Towards a Bi-polar 
Typology of Slovenian 
Mountaineering Literature
W kierunku dwubiegunowej 
typologii literatury 
górskiej autorstwa 
słoweńskich wspinaczy
❦ toMo Virk ▶ tomo.virk@ff.uni-lj.si
DOI ▶ 10.13137/2283-5482/33712
177
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
mounTaineerinG liTeraTure, 
slovenian mounTaineerinG, 
slovenian novel, neJc 
zaploTnik, klemenT JuG
liTeraTura Górska, alpinizm 
słoweński, powieść słoweńska, 
neJc zaploTnik, klemenT JuG
The article proposes a typology 
of mountaineering literature written 
by Slovenian mountaineers. It differ-
entiates between two poles: the heroic 
and the contemplative, or, in more 
generic terms, the epic and the poetic. 
A sketch of the origin of this typology 
in mountaineering texts themselves 
is followed by an elaboration of the 
two constituent types with reference 
to two exemplary cases, namely Kle-
ment Jug and Nejc Zaplotnik. Writing 
in the early 1920s, Jug emphasised 
the heroic side of alpinism where 
both celebration one’s own feats and 
critique of one’s colleagues’ failures 
are supposed to serve the nation and 
humanity. Writing in the early 1980s, 
Zaplotnik saw in climbing an aim in it-
self where both accomplishments and 
failures primarily serve one’s own in-
ner journey. The article concludes with 
the assessment that Zaplotnik’s writ-
ings have since become more typical 
than Jug’s, not least because of their 
proximity to a specifically Slovenian 
version of the Bildungsroman.
Niniejszy artykuł stanowi próbę zapro-
ponowania typologii literatury górskiej 
autorstwa słoweńskich wspinaczy. 
Teksty te oscylują między dwoma bie-
gunami: literaturą heroiczną i kontem-
placyjną, lub też – używając terminów 
gatunkowych – między epiką a liryką. 
Omówienie zakorzenienia tej typologii 
w samych tekstach górskich poprzedza 
analizę obu typów poprzez odniesienia 
do dwóch modelowych przykładów, 
mianowicie Klementa Juga oraz Nejca 
Zaplotnika. Tworząc na początku lat 
20-tych poprzedniego stulecia, Jug 
kładł nacisk na heroiczny aspekt alpi-
nizmu, w którym zarówno celebracja 
własnych osiągnieć jak i krytyka po-
rażek innych wspinaczy miały na celu 
służbę narodowi i ludzkości. Piszący 
we wczesnych latach 80-tych XX w. 
Zaplotnik widział wspinaczkę jako cel 
sam w sobie, gdzie zarówno osiągniecia 
jak i porażki służyły przede wszystkim 
wewnętrznemu rozwojowi jednostki. 
Artykuł konkluduje, że pisarstwo 
Zaplotnika stało się bardziej typowe 
niż Juga, również dlatego, że bliższe 
jest typowo słoweńskiej wersji gatunku 
Bildungsroman.
178
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
1 
This article was 
written at the Faculty 
of Arts, University 
of Ljubljana, in the 
framework of the 
research project Moun-
taineering Literature: 
Slovenia and Beyond 
(J6-1808), which was 
funded by the Sloveni-
an Research Agency. 
 
2 
Miha Potočnik dis-
cusses Julius Kugy and 
Henrik Tuma in order 
to associate these two 
types with two typical 
views of mountain-
eering as well as with 
two characteristic 
themes of mountain-
eering literature: the 
experience, on one 
side, and the athletic 
achievement, on the 
other (see Potočnik: 
232). Indeed, Tuma, 
who in many ways 
was similar to Kle-
ment Jug, put a clear 
emphasis on his own 
sport-based approach 
to mountaineering, 
which he related to na-
tionalism in a quite in-
teresting and original 
way: ‘Since alpinism 
as a sport has the 
psychological element 
of competition, that 
is, the sense of victory 
in the human conquest 
of nature, it often com-
bines and intersects, 
in an almost natural 
development, with na-
tionalism.’ (Tuma: 59) 
 
When trying to outline mountaineering literature (particularly prose) 
within the broader field of mountain-related literature it might appear 
that we are dealing with a relatively homogenous notion.1 For these are 
mostly writings that narrate either an individual (usually outstanding) 
mountaineering expedition or an entire career of an individual (again, 
usually outstanding or at least noteworthy) mountaineer. This homo-
geneity, however, is quickly complicated by a great typological and 
generic diversity. Some works resemble the documentary genre, others 
read like literary autobiographies, while many take the form of the 
picaresque novel, the adventure novel or the Bildungsroman, or adopt 
elements of detective fiction, the philosophical novel, the romance, the 
realist novel or even the epic. Whereas some works of mountaineering 
literature are clearly characterised by a dominant generic pattern, 
mountaineering literature as such is a protean phenomenon marked, 
like most literature, by the syncretism of generic forms.
The literary merit of a given work depends, of course, on the au-
thor’s literary talent, but the scope of its readership, especially within 
the mountaineering community, is also determined by the exception-
ality and intensity of the narrated feats. This does not seem to hold 
as much for the genre of the work: the work’s generic structure seems 
to depend mostly on the author’s type of personality.
Theorists and historians of mountaineering, but also mountaineers 
themselves, have been interested in detecting not only the possible 
sources of motivation for mountaineering but also the various types 
of mountaineers, depending on the explicit motives for their endeav-
ours or on their understanding of the essence or purpose of moun-
taineering. The most common result is the simple binary opposition 
between athletes and romantics (as it is employed, for instance, 
throughout Ante Mahkota’s 1979 book Sfinga [The Sphinx]).2 Henrik 
179
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
3 
The cartographic 
motive can be observed 
in some of Jug’s writ-
ings. Jug would also try 
to use his experience 
of the mountains 
for new discoveries 
in the field which 
we would now call 
psychology. Moreover, 
Himalayan expedi-
tions have played 
a significant role in the 
advance of high-alti-
tude medicine. 
 
4 
It would be possible 
to find other generic 
lines, including 
a kind of autrefiction 
starting with Ivan 
Bučer (his 2008 novel 
Koča na robu [The Hut 
on the Edge] includes 
a fictional character 
whose features are 
reminiscent of Jug) 
and leading to the most 
recent work, Milan 
Romih’s 2019 novel 
Skozi trave oblakov 
(Through the Leaves 
of Clouds), whose 
fictional charac-
ter seems to have 
borrowed his main 
features from Slavko 
Svetičič. Nevertheless, 
this line, which only 
includes a small num-
ber of works, is not 
based on the typology 
of the author, nor 
does it have a really 
prominent or influen-
tial proto-text. 
 
Tuma’s book Pomen in razvoj alpinizma (The Meaning and Development 
of Alpinism) and Klement Jug’s essay ‘O smotru alpinizma’ (On the 
Purpose of Alpinism) discuss two additional motives and hence types 
of mountaineers: the aesthetic and the religious one. One can encounter 
other suggestions, including the scientific motive (originally in relation 
to cartography, later on tied to medicine), but only as auxiliary motives 
for mountaineering which do not have a central place in the typology 
of the modern alpinist.3
Reading modern Slovenian mountaineering literature, which start-
ed to develop rapidly as Slovenian climbers gradually gained promi-
nence in the world of mountaineering, we can detect all the four central 
types, which appear in several variations and combinations. However, 
these types do not have equally dominant intertextual proto-patterns 
or models. It turns out that a condensed bi-polar typology is the most 
appropriate starting point for a typology of mountaineering literature 
with regard to its intertextuality. As demonstrated by Mitja Košir, the 
two basic types of Slovenian mountaineering stem from two formidable 
and ground-breaking, now legendary and inspiring mountaineering 
personalities: Klement Jug (the ethicist) and Nejc Zaplotnik (the roman-
tic and aestheticist), both of whom have articulated their experiences 
and notions of mountaineering (see Košir). This article starts from 
the hypothesis that their mountaineering writings established two 
typological foundations, or generic proto-patterns, which the major-
ity of modern Slovenian mountaineering literature references (more 
or less directly and recognisably).4 In what follows, I will try to outline 
the basic features of these two generic templates.
* * *
180
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
The first distinct type of Slovenian mountaineering literature was 
set down by Jug. He contributed a series of articles about his ascents, 
whose features became ever more recognisable; at the same time, 
he suggested some guidelines for this sort of writing in his article 
‘O smotru alpinizma’. He based them on his understanding of alpin-
ism, which had developed after his first major ascents. In his view, 
‘striving for victories, for prominence’, is the primary motive, the 
‘core’ of mountaineering, and this type of alpinism (‘alpinistika’, as Jug 
called it) ‘educates and strengthens the character’ (Jug: 24). Therein 
lies the real purpose of alpinism, according to Jug: ‘it is the testing 
ground for will, for comradery; hence, it tests, trains, perfects the 
strong characters who engage in it’ (ibid.). This morally educational 
goal holds true ‘for society at large, too’: ‘Alpinism is capable of giving 
us workers with a strong will to overcome every obstacle, includ-
ing those instigated by our own base instincts, workers with a sense 
of comradely loyalty, disciplined workers who will stand their ground 
in any profession and be of service to the nation and to humanity. 
We do not need humble and meek people, it is strong people we need!’ 
(Ibid.: 24−25)
This, according to Jug, is ‘the higher, ethical and central cultural 
purpose of alpinism’ (ibid.: 25), which is why he believes mountain-
eering to be more than just a sport although that is predominantly 
what it is. This educational purpose of mountaineering self-evidently 
presupposes mountaineering literature (since ‘the masses’ do not en-
gage in mountaineering themselves they can only come into contact 
with it and its values through literature). Therefore, in this program-
matic essay, Jug develops several guidelines for this type of writing. 
It ought to educate and improve both young mountaineers and hill-
walkers in general:
181
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
This growth concerns the alpinist’s abilities, which mountaineers can 
enhance by describing their experiences to each other, or the develop-
ment of the ethical and thereby cultural moment in alpinism, that is, 
the strengthening of character, which true alpinism requires by itself 
through courage, sacrifice for one’s companions, loyalty, renuncia-
tion of comforts and other pleasures, and self-willed discipline which 
in the cultured human being must replace obedience. Vivid accounts 
of our mountaineers’ experiences will be of great importance to the 
nation; history demonstrates that nations kept strong only as long 
as they knew sacrifice; but when so-called civilisation softened them 
and made them dependent on pleasure and individual happiness, they 
collapsed. (Ibid.: 26)
These guidelines are in line with Jug’s generally ascetic, moral(istic) 
outlook (for which, see Virk) and with his strict, though perhaps not 
entirely consistent, ethics, which was torn between egocentrism, on the 
one hand, and the imperative to act for the nation and humanity, on the 
other. In mountaineering, Jug found an almost ideal synthesis of his 
egocentric and social tendencies. Mountaineering is his ideal educa-
tional tool, as it corresponds to all his main notions about the right way 
to live: it strengthens the will, imposes selflessness and (self-)sacrifice, 
raises people ethically and otherwise above others (elitism), shows 
them how to overcome fear (of death), teaches them determination, 
discipline and boldness: ‘Let us be bold, because only he who can make 
sacrifices is great, only to his will does destiny bend! The path to peaks, 
to victories, leads over precipices and through dangers!’ (Ibid.: 73). For 
Jug, the goal lies not – as it does later for Zaplotnik – in the path itself, 
but purely and solely in the victory, the record. Competition is the 
essence of mountaineering. But the record-hunting ego trip also has 
182
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
a community-building element. The insolent record hunter’s egoism 
has, in the final consequence, a common, socially beneficial effect – this 
is Jug’s ingenious formula for justifying his own egoism as an eminently 
social act. In his early mountaineering essay, he offers this apologia 
for record-hunting tenacity as a socially valuable trait:
True, there is something flawed about tenacity and ‘record hunting’. 
But there is much good in it. We must remember that it is the tenacious 
record hunters who are the most agile and independent people. Without 
them, humanity would make little progress. In today’s age of wide-
spread demagogy, this is exactly the kind of people we need. These are 
the quiet and unassuming workers who care little if their successes are 
flaunted – by others. Determined and hard-working men who perform 
their greatest feats out of sheer tenacity and record hunting are still 
better than rotten, mediocre fog. It is certain that most difficult tours 
are not undertaken for the beauty of the mountains and suchlike, which 
is what alpinism usually uses to defend itself, but for the sake of tenac-
ity and record hunting. In this, the impartial alpinist who loves danger 
and exertion will surely agree with me. Thus, we should not condemn 
strenuous alpinism, because that is precisely what gives us strong-willed 
people. And we need them more than mediocrities, of whom there are 
always more than enough. Humanity is richly rewarded for the victims 
that are almost inevitable in this process by the people who do not fall. 
Braggarts are never record hunters, because their aspiration is quenched 
by their bragging. But the true tenacious record hunter can only quench 
his aspiration through action. (Ibid.: 52)
Great achievements are not possible without a strong will and, for Jug, 
its cultivation is the basic goal of mountaineering. It is a prerequisite for 
183
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
5 
The earliest of these 
texts remain humor-
ous in style (mostly 
in the tradition of Jan-
ez Mencinger and 
Janko Mlakar), more 
about hillwalking than 
mountaineering. Nev-
ertheless, it is already 
here that Jug works 
out some of the funda-
mental ethical values 
which would later 
form the core of his 
mountaineering. 
 
6 
For a critique of the 
discourse of these 
writings by Jug, see 
Virk: 356−78. 
 
the attainment of all other virtues. The will to power, which is neither 
Nietzschean nor nihilistic – its ultimate goal is a strong subject who will 
dominate others and subsequently assert traditional cultural values 
from the position of sovereignty – was increasingly at the forefront 
of Jug’s pedagogical project in mountaineering; accordingly, he was 
planning a series of articles in the months leading up to his death 
on the self-education of the will through mountaineering. The chief aim 
of this project was to create a nation made up of individuals of an in-
domitable will. In moments of greatest enthusiasm aroused by moun-
taineering, Jug’s utopia calls for a nation of daring mountaineers.
Jug proceeded with the application of these views in his own prac-
tice as a mountaineering writer although he was unable to compile 
a book of mountaineering texts because of his premature death in the 
North Face of Triglav. However, his collected mountaineering texts5 
were published posthumously, accompanied by a foreword written 
by his classmate, friend and (on one occasion) fellow climber, Vladimir 
Bartol. These observations – except for the last ones found in his pos-
session when he died while climbing a new route – had previously been 
published in Planinski vestnik, the Slovenian alpine journal.
As far as these texts are concerned, Jug’s main merit is having 
introduced new elements in the description of mountaineering ad-
ventures, which subsequently became fairly standard.6 He described 
in detail the overcoming of difficult spots on a given route, without 
false modesty, sometimes emphasising boastfully his abilities and 
courageous exposure to mortal dangers; in short, the traditional, 
relatively benign mountaineering genre became greatly diversified 
and enriched with sincere insights into the subjective experience 
of the mountaineer and with action-packed passages aimed at build-
ing up suspense. On many occasions, Jug openly and frankly placed 
184
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
the daring mountaineer – himself – high above ordinary earthlings 
(‘semi-mountaineers’ and ‘philistines’ are two of his favourite pe-
jorative labels), and the feelings of euphoria he felt at his daring 
achievements set the tone for the postulates of his mountaineering 
philosophy. He strongly emphasised some of the (traditional) virtues 
of mountaineering – comradery, the overcoming of the fear of death, 
strong will, the resolve to transcend limitations, overcome increasing 
difficulties, and be the best – and he developed a philosophy of moun-
taineering from them.
If we attempt to define Jug’s writing typologically, it turns out 
that it is a distinctly heroic-epic, male-centred type of writing. The 
hero’s deeds, the heroic ethics and the exceptional individual with his 
achievements are at the forefront, and it is all permeated by a philo-
sophical-pedagogical discourse. If we were to summarise the char-
acteristics for clarity, this might be the list: the ethical dimension 
of mountaineering as a means to educate the individual; the signif-
icance of climbing achievements for the nation and for humanity; 
the national mission of mountaineering as such; the overcoming 
of nature; the climber as a fighter facing the mountain; the values 
of will, comradery, courage, tenacity and perseverance; the central 
role of one’s own outstanding achievements; detailed descriptions 
of the overcoming of enormous difficulties; detailed descriptions 
of climbing itself; a yearning for the discovery of an undiscovered 
world; competitive, athletic and record-breaking aspects of climbing; 
the cultural significance of mountaineering; mountaineering as hard 
work; the importance of shared goals; relentless criticism of the weak-
nesses of others; selective (and mostly rhetorical) self-criticism; the 
masculinity of mountaineering; a patronising view of women and 
an underestimation of their mountaineering abilities.
185
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
Zaplotnik’s mountaineering writing belongs to a different, more 
poetic type – although the two types, including some elements of the 
two authors’ views on mountaineering, overlap at least partially, mostly 
due to the theme they share. For instance, they both think that climbing 
should be done as freely as possible, they are both solitary mountain-
eers, they both stress comradery as one of the most important values 
of mountaineering, they both believe that mountaineering is about 
transcending boundaries, they are both (mistakenly) convinced that 
they are invulnerable and that danger in the mountains is mainly sub-
jective. But their respective mountaineering philosophies nevertheless 
differ quite clearly, and Zaplotnik’s literary discourse is different from 
Jug’s. This is often true even when there is apparent similarity, as in the 
following case:
I was up against a rock face: either mountains or love! I chose the former 
even though I didn’t understand anything. How can anyone love me and 
at the same time tear me away from the mountains which have become 
my life? But it’s hard to love me, because even my deepest feelings have 
never bound me to the desolate world of the everyday. On the contrary! 
They give my dreams and yearnings more drive. I’ve always been ready 
to leave everything behind in order to be able to follow the path which 
I feel is calling me. I met her in the mountains and then she wanted 
to tear me away from them. (Zaplotnik: 23)
The passage is highly reminiscent of Jug’s writings both thematically 
and stylistically, and yet there is a crucial difference: Zaplotnik’s entire 
opus is permeated by an atmosphere of love, Jug’s by will and duty.
In contrast to Jug’s egocentric voluntarism (and its underpinning 
in the object theory of his philosophy professor, France Veber, which 
186
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
7 
Although it is perfectly 
obvious that, unlike 
Jug, Zaplotnik does not 
justify his mountain-
eering as a ‘service 
to the nation and 
to humanity’, but 
rather as his own 
personal choice and 
life goal, he does make 
the following state-
ment when listing the 
reasons for his efforts 
in the Himalaya: ‘For 
personal satisfaction? 
True, that is a reason, 
but when you come 
back from a suc-
cessful expedition, 
or when you succeed 
somewhere in the 
mountains of Europe, 
you’ve got the feeling 
that you’ve done 
something that will 
make people all over 
the world say the name 
of Yugoslavia with re-
spect and admiration.’ 
(Zaplotnik: 158) 
 
seeks to control and subdue animate and inanimate nature, including 
oneself), Zaplotnik’s outlook on life and philosophy is a pantheism 
akin to Asian spirituality and imbued with empathy for others, with 
sympathy for, and connectedness to, animate and inanimate nature:
I became part of a universal order which lived in me and in which 
I lived. […] You feel the world, you feel the Earth, the Sun, the wind, 
everything breathes with you and intoxicates you. The friend who 
is with you is silent, only their eyes are glowing in the centre of their 
sunken face, and you know without asking that they’re experiencing 
the same thing. That they’re experiencing life itself! Without desire, 
without thinking, you’re experiencing the existence of yourself and all 
the nature around you. […] And you’re lying among the sparse tufts 
of yellow, sharp leaves of grass, with an open heart, sipping the eternal 
paths of the stars, counting falling stars, while the wind is slowly cov-
ering you with fine sand which crunches between your teeth and sticks 
to your forehead. And you’re overwhelmed by the eternal restlessness 
of high mountains, the natural flow of life which we’ve almost forgot-
ten. That’s when you feel that Mother Earth gave birth to you, that 
you’re just part of barren valleys, green pastures, broken glaciers, that 
you’re part of the murmuring river and the black, silver-sprinkled sky. 
(Ibid.: 25, 43, 118)
Whereas for Jug the focus is on will, duty and the educational purpose 
of mountaineering, the key concepts of Zaplotnik’s mountaineering 
discourse are desire, yearning, dreams, freedom and the path. For 
Jug, transcending boundaries signifies ascending towards the status 
of a superman and therefore acting for the nation and humanity, but 
for Zaplotnik it means above all a better knowledge of oneself.7 Jug 
187
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
8 
Janez Gregorin (45) 
and Albin Torelli 
(55) were among the 
first to refute the 
accusations of suicidal 
mountaineering, 
similarly arguing that 
it is an increase in the 
intensity of life. Later, 
of course, there were 
more such examples 
(including, e.g., 
Tomazin 1993a: 81). Le-
narčič made the most 
profound philosophi-
cal argument for this 
at the very beginning 
of his first book, Smisel 
in spoznanje (Sense and 
Understanding): see 
Lenarčič: 9–10. 
 
advocates record breaking and the athletic, competitive aspect of climb-
ing. When this attitude temporarily takes hold of Zaplotnik, he sees 
it as straying; for a short while he becomes ‘an athlete’, ‘a stupid crat-
fsman’, a machine (Zaplotnik: 167), but eventually he finds his way 
back ‘to himself, to his inner self and, through himself, back to other 
people’ (ibid.: 168). Climbing ‘is not just a sport for me, for me climbing 
is life itself ’, he writes (ibid.: 37), thus continuing the older tradition 
of mountaineer aesthetes, such as Josip Ciril Oblak and Cene Malovrh 
(while after Zaplotnik, this thought was most pronounced by Mat-
evž Lenarčič). Jug has a clear goal in sight, but Zaplotnik’s philosophy 
is different: ‘Whoever seeks the goal will remain empty when they 
reach it, / but whoever finds the path will always carry the goal within 
themselves.’ (Ibid.: 26) In contrast to Jug, Zaplotnik does not glorify 
the climber’s superheroism: ‘there are no heroics’, he writes (ibid.: 
32). Their attitudes towards death also differ: in Jug, the fear of death 
should be overcome following heroic ethics, facing death is linked 
to courage, and death may be necessary for higher goals (for Jug’s dis-
course on suicide, see Virk). Zaplotnik adopts a different discourse: 
the proximity of death increases the intensity of life and the desire for 
it: ‘To move on the edge between life and death is to live truly.’ (Ibid.: 
37) The real significance of walking on the edge is to get closer to life 
itself. Therefore, a different tone prevails from the one in Jug’s writing, 
even when formulations seem similar, as in this case: ‘They who live 
in the midst of dangers which they know and are prepared for do not 
play with life. All human beings need confirmation that they are not 
just part of the crowd, that they are not just a number, and if they 
can only find something which lifts them above the crowd, they will 
cling to it even if others point at them suggesting that they are being 
unhealthy or even suicidal.’ (Ibid.: 38)8
188
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
9 
Consequently, it may 
sometimes seem in-
consistent, e.g.: ‘no as-
cent is worth a human 
life’ (Zaplotnik: 145), 
writes Zaplotnik, 
while simultaneously 
claiming that he would 
sacrifice not only his 
toes, but life itself 
to reach the summit 
of Mount Everest 
(ibid.: 184). 
 
10 
Here is an example 
of actual, not merely 
rhetorical, self-criti-
cism, which Jug does 
not know: ‘because 
I’m a prisoner of the 
path I follow, because 
I’m selfish, arrogant 
and overambitious’ 
(Zaplotnik: 112). 
 
The same is true of the ethics; in Zaplotnik’s work, they are not 
straightforward, clear-cut, systematic or abstract; they are much more 
worldly and complex than in Jug’s.9 They both emphasise comradery 
as the highest value, but this takes on different meanings for them – Jug 
is an elitist who puts himself above others, which situates his comrad-
ery closer to patronising, while Zaplotnik is a democratic egalitarian 
(‘People, people! Let’s come together and we’ll see that we’re the same 
all over the world: we want to live! And do it as well as we can!’ [ibid.: 
140]). In addition, Zaplotnik is self-critically aware10 and he admits 
that ‘the climber’s terrible yearning’ (ibid.: 96) is sometimes strong-
er than comradery and mountaineers’ written or unwritten ethics. 
Zaplotnik’s ethics of comradery undergo a dialectical development: 
from the professed abstract assertion that in the mountains comradery 
is essential for him (ibid.: 57), through ‘the climber’s terrible yearning’, 
which is in fact a negation of the thesis (ibid.: 96), to the synthesis de-
riving from the experience of the antithesis: ‘I’m becoming increasingly 
aware that comradery is worth much more than success.’ (Ibid.: 136)
Jug’s approach to mountaineering is ethico-pedagogical, Zaplot-
nik’s is poetico-philosophical. This difference is clearly reflected 
in their literary discourses. Zaplotnik’s writing style is markedly lit-
erary. He uses beautiful, poetic, metaphorically rich language, he does 
not stick to so-called action, but also focuses on observing nature, 
people, self-observation. In terms of genre, it is not a homogeneous 
mountaineering report, but rather a syncretic Bildungsroman. His Pot 
(The Path) has a complex literary structure. The many flashbacks and 
flashforwards make the plot irreducible to a simple story, a good many 
chapters conclude with a meditative poem, and there are many liter-
ary references. He does not describe his extraordinary successes and 
experiences to highlight his own exceptionality or superiority (and 
189
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
11 
His naive views 
of contemporary China 
(ibid.: 190) cannot spoil 
this impression. 
 
thus, like Jug, set an example), but to demonstrate the beauty, intensity 
and fullness of life.
The characteristics of Zaplotnik’s writing can be summarised in the 
following points: poetically formulated narrative; literary references; 
the yearning dimension of mountaineering; connectedness to nature; 
the significance of mountaineering in achieving a fuller life; the view 
that you cannot fight nature and, consequently, you cannot defeat it; the 
absence of a national mission of mountaineering; the values of com-
radery and transcendence of limitations; empathy for fellow human 
beings; detailed descriptions of overcoming difficulties complement-
ed by poetic descriptions and philosophically meditative passages; 
dislike for the athletic aspect of mountaineering; the value of shared 
goals; relentless self-criticism and tolerance of others’ weaknesses; 
criticism of civilisation and urban western culture and compassion 
for the underprivileged.11
* * *
Keeping in mind the purpose and totality of Jug’s mountaineering 
writing project, we come to realise that it has not found a suitable 
successor in Slovenian mountaineering literature – especially not 
in terms of making detailed accounts of mountaineering feats mean-
ingful through an elaborate philosophy of life and with an emphasised 
pedagogical, ethical and national purpose. Only individual elements 
of Jug’s writing have been influential. First and foremost in this re-
spect are detailed descriptions of ascents themselves and the empha-
sis on the superhuman efforts involved. This becomes the dominant 
form of mountaineering reporting for some mountaineering writers 
– including, for instance, Mahkota’s Sfinga and Ivč Kotnik’s 1994 book 
190
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
12 
Mahkota is very clear: 
‘I’m not a romantic 
mountaineer, but 
rather an athlete 
who competes for 
success, for a record.’ 
(Mahkota: 547) 
 
Dotik neba (Touching the Sky) – overshadowing all other aspects. In al-
most all mountaineering books it constitutes one of the most appealing 
components, the one that most satisfies the target audience’s reading 
appetites. No less influential have been the focus on the athletic and 
record-breaking aspects of mountaineering (evident already in Tuma 
and later in Mahkota,12 Kotnik, Silvo Karo, Iztok Tomazin et al.) and the 
awareness of the cultural significance of mountaineering (explicitly 
in Tuma, Albin Torelli and Karo, and implicitly in most mountaineer-
ing works). Jug’s legacy includes frequent reflections and comments 
on mountaineering ethics (see, e.g., books by Tomazin, Pavle Kozjek, 
Karo, Tadej Golob, Matevž Lenarčič and Marija and Andrej Štremfelj), 
although they are often different in content from Jug’s, as well as re-
search motives for mountaineering (‘Research is one of the essential 
reasons for my mountaineering’, writes Andrej Štremfelj [Štremfelj and 
Štremfelj: 31]), condescending attitude towards ‘tourists’ or non-moun-
taineers in the mountains (Kotnik, Mahkota), a patronizing attitude 
towards female mountaineers and women in general (Mahkota), em-
phasis on will (see Mahkota: 236), egocentrism and uncompromising 
criticism of others (Mahkota, Tadej Golob) and the national motive 
(Kotnik et al.). In general, however, Jug’s tradition is most strongly 
maintained by those mountaineering works in which the male-centred, 
action-oriented aspect of mountaineering prevails.
Zaplotnik’s writing seems to have more immediate successors. The 
key words of Tomazin’s mountaineering books, especially his debut, 
Korak do sanj (A Step towards Dreams) are, similarly, dreams, desire 
and yearning; he also associates mountaineering with overcoming 
limitations, especially one’s own; according to him, achievement is not 
more important than experience; there is a perceptible appeal of Asian 
spirituality (even more strongly in his later works) and the same idea 
191
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
13 
Tomazin 1989: 179. 
And here is Zaplotnik: 
‘There is no mean-
ing, there is no goal, 
only the eternal path 
is in me, the path and 
the stops along it.’ 
(Zaplotnik: 201) 
 
as in Zaplotnik (as opposed to Jug), namely that you cannot defeat the 
rock face or the mountain (see Tomazin 1989: 95, 119). Korak do sanj 
in particular is full of poetic, stylistically polished descriptions of na-
ture and meditative passages, and, like in Zaplotnik’s book, the high 
points of experience culminate in a poem (Tomazin later published 
an aesthetically accomplished book of poems, Iskanje Šambale [The 
Search for Shambhala], which includes a preface by the Dalai Lama). 
Finally, Tomazin shares Zaplotnik’s use of literary references and es-
tablishes a strong intertextual connection to Zaplotnik’s proto-text:
Cilja ni. 
Je le vse, kar srečaš, 
                        začutiš in 
                        spoznaš na poti do cilja.13
Or, in English translation:
There is no goal. 
There is only what you encounter, 
                        feel and 
                        learn on the path to the goal.
Other remarkably aesthetic works of mountaineering literature also 
make part of this tradition: Igor Škamperle’s equally contemplative 
and at the same time nostalgic book from 1992, Sneg na zlati veji (Snow 
on the Golden Bough), Milan Romih’s poetic first book, the 1992 volume 
Takrat me počakaj, sonce (Wait for me Then, Sun), as well as, partly, the 
skilfully narrated books by Marija and Andrej Štremfelj (Objem na vrhu 
sveta [An Embrace at the Top of the World, 2020]) and Franček Knez 
192
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
(Ožarjeni kamen [The Glowing Stone, 2009]). Just as Zaplotnik con-
cludes several chapters with poems, Knez concludes them with words 
of wisdom. Zaplotnik’s legacy includes a strong display of empathy, 
especially towards the locals in the foothills of the Himalaya, notably 
in Marija and Andrej Štremfelj’s book as well as in the many books 
written by Viki Grošelj. In Grošelj’s case, even the literary procedure 
is often the same as in Zaplotnik’s: for instance, a chapter portraying 
a Sherpa uses his name as the title, setting up a literary monument 
to him. There are parallels with Zaplotnik’s Pot even in Karo’s Alpinist 
(The Alpinist), the book with a well-crafted plot which is closer in type 
to Jug’s athletic, record-hunting tradition, but as a whole it approaches 
the structure of a Bildungsroman. Like Zaplotnik’s novel, it begins with 
an account of the author’s growing up on a farm, his working hard and 
coping with poverty (see Karo: 15–35, 297; see also Garibotti: 7); the 
ability in later life to overcome extreme mountaineering endeavours 
is linked to their early lives by both authors.
Zaplotnik – despite the unfortunate passage quoted above – broke 
with the nationalist discourse in mountaineering, which had been 
promoted by Jug. He put the search for oneself at the heart of his mo-
tives for mountaineering. In modern mountaineering literature, this 
personal motivation far outweighs the nationalist one, which is still 
partly preserved in classical, big-group Himalayanism and its accounts; 
however, it all but disappeared in later writing. Tomazin formulates 
this different attitude in an exemplary way: ‘For me, risk, toiling, suffer-
ing and, in the end, success for “our mountaineering”, for “our nation” 
or for anyone else are not essential. I do it mainly for myself and for 
my friends, for my dreams, yearnings and needs.’ (Tomazin 1993b: 159)
The legacy of Zaplotnik’s literary discourse may include various 
other elements, such as frequent literary references (see, e.g., books 
193
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
by Kozjek, Tomazin or Lenarčič), and finally, perhaps, the pantheistic 
tones found in Tomazin and, in a particularly interesting, hybrid form, 
in Davo Karničar. Karničar employs a paraphrase of the ‘Song of Songs’ 
in the erotic description of his greatest mountaineering achievement, 
but he also expresses a sort of pantheism in combination with Christian 
imagery and an egocentrism reminiscent of Jug:
I’d love to be a stone, perhaps a seemingly immortal tree on a stormy 
ridge, I’d like to fulfil my task, become a meaningful fragment of the 
whole. How? By continuing the species, by giving others a chance 
through self-denial, by calculatingly enduring the pressures of everyday 
life and glorifying toys for adults? That’s not good enough for me, I was 
born into this world because there is no better world, and the serpent 
in the Garden of Eden saw the futility of what it was doing. 
 
There really is not much chance left for us not to blush at eternal values, 
immortality. But there is a path! The meaning of the mountain’s ex-
istence was only fulfilled when a human climbed it, parachuted from 
its summit, flew over it in a hot-air balloon, when a skier left a trail 
on its slopes. 
 
I’ve become a meaningful fragment of the emergence, creation, life and 
disappearance of our planet. I skied from the highest point to the foothill 
of the magnificent mountain. I lived up to expectations, my existence 
won’t peter out in the banality of imaginary values. Believing that 
I too had been entrusted with a special task, I sought it out, revealed 
it, accomplished it. Although my contribution is insignificantly small, 
it is an integral part of the history of the planet which will one day, 
somewhere, be talked about[.] (Karničar et al.: 120–21)
194
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
14 
See, for instance, 
the 2008 Sloveni-
an language and 
literature syllabus for 
Slovenian grammar 
schools (Poznanovič 
Jezeršek et al.: 54).
* * *
The comparison of the impact of the two generic proto-patterns in con-
temporary Slovenian mountaineering literature shows that while 
Jug’s athletic, record-breaking, action-packed model of writing was 
ground-breaking, the more aesthetically ambitious mountaineering 
writers have been more inspired by Zaplotnik, although – like Zaplot-
nik himself – they have also adopted some elements of Jug’s literary 
discourse. The popularity of Zaplotnik’s model, especially among the 
more literary-minded (as evidenced, among other things, by their more 
frequent literary references), is not surprising; the authors’ literary 
preferences have undoubtedly been shaped by the Slovenian literary 
canon. And if we follow the typology of the Slovenian novel as set out 
by Janko Kos (see Kos 1991a and 1991b), Zaplotnik’s Pot belongs to the 
most characteristic type of novel in Slovenian literature: the disillu-
sionment novel of victimhood and search for happiness. The protag-
onists perceive themselves as victims (with a trace of romanticism: 
the hero of Zaplotnik’s Pot feels he is a victim of the modern urban, 
industrialised, bureaucratic world, alienated from a primal contact 
with nature) and their lives follow the path of a yearning search for 
happiness – exactly like Zaplotnik’s. This may also have been the rea-
son why Pot was included in the school literary canon.14 Both models 
of mountaineering literature are equally important for the Slovenian 
mountaineering community; however, Slovenian literary scholars 
favour Zaplotnik’s line, which is a more literary one and more in line 
with the traditional typology of the Slovenian novelistic hero. ❦
Translated by Andrej Zavrl
195
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
References
BuČer, ivan, 2008: Koča na robu. Ljubljana: self-published.
GariBoTTi, rolando, 2018: Predgovor. Alpinist, by Silvo Karo. Osp: 
S. Karo. 7–9.
GreGorin, Janez, 1988: Smrt. Naša alpinistična misel. Ljubljana: 
Alpinistični razgledi. 37−50.
JuG, klemenT, 1936: Zbrani planinski spisi. Ljubljana: 
Planinska matica.
karniČar, davo, TadeJ GoloB and urBan GoloB, 2000: 
Z Everesta. Ljubljana: Mythos.
karo, silvo, 2018: Alpinist. Osp: S. Karo.
kos, Janko, 1991a: Teze o slovenskem romanu. Literatura 
6, 13. 47–50.
———, 1991b: Ep in roman na Slovenskem. Slavistična revija 
39, 4. 371–89.
košir, miTJa, 1988: Poti in razpotja (dr. Klement Jug in Nejc 
Zaplotnik v njunem literarnem delu). Naša alpinistična misel. 
Ljubljana: Alpinistični razgledi. 191−211.
koTnik, ivČ, 1994: Dotik neba. Maribor: Obzorja.
kozJek, pavle, 2009: Življenje alpinista. Radovljica: Didakta.
lenarČiČ, maTevž, 1988: Smisel in spoznanje. Maribor: Obzorja.
maHkoTa, anTe, 2011: Sfinga: zadnja skrivnost triglavske stene. 4th 
edn. Radovljica: Didakta.
poToČnik, miHa, 1985: Ob ponatisu Poti. Pot, by Nejc Zaplotnik. 
Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba. 229−34.
poznanoviČ Jezeršek, Mojca, et al., 2008: Učni načrt. Slovenščina: 
gimnazija. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za šolstvo in šport, Zavod 
RS za šolstvo. [https://dun.zrss.si/#/]
196
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
romiH, milan, 1992: Takrat me počakaj, sonce. Črešnjevec: 
self-published.
———, 2019: Skozi trave oblakov. Slovenska Bistrica: Climber 
Milan Romih.
škamperle, iGor, 1992: Sneg na zlati veji. Trst: Založništvo 
tržaškega tiska.
šTremfelJ, mariJa, and andreJ šTremfelJ, 2020: Objem na vrhu 
sveta. Kranj: M. Štremfelj.
Tomazin, izTok, 1989: Korak do sanj: ameriški dnevnik. 
Maribor: Obzorja.
———, 1993a: Nebo nad Afriko: polet z zmajem s Kilimanjara. 
Tržič: Didakta.
———, 1993b: Čo Oju: turkizna boginja. Ljubljana: Prešernova družba.
Torelli, alBin, 1988: Vrednota alpinizma. Naša alpinistična misel. 
Ljubljana: Alpinistični razgledi. 51−59.
Tuma, Henrik, 1930: Pomen in razvoj alpinizma. Ljubljana: 
Turistični klub Skala.
virk, Tomo, 2014: Vebrov učenec: primer Klement Jug. Ljubljana: 
LUD Literatura.
zaploTnik, neJc, 1985: Pot. 3rd edn. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba.
197
SLAVICA TERGESTINA 28 (2022/I) ▶ Writing the Himalaya in Polish and Slovenian
Povzetek
Članek predlaga tipologijo alpinistične literature, ki jo slovenski alpi-
nisti in med njimi zlasti mednarodno uveljavljeni himalajski plezalci 
pišejo znotraj širšega polja planinske ali gorniške literature. Gre za spi-
se, ki popisujejo bodisi posamezen (zvečine vrhunski) alpinistični 
podvig ali pa panoramski pregled posameznikove (nič manj vrhun-
ske ali vsaj nadpovprečne) alpinistične kariere, pri tem pa posegajo 
po elementih reportaže, literarizirane avtobiografije, potopisnega, 
pustolovskega, filozofskega ali razvojnega romana ter celo detektiv-
ke in junaške epike. V tem žanrskem sinkretizmu članek izlušči dva 
prevladujoča tipa alpinistične literature: junaškega oziroma epskega 
in kontemplativnega oziroma poetičnega. Virom te tipologije članek 
sledi v razprave v okviru same alpinistične literature, kjer sta na pri-
mer že Ante Mahkota in Miha Potočnik razlikovala med alpinističnimi 
športniki in romantiki, Mitja Košir pa je ta tipa alpinista povezal tudi 
s paradigmatskima predstavnikoma, tako da mu je športni tip utele-
šal Klement Jug, romantičnega pa Nejc Zaplotnik. Članek tako ta tipa 
opredeli s pomočjo literarnovedne analize Jugovih in Zaplotnikovih 
alpinističnih spisov. V svojih člankih in zapiskih z začetka dvajsetih 
let 20. stoletja je Jug poudarjal junaško plat alpinizma, kjer naj bi po-
veličevanje lastnih dosežkov in kritika neuspehov drugih alpinistov 
pedagoško služila narodu in človeštvu. Zaplotnik pa je v svoji knjigi 
z začetka osemdesetih let (Pot), nasprotno, v alpinizmu videl samoza-
dostno prakso, na cilj nezvedljivo pot, kjer naj bi tako dosežki kakor 
neuspehi služili predvsem alpinistovi poti k sebi. Za Juga še značilno 
izpostavljanje etične razsežnosti alpinizma kot sredstva za vzgojo po-
sameznika torej pri Zaplotniku zamenja poudarjanje hrepenenjske 
razsežnosti alpinizma; premagovanje narave se umakne iskanju stika 
198
TOMO VIRK ▶ Towards a Bi-polar Typology
z naravo; namesto samopoveličevanja se pojavi samokritika; podrob-
no opisovanje tehničnih vidikov plezanja pa nadomesti kompleksen 
siže z vloženimi pesmimi in literarnimi referencami. V sklepu članek 
ugotavlja, da imata danes Zaplotnikova Pot in osebnost večji vpliv med 
alpinističnimi pisci kakor Jugov diskurz in mit. To utemeljuje z nave-
zavo na tipologijo slovenskega romana, ki jo je razvil Janko Kos, saj 
se zdi, da Zaplotnikova Pot pripada za slovensko literaturo najznačil-
nejšemu romanesknemu tipu, namreč deziluzijskemu romanu žrtve 
in srečoiskateljstva. Junak Zaplotnikove Poti namreč sebe doživlja kot 
žrtev sodobnega urbanega, industrializiranega, birokratiziranega, 
od prvinskega stika z naravo odtujenega sveta, njegovo življenje pa po-
teka po poti hrepenenjskega iskanja sreče.
Tomo Virk
Tomo Virk is Professor of comparative literature at the University of Lju-
bljana. He has written scholarly monographs on postmodernism, ethics 
in literature, world literature studies, literary methodology, J. L. Borges, con-
temporary Slovenian literature, as well as three book-length studies on Slo-
venian mountaineer and philosopher Klement Jug and his circle. His essays 
have appeared in Canadian Slavonic Papers, CLCWeb, Forum for World 
Literature Studies, Interlitteraria, Primerjalna književnost, Slavis-
tična revija and elsewhere. Virk is also the Slovenian translator of books 
by Blumenberg, Frank, Gadamer, Hamburger, Janke, Jauss, Kafka, Lukács, 
Ranke-Heinemann, Safranski, Schelling, Friedrich Schlegel and others.