42 Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, ISSN 1318-2269  Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005)
Aleksandra Pejčić
1* 
Julijan Malacko
2
THE ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF 
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND 
MOTOR ABILITIES OF BOYS AND GIRLS 
IN EARLY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
ONTOGENETSKI RAZVOJ MORFOLOŠKIH 
ZNAČILNOSTI IN MOTORIČNIH 
SPOSOBNOSTI DEČKOV IN DEKLIC 
V PRVIH LETIH OSNOVNE ŠOLE
Abstract
A standard 11-test battery of anthropometric and motor 
measuring instruments was applied to a sample of 4,429 
elementary school pupils (7-11 years of age) from the 
Coast and Gorski Kotar County in Croatia. The sample 
included 2,202 boys and 2,227 girls which attended first 
four grades of primary school. The aim of the study was 
to determine the ontogenetic development of particular 
anthropometric and motor variables within the genders 
across the first four grades of elementary school and to 
determine probable developmental gender differences 
in the mentioned variables. In order to determine the 
intragroup and intergroup differences the statistical 
method of MANOVA/ANOVA was applied. The results 
showed that anthropometric and motor variables 
are developing evenly and steadily in the observed 
age groups. That progress is in congruence with the 
common genetic potential (endogenous factors) and 
influenced by the applied teaching contents (exogenous, 
environmental factors). It is slightly more intensive in 
boys. In girls higher values were registered only for the 
anthropometric variable subcutaneous fatty tissue and 
for the motor variable flexibility. 
Key words: ontogenesis, anthropometry, motor 
abilities, gender differences, children
1
  Teacher Training College, University of Rijeka, Rijeka,
Croatia
2 
Independent researcher, Novi Sad, Serbia and Montenegro
*Corresponding author:
Teacher Training College, University of Rijeka
Trg Ivana Klobučarića 1
51000 Rijeka, Croatia
Tel.: +385 51 315 273
Fax: +385 51 315 256
E-mail: aleksandra.pejcic@ri.htnet.hr
Izvleček
S standardno 11-testno baterijo smo ugotavljali 
antropometrične in motorične značilnosti 4429 
o s n o v n o š o l s k i h o t r o k ( s t a r i h o d 7 d o 1 1 l e t ) i z P r i m o r s k o -
goranske županije na Hrvaškem. V študiji je sodelovalo 
2202 dečkov in 2227 deklic, ki so obiskovali prve štiri 
razrede osnovne šole. Namen raziskave je bil opredeliti 
ontogenetski razvoj nekaterih antropometričnih 
in motoričnih spremenljivk v prvih štirih razredih 
osnovne šole ter določiti morebitne razvojne razlike med 
spoloma v omenjenih spremenljivkah. Za ugotavljanje 
razlik tako znotraj skupine kot tudi med skupinami 
smo uporabili statistično metodo MANOVA/ANOVA. 
Rezultati so pokazali, da se antropometrične in 
motorične spremenljivke v obravnavanih starostnih 
skupinah enakomerno in stalno razvijajo. Razvoj 
poteka skladno s splošnim genetskim potencialom 
(endogeni dejavniki) in pod vplivom uporabljenih 
učnih vsebin (eksogeni dejavniki oz. dejavniki okolja). 
Pri dečk ih je razvoj nekoliko intenzivnejši. Pri dek lica h 
so bile višje vrednosti zabeležene le pri antropometrični 
spremenljivki podkožno maščobno tkivo in pri 
motorični spremenljivki gibljivost. 
Ključne besede: ontogeneza, antropometrija, motorične 
sposobnosti, razlike med spoloma, otroci 

Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence 43 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005)
INTRODUCTION
The influence (or transformational power) of various processes of physical exercise and/or 
sport training on growth and development in general and on certain anthropological char-
acteristics of children in particular is one of the key issues of physical education (PE) and 
sport. Research studies on these topics commonly focus on various components of the entire 
process of managed physical exercise and/or sport training – they investigate goals, tasks, 
the condition of exercisers or trainees and limiting factors, as well as designs (consisting of 
prognosis or modelling, a diagnosis, a plan, a programme and control of the training process) 
of physical exercise and/or sport programmes (Findak, 1999; Malacko, 2000; Mraković, 1992, 
1994; Pejčić, 2002).
It is impossible to design and apply an optimal transformational process in physical exercise 
or sport training with boys and girls in the period of intensive growth and development if it 
is not known which anthropological characteristics, abilities and motor knowledge and skills 
are engaged in that educational or sport process (Malacko, 2000). Further, the importance of 
anthropological features, that is, their hierarchically defined influence on performance and 
efficacy of the process, must also be known as well as which contents, methods and loads 
(kinesiological operators) are the best for their optimal development. Finally, it is important 
to know how and with which measuring instruments these features can be assessed and 
monitored. 
The recent ever more ser iou s wa r n i ngs on t he u naccept ably low effic ienc y of PE cla s ses , com i ng 
from both professionals and the broader community, are directing the focus of current kine-
siological research onto the issues of PE teaching’s effectiveness and quality. PE programmes 
oriented to too great a body of motor knowledge and too many motor skills that should be 
mastered during classes, which is typical of most school levels in many European countries, 
do not provide any guarantee that the transformation of relevant anthropological abilities 
and characteristics can be achieved. Yet the latter should be the basic aim of PE teaching in 
schools.
Furt her it should be said here t hat, unfortunately, t he key biologica l principles of development 
are not respected in current PE curricula. Namely, it is a well-known fact that anthropological 
abilities and characteristics are developed and improved most successfully in those periods 
when such a transformation is biologically feasible, namely in the periods of childhood and 
adolescence. From this, the other principle emerges – the smaller the transformation coefficient 
of a particular anthropological, especially motor, ability or characteristic, that is, the greater 
the genotypic part of the variance, the earlier the commencement of development is needed. 
This confirms the view that it is wrong to give preference only to the instructional component 
of PE classes in which many contents should be mastered because motor skills, knowledge and 
habits can be acquired later in life, but any neglect of developing certain relevant anthropologi-
cal characteristics and abilities on time can hardly be compensated for later.
Many authors have found no significant differences in anthropological characteristics between 
boys and girls of 7-14 years of age. The existing small, but still obvious differences are permanent 
throughout the entire age period with a slight tendency for them becoming bigger at the end 
of the period (Rajtmajer, 1997). Only at the age of 13-14 years may the dynamic enhancement 

44 Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005) 
of strength be observed in boys, whereas in girls strength shows a tendency of stabilisation or 
even regression (Važni, 1975).
The efficiency of the transformational process depends primarily on the structure of morpho-
logical characteristics and motor abilities that should be transformed or improved (Gredelj, 
Hošek, Metikoš, & Momirović, 1975; Kurelić, Momirović, Stojanović, Šturm, Radojević, 
& Viskić-Štalec, 1975; Metikoš, Gredelj, & Momirović, 1979; Stojanović, Momirović, 
Vukosavljević, & Solarić, 1975; Strel & Šturm, 1981). This primarily regards the so-called 
limiting factors of trainability, that is, those factors that limit the influence of physical exercise 
or sport training to a considerable degree. Consequently, these factors limit the final physical 
or motor achievements in humans. 
When the morphological characteristics and motor abilities of children in the 1
st
-4
th
 grades 
of elementary school are concerned, which are the subject of this paper, one must know that 
they are more or less hereditary, meaning that the effects of the directed physical exercise or 
sport training programmes depend considerably on their respective hereditary coefficients 
(Pejčić, 2002).
The coefficient of heredity is part of the variance of each anthropological feature which is under 
the strong influence of genetic factors, namely, it denotes that part of the variance which is not 
sensitive to significant changes. For that purpose, Holtzinger’s tables, the so-called Holtzinger’s 
coefficient of heredity (H
2
), are most commonly used although many authors have obtained 
similar research results (Malacko & Popović, 2001). The portion of genetically conditioned 
variance is not the same for every feature, ability and characteristic; it practically means that: 
‘… the greater the portion of the genotype in the variance of a particular dimension, the 
lower the exogenous influence on the dimension during the lifetime span, and vice versa, the 
smaller the portion of the genotype in the variance, the greater the influence of the physical 
conditioning programmes’ (Mraković, 1992).
It is well known (e.g., Malacko, 2000), for example, that no influence is possible on the mor-
phological dimensionality of the skeleton (H
2
=.98), that the voluminosity of the body can be 
influenced to a certain extent (H
2
=.90), whereas the influence on fatty tissue is the biggest 
(H
2
=.50). The possibility of influencing motor speed is insignificant (H
2
=.90-.95); the influence 
on explosive power is somewhat larger (H
2
=.80-.85), whereas it is biggest when strength endur-
ance (static and dynamic alike) is in question (H
2
=.50). Therefore, the physical conditioning 
processes should logically be directed to the development of those human characteristics and 
abilities that are actually transformable. Otherwise, particular human features, abilities and 
characteristics may not be developed to their optimum level (potential). 
The s econd most i mpor t a nt l i m it i ng fac tor i s t he biolog ic a l fac t t hat i nd iv idu a l hu ma n feat u res , 
abilities and characteristics, consequently the whole ontogenetic development, do not evolve 
evenly and simultaneously; the phenomenon is known as heterochrony in development. Basi-
cally, ‘heterochrony is manifested, on the one hand, in heterochronic formation and variable 
tempo of maturation of particular fragments of an individual functional system, and, on the 
other, in heterochronic formation and maturation of various organic structures indispensable 
for various periods of postnatal growth and development of an organism’ (Aršavskij, 1975).
Alternating changes in the process of ontogenesis proceed through certain phases, stages and 
periods that determine the natural sequence of the most pronounced age-related changes. 

Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence 45 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005)
According to Mraković (1992) there is a general rule that during a lifetime span after a period of 
a relatively slow development (1) comes the period of accelerated development (2), followed by 
the stage of slowing down (3) and the stage of reaching the plateau (upper limit), or the period 
of retention of the achieved developmental level (4), after which the process of deterioration 
preva i ls (5). The most i mpor t a nt t a sk of educ at ion i n genera l, a nd especia l ly of PE or of appl ied 
kinesiology in education, can be derived from this general principle of biological development 
of human characteristics and abilities: during the ontogenetic development stimuli should be 
in the function of the maximal transformation of human abilities and characteristics, and 
not exclusively in the function of knowledge and skill acquisition, particularly not of the ones 
of the lower level.
In the conceptual approach the consensus has been reached to divide the whole ontogenesis 
i nto severa l st a ges of biolog ic a l development . It is a s su med t hat each new st a ge is cha rac ter ised 
by a sequence of changes on the cellular level, which in turn determine the following phases or 
stages and periods of development. These stages are nowadays called the ‘critical’ or ‘sensitive’ 
periods of development. In the literature (e.g., Gužalovski, 1984) ‘critical periods’ are usually 
understood as periods of ontogenesis or spans of time during which a developing organism 
is particularly susceptible to the influence of an event, stimulus or mitigating factors coming 
from the environment if these influences are, by their direction, congruent with the basic 
trends of the natural process of morpho-functional changing. The individual development of 
certain features, abilities or characteristics is particularly great and fast within these spans, the 
adaptation potential is enhanced and favourable prerequisites are formed for the acquisition 
of skills, habits and information of a particular nature.
Previous research on the ontogenetic development of school children and the young has dem-
onstrated convincingly the existence of the critical, or sensitive, periods in the development of 
motor functions in terms of indicators of the dynamics of motor abilities’ manifestation and 
by defining the age-related characteristics of physiological preconditions necessary for their 
manifestation. According to Gužalovski (1984), Vygotsky pointed out the issue back in 1935 
through his requests that optimal teaching time (terms) should be defined in accord with the 
critical periods in the growth and development of children. It was his opinion that the same 
factors may have various effects on the development of children – in one period they may have 
a positive influence, whereas on other occasions they may produce no effect at all (be neutral), 
or they may produce even negative effects.
Numerous previous research studies indicate that ontogenetic development may be defined 
as ‘an integrated result of the combined influence of human nature (genotype) and of the 
environmental factors, where the internal nature of the organism, at all stages of ontogenesis, 
respond variably to the influences coming from the environment because it is not equally or 
compactly sensitive to the influence of different external elements’ (Karsajevskaja, 1970).
Therefore, a profound comprehension of the limiting factors, critical (sensitive) periods, 
and the dynamism of the development of morphological characteristics and motor abilities 
within genders, as well as of developmental gender differences, which represent general laws 
of ontogenesis to the greatest extent, is an indispensable precondition for the efficient manage-
ment of the transformational processes in physical education and sport. Based on the above 
demonstrated approach, concept and previous research, the aim of this cross-sectional study is 
to determine, on one hand, the ontogenetic development of morphological characteristics and 

46 Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005) 
motor abi l it ies of boys a nd g i rls of 7-11 yea rs of a ge, pupi ls of t he fi rst fou r g rades of element a r y 
school, on the basis of the gender-related intragroup differences between the grades while, on 
the other hand, to also determine probable developmental gender differences in the mentioned 
variables across the four grades. 
METHOD
Participants
The sample of participants consisted of 4,429 boys and girls, first- to fourth-graders (7 to 12 
years olds) of the elementary school of the Coast and Gorski Kotar County (Primorsko-goranska 
županija) in Croatia. There were 2,202 male pupils (first grade n
1
 = 566, second grade n
2
 = 561, third 
grade n
3
 = 561, fourth grade n
4
 = 514) and 2,227 female pupils (first grade n
1
 = 575, second grade
n
2
 = 543, third grade n
3
 = 569, and fourth grade n
4
 = 540).
Instruments
The sample of variables consisted of a standard 11-test battery of measuring instruments 
assessing anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities. The battery is regularly used in 
the education system of the Republic of Croatia. 
In the context of morphology the following latent, that is manifest anthropometric, variables 
(measures) were utilised: longitudinal dimensionality of the skeleton – body heig ht (A BH), body 
mass and voluminosity of the body – body weight (ABW) and forearm circumference (ACF), 
and subcutaneous body fat – upper-arm skinfold (AUS).
In the context of motor abilities the following latent, that is manifest anthropometric, vari-
ables (measures) were utilised: speed of movement – hand tapping (MHT), explosive strength 
(power) – standing long jump (MLJ), body co-ordination - polygon backwards (MPB), dynamic 
muscular endurance – sit-ups in 60 seconds (MSU), flexibility – straddle forward bend (MFB), 
static muscular endurance – pull-up hang (MPH) and aerobic endurance – 3-minute running 
(F3).
Procedure
In order to determine intragroup and intergroup differences between the boys and the girls 
of the first (M
1
), second (M
2
), third (M
3
) and fourth (M
4
) grades the statistical method of 
multivariate and univariate analysis of variance (MANOVA/ANOVA) was applied.
Multivariate testing of the null-hypothesis, saying that the centroids of the groups were equal 
to the common centroid (GENERAL MANOV A), was performed by means of Λ-relationships 
(Wilks' Lambda test) and Rao's coefficient (Rao's R). Their statistical significance was also 
determined (p-level). The univariate statistical significance of the differences (p-level) among 
the arithmetic means of the observed groups (grades) was calculated by using an F-test. 
RESULTS
Statistically significant differences among the four groups (M – mean) of the male (Table 1) and 
female (see Table 2) participants (the 1
st 
- 4
th
 g raders of elementa r y school) were obta i ned at t he 
level of .00 (p=.00) for the whole 11-item set (multivariate and univariate) of anthropometric 
and motor variables. 

Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence 47 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005)
In the context of anthropometry (A), the univariate differences in the means of longitudinal 
dimensionality of the skeletons of boys, obtained by means of variable 1 (ABH – body height) 
were as follows: between 1
st
 and 2
nd
 grades 4.69 cm, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 6.21 cm, and between 
3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 5.44 cm. The same differences in the group of girls were: between the 1
st
 and 
2
nd
 grades 5.41 cm, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 6.10 cm, and between 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades the difference 
is just 2.24 cm.
Similar findings are obvious in body mass and body voluminosity, where variables 2 (ABW 
– body weight) and 3 (ACF – forearm circumference) were measured. It can be concluded that 
boys and girls are steadily following their body weight. 
Table 1: Multivariate and univariate analysis of variance (MANOV A/ANOV A) of the set of an-
thropometric and motor variables in boys of the first to fourth grades of elementary school
Va r i a b l e s M
1
M
2
M
3
M
4
Fp
ABH 128.82 133.51 139.72 144.64 637.71 .00*
ABW 27.94 31.25 35.52 38.85 263.82 .00*
ACF 19.00 19.45 20.23 20.80 90.20 .00*
AUS 10.30 9.76 10.36 10.60 4.23 .00*
MHT 18.07 21.42 22.92 24.82 305.09 .00*
MLJ 118.33 130.45 142.50 151.86 250.51 .00*
MPB 22.73 20.02 18.26 17.86 62.19 .00*
MSU 22.83 29.06 31.04 33.19 200.18 .00*
MPH 36.69 39.40 44.63 44.98 91.27 .00*
MFB 16.69 20.99 26.33 28.86 47.72 .00*
F3 467.28 506.58 545.98 584.93 177.59 .00*
Wilks’ Lambda = .34 Rao’s R = 84.86 p - level = .00*
The differences in the means of body weight in the group of boys were: between the 1
st
 and 
the 2
nd
 grades 3.31 kg, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 4.27 kg, and 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades only 3.33 kg, whereas 
the same differences among forearm circumferences of boys were: 1
st
 and 2
nd
 grades 0.45 cm, 
2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 0.75 cm, and 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 0.57 cm.
In girls, the same differences in body weight were: between the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 2.92 
kg, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 4.26 kg, and 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades only 1.72 kg, whereas the differences in 
forearm circumferences were: between the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 0.44 cm, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 
0.73 cm, and 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 0.32 cm.
In the dimension of subcutaneous fatty tissue, measured by variable 4 (AUS – upper-arm 
skinfold), it is obvious that the children (both boys and girls) of the 2
nd
 grade had the lowest 
values (the best achievement), whereas the 4
th 
graders had the highest values (the worst achieve-
ment). The differences in the amount of subcutaneous fatty tissue in boys were: between the 
Legend:
M
1
 mean value, boys 1
st
 grade (N
1
=566)
M
2
 mean value, boys 2
nd
 grade (N
2
=561)
M
3
 mean value, boys 3
rd
 grade (N
3
=561)
M
4
 mean value, boys 4
th
 grade (N
4
=514)
ABH body height
ABW body weight
ACF circumference of forearm
AUS upper-arm skin fold
MHT hand tapping
MLJ standing long jump
MPB polygon backwards
MSU sit-ups in 60 sec
MPH pull-up hang
MFB straddle forward bend
F3 running for 3 min
F F-test
p level of significance 

48 Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005) 
1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades -0.54, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 0.60, and 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 0.24. In girls, the 
same differences were: between the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades -0.39, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 0.62, and 3
rd
 
and 4
th
 grades 0.38.
In the context of motor variables (M), the speed of movement was assessed by means of variable 
5 (MHT – hand tapping). Both boys and girls achieved enhanced values in terms of their ages. 
The differences in the means of the speed of movement in the group of boys were: between 
the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 3.35 repetitions, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 1.50 repetitions, and 3
rd
 and 4
th
 
grades 1.90 repetitions. In girls, the same differences were: between the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 
2.55 repetitions, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 1.78 repetitions, and 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 2.40 repetitions.
Table 2: Multivariate and univariate analysis of variance (MANOV A/ANOV A) of the set of an-
thropometric and motor variables in girls of the first to fourth grades of elementary school
Va r i a b l e s M
1
M
2
M
3
M
4
Fp
ABH 127.16 132.57 138.67 140.91 552.91 .00*
ABW 26.80 29.72 33.98  35.70 209.75 .00*
ACF 18.47 18.91 19.64  19.96  73.68 .00*
AUS 11.21 10.82 11.44  11.82   5.52 .00*
MHT 17.84 20.39 22.68  25.08 396.76 .00*
MLJ 108.62 118.97 131.30 130.86 179.44 .00*
MPB 26.99 22.44 20.42  20.22 120.40 .00*
MSU 23.66 26.42 28.30  28.89  57.29 .00*
MPH 37.84 43.62 48.20  47.14 143.00 .00*
MFB 11.25 14.60 18.83  19.47  41.79 .00*
F3 445.52 473.54 509.04 525.11 110.70 .00*
Wilks’ Lambda = .35 Rao’s R = 84.28 p – level = .00*
The explosive strength of legs was assessed by variable 6 (MLJ – standing long jump). The 2
nd
 
and 3
rd
 graders of both sexes achieved higher values, whereas the 4
th
 graders had lower values. 
The differences in the means of the standing long jump in the group of boys were: between 1
st
 
and 2
nd
 grades 12.12 cm, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 12.05 cm, and 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 9.36 cm. In girls, 
the same differences were: between 1
st
 and 2
nd
 grades 10.35 cm, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 12.33 cm, 
and 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 0.44 cm.
Body co-ordination was assessed by variable 7 (MPB - polygon backwards). The boys and 
girls from all the four age groups scored lower values, meaning they achieved good results. 
The differences in the means of body co-ordination in the group of boys were: between the 1
st
 
and the 2
nd
 grades 2.71 s, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 1.76 s, 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades -0.40 s. In girls, the same 
differences were: between the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades -4.55 s, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades -2.02 s, 3
rd
 and 
4
th
 grades -0.20 s.
Legend:
M
1
 
mean value, girls 1
st
 grade (N
1
=575)
M
2
 
mean value, girls 2
nd
 grade (N
2
=543)
M
3
 
mean value, girls 3
rd
 grade (N
3
=569)
M
4
 mean value, girls 4
th
 grade (N
4
=540)
ABH body height
ABW body weight
ACF circumference of forearm
AUS upper-arm skin fold
MHT hand tapping
MLJ standing long jump
 MPB polygon backwards
 MSU sit-ups in 60 sec
MPH pull-up hang
MFB straddle forward bend
F3 running for 3 min
F F-test
p level of significance

Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence 49 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005)
Muscular endurance (dynamic) of the trunk (abdominal muscles) was assessed by variable 
8 (MSU – sit-ups in 60 s). The subjects of the 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades scored higher than the pupils 
of the 4
th
 grades. The differences in the means of the variable of muscular endurance in the 
group of boys were: between the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 6.23 repetitions, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 1.44 
repetitions, 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 2.15 repetitions. Girls: between the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 2.76 
repetitions, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 1.88 repetitions, 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 0.59 repetitions. 
Flexibility was assessed by variable 9 (MFB – straddle forward bend). Pupils from the 1
st
 to 
the 3
rd
 grades scored better than their colleagues from 4
th
 grade. The differences in the means 
of forward bend in the group of boys were: between the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 2.71 cm, 2
nd
 and 
3
rd
 grades 5.23 cm, 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 0.35 cm. In girls, the differences were: between the 1
st
 and 
the 2
nd
 grades 5.78 cm, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 4.58 cm, 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades -1.06 cm.
Table 3: Multivariate and univariate analysis of variance (MANOV A/ANOV A) between the 
boys and girls of 1
st
 to 4
th
 grades of elementary school in the system of anthropometric and 
motor variables
Va r i a b l e s
1
st 
grade 2
nd
 grade 3
rd
 grade 4
th
 grade
Mb Mg Mb Mg Mb Mg Mb Mg
ABH 128.82 127.16 133.51 132.57 139.72 138.67 144.64 140.91
ABW 27.94 26.80 31.25 29.72 35.52 33.98 38.85 35.70
ACF 19.00 18.47 19.45 18.91 20.23 19.64 20.80 19.96
AUS 10.30 11.21  9.76 10.82 10.36 11.44 10.60 11.82
MHT 18.07 17.84 21.42 20.39 22.92 22.68 24.82 25.08
MLJ 118.33 108.62 130.45 118.97 142.50 131.30 151.86 130.86
MPB 22.73 26.99 20.02 22.44 18.26 20.42 17.86 20.22
MSU 22.83 23.66 29.06 26.42 31.04 28.30 33.19 28.89
MPH 36.69 37.84 39.40 43.62 44.63 48.20 44.98 47.14
MFB 16.69 11.25 20.99 14.60 26.33 18.83 28.86 19.47
F3 467.28 445.52 506.58 473.54 545.98 509.04 584.93 525.11
λ = .76
R = 31.48
p = .00*
λ = .73
R = 35.29
p = .00*
λ = .78
R = 28.05
p = .00*
λ = .66
R = 47.77
p = .00*
Muscular endurance (static strength of the shoulders and arms) was assessed by variable 10 
(MPH – pull-up hang). The pupils of the 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades scored better than the pupils of the 
4
th
 grade. The differences in the means of pull-up hang in the group of boys were: between the 
1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 4.30 s, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 5.34 s, 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 2.53 s. In girls: between 
the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 3.35 s, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 4.20 s, 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 0.64 s.
Aerobic endurance was assessed by variable 11 (F3 – 3-minute running). It is obvious that the 
observed subjects had enhanced values. The differences in the means of the variable aerobic 
endurance in the group of boys were: between the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 39.3 m, 2
nd
 and 3
rd
 
grades 39.4 m, 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades 38.95 m. In girls: between the 1
st
 and the 2
nd
 grades 28.02 m., 
2
nd
 and 3
rd
 grades 35.50 m, 3
rd
 and 4
th
 grades only 16.07 m.
Legend:
Mb mean value of boys
Mg mean value of girls
ABH body height
ABW body weight
ACF circumference of forearm
AUS upper-arm skin fold
MHT hand tapping
MLJ standing long jump
MPB polygon backwards
MSU sit-ups in 60 sec
MPH pull-up hang
MFB straddle forward bend
F3 running for 3 min

50 Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005) 
From Table 3 it is obvious that in the whole set (multivariate) of 11 variables there are statisti-
cally significant differences in arithmetic means (M) between boys (b) and girls (g) from the 
1
st
 to 4
th
 grades of elementary school at the level of 0.00. 
In variable 1 (ABH – body height) it is obvious that boys from all the age groups (four grades) 
are taller than girls, which was expected. The difference in body height between boys (Mb) 
and girls (Mg) is: in the first grade 1.66 cm, in the second 0.94 cm, in the third 1.05 cm, and 
in the fourth grade even 3.73 cm.
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
grade
boys
girls
Figure 1: Gender differences in variable 1 (body height).
Something similar was expected for body weight (ABW), meaning that body weight followed 
the values of body height. The difference in body weight between boys (Mb) and girls (Mg) is: in 
the first grade 1.44 kg, in the second grade 1.53 kg, in the third 1.54 kg, and in the fourth grade 
even 3.15 kg. 
0
10
20
30
40
50
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
class
boys
girls
Figure 2: Gender differences in variable 2 (body weight)
In variable 3 (ACF – forearm circumference) the values were slightly higher in boys in all grades. The 
differences in forearm circumference between boys (Mb) and girls (Mg) were: in the first grade 0.53 
cm, in the second grade 0.54 cm, in the third 0.59 cm, and in the fourth grade 0.84 cm. 
17
18
19
20
21
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
class
boys
girls
Figure 3: Gender differences in variable 3 (forearm circumference)

Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence 51 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005)
In variable 4 (AUS – upper-arm skinfold) the girls had higher values, which was as expected 
on the basis of previous research. The differences between boys and girls were in the 1
st
 grade 
0.91 cm, 2
nd
 1.06 cm, 3
rd
 1.08 cm, and in the 4
th
 grade 1.22 cm.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
class
boys
girls
Figure 4: Gender differences in variable 4 (upper-arm skinfold)
In the context of motor abilities, where the speed of movement was assessed by variable 5 (MHT 
– hand tapping), boys from the first three grades achieved enhanced values, whereas the girls 
of 4
th
 grade scored better than their younger colleagues. The differences between boys and girls 
were in the 1
st
 grade 0.23 repetitions, 2
nd
 1.03 repetitions, 3
rd
 0.24 repetitions in favour of the boys, 
whereas in the 4
th
 grade the difference of 0.26 was in favour of the girls.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
class
boys
girls
Figure 5: Gender differences in variable 5 (hand tapping)
In the context of motor abilities, where the power (explosive strength) of the legs was assessed 
by va r iable 6 (M H T – st a nd i ng long ju mp), boys f rom a l l fou r g r ades scored consider ably bet ter 
than the girls. The differences between boys and girls were in the 1
st
 grade 9.71 cm, 2
nd
 11.48 cm, 
3
rd
 11.20 cm, and 4
th
 21.00 cm.
0
50
100
150
200
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
class
boys
girls
Figure 6: Gender differences in variable 6 (standing long jump)

52 Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005) 
In variable 7 (MPB - polygon backwards), assessing body co-ordination, the boys from all 
four grades scored better (achieved lower test results). The differences between boys and girls 
were in the 1
st
 grade 4.26 s, 2
nd
 2.40 s, 3
rd
 2.74 s, and 4
th
 4.30 s. 
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
class
boys
girls
Figure 7: Gender differences in variable 7 (polygon backwards)
Muscular endurance (dynamic) of the trunk (abdominal muscles) was assessed by variable 8 
(MSU – sit-ups). The girls from 1
st
 grade performed better than the boys, but the boys from 
the higher grades were better than their female classmates. The differences between boys and 
girls were in the 1
st
 grade 0.83 repetitions in favour of the girls, in the 2
nd
 the difference was 
2.64 repetitions, in the 3
rd
 2.74 repetitions, and in the 4
th
 grade 4.30 repetitions, all in favour 
of the boys. 
0
10
20
30
40
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
class
boys
girls
Figure 8: Gender differences in variable 8 (sit-ups)
Flexibility was assessed by variable 9 (MFB – straddle forward bend). The girls from all four 
grades scored better than the boys, which was as expected. The differences between boys and 
girls were in the 1
st
 grade 1.15 cm, in the 2
nd
 4.22 cm, in the 3
rd
 3.57 cm, and in the 4
th
 grade 
2.16 cm.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
class
boys
girls
Figure 9: Gender differences in variable 9 (straddle forward bend)

Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence 53 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005)
Muscular endurance (static strength of the shoulders and arms) was assessed by variable 
10 (MPH – bent-arm hang). The boys from all four grades scored better than the girls. The 
differences between boys and girls were in the 1
st
 grade 5.44 s, in the 2
nd
 6.39 s, in the 3
rd
 7.50 
s, and in the 4
th
 grade 9.39 s.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
class
boys
girls
Figure 10: Gender differences in variable 10 (bent-arm hang)
Cardiorespiratory fitness (aerobic endurance) was assessed by variable 11 (F3 – 3-minute 
r u n n i ng). The boys of a l l fou r g r ades scored bet ter t ha n t hei r fema le cla s smates . The d i fferences 
between boys and girls were in the 1
st
 grade 21.76 m, in the 2
nd
 33.04 m, in the 3
rd
 36.94 m, and 
in the 4
th
 grade 59.82 m.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
class
boys
girls
Figure 11: Gender differences in variable 11 (3-minute running)
DISCUSSION
In this research statistically significant multivariate (in the whole set of variables) and univari-
ate (between particular variables) intergroup differences were expected among the arithmetic 
means of the four age subgroups (1
st
-4
th
 g rades) in bot h genders. The di fferences were expected 
due to the one-year period between the particular grade. At this stage of growth and devel-
opment this is a relatively long time period in which significant changes in morphological 
characteristics and motor abilities may occur under the influence of internal (hereditary) and 
external (environmental) factors. 
In addition, the statistically significant differences between boys and girls in the 1
st
-4
th
 grades 
were expected in the whole set of variables (multivariate) and in particular variables (univari-
ate) on the basis of the already known gender differences that are typical for these ages. 

54 Ontogenetic development in pre-adolescence Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 2, 42–55 (2005) 
The authors were particularly interested in gaining an insight into the ontogenetic development 
of individual anthropometric and motor variables by gender within the same grade, as well as 
into gender differences occurring in the development of the same variables between particular 
grades. 
It is obvious that the morphological (anthropometric) variables, including longitudinal di-
mensionality of the skeleton (ABH – body height), body mass and voluminosity (ABW – body 
weight and ACF – forearm circumference), are progressing in a steady and even way across 
the age subgroups (1
st
-4
th
 grades) in accordance with the regular genetic projections and the 
well-known fact that this progress is somewhat more intensive in boys. As far as the variable 
of subcutaneous fatty tissue is concerned (AUS – upper-arm skinfold), it is obvious that in 
girls these values are not only somewhat higher than in boys, but that they are also showing a 
trend of a mild increase over the years, whereas in boys these values do not change. 
The motor variables of both the boys and girls are also progressing evenly and steadily across 
the defined age periods (1
st
-4
th
 grades). The boys achieved better in the following variables: 
speed of movement (MHT – hand tapping), explosive strength (power; MLJ – standing long 
jump), body co-ordination (MPB - polygon backwards), dynamic muscular endurance (MSU 
– sit-ups in 60 s), static muscular endurance (MPH – pull-up hang) and aerobic endurance 
(cardiorespiratory fitness) (F3 – 3-minute running), whereas the girls scored better only in 
the variable of flexibility (MFB – straddle forward bend). 
It can be concluded that the ontogenetic development of children aged 7-11 years from the 
Coast and Gorski Kotar County (Primorsko-goranska županija) in Croatia is occurring evenly 
under the influence of both endogenous potentials and exogenous factors. The latter include: 
PE teaching contents, sport training contents, amount of time dedicated to the process of 
transformation, extensity and/or intensity of physical exercise or sport training, work condi-
tions, expertise of PE teachers or sport trainers, interest of the community and broader society 
or the system of values regarding the hierarchical importance of anthropological features, 
abilities and characteristics, and the technology of physical exercise or sport training. 
To conclude, a recommendation can be given: in designing and applying physical exercise 
and sport training programmes much more attention should be paid to girls, to the devel-
opment, on one hand, of their static and dynamic muscular endurance and, on the other, 
of cardiorespiratory fitness (aerobic endurance in running). These motor abilities can be 
considerably transformed (improved) in this age since gender differentiation has still not 
started and because these abilities are not strongly hereditarily limited. 
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