Rhetoric for Tourism Business Worksheets Author Jasna Potočnik Topler October 2021 Title Rhetoric for Tourism Business Subtitle Worksheets Author Jasna Potočnik Topler (University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism) Review Violeta Zubanov (Educons University, Faculty of Sport and Tourism) Technical editor Jan Perša (University of Maribor, University Press) Cover designer Jan Perša (University of Maribor, University Press) Cover graphics Seminar, author: ulrichw, Pixabay.com (CC0) Microphone, author: geavey, Pixabay.com (CC0) Graphic material Jasna Potočnik Topler Published by University of Maribor / Založnik University Press Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia https://press.um.si, zalozba@um.si Issued by University of Maribor / Izdajatelj Faculty of Tourism Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia https://www.fs.um.si, fs@um.si Edition 1st Published at Maribor, October 2021 Publication type E-book Available at https://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/618 CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji © University of Maribor, University Press Univerzitetna knjižnica Maribor / Univerza v Mariboru, Univerzitetna založba Text / Besedilo © Pootčnik Topler, 2021 338.48:82.085 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. / To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons POTOČNIK Topler, Jasna Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Rhetoric for tourism business [Elektronski vir] : [worksheets] / author Jasna Potočnik This license allows reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon Topler. - E-publikacija. - Maribor : Univerza v the material in any medium or format, so long as attribution is given to Mariboru, Univerzitetna založba, 2021 the creator. The license al ows for commercial use. Any third-party material in this book is published under the book’s Način dostopa (URL): Creative Commons licence unless indicated otherwise in the credit line https://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/618 to the material. If you would like to reuse any third-party material not ISBN 978-961-286-526-9 covered by the book’s Creative Commons licence, you wil need to doi: 10.18690/978-961-286-526-9 obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. COBISS.SI-ID 80059907 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ISBN 978-961-286-526-9 (pdf) DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-526-9 For publisher prof. dr. Zdravko Kačič, rector of University of Maribor Price Free copy Citiranje Potočnik Topler, J. (2021). Rhetoric for Tourism Business: Worksheets . Maribor: University Press. doi: Attribution 10.18690/978-961-286-526-9 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler Table of Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Rhetoric in Everyday Life and in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 What is Rhetoric? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Five Steps in Preparation and Execution of a Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 How Should You Speak? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Means of Persuasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Argumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Linguistic Means in Rhetoric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Literary Tourism and Interpretation in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Stage Fright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Tasks and Questions for Consolidating Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler Introduction Dear students, Welcome to the subject RHETORIC FOR TOURISM OPERATIONS. We believe that you are well aware of the importance of successful and occasion-appropriate public speaking, argumentation and speech. Of course in our lectures we wil not be confined merely to nice speaking and writing, for it is true that rhetoric should be understood in a much broader sense – it is a treasury of tools and knowledge which we may in a very simplified form define as the skill of persuasion, especially if we proceed from Aristotle’s understanding of it. Rhetoric is a skill or discipline which in various forms and scope has accompanied humans ever since they could first speak. Through historical periods it has undergone development, rises and also fal s. Today we are al aware just how important it is in very broad fields of public and private life, for ultimately it contributes to better reading literacy of individuals and society. The purpose and aim of the subject are to prepare you, future employees in the tourism sector and in other fields of business, to analyse and more accurately and precisely formulate arguments and persuasive techniques in everyday life, ranging from personal conversations to the media, study situations and the composition of popular science texts. Equally our aim is to familiarise you with various discourses and narratives, to teach independent, more self-confident, clear, structured and critical expression of views and to formulate structured short and long texts. In this subject we will journey from Homer’s 2 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. Odyssey and Iliad to the media and ultimately Twitter. We will talk about preparations for public appearances, the pitfalls hidden in individual rhetoric situations, various audiences, overcoming stage fright, and business etiquette. Before you are the work sheets that wil help you as support points in the introduction to the subject, when meetings wil focus on topics such as history, rhetorical genres, canons, persuasion, public speaking and language. And this applies to the language of the media, new media or a speaker at a public event. Language occupies the principal place in rhetoric, for it is not just a tool for describing our thoughts, but helps us think and critical y evaluate the world around us. In just a few words you can convey a lot, or in a lot of words you can convey nothing. As William Shakespeare pointed out in his iconic play Hamlet: “Words, words, words.” For this very reason humans have been occupied with words for millennia. The Ancient Greek philosopher Socrates believed that “a precise word is a more reliable witness for just thought,” and a few centuries later the philosopher Plutarch noted: “From words one can read the state of the soul, the character and will of the speaker.” We wish you much wil to attain knowledge and wel -reasoned debate. And the successful mastery of rhetorical skills! The publication is a translated and supplemented edition of worksheets published in 2018. RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler Rhetoric in Everyday Life and in Tourism Why do you think rhetoric is important? 4 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. Where do you actual y notice rhetoric in everyday life? What did you last discuss/dispute in your family and how did the discussion/dispute go? How did the discussion/dispute end? Rhetoric in Everyday Life and in Tourism 5. Try to remember some funny incident from your life and recount it to your neighbour on your left or right. Relax, and in one, two or three minutes recount your morning today. Relax, and in one, two or three minutes talk about Slovenian tourism. What are the characteristics of modern interpretation in tourism? 6 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. How and where can a tourist guide use a knowledge of rhetoric in a literary museum? What role does rhetoric play at tourist events? Please give your appraisal of a theatre production/film. Rhetoric in Everyday Life and in Tourism 7. 8 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler What is Rhetoric? Rhetoric is the skil of persuasion. (Zidar Gale, 2007) The key figures in the rhetoric of Antiquity are Plato (429–347 BCE) and his student Aristotle (384‒322 BCE). Plato was in truth not an advocate of rhetoric, for he believed that it involved an illusion or deceit, since rhetoric does not seek the truth, but a probability. Aristotle, however, opposed such an interpretation of rhetoric. He explored facts, rhetoric and dialectics and laid the foundations of rhetorical theory. He was the first to systematically define it, he set out the tasks of the speaker and the three types of oratory (judicial, political and advisory speeches). He also defined the parts of a speech and the processes of its formulation, the basics of argumentation and drawing conclusions and of persuasion, so he is rightly regarded as the founder of the theory of syl ogism and argumentation (Aristotle, 2011, p. 103). The word RHETORIC is Greek in origin and means: “RHEMA” = ʻwordʼ; “RHETOR” = ʻspeakerʼ; “RHETORIKE TEKHNE” = ʻart of speechʼ. Rhetoric is a methodology or method of preparation of speech and its execution. 10 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. rhetoric noun1. the study of the technique of using language effectively 2. the art of using speech to persuade, influence, or please; oratory 3. excessive use of ornamentation and contrivance in spoken or written discourse; bombast 4. speech or discourse that pretends to significance but lacks true meaning all the politician says is mere rhetoric. (English definition of ‘rhetoric’ from Collins English Dictionary). (Slovenian definition is given in SSKJ, http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/cgi/a03.exe?name=sskj_testa&expression=ge%3Dretorika&hs=1) Rhetorical situations − These always involve rhetorical communication; − they go beyond intimate situations; ‘serious’ situation (groups, public meeting, public information outlets or mass media). RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler A Brief History of Rhetoric (taken from Zidar Gale et al. 2011) FOUR MAJOR PERIODS 1) PERIOD OF ANTIQUITY (5th century BCE - 5th century CE) – birth and flourishing of rhetoric − In Ancient Greece rhetoric was closely associated with everyday life, public appearances and speeches on various occasions: at political and military gatherings, funerals, weddings and especially in the courts. − The place where speakers would gather in Ancient Greece was called the AGORA. − Since the Ancient Greeks grasped the exceptional importance of the art of speaking, they started studying and analysing it, and systematically teaching their citizens about speaking. And thus was born rhetoric as an independent skil . − It was principally the skill of PERSUASION and ARGUMENTATION, and not the art of fine speaking. − It arose principally due to monetary needs – good rhetoricians were hired as advocates in court. − The rhetorician does not necessarily speak the truth, and rhetoric is concerned with probability. − Plato, Socrates, Gorgias and Aristotle. 12 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. − ARISTOTLE (384–322 BCE) is regarded as the founder of rhetoric – he defined the TASKS OF THE SPEAKER (what a speaker must do before starting to compose a speech – find material and evidence, lay out the material, and put thoughts into words and ornament them); he defined the TYPES OF ORATORY (he divided speeches into JUDICIAL/FORENSIC, ADVISORY OR POLITICAL and CEREMONIAL); he divided a speech into the INTRODUCTION, PRESENTATION OF CASE, PRESENTATION OF EVIDENCE and CONCLUSION; he cited CORRECTNESS, CLARITY, APPROPRIATENESS and ORNAMENT as DISTINCTIONS OF SPEECH. ARISTOTLE IS REGARDED AS THE FOUNDER OF THE THEORY OF SYLLOGISM AND ARGUMENTATION. The Romans imitated the Greeks in many ways, and rhetoric was no exception. Rhetoric attained its greatest flowering with the Romans in the form of judicial and advisory speech. A distinguished exponent in this field in the 1st century BCE was MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO. He wrote a large number of treatises on rhetoric. It was through him that Roman rhetoric reached its apogee, but then also went into decline after his death. Cicero: “The speaker must first imagine what he will say, then he must arrange his divulgences (. .) then he must arrange them in his memory and execute them in his speech with effectiveness and charm.” 2) MIDDLE AGES (5th - 14th/15th centuries CE) – decline of rhetoric In this period education in oratory no longer involved training in persuasion, but was rather intended to provide inspiration through bril iant performance. Rhetoric was part of general education, which was referred to as SEPTEM ARTES LIBERALES (ʻthe seven liberal artsʼ), but in this period it became principally the SKILL OF ORATORICAL STYLE. A Brief History of Rhetoric 13. 1) FROM THE RENAISSANCE (14th - 16th centuries) TO THE 19th CENTURY – the rise and fal of rhetoric The Renaissance signalled a new blossoming. Social and cultural changes led to the Western world starting to rediscover Greek, its literature, debates and consequently also rhetoric. The driving force of cultural progress in this period was provided by individuals we call HUMANISTS. − Erasmus of Rotterdam 4) 20th and 21st CENTURIES – THE REBIRTH OF RHETORIC THROUGH OTHER MEANS Interest in rhetoric started to reawaken in the 20th and 21st centuries: − several treatises and books on it were published; − new professional societies were established which arranged professional meetings; − magazines published articles about it; − modern approaches appeared: the elements of rhetoric started to be studied by means of other theoretical streams of modern linguistic expression. In our course we wil first focus on the elements of classical rhetoric, as established by Aristotle. SPEAKING SITUATION − The widest circumstances of speaking (where, who and for whom). TRIANGLE OF PERSUASION 1) Speaker (who is speaking publicly). 2) Interlocutor, listeners, audience. 3) The problem or subject of debate – content 14 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. NOTES RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler Five Steps in Preparation and Execution of a Speech 1) INVENTIO – discovering and creating material or content – seeking what to say (gathering information, facts, arguments, considering how to retain the audience’s attention). 2) DISPOSITIO – the plan and layout of content (how the speech will begin, how and when facts wil be presented, in what place, how wil one’s opinion be substantiated, how the speech will conclude). 3) ELOCUTIO – putting the content into words, selecting appropriate words, formulating thoughts; this needs to be adjusted to the occasion. 4) MEMORIA – memory, remembering the content. 5) ACTIO or PRONUNCIATIO – declaiming the speech, controlling the body, voice and emotions. THE MEHRABIAN RULE The Mehrabian rule states that only 7% of meaning is conveyed in the communication of words, while the other 93% represents non-verbal communication. This other part is composed of body language (55%) and tone of voice (38%). The rule, which dates back to 1960, when Professor Albert Mehrabian and associates at the University of California in Los Angeles (UCLA) conducted a study of human communication patterns, is often misused due to various interpretations, including some erroneous ones (Ubiquity.acm.org, 2011). 16 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. NOTES RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler How Should You Speak? RECOMMENDATIONS ON HOW TO SPEAK − We should speak concisely, clearly, specifical y and coherently. − The use of verbs achieves greater liveliness and effectiveness. − The active voice is more effective than the passive. Example 1 (active): We wil draw up a new tourism strategy. Example 2 (passive): A new tourism strategy wil be drawn up. − In certain cases it is more effective to use the present tense rather than the past. − Illustrating using examples is more effective than abstract talk. − The use of questions is effective. When speaking in public, collective language should be used. 18 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. NOTES RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler Means of Persuasion ONE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL AIMS OF RHETORIC IS PERSUASION. MEANS OF PERSUASION: EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. EXTERNAL MEANS OF PERSUASION (already existing independently of rhetoric) INTERNAL MEANS OF PERSUASION (we create them ourselves as part of rhetoric skills) EXTERNAL MEANS OF PERSUASION (already existing independently of rhetoric) are: − laws, sets of rules, codices, rules of procedure, statutes; − contracts, charters; − citing witnesses or authorities: − oaths; − prevailing opinions or sayings; − in Ancient Greece also admissions obtained through torture. 20 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. INTERNAL MEANS OF PERSUASION (we create them ourselves as part of rhetoric skills) are: − LOGOS = ʻargumentsʼ, − ETHOS = ʻcharacterʼ, − PATHOS = ʻemotionsʼ. LOGOS – logical or rational providing of evidence or substantiation − “Rational” substantiation. − In good speeches the majority of substantiation should be based on logos. − Aristotle believed that logos is the most important means of persuasion. − Logos serves to present one’s own arguments and in rejecting an opponent’s arguments. − The speaker substantiates and reasons their assertions. (http://www.european-rhetoric.com/ethos-pathos-logos-modes-persuasion-aristotle/) Methods of argumentation (taken from Zidar Gale et al., 2011): − with examples (persuading using examples and similarities); − ENTHYMEME – a method of drawing conclusions in rhetoric, where in a set of assertions that are among themselves logically linked, there is usually something missing; − in order to properly explain the forms and laws of correct thinking, Aristotle developed a special discipline – logic. The type of conclusion applied in logic and also science, is called a SYLLOGISM: from two assertions – a premise or argument – we extrapolate a third (the conclusion). It is employed under strict rules that define when drawing a conclusion is correct and when it is not. MAIN RULE OF SYLLOGISTIC CONCLUSION: if the premises are valid, then the conclusion must also necessarily be valid. Means of Persuasion 21. LANGUAGE plays an extremely important part in providing evidence (“It’s ALREADY 4 o’clock/It’s ONLY 4 o’clock”; “The glass is HALF ful /empty”; “The painting at the exhibition is INTERESTING or WONDERFUL” ). The more we master language, the easier it is to provide rhetorical evidence. ETHOS – THE SPEAKER’S MORAL CHARACTER − In rhetoric this distinguishes the speaker’s properties of character which in their speech and through it they deliberately disclose to the audience. − With ethos, speakers present their VIRTUES. − In Antiquity the greatest value was ascribed to HONESTY, RELIABILITY, MODESTY, COURAGE, REASON, OBJECTIVITY and FAIRNESS. − In modern times we might add the fol owing: SINCERITY, LOYALTY, SELF-CONFIDENCE, COMMUNICATIVENESS, PERSISTENCE, RESOURCEFULNESS, HEALTHY COMPETITIVENESS. − Aristotle emphasised the following three virtues: PRACTICAL WISDOM (the appearance of a healthy mind), VIRTUE (the impression of sincerity and truthfulness of what is said) and GOOD FAVOUR OF LISTENERS (the impression of goodwil ). PATHOS – ELICITS VARIOUS EMOTIONAL RESPONSES − In the use of pathos it is extremely important to take into account the CIRCUMSTANCES and AUDIENCE. − If you are seeking in a speech to really inspire and persuade people, you need to elicit an emotional response in your audience. − This is done by touching on VALUES, emphasising COMMON AIMS, ADDRESSING PEOPLE DIRECTLY ( “Dear friends”, “esteemed students”, “honourable sportsmen” ). − It is important to use SELECTED and EMOTIONALLY CHARGED words. LOGOS – in a speech in which you trying to present arguments, this should predominate. ETHOS – this predominates at the opening of a speech, when you are introducing yourself to the audience. 22 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. PATHOS – this usualy predominates at the close of a speech. How we include LOGOS, ETHOS and PATHOS always depends on the circumstances, the audience, the purpose of the speech and the objective we are seeking to attain. (http://www.european-rhetoric.com/ethos-pathos-logos-modes-persuasion-aristotle/) NOTES RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler Argumentation − In modern rhetoric argumentational discourse is a central topic. − A well-known system is the TOULMIN MODEL OF ARGUMENT (Stephen Toulmin), which contains a CLAIM, BACKING (additional support for the validity of the substantiated reasons), and QUALIFIERS (phrases that express the degree of certainty of the claim). − An example of argumentation using the TOULMIN MODEL CLAIM: Locating the new treatment facility on the Sava wil prevent new protests from the environmental movement. GROUND: The representatives of the environmental movement have declared that they wil continue their protests until the company reduces the level of toxic substances in its emissions to a level that complies with the European directive. WARRANT: Locating the new treatment facility on the Sava wil fulfil the demands of the environmental movement. BACKING: Technical data on the treatment facility on the Sava indicate that by placing it there it wil be possible for the plant to reduce the level of toxic substances in emissions to below the required value in the European directive. 24 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. QUALIFIER: We may therefore conclude with a high degree of probability.. PROVEN CLAIM: (...) that locating the new treatment facility on the Sava wil prevent new protests from the environmental movement, .. REBUTTAL: (.. ) unless the real motivation behind the protests is media promotion of the leaders of the movement and they wil seek some other reason to continue. At the BEGINNING and/or at the END of the argument, the speaker presents the main claim, which he wishes the other person to accept. It is important to state the reasons WHY something is important. The opponent’s question “Why?” forces the speaker to state the reasons that demonstrate the grounds for his claim. Toulmin’s model is adaptable, the essential thing is for the claims to be backed up. This is also one of the key features of persuasive rhetoric – we persuade and affirm through substantiation. “Persuasion is communication in which two or more individuals work together for the purpose of achieving change.” (Lit lejohn and Jabusch, 1987: 8) − DEBATE FORMATS − The Karl Popper debate format (common in Slovenia): 1. speech by first speaker of affirmative group (4 minutes); 2. cross-examination (2 minutes); 3. speech by first speaker of negating group (4 minutes); 4. cross-examination (2 minutes); 5. speech by second speaker of affirmative group (4 minutes); 6. cross-examination (2 minutes); 7. speech by second speaker of negating group (4 minutes); 8. cross-examination (2 minutes); 9. speech by third speaker of affirmative group (3 minutes); 10. speech by third speaker of negating group (3 minutes); Argumentation 25. EXAMPLE OF ASSIGNMENT Please give a substantiated assessment (means of persuasion, argumentation, implementation) of the following speaking performances: − a politician; − a public figure; − a clash of opinions. PERSUASION (from Robert Cialdini – Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion) In his book Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion Robert Cialdini sets out the concept of six universal principles of persuasion – reciprocity, commitment and consistency, social proof, liking, authority and scarcity, which are applicable in all areas of life in society: from persuading shoppers and collecting donations to securing votes in elections and consent to various activities. RULE OF RECIPROCITY Think about a free wine tasting or a free vacuuming of your dirty carpet. The desire to repay something is strong and can lead us to make a purchase. Reciprocity also works in negotiations over price. If the other side gives way a little, we will also find it easier to give way. RULE OF CONSISTENCY We would like to be regarded as consistent and steadfast by those around us. If someone asks us for a donation to benefit an animal welfare association, it will be easier to agree to this if we are reminded that this will serve to prove our allegiance to the fight for animal rights. When we donate, we see ourselves as strong personalities. 26 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. RULE OF LIKING If you like someone, you wil more readily consent to their proposal than otherwise. Liking depends to a great extent on similarity. We are more inclined to believe those who are similar to us: in age, style of clothes, profession, the role they play or even their name. If you are writing a letter to Janez Novak and you sign as Janez, the effect wil be greater than if you use your true name. And a compliment? That will additionally persuade you. RULE OF SOCIAL AFFIRMATION No matter how much we flatter ourselves that we are great individualists, the truth is that we are inclined towards what the majority favours. We especially like to model ourselves on others when we are uncertain. Highlighting examples is a good tactic if you wish to convince someone of something. RULE OF AUTHORITY It is easier to accommodate someone who has authority. It is also easier to accept advice and tasks from such individuals. This point of view has its root in parental and school upbringing. Research has shown that compared to products that are not advertised by experts, identical products advertised by experts sell better. RULE OF LIMITATION We realise how attracted we are to something that is available in unlimited quantities whenever we buy some expensive item that states “Limited quantities” or “Special of er today only” . We are more likely to buy something if we believe that it might soon run out or soon be more expensive. The rule of limitation also applies to people. If you tell a possible employer that you are also having several job interviews elsewhere, you create the impression that you are wanted. RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler Linguistic Means in Rhetoric − Rhetoric often employs artistic or poetic language, where the poetic function comes to the fore. − What is cal ed POETIC LANGUAGE is supposedly the most creative and original form of language, created on the basis of distancing from the patterns of practical language. TROPES (a range of rhetorical figures that denote a switching of a word or phrase from its real meaning into something else; e.g. metaphor, metonym, synecdoche) and FIGURES (a method of linguistic expression that shifts away from the usual): − OXYMORON (CLEVER NON-SEQUITUR) – a phrase composed of two logical y and semantical y opposing expressions. − ASYNDETON (OMISSION OF CONJUNCTIONS) – a series of words of the same type, phrases or sentences omitting conjunctions. − DIAPHOR (CREATING TWO LOGICAL FUNCTIONS) – repeating the same word or phrase to give a different shade of meaning. − RHETORICAL QUESTION – a question to which the poser does not expect an answer, since it is obvious. 28 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. − PARADOX – a statement that appears illogical, contradictory, irrational and counter to established understanding and expectation. − SYNCOPE – omission of a vowel between two consonants in the middle of a word. − ELLIPSIS – the omission of some part of a sentence or an entire sentence. − APOCOPE – loss of sounds at the end of a word. − APHERESIS – the loss of a sound or sounds at the beginning of a word. − ACCUMULATION – sequential listing of words. − EPANALEPSIS – the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of a verse or sentence. − POLYSYNDETON – repetition of conjunctions. − APOSTROPHE – addressing of persons who are not present, and also addressing things and abstractions. − ALLUSION – a figure of playful, indirect communication. − ANTITHESIS – two opposing concepts stand together. − INVERSION – a change in normal word order. − EUPHEMISM – an expression that softens, mitigates or lightens an unpleasant, moral y or social y dubious, heinous or taboo expression; it can also be a metaphor. − PERIPHRASE – a description of some concept, thing, person, quality or act in several words. − RHYME – correspondence of sound between the final and also intervening words in a verse. − GEMINATION – successive repetition of the same word or phrase in a given place. − ITERATION – repeating a word or phrase at a given place. − ANAPHORA – repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of several successive sentences or parts of a sentence. − EPISTROPHE – repetition of a word or phrase at the end of several successive sentences or verses. − ANADIPLOSIS – the last part of a sentence or verse unit is repeated at the beginning of the next such unit. − PERSONIFICATION – rendering human something non-human, including natural phenomena. − HYPERBOLE – a rhetorical device that reflects exaggeration. Linguistic Means in Rhetoric 29. − COMPARISON – comparison of some phenomenon using the comparative conjunction than. − REFRAIN – lines that regularly repeat at the end of a stanza. − ALLEGORY – presentation of a conceptual world by means of concrete images, figures or scenes. − ASSONANCE – the repetition of vowel sounds in two or more words. − ANTICLIMAX – arranging a series of words or sentences whose power or significance gradually declines. − ONOMATOPOEIA – the imitation of sounds in a word. − ALLITERATION – repetition of the same consonants, groups of consonants at the beginning of words. − SAYING – commonly known expression which general y offers advice or wisdom. − GRADATION – a series of words, phrases or sentences that gain power or significance. − EPITHET – an adjective that is added to a noun for a more precise definition, il ustration or emphasis. − PARENTHESIS – a syntactical insert or part of a sentence inserted into the primary sentence. − EXCLAMATION – a strong experience of feeling that is noted at the end by an exclamation mark. 30 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. NOTES RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler Literary Tourism and Interpretation in Tourism Literary tourism is one of the tools which by designing imaginative cultural programmes enables the upgrading and improvement of the services and image of a destination, distinguishing it from other destinations and improving the tourist experience (Carson et al., 2017; Potočnik Topler, 2020). There are many definitions of literary tourism, but very simply this type of tourism could be defined as a sub-type of cultural and heritage tourism associated with literature, be it through visiting locations associated with literary figures, authors or their works or by visiting locations for one’s own literary creation. Many places that have become attractive to tourists precisely due to their association with literature or because of this are linked to famous writers (Potočnik Topler, 2020): e.g. 1) Venice, where William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) set his comedy The Merchant of Venice; 2) Verona, which draws tourists with its setting for Shakespeare’s tragedy Romeo and Juliet; 3) among Shakespeare’s locations we include Stratford upon Avon in Britain, where the great writer was born and where today among its more prominent features are William Shakespeare’s birth house and the family house of Anne Hathaway, Shakespeare’s wife; 32 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. 4) equaly there are important links to Shakespeare in London (for instance the Elizabethan Globe Theatre, founded in 1599 by Shakespeare’s theatrical company) and 5) Paris, home to the famous bookshop Shakespeare and Company. 6) Vienna has associations with the literary figures Franz Kafka (1883 – 1924), Johann Nestroy (1801 – 1862), Ingeborg Bachmann (1926 – 1973), Arthur Schnitzler (1862 – 1931) and the Nobel laureate Elfriede Jelinek (1946-). A lot about this and about other Austrian writers who shaped the Austrian literary landscape from the end of the 18th century to the present day can be learned at the Literature Museum (Literaturmuseum) in Vienna, where the exhibits include the walking stick of another Austrian (with a Slovenian mother) Nobel laureate in literature, Peter Handke (1942 -) (https://www.onb.ac.at/museen/literaturmuseum). 7) A literature museum that presents Hungary’s classical and modern literary heritage has also drawn visitors to that country’s capital city of Budapest since 1954. That museum bears the name of the Hungarian writer Sandor Petőfi (1823 – 1849) (https://pim.hu/en). 8) In Croatia, the literary heritage is presented in several large and also small museums, as in Slovenia, and information on individual museums and writers, such as Miroslav Krleža (1893 – 1981), Vladimir Nazor (1876 – 1949), August Šenoa (1838 – 1881) and many other lesser known authors is accessible on a website specifically for literary heritage in museums (in Croatian Književna baština u muzejima) (http://kbm.mdc.hr/). 9) In the Montenegrin town of Herceg Novi, the house that writer Ivo Andrić built for his wife and himself has been converted into a museum devoted to the Nobel Prize winner. These examples of course represent only a handful of authors and serve as an il ustration that literature and tourism can be tied together, and using literary heritage it is possible to design tourist attractions, tourist products and even tourist destinations, such as Edinburgh in Scotland and Austin, Texas. The managers and creators of literary attractions can be diverse, ranging from private individuals to public museums and the custodians and curators employed there, or such attractions can also be managed by what are called DMOs (destination management organisations), which in Slovenia operate as part of individual municipalities or regions, while the Slovenian Tourist Board works for the overall development of Slovenia’s Linguistic Means in Rhetoric 33. tourism products and services (slovenia.info). In all cases it is essential to link up with experts and where it involves authors stil living, with the authors, since the prospect of meeting the author increases the attractiveness of the destination (Potočnik Topler, 2020). How do you offer an appropriate interpretation in a literary museum? 34 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. NOTES RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler Stage Fright Tips 1. Be well-presented The painstaking creation and preparation of a presentation is the best guarantee that everything will proceed as necessary. The speaker knows the central theme and the points of progress in the presentation, they have checked al the preparations and in front of them is an aide-memoire sheet. 2. Positive visualisation. Before starting, imagine that you will carry out an excellent presentation, that the audience will be enthusiastic and that you will answer their questions well. 3. Practice, practice, practice. A good speaker will have already carried out not just a few silent practices but also one or two full run-throughs, in which they will have made the presentation exactly as given later to the audience: standing, out loud, with illustrations. 36 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. 4. Breathing. Due to anxiety, an inexperienced speaker’s breathing becomes shal ow, they increasingly lack air and feel increasingly worse. For this reason an experienced speaker, right before speaking and unseen by everyone else there, takes a few deep breaths in and out, building up a store of oxygen for the first few moments. This helps them feel better. 5. Everything is OK. The speaker consciously shakes off thoughts of anxiety and nerves. Each time they breathe in, they say to themselves “Everything...”, and then on breathing out they say “is OK”, thereby driving out al other thoughts and focusing. After a dozen breaths, in a minute or two, they become calm. They are aware that in truth “everything is ok”. 6. Relaxation. When people are anxious, their muscles tense up, their breathing is shal ow and their hands shake. Many speakers get over this with a minute of hidden physical workout. Consciously, and in proper sequence, they tense and relax muscles, first in the feet, then the calves, thighs, stomach, chest, arms, the back of the neck, invisibly tensing and relaxing. No one sees this, but it helps. 7. Movement. At the start of their presentation, the beginner digs in behind the lectern, clings to it spasmodically and hides behind it so as few people as possible will see them. No way! The speaker must step out in front of people, always give themselves enough space to step in any direction, and move their arms and legs naturally. This releases tension and gives a natural impression – after a few attempts this becomes a default habit. 8. Look. The beginner steps out in front of the audience and gazes off somewhere – feeling anxious – as if to say “They’re looking at me!” And yes, the audience is usual y looking up pleasantly, with curiosity. Stage Fright 37. If for just a moment the speaker can get over this and make eye contact with the closest audience members, and smile at them, they will realise that everything is OK. Looking into the eyes of audience members in turn is a valuable connection point that grounds the speaker and lets them know as they speak how the words are being received. 9. Have some water. A glass of water and nothing else is of course the best way to find calm before a presentation, and never alcohol, sedatives or such things. Many speakers say that it is better to speak in public with an empty rather than full stomach. CREATIVE VISUALISATION (Gawain, 2012) The method of creative visualisation delves into the world of the infinite – to where our imagination reaches. The basis of creative visualisation is an awareness that each moment of our lives is infinitely creative and that the universe is infinitely generous in this. “Just send a suf iciently pure thought, it says, and everything your heart desires wil be fulfil ed. ” This is a technique where we use the power of our imagination to create a relaxed body, it is a conscious path through which we can create everything we truly desire with all our heart: love, joy, satisfaction, friendly relations with others, health, beauty, success, inner peace and harmony and so on. How do I motivate myself? − Begin simply: furnish your work environment with motivators, with little things, pictures, thoughts, verses and so forth. Al of this wil give you an impetus for work. − Visualise success: with your eyes closed for about 5 minutes visualise the appearance of the final result and the excellence of the process. − Plan ahead: each day, focus on your main priorities. − Surround yourself with positive people: meet up regularly with people who are positive, motivated, strong and admired. − Know yourself: make notes when you are motivated, when you feel like a superstar and when your motivation wanes. − Monitor your progress: draw up a table of activities for your projects and monitor your progress. 38 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. − Encourage yourself with a reward: a reward at the end of a project can help motivate you to complete assignments (massage, dinner with friends, excursion). − Above al , be positive. There is no more powerful ‘tool’ than a positive and proper attitude and approach in fulfilling the goals you have set. NOTES RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler Tasks and Questions for Consolidating Material What is rhetoric? Where does the word rhetoric come from and what is its original meaning? What are the main periods in the history of rhetoric? List at least three major ancient rhetoricians. Who is regarded as the founder of the theory of syllogism and argumentation in ancient rhetoric? Why is Cicero an important name in rhetoric? List a few different types of speech. What is a rhetorical circumstance? What makes up the persuasive triangle? List five steps in the preparation and execution of a speech. What is the rhetorician Demosthenes known for? What are philippics? List three famous speeches and provide reasons why they are important. What are external means of persuasion? What are internal means of persuasion? Choose one and describe it. What is a syllogism and what is the main means of syllogistic conclusion? What is a characteristic of good argumentation? How important are linguistic means in rhetoric? Name at least five of them and describe them. 40 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. Why do you think a knowledge of rhetoric is useful? Who in your opinion is good at rhetoric and why? Watch a television appearance of a speaker and evaluate it with substantiation. Watch a theatre performance and discuss it with substantiation. What should be included in thorough preparation for public speaking? What is hate speech? What does literary tourism cover? List some examples of literary destinations and substantiate your selection. Why is interpretation important in tourism? NOTES RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS WORK SHEETS J. Potočnik Topler References Aristotle. (2011). Retorika, Ars rhetorica. Ljubljana: Gorenjski tisk. Carson, S., Hawkes, L., Gislason, K., Cantrell, K. (2017). Literature, tourism and the city: writing and cultural change, Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 15, 4, 380-392, DOI: 10.1080/14766825.2016.1165237. Cialdini, R. (2015). Vpliv, Psihologija prepričevanja. Ljubljana: Umco. Gawain, S. (2012). Ustvarjalna vizualizacija: uporabite moč svoje domišljije in ustvarite, kar si v življenju želite. Ljubljana: Alpha center. Gorenak, M., and Potočnik Topler, J. (2016). The Power of Words at Mega-Event Opening Ceremonies. Tourism Culture & Communication. year 16, No. 3, pp. 97–107. Kmecl, M. (1996). Mala literarna teorija. Ljubljana: Mihelač and Nešović. Potočnik Topler, J. (2020). Literarni turizem in priložnosti za njegov razvoj v Sloveniji: Louis Adamič - pisatelj z zgodbo, ki povezuje Slovenijo, Balkan in Združene države Amerike. 1st ed. Maribor: Univerzitetna založba Univerze. Škerlep, A. (2001). Retorične razsežnosti institucionalnega diskurza. Teorija in praksa, year 38, No. 4, pp. 543–559. Zidar Gale, T. (2007). Retorika – veščina prepričevanja: odličnost nastopanja v poslovnem svetu. Ljubljana: Planet GV. Zidar Gale, T., et al. (2011). Retorika: Uvod v govorniško veščino. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. Means of persuasion Available online at http://www.european-rhetoric.com/ethos-pathos-logos-modes-persuasion-aristotle/(july 2018). The Mehrabian rule. Ubiquity.acm.org, 2011. Available online at: https://ubiquity.acm.org/article.cfm?id=2043156 (November 2018). 42 RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS. RHETORIC FOR TOURISM BUSINESS: WORKSHEETS JASNA POTOČNIK TOPLER University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenija. E-mail: Jasna.potocnik1@um.si Abstract Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. For thousands of years, people have praised and studied it. However, the foundations of rhetorical theory were laid by the Ancient Greek Philosopher Aristotle. Throughout history, rhetoric experienced development, ascents, as well as falls. Today, we are increasingly aware of the significance of mastering this skill in a wide variety of areas, since it contributes to better reading literacy of the individual and society as a whole. One of the goals of teaching rhetoric at the faculty is to prepare the students for analysis, and more precise and accurate formulation of arguments and persuasive techniques in their everyday lives: From private conversations, through media, study situations, and the writing of professional texts. It is also intended to acquaint students with various discourses, to teach them independent, self-confident, clear, structured and critical expression of their opinions, and the formation of wel structured shorter and longer texts. The booklet contains worksheets Keywords: for tourism students of academic study programme that are meant as rhetoric, tourism, a guide to introducing rhetoric for business communication, with writing for topics such as history, genres, canons, persuasion and language at the tourism, forefront. Among other things, attention will be paid to the legal interpretation in tourism, aspects of communication. The publication is a translated and public supplemented edition of worksheets published in 2018. speaking DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-526-9 ISBN 978-961-286-526-9 Document Outline Introduction Rhetoric in Everyday Life and in Tourism What is Rhetoric? Five Steps in Preparation and Execution of a Speech How Should You Speak? Means of Persuasion Argumentation Linguistic Means in Rhetoric Literary Tourism and Interpretation in Tourism Stage Fright Tasks and Questions for Consolidating Material References