171 Pr egledni znans tv eni članek/ Article (1.02) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 1, 171—183 Besedilo pr eje t o/R eceiv ed:06/2021; spr eje t o/ Accep t ed:11/2021 UDK/UDC: 272-9(477) DOI: 10.34291/B V2022/01/Osadcz y © 2022 Osadcz y , CC B Y 4.0 Włodzimierz Osadczy The Word of God at the Meeting Point of Civilisation: Cultural and Identity Search in the Space of Religious Life of Roman Catholics in Contemporary Ukraine Božja beseda na stičišču civilizacij: iskanje kulture in identitete na področju verskega življenja rimokatoličanov v sodobni Ukrajini Abstract : The R oman Ca tholic Chur ch in c on t empor ar y Ukr aine is t o a lar g e e x t en t the heir t o the tr adition of the La tin rit e of L viv me tr opolis f ormed within the P olish Cr o w n and othe r politic al e n titie s r e la t e d t o P olish s t a t e hood and c ultu- r e. In the g ener al c onsciousness, this Chur ch is c onsider ed t o be the ,P olish Chur ch ‘ as dis tinct fr om the ,Ruthenian Chur ch ‘ , Orthodo x. The r e viv al of the Chur ch in the c onditions of the Ukr ainian s t a t e c auses man y discussions of an i d en ti ty n a tu r e. Na ti o n al i s t t en d en ci es l ead t o th e r ej ecti o n o f P o l i s h cu l tu r al herit ag e and the cr ea tion of a ne w quality in the r eligious space, usually iden - tified with the cen turies-old achie v emen ts of civiliz a tion. Keywords : Ukr aine, La tin Chur ch, Ukr ainian languag e, cultur e, r eligion, Ca tholicism, Orthodo xy Povzetek : Ri mok a t ol i šk a Cerk e v v sodobni Ukr aji n i je v mar si čem dedi nja i zr oči l a L v o v sk e me tr opolije la tinsk eg a obr eda, oblik o v ane znotr aj po ljsk eg a kr aljes tv a in drugi h politič nih enot, po v e z anih s poljsk o drž a vnos tjo in k ultur o. V splošni z a v es ti v elja z a , poljsk o Cerk e v ‘ in se r azlik uje od ,rut ensk e Cerkv e ‘ , ki je pr a v o- sla vna. Cerkv eni pr epor od v ok oliščinah ukr ajinsk e drž a vnos ti po v zr oč a š t e vilne r azpr a v e o iden tit e ti. Nacionali s tične t e žnje v odijo k z a vr ač anju poljsk e k ultur - ne dediš čine in k v zpos t a vljanj u no v e r az se žnos ti v v er sk em pr os t oru. T a no v a r az se žnos t se obič ajno iden tificir a z v ečs t ole tnimi civiliz acijskimi dose žki. Ključne besede : Ukr ajina, la tinsk a Cerk e v , ukr ajinski je zik, k ultur a, r eligija, k a t oliš tv o , pr a v osla vje 172 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 1. Ukraine’s Religious and Cultural Identity The lands of modern Ukr aine, in their o v er whelming majority , ar e c onnect ed with the his t or y and tr adition of Kie v an Rus, a hug e medie v al s t a t e enc ompassing the in finit e ar eas of E as t ern Eur ope, s tr e t ching t o the Asian s t eppe. An elemen t in- t egr a ting these ar eas, inhabit ed b y E as t Sla vic e thnic gr oup s – also c alled Ruthe- nian – and other tribes of non-Sla vic origin, bec ame a c ommon cultur al tr adition arising fr om the B y z an tine Chris tian herit ag e adop t ed in 988 b y Gr and Duk e Vla - dimir . The c apit al of modern Ukr aine – Kie v – w as the cen tr e of this gr ea t po w er and a sour ce of cultur al inspir a tion, which in la t er ce n turie s e v olv e d in t o na tional tr ad i ti o n s o f Bel aru s, Ru ssi a an d Ukr ai n e, an d d u e t o th e i mp eri al ad v an cemen t of Russia w as also imposed on other na tions tha t en t er ed its orbit of in fluence. A tt e m p ts t o div ide e ar ly Chr is tian Ruthe nian tr adition in t o e x c lusiv e ly U k r ainian or Russian, c onditioned by politic al cir cums t ances, w er e de v oid of subs t an tiv e jus tific a tions and appear ed on ly as gr ot esque v en tur es t o dim inish the gr ea t and univ er sal tr adition of Kie v an Rus in the spirit of nine t een th-cen tur y na tionalisms (P odsk alsky 2000, 112–115). 1 Ki e v pla y ed a speci al r ol e i n Chri s tianisa tion i n the eas t of Eur ope, i t w as c al led Ruthenian Jerusalem, and the Dnieper , in whose w a t er s the inhabit an ts of Kie v w er e bap tised, w as c alled the Ruthenian Jor dan. P ope John P aul II, visiting the c apit al of Ukr aine in 2001, said: »This is the place of the Baptism of Rus. Fr om Kie v , ther e beg an tha t flo w ering of Chris tian lif e which the Gospel fir s t br ough t f orth in the land of the ancien t Rus, then in the lands of E as t ern Eur ope and, la t - er , be y ond the Ur als, in the lands of Asia.« (Jan P a w eł II [John P aul II] 200, 110) Kie v bec ame no t only the c apit al of the me tr opolis, but an import an t r eligious and politic al cen tr e, which in the time of the br eak -up of the gr ea t Ruthenian s t a t e – pr ogr essing since the 13th ce n tur y – w as a visible s ymbol of the unity of ,Sain t Vladimir ’ s herit ag e ‘ , but also an import an t cultur e- f orming cen tr e (Malmen v all 2016, 550). The Gr and Duk e of Kie v , Vladimir , the Bap tis t of Rus, also did a gr ea t job of inc orpor a ting his lands in t o the spher e of the B y z an tine and Gr eek w orld civilisa tion and, thr ough this, in t o g ener al Eur opean tr adition. »He became a Chris tian, and imposed the f aith as the f ormal r eligion in Kie v an t errit ories. The other Russian s t a t es along the riv er s w er e not slo w t o f ollo w his e x ample. Fr om his Cher sonesus c ampaign, Vladimir br ough t back with him t o Kie v Gr eek pries ts, Gr eek artisans and Gr eek chur ch orna- ments and book s. He also t ook tw o br onz e quadrig ae – des tined t o decor a t e the Kie v of Vladimir , as the ‚s t eeds of San Mar c o‘ w er e la t er t o be c arried t o V enice a ft er the La tin c onques t of B y z an tium.« (Allen 1941, 13) Kie v Chris tianity beg an t o de v elop v er y r apidly and e xpansiv ely . This w as main- ly due t o a dynamic incr ease in the number of t emples and the emer g ence of lar g e 1 An a tt e mp t t o r e f er t o the Russian-U kr ainian deba t e tha t has been ong oing since the 1920s, r eaching back t o the nine t een th-cen tur y polemics w as made b y Gerhar d P odsk alsky in his w ork Christentum und theologische Literatur in der Kiever Rus’ (988–1237) (München, 1982). 173 Włodzimierz Osadczy - The Word of God at the Meeting Point of Civilisation monas tic cen tr es. Acc or ding t o v arious sour ces, jus t a ft er the bap tism, 300 t o 400 Orthodo x chur ches w er e built in Kie v alone (Zink e w y ch and Sor ok ow ski 1988, 35) 2 . Ruthenian monas t eries origina ting fr om the f amous Kiev P echer sk Monas t ery (hollo w ed out in c a v erns, and c a v es on the bank s of the Dnieper) r ose t o the r ank of gr ea t scien tific and cultur al cen tr es. Her e the fir s t his t ories w er e cr ea t ed – the chr onicles of Rus, in t ellectual lif e flourished her e, and fr om her e, educ a tion and lit er acy spr ead thr oughout the lands of old Rus. Chris tianity shaped on the bank s of the Dnieper had its char act eris tic f ea tur es; it w as an emana tion of B y z an tine cultur e adop t ed on the Sla vic soil. F or cen turies, d esp i t e th e p r o gr essi n g p o l i tic al d i vi si o n s o f th e l an d s o f an ci en t Ru s, Ch ri s tian i ty r e t ained its univ er sal ,all-Russi a ‘ dimension, which t es tifies t o the r eligious-civili - sa tional c ommunity of the he ir s of this tr adition. F or man y r e se ar che r s, this be- c ame the basis f or the claim about the e xis t ence of a separ a t e civilisa tion arising fr om the B y z an tine tr adition on the Ruthenian gr ound. Samuel P . Hun ting t on used the t erm Orthodo x civilisa tion, and the lands of c on t empor ar y Ukr aine, a t leas t partly ha v e been its or g anic part and e v en a cen tr e (Hun ting t on 2011, 56). Aft er the des truction of the Ruthenian s t a t e and a ft er P oland and Lithuania s t ar - t ed t o e x er cise so v er eign ty o v er its w es t ern part, the Orthodo x Chur ch main t ained its cultur al separ a t eness despit e the R enaissance, Bar oque and Enligh t enmen t tr en - ds c oming fr om the W es t and a ff ecting the en tir e socie ties. E v en a ft er the cr ea tion of the Union with R ome in 1596 and f ormally joining the W es t ern civilisa tion spa- ce, the Ruthenian Chur ch r e t ained its eas t ern, B y z an tine char act er (Osadcz y 2019, 47). A char act eris tic mode of holding r eligious ser vices acc or ding t o the litur gic al t e x ts of Sain t John Chr y sos t om and Sain t Basil the Gr ea t r emained unchang ed or subject ed t o insignific an t chang es; litur gic al book s and v arious pr a y er t e xts writt en in the ar chaic Chur ch Sla v onic languag e r emained the same; Cyrillic le tt er s – azbu- ka – based on the Gr eek alphabe t w er e used f or writing; a ft er the in tr oduction of the Gr eg orian c alendar , the Ruthenian chur ch s till r e t ained the old Julian c alendar . The Orthodo x and Unia t e Chur ches pr eser v ed their theology dis tinct fr om tha t of the W es t, which fr om the beginning f ollo w ed a diff er en t pa th than the La tin scho- las tic-Thomis tic sear ch c on firmed in the documen ts of the Council of T r en t. Being a civilisa tion cen tr e of Russian Orthodo xy , Ukr aine bec ame an import an t part of the W es t ern w orld as it unit ed with P oland and Lithuania. 3 This caused a migr a t or y mo v emen t fr om the W es t as w ell as the r eloc a tion of the s tructur es of the La tin Chur ch t o the ne wly c onnect ed lands. Ca tholic cen tr es w er e cr ea t ed pr imar ily in the w e s t e r n par t of the Ruthe nian lands in citie s f ounde d on Ge rman t o wn la w and inhabit ed b y Germans and P oles, as w ell as in noble manor s and c as tles of P olish or P olonised knigh ts. In r ela tion t o loc al E as t ern Chris tianity , R o- 2 This f act is descr ibed b y German chr onicler Thie tmar and P olish chr onicler Maciej Miecho wit a. Such a lar g e num ber of t em ples is also e xplaine d b y the f act tha t also small shrines and home chapels built in Ruthenia f ollo wing a Gr eek cus t om w er e also t ak en in t o acc oun t. 3 In the ele v en th cen tur y a part of Ruthenian lands passed under the suz er ain ty of the Hung arian Cr o wn of Sain t St ephen and as Hung arian Ruthenia or Subc arpa thian Ruthenia cr ea t ed its herme tic his t or y in c omplet e isola tion fr om the r es t of Ukr aine without aff ecting the ov er all civilisa tion and cultur al situa tion. 174 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 man Ca tholicism , although not numer ous but enjo ying a privileg ed position and social pr es tig e in the Ca tholic s t a t e, r epr esen t ed utt erly diff e r en t cultur al and ci- vilisa tional ar eas. It should be r emember ed tha t a ft er the schism of 1054, in t en- sified b y hos tility r esulting fr om the r aids of the Crusader s on B y z an tium, r ela tions be tw e en the tw o Chur ches w er e c ool and t ense . The y cr e a t e d tw o he rme tic spa- ces not in t erpene tr a ting each other , using diff er en t s ymbols, r e f erring t o c omple - t ely diff e r en t aes the tic pa tt erns and also de v eloping acc or ding t o c omple t ely dif - f er en t his t oric al c onditions. Ca tholicism w as c ons t an tly suppl ied fr om its cen tr es in W es t ern Eur ope with vivid theologic al and cultur al tr ends, t ook on mor e and mor e a ttr activ e, modern f orms and, being a minority denomina tion, sough t e xpan - sion by emphasising its univ er sal mission. Majority Orthodo xy w as lock ed in a s t alema t e, cutting off fr om declining B y z an tium, main t ained c onser v a tiv e, r e t ar - ded e x t ernal f orms and had no chance t o a ttr act neoph y t es, as it w as associa t ed with ,Ruthenian f aith ‘ , a na tional f ea tur e of Rus. Ov er the cen turies, ho w e v er , the civilisa tional division w as f ormed, r e flecting the poli tic al division of the Ukr ainian lands be tw een P oland and Russia. The E as t mer g ed with Russia as Little Ruthenia, activ ely participa ting in cr ea ting the po w er - ful Orthodo x em pir e, and the W es t w as ma ximally a ff ect ed b y P oland’ s civilisa ti- onal in fluence, only a t the c ommune le v el main t aining a tt achmen t t o the E as t ern Chur ch, alr eady appearing as Unia t e. Despit e sub sequen t po litic al chang es – the er asur e of the P olish s t a t e fr om the w orld map f or o v er 123 y ear s, the e xpansion of Bolshe vik Russia, the cr ea tion of a quasi-s t a t e in the f orm of Sovie t Ukr aine within which the modern Ukr ainian s t a t e w as f ormed a ft er the c ollap se of the USSR, the civilisa tional and r eligious division r emained a char act eris tic of Ukr aine. Af or emen tioned S. Hun ting t on wr ot e quit e empha tic ally about this in the c on t e x t of the discussion on the clash of civilisa tions: »U k r aine , howe v e r , is a cle ft countr y with two distinct cultur e s. The civ ili ­ sational fault line between the West and Orthodoxy runs through its heart and has done so for centuries. At times in the past, western Ukraine was part of Poland, Lithuania, and the Austro-Hungarian empire. A large portion of its population have been adherents of the Uniate Church which practices Orthodox rites but acknowledges the authority of the Pope. Historically, western Ukrainians have spoken Ukrainian and have been strongly nationalist in their outlook. The people of eastern Ukraine have be e n ov e r w he lm ing ly Or thodox and hav e in lar g e par t spok e n Russian.« (Hun ting t on 2011, 267–277) 4 This civilisa tion duality with the dominan t ,o wn ‘ E as t ern Chur ch (Orthodo x or Unia t e) and the ,f or eign ‘ La tin Chur ch bec ame a char act eris tic f ea tur e of r eligious 4 Giving a brillian t assessmen t of the cultur al and politic al situa tion of Ukr aine, the author made some simplific a tions and men t al short cuts tha t did not quit e accur a t ely r e flect the r eligious specificity . The pr esence of the f ollo w er s of the Unia t e Chur ch in Ukr aine w as sligh tly o v er s t a t ed (the t ot al number of the f aith ful amoun ts t o less than 7 % of the popula tion), while the f ollow er s of the R oman Ca tholic Chur ch w er e c omple t ely omitt ed. 175 Włodzimierz Osadczy - The Word of God at the Meeting Point of Civilisation and de v otional r eality in Ukr aine. Mor eov er , a s ymbol of this s t a t e of a ff air s is the c apit al city of Kie v , as e videnced by the impr essions of a f or eign obser v er: »Kie v is wher e the tw o leg acies meet. The Dnieper , Ukr aine’ s only major na tur al f ea tur e and the boundar y which used t o divide the c oun tr y be tw een Russia and P oland, also splits the city in t o tw o. The g olden domes of its gr ea t Orthodo x monas t eries and the neo-Gothic spir e of its Ca tholic c a thedr al jos tle on the skyline.« (R eid 2000, 16) 2. The Specificity of the Tradition of the Latin Church in Ukraine The pr esence of the Ca tholic Chur ch in the lands of f ormer Rus is a deriv a tiv e of their inclusion in the Ca tholic c oun tries and, abo v e all, the P olish-Lithuanian s t a t e. The R oman Ca tholic ar chdioce se in Ruthe nia w as f ounde d in 1375 unde r the r ule of t he Hung a r ian k ing ’ s g o v e r nor Vladisla us I I of Opole . I t should be r e m e m be r e d tha t a ft er the end of the R omano v s’ Ruthenian dynas ty in 1340, R ed Ruthenia, with its c apit al L viv , w as t ak en b y the P olish king Casimir the Gr ea t as the closes t h ei r t o th es e ar eas. In tu rn , a ft er h i s ch i l d l ess d ea th , th e Ki n g o f Hu n g ar y , L o u i s, inherit ed the P olish Cr own with Ruthenia. Aft er the short ,Hung arian episode ‘ , the Ruthenian lands r e turned t o the P olish Cr own ag ain, but now with its ar chdiocese. It should be r ec alled tha t a t tha t time, P oland had had its ancien t ar chdiocese in leg endar y Gnie zno f or o v er thr ee cen turies. Aft er the inc orpor a tion of Rus, it b ec ame a c o u n tr y i n wh i ch th er e w er e tw o me tr o p o l i t an s i n th e s t a t e h i er ar ch y – high-r ank dign it aries. The Gnie zno me tr opolit an bor e the title of prima t e, held fir s t place in the Sena t e, f ollo w ed b y the L viv me tr opolit an. In the eas t, K ami ane ts an d Ki e v di oceses w er e su bor d i na t ed t o the L vi v ar ch- diocese. The situa tion of the Ca tholic popula tion w as v er y un s t able and dang er - ous ther e. As w e know , during the Cossack and P olish-Mosc ow w ar s, the partitions c on tinually led t o the depolonisa tion and desola tion of these ar eas. Furthermor e, r ig h t a ft e r t ha t c on fla g r a tions, t he f e r tile la nds w e r e a g a in c olonise d b y t he pe a s - an t popula tion r ecruit ed fr om c oun ties of Cen tr al P oland. Thus, c ompact P olish and Ca tholic encla v es w er e es t ablished, main t aining their separ a t eness fr om the surr ounding Orthodo x popula tion. Gr adually under g oing linguis tic and cultur al Ukr ainianisa tion, P olish peasan ts firmly adher ed t o Ca tholicism. Chur ches w er e the oases of their cultur e and the only places wher e the P olish languag e w as hear d in pu blic space. Despit e the Russian authorities’ r epea t ed a tt emp ts t o in tr oduce the Russian languag e in t o Ca tholic t emples, this e xperimen t f ailed. Not using P ol- ish e v er y da y , R oman Ca tholics in the E as t ern Bor derlands w er e within the orbit of the in fluence of the P olish cultur e and languag e in the sph er e of r eligious lif e. Maria Dunin-K o zick a, a P olish writ er , described this situa tion as f ollo w s: »Only in the churches of V olh ynia, P odolia, Ukr aine, the publicly spok en P olish t ongue c ould be hear d during sermons. Only in pr esb y t eries, a ft er the ser vice, it w as possible t o g a ther without being denounce d t o the po - 176 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 lice. A t tha t time, the chur ch w as a place of en t ert ainmen t and r elie f , God’ s and P olish outpos t, wher e e v er y one, despit e social diff er ences, f elt br oth- er s in c ommon pr of ession of f aith and the leg acy of the Lechit es, pr ohib - it ed in the offices of speech.« (1928, 127) Such his t oric al and cultur al cir cums t ances led t o the perpe tua tion of the soci - al c onsc iousnes s of s t er eotype s tha t tr ansla t ed in t o de fining the r eality surr oun - ding the spher e of oper a tion of the R oman Ca tholic Chur ch as P olish. The chur ch, the pries t, litur gic al f eas ts, e t c., w er e r e f err ed t o as: , the P olish chur ch ‘ , , the P oli - sh pries t ‘ , ,P olis h f eas ts ‘ , and ,P olish Chris tmas, E as t er ‘ . The La tin Chur ch w as as- socia t ed with chur ch f air s, cer emonial pr ocessions, Eucharis tic ador a tion, pla ying the or g an, and magnificen t, e x tr emel y sug g es tiv e bar oque scul p tur es. Chur ches w er e usually made of brick s and w ell-equipped, beautifully dec or a t ed, and their high spir es and bell t o w er s domina t ed the surr ounding ar ea. The R oman Ca tholic chur ch, along with P olish cultur e and lan guag e, w as asso - cia t ed primarily with city cultur e, the cultur e of noble c ourts, and in simplified t erms wi th l o r d ’ s cu l tu r e. T h er e f o r e, th e L a tin Ch u r ch tr ad i tio n al l y en jo y ed h i gh social pr es tig e in the Ukr ainian lands; it w as a r ec ognisable f ea tur e of the upper social classes. The f olk pr o v erb said tha t God »cr ea t ed a cler gyman (a La tin pries t) f or the mas t er , and a pope (the Orthodo x pries t) f or the peasan t«. These socio- -cultur al s t er eotypes ar e perpe tua t ed in the c onsciousness of the inhabit an ts of Ukr ainian lands (Andr ee v and Andr ee v a 2019, 188). Social r e v olts or P olish-Ukr ainian w ar s tha t br ok e out fr om time t o time oft en r esult ed fr om social and class inequalities. Ins tinctiv e acts of ag gr ession w er e di - r ect ed ag ains t the La tin Chur ch, as the ar ea of lif e mos t associa t ed with P olishness. During the esc ala tion of ag gr ession, e v er y thing associa t ed with La tin cultur e and e v er y thing c onn ect ed with Ca tholicism w as cruelly des tr o y ed. The t emples w er e r az ed, the f aith ful w er e mur der ed, and the cler gymen’ s lif e w as t ak en with parti- cular f er ociousn ess. Figh ting La tin Ca tholicism in an unbelie v ably cruel and t ot al w a y had f ea tur es char act eris tic of the clash of civilisa tions and the c on flict be t - w een tw o cultur al ar eas (Osadcz y 2019, 67–111). Hence, a t the le v el of f olk cul - tur e fr om which Ukr ainian na tional cultur e gr e w , hos tility t o the pr esence of tr a- ces of La tin tr adition w as v er y deeply r oot ed. It w as associa t ed with P olishness and, ther e f or e, with a f or eign civilisa tional and socie t al elemen t. This civilisa tional space w as ,lor dly ‘ , aris t ocr a tic and ther e f or e alien and hos tile t o w ar ds Ukr ainian peasan t, democr a tic na tional tr adition. Orthodo x chur ches and La tin chur ches, w hic h had alw a y s be e n pr e se n t in the U k r ainian landsc ape , w e r e c alle d , Ruthe ni- an or Ukr ainian chur ches ‘ and ,P olish chur ches ‘ , ,Ruthenian f eas ts ‘ and ,P olish f eas ts ‘ w er e celebr a t ed, ,Ruthenian pries ts ‘ and ,P olish pries ts ‘ perf ormed rituals. In tr aditional f olk c onsciousness, fr om which na tional cultur e gr e w , r e f erring t o man y cen turies of his t or y , these tw o spaces w er e herme tic ally separ a t ed fr om each oth er , alw a y s pr esen t and alw a y s f or eign and e v en hos tile. Hence ne w chal - leng es of time r ela t ed t o the cr ea tion of a univ er sal Ukr ainian cultur al space in c onnection with the emer g ence of the Ukr ainian s t a t e ha v e bec ome a signific an t 177 Włodzimierz Osadczy - The Word of God at the Meeting Point of Civilisation pr oblem in the r eligious lif e of socie ty g oing be y ond the sc ope of its tr aditional class space. 3. From ,the Polish Church‘ to ,the Ukrainian Church‘ During the c ommunis t rule and s trug gle with r eligion, the R oman Ca tholic Chur ch w as the only official ins titution in the So vie t s t a t e tha t r e t ained its P olish cultur al and languag e char act er . Un til the implemen t a tion of the pr o visions of the Sec ond V a tic an Council (1962–1965) in tr oducing na tional languag es in t o the litur gy , in the R oman Ca tholic Chur ch in Ukr aine, La tin w as used in rit es of the Mass and other ser vices. Can ticles, as w ell as par alitur gic al ser vices (r osaries, lit anies, sup - plic a tions), w er e tr aditionally perf ormed in P olish. The pries t usually addr essed the f aith ful in P olish. Ov er the cen turies, especially during the c ommunis t dict a t or ship, the P olish popula tion in Ukr aine los t its languag e in e v er y da y use. On the one hand, it w as a na tur al pr ocess of assimila tion of the rur al popula tion in t o the ov erwhelming Ukr ai - nian major ity ; on the othe r , it w as in t e nde d dur ing the St alinis t s trug gle ag ains t the so-c alled ,Bour g eois na tionalism ‘ of non-Russian minorities. In the 1930s, all La tin chur ches in So vie t Ukr aine w er e des tr o y ed due t o St alinis t r epr ession. Man- or s – cen tr es of main t aining P olishness – w er e des tr o y ed during the r e v olutionar y s trug gles of 1917–1920. Ca tholics in E as t ern P olish pr ovinces, anne x ed by the USSR in 1939, enjoy ed r eligious fr eedom and the dev elopmen t of P olish r eligious cultur e thr oughout the in t er w ar period. Aft er the So vie t occupa tion, the y bec ame the ob- ject of per secution and r epr ession, while the German occupa tion r es t or ed r eligious fr eedom in the occupied t errit ories of So vie t Ukr aine. Allo wing f or limit ed functioning of the R oman Ca tholic Chur ch in the USSR, the authorities hoped f or its quick ,e x tinction ‘ as a r esult of ,leg al‘ pr ocedur es. The chur ch w as depriv ed of its hier ar ch y and seminaries, c a t echising childr en and y outh w as tr ea t ed as a criminal off ence, pries ts w er e r epr essed, and their number w as limit e d t o a minimum. A s bishop Mar cjan T r ofimiak , a f or me r or dinar y of the diocese of Lutsk r ec alled, R oman Ca tholic pries ts bec ame the mos t per secut ed gr oup in the So vie t Union (T r ofimiak 1994, 211). R oman Ca tholic cen tr es sur viv ed in a f e w cities in w es t ern Ukr aine – of which L viv w as the lar g es t – and in P odolia and Kie v r egion, mainly in rur al t o wns—as a r esult of the pr esence of P olish in t ellig en tsia, t owns, and especially the f amous L viv c a thedr al, manag ed t o pr eser v e the tr aditional cultur al and r eligious or der cr ea ting peculiar islands of P olish bor derland cultur e. Ca tholic villag es of the P olish popu- la tion in ar eas f ormerly belonging t o T saris t Russia had been subject ed t o linguis tic and cultur al assimila tion f or a long time. Due t o the pr esence of educ a t ed pries ts, it w as possible t o main t ain the P olish languag e and tr aditional cultur e in the ar ea of r eligious lif e. A w ell-known model of cultur al and linguis tic lif e w as cr ea t ed when the languag e tha t w as not used in e v er y da y lif e and which ceased t o function a t 178 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 home w as r e se r v e d f or the sacr e d sphe r e and w as in t e nde d only f or pr a y e r and the t emple. The Hebr e w languag e of Je w s, the hr abar languag e of Armenians, e t c., under w en t such a me t amorphosis. Losing the P olish languag e in e v er y da y lif e, P o- les in Ukr aine pr eser v ed it in the chur ch and pr a y er . Pr eser v ed pr a y er book s in no - t ebook s in which t e xts of P olish pr a y er s and r eligious songs w er e phone tic ally han- dwritt en in Cyrillic le tt er s – writing used daily – and fr equen tly with mis t ak es ar e a specific s ymbol of this s t a t e of a ff air s. Aft er P olish missals w er e in tr oduced t o chur ches in So vie t Ukr aine in the 1970s, the f aith ful c ould not under s t and P olish used in the Holy Mass; some times, the y c omic ally dis t ort ed the w or ds, c omple t e- ly per v erting the c on t en t of the pr a y er . Mor eo v er , thus, ins t ead of ,P on tius Pila t e ‘ ther e w as ,P olish ‘ Pila t e, and ins t ead of »Hosanna in the highes t«, the y sang »Ok sa- na [Ukr ainian f emale name] in ha ying« (Dz w onk o w ski and P ały g a 1995, 325). Among La tin Ca tholics, ther e w as c onsider able r esis t ance t o a tt empts t o in tr odu- ce the Ukr ainian languag e in t o r eligious lif e. Both P oles and Ukr ainians per ceiv ed it as the dis t ortion of cert ain normality , tr adition, and et ernal or der . Aft er the liquida- tion of the Gr eek Ca tholic Chur ch in 1946, g a thering the Ukr ainian popula tion in the f ormer Galician lands, some f ormer Ca tholics of the E as t ern Rit e beg an t o t ak e ad- v an t ag e of the possibility of a tt ending ser vices in the f ew R oman Ca tholic chur ches. Some times such f aith ful c ons titut ed the majority in P olish chur ches bec ause the P olish popula tion w as deport ed t o P oland in the new pos t -w ar bor der s. In e x ceptio- nal cir cums t ances, Ukr ainian r eligious songs wer e intr oduced t o such services (Osad- cz y 2009, 82). 5 The Soviet authorities also made ev ery endea v our so tha t chur ch lif e did not go bey ond the P olish cultur al and linguis tic spher e. Without schools, book s, and the in t ellig en tsia, the P olish popula tion w as doomed t o disappear . Striving t o elimina t e the R oman Ca tholic Chur ch fr om public lif e, the c ommunis t authorities made sur e tha t the Chur ch, opening itself t o the Ukr ainian languag e, w ould not be r eborn thr ough the influx of new believ er s fr om outside. Acc or ding t o the plans of the a theis t r egime, Ca tholicism should be lock ed up in the ghett o of elderly people of P olish na tionality whose na tur al dea th w ould also be the demise of the Chur ch. The lack of a hier ar ch y and seminaries w as a guar an t ee of the de finit e end of the chur ch s tructur e tha t c ould not be included in the pr ocess of building c ommunism. The situ a tion chang ed a ft er the c ollap se of the USSR . Univ er sal r eligious fr ee - d o m al l o w ed th e h i er ar ch i c al s tru ctu r es o f th e C a th o l i c C h u r ch i n Ukr ai n e t o b e r eborn. Separ a t e chur ch or g anisa tions w er e es t ablished in the c oun tries ne wly cr ea t ed on the ruins of the So vie t s t a t e. Both fr om the per spectiv e of the V a tic an and the g o v ernmen ts of pos t -S o vie t c oun tries, it w as necessar y t o separ a t e fr om the tr adition of P olish Ca tholicism, which his t oric ally w as the f ounda tion of Ca tho- lic c ommunities in pos t -So vie t ar eas – ma ybe e x cep t partly in Lithuania, La tvia and Carpa thian Ruth enia – and begin t o cr ea t e Ca tholic hier ar chic al s tructur es in the na tional languag e and cultur e (Lopert 2008). 6 5 Exposi ng himself t o the har assmen t b y a theis tic authorities, Mar cjan T r ofimi ak, pries t in K r emene ts in V olh ynia and pries t f or Ca tholics in W es t ern and Cen tr al Ukr aine, in tr oduced Ukr ainian c an ticles in the Bor shchiv parish in P odolia. 6 This iss ue is discu ssed in de t ail in the article „Iden tit e t a in r eligio znos t “ , see Lop ert 2008. 179 Włodzimierz Osadczy - The Word of God at the Meeting Point of Civilisation In Ukr aine, the ,P olish Chur ch ‘ had t o bec ome Ukr ainian and t ak e its place among other ,Ukr ainian ‘ Chur ches, wher e Orthodo x Chur ches pla y ed the domi- nant role. 4. Problems in the Search for New Cultural and Linguistic Identity It is known tha t a tt achmen t t o tr adition, adher ence t o ar chaic noble f orms, and c on- nection with gener ations of the f aithful t es tify t o the authenticity and pr es tige of the Chur ch. The ,Ukr ainian ‘ Latin Chur ch could not ha ve these attributes because it f ound itself in a difficult situation. The whole authentic tr adition w as associat ed with P olish history and cultur e. The rich canticle r esour ces wer e also e x clusively P olish, incorpor a- t ed int o the br oad cont e xt of P olish r eligious cultur e. The air -tightness of the cultur al and r eligious ar ea was pr eserved despite the pr ogr essing Ukr ainianisation of the daily lif e of f aithful Catholics. This s t at e of aff air s w as ev en, to some e xt ent, satisf actory f or the c ommunity s t a ying in a kind of isola tion fr om the a theis tic en vir onmen t mark ed by the surf ace r eligiosity char act eris tic of the cultur e of the Orthodo x Chur ch. The ,ghett o‘ w as a suit able en vir onmen t f or sur viving and pr eser ving own iden tity , ev en obser ving the principle of pr e f er ence f or marriag es within a r eligious gr oup. Lea ving the under gr ound, es t ablishing full- fledg ed hier ar chic al s tructur es, joining the r eli- gious lif e of the c oun try dev as t a t ed by a theis tic ideology opened new per spectiv es and a new vision in the en vir onmen t of the La tin Chur ch. Une xpect ed and t empting per spectiv es opened f or the acc omplishmen t of the ev ang elising mission. The La tin Chur ch in Ukr aine, being part of the univ er sal Chur ch, f elt and had the support of the en tir e Ca tholic w orld. Fir s t of all, P oland, wher e the issue of Ca tholicism a t E as t ern Bor derlands w as tr aditionally tr ea t ed as P olish, pr ovided succ our . Support w as also len t by Ca tholic dioceses fr om W es t ern Eur ope and the US A, wher e societies w er e mor e and mor e secularised and the challeng es of helping pos t -c ommunis t c oun- tries s tr ongly impact ed the mission a w ar eness. The authority of Sain t John P aul II, an unques tionable mor al s t andar d not only f or Ca tholics, w as of gr ea t import ance. Mor eov er , orien t a tion t o the W es t, which guided the r ev olutionary chang es in the USSR and the ov erthr ow of the dict a t or ship of the Communis t P arty , incr eased the a ttr activ eness and pr es tig e of the , W es t ern ‘ Chur ch. In such cir cums t ances, being closed in the P olish cultur al and r eligious cir cle bec ame a gr ea t limit a tion f or the de v elopmen t of missionar y activity . The en tr y in t o the ne w socio-politic al r e ality occur r e d along with the chang e in the g e ne r a- tion of pries ts in Ukr aine. The older g ener a tion educ a t ed in P olish seminaries, s tr ongly a tt ached t o P olish tr adition and cultur e, w as lea ving. Newly or dained pries ts origina ting fr om pos t -S o vie t f amilies, iden tif ying with the Ukr ainian en vi- r onmen t, or indiff er en t t o cultur al ma tt er s, de v oid of a mor e pr of ound humanis - tic kno wledg e and, in particula r , cut off fr om the normal tr ansmission of cultur al and r eligious v alues, willingly beg an t o en t er in t o modern pas t or al and ecclesias- tic al tr ends as f ar as possible de t aching themselv es fr om tr adition. 180 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 The r e tir emen t of the ol der g ener a tion of hi er ar chs al so f or eboded the inter - ruption of a cert ain c on tinuity of per sis ting in f aith and tr adition, e x cellen t e x - am ple s of w hic h w e r e g iv e n b y e m ine n t fig ur e s of the , bor de r land hie r a r c hs ‘ pe r - ceiv ed e v en as pa triar chs in times of per secution (Osadcz y 2002, 249–254). In th e n e w h i s t o ri c al an d p o l i ti c al ci r cu ms t an ces , a p r o j ect o f th e L a tin C h u r ch , cut off fr om P ol ish tr adition, cr ea ting a ne w Ukr ainian cultur al and r eligious r eal- ity , beg an t o be implemen t ed. The assumption w as tha t the La tin chur ch in Ukr aine w as uni v er sal and w as t o adap t t o the languag e and linguis tic and cultur al c ondi - tions of the f aith ful, the principle of a ,blank c ar d‘ w as adop t ed. Tha t is, cutting off fr om tr adition and adap ting t o e xis ting c onditions – e. g. ser vices in P olish in the f ormer dioceses of the Sec ond P olish R epublic and pr e f er ence of the Ukr ai - nian languag e in cen tr al and eas t ern ar eas tr aditionally associa t ed with the Ca th- olic tr adition and ha ving a missionar y char act er . Th i s s t a t e o f a ff ai r s p artl y p r o v o k ed d i scu ssi on an d e v en o p p o si tion i n cen tr al parts of Ukr aine – the dioceses of K amiane ts and Kie v -Zh y t om yr – wher e the P ol- ish elemen t r emained tr aditionally s tr ong , ha ving las ting a tt achmen t t o the P olish languag e in ser vices despit e the pr ogr ess of Ukr ainianisa tion in e v er y da y lif e. Ne v - ertheless, chur ch f act or s g ot hea vily in v olv ed in cr ea ting a ne w linguis tic and cul- tur al r eality in the La tin Chur ch in Ukr aine thr ough depolonisa tion and in t ensified Ukr ainianisa tion of r eligious lif e. Not only loc al cler gymen of the pos t -So vie t g en- er a tion but also pries ts c oming fr om P oland w er e activ ely in v olv ed in this pr ocess. Gr adually , the univ er sality of the Chur ch in Ukr aine, also t aking in t o acc oun t the ar ea of tr adition in P olish and the pas t or al needs of the P olish popula tion, be g an t o be r e place d b y the U k r ainian languag e on a g e ne r al sc ale . T o the official narr a tiv e r ela t ed t o the iden tity of the R oman Ca tholic Chur ch in Ukr aine, an e x - plana tion w as added acc or ding t o which the alleg edly P olish linguis tic and cul - tur al c har ac t e r of the R om an Ca tholic Chur c h w as the r e sult of the in tr oduction of the P olish missal a ft er the Sec ond V a tic an Council. The Litur gic al Commission of the Episc opal Con f er ence of Ukr aine e xplained tha t P olish pr a y er s and the nec - e ssar y use of P olish m issals g a v e r ise t o »a m isc onc e p tion, w hic h s till pe r sis ts in socie ty , tha t the Ca tholic Chur ch is the P olish Chur ch« (Rimsʹkij Mesal 2019). Sub- sequen tly , ther e is an e v en mor e as t ounding s t a t emen t tha t thank s t o the P olish languag e, which is v er y close t o Ukr ainian, as w ell as the eng ag emen t of P olish pries ts, the Chur ch w as able t o oper a t e mor e or less normally . Ho w e v er , as the author of the article about the missal in Ukr ainian in tr oduced f or use in the Chur ch in Ukr aine poin ts out, »finally the R oman Ca tholic Chur ch in Ukr aine has been giv en the opportunity t o use its o wn languag e« (Rimsʹkij Mesal 2019). Cu ttin g o ff fr o m tr ad i tio n al cu l tu r al an d l i n gu i s tic r o o ts an d tr yi n g t o se tt l e i n the civilisa tion space, c alled b y some scholar s ‚ Orthodo xy ‘ 7 , put R oman Ca tholics in Ukr aine in a difficult situa tion. It w as necessar y t o find one’ s f ee t not in a mis- sionar y space, de v oid of Chris tian cultur e, opening up the possibility of cr ea ting ne w f orms of La tin W es t ern cultur e adap ting t o loc al c onditions, but in lands with 7 Among oth er s, S. Hun ting t on uses this nomencla tur e de fining one of eigh t civilis a tions as ,Orthodo xy ‘ . 181 Włodzimierz Osadczy - The Word of God at the Meeting Point of Civilisation o v er a thousand- y ear of a tr adition of E as t ern Chris tianity , on the basis of which indig enous, na tiv e, loc al tr adition has gr o wn. The pr oblem s t arts with the t erm Chur ch – E cclesia. In the Ukr ainian tr adition, the f orm Ц ерква is used, univ oc ally associa t e d with the E as t ern Chur ch. T o de fine the W e s t e rn Chur ch, i.e . P olish in the g ener al c onsciousness, ther e w as a w or d phone tic ally r e flecting the P olish name of the Chur ch of К остьо л. The cus t om of dis tinguishing Ц ерква and К остьо л pr e v ailed in all E as t Sla vic – Ruthenian – languag es. A half -w a y solution w as ad- opt ed, the w or d Ц ерква de fines the chur ch as an ins titution, while the w or d К остьо л r emained t o describe the t emple. In or der t o elimin a t e P olish-sounding w or ds in r ela tion t o Ca tholic t emples, support er s of t ot al depolonisa tion beg an t o pr e f e r e v en less linguis tic ally pr ecise t erms храм – t emple, собор – c a thedr al, not only in r ela tion t o c a thedr al t emples. Whe n c onducting the U kr ainisa tion of the linguis tic and cultur al space of the lif e of the R oman Ca tholic Chu r ch, the cr ea t or s of the ne w r eality mus t c onsider the functioning of popular w or ds fr om the spher e of the Orthodo x Chur ch in the spher e of popular cultur e. R oman Ca tholics in Ukr aine had t o f ace a dilemma whe ther t o use r eady w or ds de v elope d b y the Orthodo x Chur ch, f amiliar t o the g ener al public or in tr oduce f or eign w or ds fr om La tin tr adition. This dilemma is mos t spect acula rly seen in the use of the w or ds AMEN and alleluia. These w or ds c oming fr om Hebr e w diff er in the pr onuncia tion of E as t ern and W es t ern Chris ti- ans. The Gr eek phone tic v er sio n in the f orm of AMIN’ and ALLILUJA entered the E as t ern Chris tian tr adition, and the v er sion of La tin phone tics – AMEN and ALLE- LUJA – be c am e e s t ablishe d in the W e s t e r n Chr is tian tr adition. A s a r e sult of quit e s tr ang e c onclusions, Gr eek w or ds associa t ed with the lif e of the Orthodo x Chur ch w er e in tr oduced in t o the litur gic al and pr a y er tr adition of La tin Ca tholics in Ukr ai- ne, i.e. AMIN’ and ALLILUJA (V uk ašino vić 2010, 19–20) 8 . The adop tion of the names of holida y s and cer emonies borr o w ed fr om the v o- c abular y of the Orthodo x Chur ch, c ommonly used in socie ty , some wha t chang es the theologic al c on t en t of the c ommemor a t ed e v en t. Solemnity of the Assump- tion of the Blessed Vir gin Mary is de fined in the E as t ern Chur ch as У спеніє or У с п ін н я, w hic h ar e t e r m s r e f e r r ing t o the Dor m ition of the Mothe r of G od. In the La tin tr adition, the Assump tion of the Blessed Vir gin Mar y – Assumptio Beatissi- mae Mariae Virginis in caelum – is s tr essed. B y adop ting the v er sion of the name of the f eas t c ommonly used in Ukr ainian socie ty , the La tin Chur ch dis t ort ed the theologic al t one of the e v en t, ha ving a clear theologic al c onn ot a tion and pr a y er and litur gic al tr adition in the pr actice of R oman Ca tholicism. A tt emp ts t o in tr odu - ce a liter al tr anslation of the P olish name of the Assumption ceremon y – Внебовзятт я – w er e linguis tic ally ghas tly , artificial and did not c omply with the rules of Ukr ainian gr ammar . Officially , ther e is a partial solution t o this issue; in the litur gic al use, the E as t ern Chris tian v er sion is giv en, c on t aining in par en theses its meaning in acc or dance with the La tin theologic al tr adition – У спіння (Взяття д о 8 Similar pr oblems also arise in the situa tion of the Orthodo x Chur ch adjus ting t o modernity . An e x ample is the situa tion in Serbia. 182 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 неба) Пресв ят ої Діви Марії (Molitvi u Z vič ajnomu perіodі [Or dinar y Time Pr a y er s] 2019). In some situa tions, it is not possible t o use the equiv alen ts of tr aditional E as t ern Chris tian w or ds t o describe the r eality of the R oman Ca tholic Chur ch in Ukr aine. The sacr amen t of the c on firma tion, r e f err ed t o as Миропомазання, is associated with the sacr ame n t adminis t er e d in the Orthodo x Chur ch acc or ding t o a c omple - t ely diff er en t mode than in the La tin tr adition. It is giv en b y the pries t during the b ap tism sacr amen t and h as a c ompl e t el y d i ff er en t c on not a tion fr om th a t i n th e La tin tr adition, which emphasises gr o wing up in f aith and ma tur e joining in the f aithful c ommunity . The P olish w or d bierzmowanie is v ery specific as f ar as its pr onuncia tion and spelling ar e c oncerned, which ar e clearly associa t ed with the tr adition of the P olish languag e, and its use in such a f orm is impossible in the Ukr ainian langu ag e. Hence the w or d К онфірмація w as in tr oduced t o de fine the sacr amen t of c on firma tion, which r e f er s t o the La tin name of the sacr amen t – confirmatio . This is a c omple t ely inno v a tiv e solution, which in tr oduces a w or d t o cir cula tion which is f or eign t o both the tr aditional P olish languag e and Ukr ainian r eligious cultur e, r e f erring t o the cus t oms of the Orthodo x Chur ch. Man y p r o b l ems ar e al so asso ci a t ed wi th th e u se o f th e n ames o f l i tu r gi c al v es- sels, litur gic al v es tmen ts, litur gic al and pr a y er book s, as w ell as other objects functioni ng i n the r el i gi ous pr actices of the R oman Ca thol i c Ch ur ch. In man y si tu- a tions, ther e ar e simply no t erms in Ukr ainian tha t describe specific objects tha t ar e usual elemen ts of the La tin rit e. One of the pioneer s of tr ansla ting the La tin Missal in t o Ukr ainian, Bishop Mar cjan T r ofimiak, a r e tir ed or dinar y of the Lutsk diocese, f or man y y ear s the chairman of the Litur gic al Commission of the Episc o- pal Con f er ence of the R oman Ca tholic Chur ch in Ukr aine, pr esen t ed the t ask s f a- cing the in tr oduction of the Ukr ainian languag e in t o R oman Ca tholic r eligious lif e: »We are also trying to be moderate in that the language is to be beautiful, not very poetic, although the note of poetry must be heard; not very archaic, although we have left some archaic words for embellishing the texts, without making it excess ively oriental. We have also tried to make this Latin moment always present. It seems that we have succeeded, that it is a purely Latin liturgy in Ukr ainian.« (Osadcz y 2009, 135) References Allen, William Edward David. 1 9 4 1 . The Ukraine: A History . C a m b r i d ge : C a m b r i d ge U n i v e r s i t y P r es s . 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