Leadership over the Greek States , . .

4. The Feasts and Games .

The Colonies helped to inerease Trade and Wealth.

Sparta:  .

Two Koyal Families, (1) the Eurypontides and (2) the Agiades .
Lyeurgos: Organisation of Sparta: (1) Spartiates; (2) Perioekes;

(3) Helots.

The two Kings.

The Gerusia, Couneil of Elders.

The Assembly of the People.

The Five Ephors.

The Messenian Wars.

Wars with Arcadia.

Inhabitants .

Athens:  The Akropolis; The Parthenon .

Population.

Kodros and Medon ..

The Archons .

Draeo, the Athenian Lawgiver.

Kylon’s Attempt to seize the Akropolis.

The FIoIy Delphic War.

Solon, the Wise Lawgiver: What he did, &c.

Four Classes of Athenian Citizens.

The 500-bushel-men.

The 300-bushel-men.

The 150-bushel-men.

The small-income-men or Thetes.

The Phratria.

The Ekklesia, or Assembly of the People.

91

Page

The Archons chosen yearly by Lot.

The Areopagus, or High Court .

Courts of the People, Heliasts.

Solon banishes himself from Athens.

Peisistratos, Tyrant of Athens.

He eollected the Homeric Poems.

Hippias, Tyrant of Athens.

Kleisthenes and the Alkmaeonides expel Hippias.

Summary for the Second Period.

III. Third Period: Prom the Beginning of tho Persian Wars to tlie
Loss of Greek Preedom and Independence through
the Battle of Chaeronea, i. e., from 500 — 338 B.C.

The Persian or Medic Wars.

Fear of Persian Invasion unites the Greeks.

Expedition of Darius against the Skyths.

Ionian Revolt against Persian Rule.

First Persian Attack: army and fleet.

Second Persian Attack: 100,000 men cross to Euboea ....

Marathon.

Egyptian Revolt against Persia.

Miltiades maltreated.

Aristides and Themistocles.

Third Persian Attack: Xerxes.

1,000,000 men, and 1200 ships.

Sparta jealons of Athens.

Leonidas at ThermopyIae.

Two Naval Battles off Artemisium.

Xerxes invades Attika .

Naval Battle near Salamis.

Mardonius retakes Athens.

Battle of Plataeae.

Victory at Promontory of Mykale opposite Samos ....

Athenian Maritime League.

Cyprus and Byzantium eonquered.

Island of Delos the League Treasury .

Victory near River Eurymedon.

Athenian Expedition to Egypt.

Flight of Themistocles .

Athens at her Highest Glory: from 469 — 431 B.C.

Kimon and Pericles .

War Treasury removed from Delos to Athens.

92

Page

Third Messenian War.

Subjugation of Aegina.

Battle of Tanagra.

Victory of Athenians at Oenophytae.

Truce between Athens and Sparta .

Pericles.

Population of Athens.

The Peloponnesian War, from 431—404 B.C.

Rivalry of Sparta and Athens over the Hegemony . . .

Epidamnus and Island of Corcyra the Exciting Cause

Naval Battle near Sybota.

Blockade of Potidaea.

Assembly of the League at Sparta in 432 .

Meeting of Peloponnesian States.

Strength of the Two Parties.

lst: Night Attack upon Plataeae.

Invasions of Attica.

Coasts of Peloponnesus ravaged.

Plagne in Athens.

Cleon succeeds Pericles.

War on ali sides.

Nicias the Head of Aristocratic Party.

2nd: New Peloponnesian League.

Alcibiades.

Expedition against Syracuse: fleet and army ......

Spartans fortify Dekelea.

Athens mans a new fleet.

3d: Occupation of Dekelea and Alliance with Persia . . .

Victory of Cyzikos in Phrygia .

Naval Battle off Arginusae Islands.

Athenian Fleet destroyed off Aegospotamoi; 405 B.C. . . .

The Conditions of Peace.

Athens crushed .

Summary for the First Part of Third Period.

Hegemony of Sparta, and Hegemony of Thebes, 404 — 362 B.C.

Thrasybulos invades Attika .

Sokrates, the wise and good Athenian.

His teachings.

Plato and Aristoteles.

Klearchos and Xenophon.

Battle of Kunaxa.

The Anabasis or Eetreat of the 10,000 .

93

Page

The Corinthian War, from 394 — 387 B.C.

Murder of Alcibiades.

Battle of Haliartus in Boeotia.

Naval Battle of Cnidus.

Battle of Coronea.

Naval Battle near Cnidus.

Peace of Antalkidas.

Greek Cities in Asia Minor abandoned.

War between Thebes and Sparta.

The Theban Hegemony.

Battle of Mantinea.

General Peace.

Agesilaus goes to Egypt.

Retrospect..

Germs of Decay .

Death of Epaminondas.

The Rise of the Macedonian Power and the Loss of Greek Ereedom

King Philip.

The Phalanx.

Kingdom extended.

The Social War.

The Second Holy War..

Philip elected Army-Leader.

Demosthenes: the Philippics .

Battle of Chaeronea, 338 B.C.

Philip chosen Leader with full Powers.

Summarv for the Second Part of the Third Period.

IV. Comjuests of Alexander tlie Great.

Alexander’s Youth and Education.

His Accession.

Alexander appointed Commander-in-Chief.

Destruction of Thebes.

He undertakes the Conquest of Persia.

He crosses the Hellespont.

Battle of the Granikos, May 334 .

The Gordian Knot.

Battle of Issos, Nov. 333 .

Conquest of Syria and Phoenicia; Damascus.

Siege of Tyre ; Gaza.

Samaria and Jerusalem. .

94

Page

Pelusium and Memphis.

Oasis of 'Ammun (Siwa).

Foundation of Alexandria.

Eeasons for so doing.

He enters the Heart. of Persia.

Decisive Battle near Gaugamela in Plain of Arbela, Oct. 331

Babylon; Suša; Persepolis ; Pasargadae.

Pursuit of Darius.

Aria; Drangiana; Arachosia.

March upon Baktria.

Hindu-Kush; Sogdiana.

Subjugation of the Skyths.

March upon India.

River Hydaspis in Penjab.

River Hyphasis.

Dovra the Indus.

Nearchos and the Fleet.

Return through Gedrosia.

Great Plans for further Conquests..

Revolt of Troops.

Death at Babylon in 323 .

V. Period of Wars between Alexander’s Army-Leaders, 323 — 301 B.C.

Wars, and Division of the Vast Empire.

Perdikkas, the Regent.

Antipater and Krateros.

Ptolemy Lagos receives Egypt.

Antigonus receives Gt. Phrygia.

Eumenes’ Share.

Leonnatus’ Share .

Lysimachos’ Share.

War for 14 years, from 315 — 301 B.C.

Battle near Ipsos in Phrygia, 301 B.C.

Five Great States or Kingdoms.

1- Egypt.

2. Syria.

3. Pergamos.

4. Bithynia.

5. Macedonia.

6. Island of Rhodes, Republic.

7. The Greek Cantons.

95

Page

VI. Egypt nndcr tlie Ptolemies, or Lagides, from 323 — 30 B.C. . .

General Survey.

Ptolemy I, son of Lagus, Soter.

Assumed the Title of King in 305 B.C.

Embellisliment of Aiexandria.

The Arehiteets lay out the City in 2 Parts.

The Lighthouse; The Museum.

Euclid, the Mathematician.

Greek the Conrt Language.

Ptolemy II Philadelphus.

Ships explore Bed Sea and Indian Ocean.

Great Canal.

The LXX Translation.

The Librarians Manetho and Eratosthenes.

The Ilistories of Egypt.

Ptolemy III, Euergetes, the Benificent.

Conquered Babylonia and Persia.

Ketook Upper Nile Valley.

The Three preceding reigned 100 years; The Decline began . . .

Ptolemy IV, Philopator or Tryphon.

Temple of Hor at Edfu.

Wars against Antiochus the Great.

Battle of Eaphia, 216 B.C.

Borne begins to interfere.

Ptolemy V, Epiphanes, the Glorious.

Biot; the Begent Tlepolemos.

the Begent Aristomenes.

Bevolt at Lykopolis.

Aetolian Mercenaries, 202 B.C..

Boman Deputation.

Battle of Banias in Syria, 201 B.C.

Ptolemy VI, Eupator, one year.

Ptolemy VII, Philometor.

Taken prisoner in Syria.

Cleopatra, his mother, during his Captivity.

Ptolemy IX, Euergetes II, with his mother.

Ptolemy VII retums from Captivity .

Ptolemy VIII, Philopator II arises and opposes.

Ptolemy IX, Euergetes II, Physkon.

Eepaired Temple of Goddess Isis at Philae.

Built Temple of Ape at Tliebes.

Built Boof of Temple at Edfu.

96

Page

Ptolemy X, Soter II, Lathyrus.

Cleopatra III Kokke, his mother.

Alexander, a younger brother, sent to Cyprus.

Cleopatra drives away Soter II Lathyrus, 107 B.C.

Ptolemy X returns again in 89 B.C.

Ptolemy XI, and Ptolemy XII.

Ptolemy XIII, Philopator III, Philadelphus II, Neodionysos Auletes

Went to Borne; Temple of Edfu finished.

Cato the Younger takes Cyprus, 58 B.C.

Pompey conquers Syria, 63 B.C.

Cleopatra VI, Philopator.

Her brother drives her away; she flees to Syria.

Pompey, the fugitive Boman, murdered at Pelusium

Caesar comes to Egypt.

Cleopatra and her Brother make Peace.

Bevolt at Alexandria; Caesar besieged.

Caesarion.

Cleopatra visita Borne.

Cleopatra sends ships nnder Serapion .

She goes to Tarsus, 41 B.C.

Mark Antony and Cleopatra.

War betvveen Borne and Egypt, 31'—30 B.C.

Naval Battle at Aetium (La Punta) 2. Sept. 31 B.C.

Cleopatra and then Antony flee.

Octavian comes to Egypt, 30 B.C.

Antony kills himself.

Cleopatra poisons herself.

Egypt a Boman Province, 30 B.C.

Octavian kills Cleopatra’s children, and even her son Caesarion
Summary .

VII. Greece uuder Macedonian Supremacy, 338 —146 B.C.
Philip II of Macedon, Commander-in-Chief, 337 B.C.
Alexander the Great, Commander-in-Chief . . .

Lamian War, 323 — 322 B.C.

Achaian League, 280 B.C.

Defeat of Spartans at Sellasia, 221 B.C.

Boman Vietory near Kynoskephalae, 197 B.C.

Corinth destroyed, 146 B.C.

Greece a Boman Province.

97

Page

VIII. Greece under Roman Rule till tlie Fali of tlie Byzantine Empire,

from 146 B.C. to 1460 A.D.

Sloth and Sensuality.

Sclaves and Albanians.

Norman Conquests in XIth Cent.

Frankish Feudal Principal it ies.

Greece rejoined to Byzantine Empire, XIVth Cent.

Turks take Athens in 1456 .

Turks take most of tlie Morea in 1460 . .

IX. Greece nnder Turkisli Rnle to the End of tlie War of Iudepcndence.

1460 — 1828 A.D.

The Venetians oppose Turkish Supremacy over Greece ....

Rapacity and Venality of Governors.

Feeling of Greek Nationality.

Secret League of Hetaeria, 1814.

Outbreak of Rebellion in 1821.

Provisional Government.

Congress at Epidaurus; Independence 1822 .

European Public Opinion.

Ibrahim Pasha lands at Modon, 1825 .

Kashid Pasha takes Athens.

Fortress of Missolungi falls in 1826 .

Ultimatum of Sub. Porte, 1826 .

Treaty of London, 1826 .

Navadno, 1827 .

Capo d’ Istrias Cliief of Grecian State.

X. Greece an Independent Kingdom, since 1828 .

London Protocol of 1830 .

Capo d’ Istrias murdered in 1831.

Prince Otto of Bavaria appointed King, 1832 .

He lands at Nauplia, 1833 .

Constitution granted, 1844 .

Factions and Disorder.

Outbreak of Crimean War, 1853 .

Anglo-French fleet at the Piraeus.

Landing of French Brigade, 1854 .

Provisional Government at Athens, 1862 .

King Otto leaves Greece, Oct. 1862 .

National Assembly; the king dethroned, 1863 .

King George, Oct. 30. 1863 .

Ionian islands ceded by Gt. Britain.

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Party Divisions; Ministerial Changes.

Revolt in Crete, 1866 .

Russo-Turkisli War, 1877 and 1878 .

Greece neutral.

Berlin Conference of 1880; Promise Extension Territory . . .

Epirus and Part of Thessaly nnited with Greece, 1881.

XI. Ancient Greek Literature.

Greek Tongue spoken in Various Parts.

Greek Tongue less spoken and more cultivated.

Study of Ancient Greek under Ptolemies and in Byzantine Empire .

Study of Ancient Greek in Italy in XVth Cent.

Study of Ancient Greek in Germany in XVIth Cent.

Translation of Greek Works under 'Abbasides.

Influence of Greek Thought on A rab Learning.

History of Greek Literature.

Mythical Primeval Period.

I. Poetic Period, Homer to Persian Wars 900 — 500 B.C.

Poets.

Philosophers; Logographs.

II. Attic Age, 500 —300 B.C.

Poets: Dramatic; Lyric.

Philosophers.

Historians.

Rhetoricians.

Natural Science.

III. The Alexandrian Age, 300 B.C. to 640 A.D.. .

Poetry.

History.

Geography.

Grammar.

Rhetoric.

Mathematics.

Astronomy.

Medicine.

Philosopliy.

Romance.

Botany.

Conclusion: Those whose Works were put into Arabic.

Thales (?).

Anaximenes (?).

Pythagoras.

Democritos
Sokrates
Plato
Aristotle
Theophrastos
Diogenes of Sinope (?)
Diogenes of Laerte (?)
Epicurus (?)

Hippokrates of Kos
Hippokrates of Chios (?)
Euclid of Megara (?)
Euclid .

Archimedes
Ptolemy Claudius
Dioscorides
Galenos .

Empedokles
Herakleitos (?)

Plotinus . .

Porphyrius .

Kostos son of Lukas
Alexander Aphrodisias
Nikolaos of Damascus
Dionysios the Thracian
John the Grammarian
Homer .

Heroddtus

Corinth; Miletus; Naukratis

vr-;