R. S. HATTEN « FOUR SEMIOTIC APPROACHES TO MUSICAL MEANING: MARKEDNESS, . UDK 78:8 1'37 Robert S. Hatten School of Music, Indiana University Fakulteta za glasbo, Univerza v Indiani Four Semiotic Approaches to Musical Meaning: Markedness, Topics, Tropes, and Gesture Štirje semiotični pristopi h glasbenemu pomenu: zaznamovanost, topičnost, tropiranje in gestičnost Ključne besede: stil, zaznamovanost, topičnost, tropiranje, gestičnost, Beethoven, Schubert POVZETEK Po kratkem pregledu razvoja glasbene semiotike v Združenih državah Amerike so predstavljeni štirje med seboj povezani pristopi, ki so rezultat mojega lastnega dela. Glasbeni pomen pri Beethovnu: zaznamovanost, korelacija in interpretacija (1994) pomeni nov pristop h razumevanju sistematske narave koreliranja med zvokom in pomenom, ki sloni na konceptu glasbenega stila, kakor sta ga izoblikovala Rosen (1972) in Meyer (1980, 1989) in kakor ga je razširil Hatten (1982). Zaznamovanost je koristno orodje za razlago asimetričnega vrednotenja glasbenih nasprotij in načinov njihovega prenosa na področje kulturnih nasprotij. Ta process koreliranja, ki je sicer zakodiran v stilu, je možno razvijati naprej po Pierceovih smernicah, in sicer z interpretacijo, kakor je v razpravi hermenevtično razloženo. Pri topičnosti, kakor jo je razdelal Rattner (1980) in so jo naprej razvili Allanbrook (1983), Agawu (1991) in Monelle (2000) gre za večje stilne tipe s stabilnimi korelacijami in ffeksibilnimi interpretativnimi Keywords: style, markedness, topic, trope, gesture, Beethoven, Schubert SUMMARY After a brief survey of music semiotic developments in the United States, I present four interrelated approaches based on my own work. Musical Meaning in Beethoven: Markedness, Correlation, and Interpretation (1994) presents a new approach to understanding the systematic nature of correlation between sound and meaning, based on a concept of musical style drawn from Rosen (1972) and Meyer (1980, 1989), and expanded in Hatten (1982). Markedness is a useful tool for explaining the asymmetrical valuation of musical oppositions and their mapping onto cultural oppositions. This process of correlation as encoded in the style is further developed, along Peircean lines, by interpretation, as hermeneutically revealed in the work. Topics, elaborated by Ratner (1980) and developed by Allanbrook (1983), Agawu (1991), and Monelle (2000), are larger style types with stable correlations and flexible interpretive ranges. I extend topical analysis to the level of expressive genres, coordinated by marked oppositions. I also 5 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • M U S I CO LO G I C AL ANNUAL XXXXI / 1 dometi. Topična analiza je razširjena na raven izrazitih žanrov, ki jih koordinirajo zaznamovana nasprotja. Prav tako je ilustrirano, kako lahko kombinacije znotraj topičnosti pripeljejo do osupljivo novih pomenov, podobnih metaforam v jeziku, pri čemer je ta in tak proces poimenovan s pojmom tropiranja. Interpretacija glasbene gestičnosti, topičnosti in tropiranja: Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert (2004) razširja uporabo teh konceptov in v semiotiko uvaja teorijo glasbene gestičnosti, ki jo je razumeti kot značilno in časovno pogojeno oblikotvornost. Vsi ti semiotični pristopi so ilustrativni s primeri iz Beethovna in Schuberta. 1. Background to Music Semiotic Approaches in the United States 1.1. Wilson Coker A brief history of semiotic approaches to music in the United States1 might begin with an early book by Wilson Coker entitled Music and Meaning: A Theoretical Introduciion to Musical Aesthetics (1972)r Here we find an introduction to the Peircean categories of icon, index, and symbol, as filtered through the work of Charles Morris (1946, 1964).3 Morris expands Peirce's triadic conception of the sign process-sign vehicle, object, and interpretant-into five relationships betraying a somewhat behavioralist slant: sign (stimulus), interpreter (organism), interprétant (disposition to respond), signification (object or event), and context (conditions). Coker coins the terms congeneric and extrageneric to distinguish "internal" music-structural meaning from "external" music-cultural meaning, but he offers little explanation of the mediation between the two. His usage thus parallels Roman Jakobson's opposition between introversive and extroversive meaning, which would later be adopted by V. Kofi Agawu in his blending of introversive Schenkerian voice-leading with extroversive topical identification, in Playing with Signs (1990). ' Interestingly, Coker places his semiosis within the framework of a musical gesture, as inspired by the ideas of social scientist George Mead on gestural communication in society.' But despite the ambition of his theoretical scope, Coker's 1 For a broader overview of developments in music semiotics through the mid-nineties, see Hallen, "Music Theory and General Semiotics: A Creative Interaction," in Hi-Fiues: A Trip to Semiotics, ed. Roherta Kevelson (New York and Bern: Peter Lang, 1998), 71-84. 2 New York: Free Press. 3 Morris, Signs, Language, and Behavior (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1946), and Signification and Significance (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1964); Peirce, Cotiected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, vols. 1-6, Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss, eds.; vols. 7-8, Arthur W. Burks, ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1931 and I960). A new critical edition of Peirce is in progress under the guidance of Nathan Houser at Indiana University/Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI). A Jakobson. "Language in Relation to Other Communication Systems," in Selected Writings, Vol. 2 (The Hague: Mouton, 1971), 704-5, cited in Agawu, Playing with Signs (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 23. 5 George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self and Society, ed. Charles W. Morris (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1934)) and V.K Philosophy of the Act, ed. Charles W. Morris, et al. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1938). 6 illustrate how topics may be combined to produce striking new meanings akin to metaphor in language, a process I call musical troping. Interpreting Musical Gestures, ,opics, ana Tropes: Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert (2004) expands the application of these concepts, and introduces a semiotic theory musical gesture, understood as significant energetic shaping through time. I illustrate these semiotic approaches with examples from Beethoven and Schubert. R. S. HATTEN » FOUR SEMIOTIC APPROACHES TO MUSICAL MEANING: MARKEDNESS, ... application to musical examples is somewhat disappointing, amounting to isolated exemplifications of each type of sign. In going against the prevailing tide of formalism in American music analysis in the early seventies, Coker's innovative work made little impression. 1.2. Jean-Jacques Nattiez Three years after Coker's book, the French-Canadian Jean-Jacques Nattiez's Fondements d'une sémiologie de la musique (1975) offered a semiotic approach based on an outdated linguistic model (both taxonomic and distributional) that featured structuralist (paradigmatic and syntagmatic) analysis of a so-called neutral level, to insure rigor and objectivity prior to interpretation of meaning for composer (potetique) or listener (esthésique).6 This value-neutral analytical approach was critiqued by David Lidov and myself, among others, and although a later version attempted to move beyond the bald proposal of a neutral level, Nattiez's analytical methods did not have as significant an impact in the United States as it would several years later in England.7 1.3- Raymond Monelle In 1992 Raymond Monelle's Linguistics and Semiotics in Music was the first book-length English language survey of international developments, but it was not until the publication by Princeton University Press of The Sense of Music in 1999 that Monelle's historically grounded yet theoretically postmodern theories became better known.8 Monelle critiques Leonard Ratner's (1980) inventory 18lh-century topics, urging further historical research into each topic.9 As for interpreting topics (which was largely missing in Agawu's account), Monelle emphasizes the indexicality of the icon-in order words, the cultural connotations of objects that are represented in music by similarity (e.g., a fanfare, a march). Monelle also offers a more deconstructive approach to interpreting narrative and genre, going beyond the groundbreaking proto-semiotic work of Anthony Newcomb in the American journal 19"'-Century Music}0 I should also mention Carolyn Abbate's well-known critique of narrativity in Unsung Voices (1991).n 1.4. David Lidov Meanwhile, David Lidov, an American who adopted Canadian citizenship early in his career, was steadily publishing brilliant theoretical ideas in semiotic journals, and his occasional presentations at the Society for Music Theory were always well-received. In 1999 his Elements of Semiotics appeared, and although it primarily offers a philosophical perspective on semiotic theory, two late chapters are dedicated to music and musical gesture.12 The recent publication of Lidov's collected essays, Ls Language a Music? (2005) should enable a better appreciation of 6 Nattiez, Fondements d'une sémiologie tie la musique (Paris: Union générale d'éditions, 1975). Lidov, Nattiez's Semiotics of Music," The Canadian Journal of Research in Semiotics 5 (1978), 13-54; Hatten, Review of Nattiez, Fondements d'une sémiologie de la musique, Semiotica 31 (1980), 139-55; Nattiez, Musicologie générale et sémiologie (.Pans: Bourgeois, 1987), rev. as Music and Discourse: Towards a Semiology ofMusic, trans. Carolyn Abbate (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). The British journal Music Analysis launched its first volume in 1982 with a translation of Nattiez's lengthy article, "Varese's 'Density 21.5': A Study in Semiological Analysis" (Music Analysis 1, 243-340). K Monelle, The Sense of Music (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000). '' Kamer, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer, 1980). 10 Newcomb, "Once More 'Between Absolute and Program Music': Schumann's Second Symphony," 19''-Cenlury Music 7:3 (1984), 233-50, and "Schumann and Late Eighteenth-Century Narrative Strategies," I9h-Century Music 11:2 (1987), 164-74. ' ' Abbate, Vnsung Voices: Opera and Musical Narrative in the Nineteenth Century. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991). '- Lidov. Fletnents of Semiotics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999). 7 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK « M U S I C O LO G I C A L ANNUAL XXXXI / 1 his extensive contributions to music semiotic theory and interpretation, including musical gesture.13 1.5. Eero Tarasti The Finnish musicologist Eero Tarasti's English-language dissertation, published as Myth and Music (1978) received some early notice, and his tireless organization of international conferences would eventually make its mark in the United States, especially after the publication of his major theoretical statement, A Theory of Musical Semiotics in 1994.H Tarasti's (and Marta Grabócz's) approach to meaning and narrativity draws on the structural semantics of Greimas, whose semiotic square and modalities still confuse music theorists in the United States, despite a helpful account in English by David Lidov.^ A forthcoming book by Byron Almén on narrativity in music fully credits Tarasti's contribution, and further draws on interdisciplinary inspiration-the four narrative archetypes of Northrop Frye (Romance, Tragedy, Irony, Comedy)-and myth-here, the notion of a basic order upset by transgression and leading to alternate outcomes, as developed by James Jakob Liszka.16 1.6. Robert S. Hatten My own Musical Meaning in Beethoven (1994) appeared the same year as Tarasti's A Theory of Musical Semiotics, and in the same series, "Advances in Semiotics," edited by Thomas A. Sebeok at Indiana University Press. Although it was well-received, much of my work prior to that date languished in semiotic publications that were not generally read by American theorists. Slow publication schedules further delayed its reception. For example, I first enunciated my theory of musical troping at the 1988 musical signification conference in Helsinki, but the subsequent article appeared only seven years later, in 1995.17 The year 2004 marked the launch of my new book series, "Musical Meaning and Interpretation," at Indiana University Press. This series recaptures the momentum of Sebeok's "Advances in Semiotics," which had issued the late Australian musicologist Naomi Cumming's The Sonic Self (2000) before closing down a year prior to Sebeok's own death in 2001.18 Musical Meaning in Beethoven, which had just gone out of print, was reissued in paperback to 11 I.itlov, IsLanguagca/l/Hsic/'tBloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005). David Lidov, Bill Dougherty, and ! formed the nucleus of music semioticians presenting at yearly meetings of the Semiotic Society of America in the 80s and 90s, with Gayle Henrotte and David Schwarz also contributing early on. This interdisciplinary society provided an important outlet until the (American) Society for Music Theory began accepting more music semiotic papers in the 90s. Michael Shapiro also conducted an NEH summer seminar in Peircean theory that included music theorists and led to live volumes of The Peivce Seminar Pa/X'rs. See, for example, William P. Dougherty, "The Play of Interprétants: A Peircean Approach to Beethovens Lieder," The Peirce Seminar Paliers: An Annual o/Sewiolic Analysis 1 (Providence. R.I.. and Oxford: Berg 1993). 67-95. 1 ' Tarasti, Myth and Music: A Semiotic Approach to the Aesthetics of Myth in Music, especially that of Wagner, Silx'lilts and .SVwrm.sjkr(Helsinkii Suomen Musiikkitieteellinen Seura, 1978): Hatten, "Myth in Music: Deep Structure or Surface Evocation?" [review-article, Tarasti, Myth and Music], Semiotica 30: 3/4 (1980), 345-58; Tarasti, A Theory of Musical Semiotics (Bloomington: indiana University Press, 1994). Prof. Tarasti received an honorary doctorate from Indiana University in 1999, where his work was also studied by my colleagues Profs. Lewis Rowell and Marianne Kielian-Gilbert, who have also traveled to lecture in Finland. '^ Grabócz, Morphologie des oeiil'res pour piano de Liszt: Influence du programme sur l'évolution desformes instrumentales, preface by Charles Rosen (Paris: Éditions Kimé, 1996; first edition, Budapest: MTA Zenetudomanyi Intézet, 1986); Lidov, "Musical Semiotics-Science, Letters, or Art?" [review-article, Tarasti (1994), Grabócz (1996), and Monelle (an early version of 2000), Integral 10 (1996), 125-53. "' Almén, A Theory of Musical Narrative (la appear, Indiana University Press); Frye, Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957); Liszka, The Semiotic of Myth: A Critical Study ofthe Symbol (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989). 17 Hauen, "Metaphor in Music," in Musical Sigtiificaiion: lissavs in the Semiotic Theory and Analysis of Music, ed. Eero Tarasti (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995), 373-91. 1H Gumming, 7he Sonic Self: Musical Subjectit'ity and Siguification 1 1loomington: :ndiana aniversity yress, 2000). 8 R. S. HATTEN » FOUR SEMIOTIC APPROACHES TO MUSICAL MEANING: MARKEDNESS, ... accompany publication of my new book, Inteipreiing Musical Gesture, Topics, and Tropes (2004).19 1.7. Music semiotics and postmodern musicology Interest among American musicologists as well as theorists has grown enormously in the past decade, which suggests that the field of musical meaning-not limited to music semiotics-is finally on everyone's map in the United States. Given the new-musicological "revolution," which has paralleled the growth of music semiotics (see especially the work of Susan McClary, Carolyn Abbate, and Lawrence Kramer), this is not surprising. Indeed, there is considerable overlap today between American musicologists and theorists interested in problems of meaning and interpretation.20 Two of the books to appear in my book series are by musicologists (as opposed to music theorists), and new-musicological concerns such as gender are being addressed.21 Popular music has enriched the series, as well, with a recent book on Neil Young by one of Lidov's former students, William Echard (2005).22 His study draws on Lidov's and my own approaches to gesture, and echoes new-musicological concerns with embodiment. One might conclude that music semiotics is becoming known at the same time it is being assimilated into a richer scholarly mainstream, and purely semiotic methods have been enriched by a wide range of approaches. 2. Hatten's Theories of Musical Meaning (1982-2004) 2.1. Toward a concept of musical style My dissertation, "Toward a Semiotic Model of Style in Music" (1982)23 was inspired in part by the model of Rosen's The Classical Style (1972)2'1 and partly influenced by Leonard B. Meyer's own ground-breaking work on the problem of style (1979, 1989).25 A difficult problem in recuperating style was the negative connotation attached to "style analysis." Style analysis at that time emphasized mere labeling or comparison according to common "stylistic traits," instead of probing into the unique character and formal/expressive strategies of a work. With Joseph Kerman's (1965) promotion of criticism, style analysis appeared out of fashion as mere comparative or taxonomic analysis.26 It was important to reconceive an approach to reconstructing styles as competencies, akin to the competency of a grammar, but including a poetics, as well. My more flexible model of style, exemplified to some degree by Charles Rosen, would enable the theorist to explain a unique event as perhaps atypical, but not necessarily anomalous, since it could be understood as a unique realization of a shared stylistic principle. Thus, a concept of style could embrace the full range of artistic creativity, without ' Hatten, Inter/jretiitg Musical Gestures, Topics, and Tropes: Mozart, lìeelboeett, Schultert (Bloominglon: Indiana University Press, 2004). -" McClary, Feminine Endings: Music, Gender, and Sexuality (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991; reprinted with a new introduction, 2001); Kramer, Music as Cultural Practice. WOO-1900, Classical Music and Postmodern Knowledge; and Musical Meaning: Toward a Critical History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990, 1995, and 2002, respectively). -' See Naomi André, Voicing Gender: Castrati, Trctivsti, and the Second Woman in Early Nineteenth-Cenluty Italian Opera (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, to appear, 2006). -- Echard, Neil Young and the Poetics of Energy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005). 1!< Halten, "Toward a Semiotic Model of Style in Music: Epistemologica! and Methodological Bases," unpub. Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1982. J' Rosen, The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven (New York: W. W. Norton, 1972). -s Meyer, "Toward a Theory of Style," in The Concept of Style, ed. Berel Lang (Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979, 3-44), which became the first chapter of Style and Music: Theoiy, History, and Ideology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989). i(l Kerman, "A Profile for American Musicology," foumal of the American Musicoiogical Society 18 (19965), 61-69, reprinted in Write All these Doirn: E'isays on Music (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 3-11. y MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • M U S I C O LO G I C AL ANNUAL XXXXI / 1 being relegated to mere inventory. The emphasis on rules and constraints could be balanced with hierarchical and strategic potential, including Meyer's insight into implications that might be delayed, deferred, and only distantly realized. 2.2. Marked musical oppositions 2.2.1. A lengthy footnote in chapter 6 of my dissertation was devoted to the concept of markedness, a concept applied to phonology by Nicholas Trubetzkoy, to linguistic case structure by Roman Jakobson, and to poetics by my own mentor, Michael Shapiro.27 This £4* • IlJlllv/l tragic major nontragic HIGH MAJOR MINOR TRAGIC \à r (marked) b. MIDDLE LOW COMIC [nontragic] (unmarked) Figure la. Correlation (literal mapping of signification). Figure lb. Expressive oppositional field as defined by a matrix of structural oppositions for the Classical style. Trubetzkoy, Principles of Phonology, trans. Christine A. M. Baltuxc (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969 [1939)); Jakobson, lissais de linguistique générale (Paris: Minuit, 1963); Shapiro, Asymmetry: An Inquiry into the Linguistic Stttrclure of Poetry' (Amsterdam: North Holland, 1976), and ïhe Sense of Grammar (liloominglon: Indiana University Press, 1983)- 10 R. S. HATTEN • FOUR SEMIOTIC APPROACHES TO MUSICAL MEANING: MARKEDNESS, ... concept was the seed leading to Musical Meaning in Beethoven, and it enabled me to move from my dissertation's more conservative orientation toward "meaningful syntax" to a more fully committed semiotic approach to expressive meaning. Markedness theory could explain how oppositions in musical structure, when incorporated into a musical style, were asymmetrical-one term marked and the other unmarked-and how marked oppositions could not only help account for the structure of meaning, but also its growth or development in a style. 2.2.2. As an example, consider the use of minor mode in the Classical style (see Figure 1). Minor is marked with respect to major, hence (1) it has a smaller distribution, (2) it has a narrower range of meaning, and (3) the marked-unmarked opposition in structure maps onto a similarly marked opposition in the realm of cultural meaning. Thus, minor mode works (1) occur less frequently than major mode works, (2) map onto a more specific realm of meaning-"tragic," as opposed to the unmarked major's wider range of meaning-"non-tragic," which embraces the heroic, the comic, and the pastoral. Furthermore, (3) this meaning is systematically motivated by the ccurelation between two oppositions-i.e., the mapping shares similar structure (it is isomorphic, or what the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce termed diagrammatic). And (4) the process by which meaning grows (and thus style grows) follows markedness principles, in that new meaning is "carved out" of old categories by the creation of a new oppositional distinction. This new feature may subdivide, or further "articulate," a previously marked category into another marked-unmarked pair, by asymmetrically opposing those members possessing that feature with those lacking it. In Figure 2 we see how Beethoven further articulates the meaning of a final major tonic triad, based on unique doubling with extra thirds and no fifths. The marked ("atypical") doubling has the effect of a "sweeter" close than the unmarked ("normal") doubling, akin to a Picardy-third effect in the major mode. type: functional tonic triad | Tokens: (range of doubling variation among root position tonics is shown here). usual î>3>3 type: functional tonic triad I third omitted I type: functional tonic triad fifth omitted marked marked all other tonic triad tokens unmarked Figure 2. Derivation of new style types based on opposilionally marked doublings of tonic triad in final cadence. 11 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • M U S I C O LO G I C A L ANNUAL XXXXI / 1 2.3. Expressive genres Another contribution of Musical Meaning in Beethoven was to explore oppositions at all levels of structure, including expressive genres, which I defined as those dramatic trajectories that encompass changes of expressive state, and which are not limited to a single formal genre. For example, Beethoven might use the tragic-to-transcendent expressive genre for a single sonata-form movement (the slow movement of the "Hammerklavier," Op. IO6), a fugue (the first movement of Op. 131), a pair of movements (Op. Ill), or an alternating arioso and fugai movement (the finale of Op. 110). How might these broader fields of meaning be oppositionally defined? A simple matrix of major vs. minor mode, cross-referenced against high vs. middle vs. low style, is sufficient to differentiate several of the broader fields such expressive genres might traverse (see Figure 3). And not surprisingly, those fields are clearly affiliated with topics, which provide further characteristic specificity. a. HIGH MIDDLE LOW MAJOR MINOR Religious Drama TRANSCENDENTS (suffering) TRIUMPHANTS- -TRAGIC (pathos) | Heroic Epic b. MAJOR MINOR HIGH Spiritual Grace (serenity) MIDDLE Graceful (sincerity, elegance) — Pastoral LOW Graceless (rusticity) Figure 3d- Archetypal expressive genres and their relative stylistic registers. Figure 3b. The pastoral as inteipreted in high, middle, and low styles. 12 R. S. HATTEN « FOUR SEMIOTIC APPROACHES TO MUSICAL MEANING: MARKEDNESS, ... 2.4. Topics Topics, introduced by Leonard Ratner (1980) and further developed by Allanbrook (1983, 1992), Agawu (1991), and Monelle (2000), as well as in my own work (1994, 2004) are larger style types with stable correlations and flexible interpretive ranges.28 They consist of not just one but typically a bundle of oppositional distinctions. Manifestations of topics-their compositional tokens-need not include all the characteristic features defined by the type, but they must at least contain features that are sufficiently distinctive to cue recognition of the type. As Wittgenstein argued, concepts such as "game" lack a single feature common to all instances, but games can be recognized according to certain "family resemblances" which are not clearly defined.29 A similar flexibility can be claimed for music; my interest at this point, however, was in clarifying the oppositional structure that kept my broad topical fields distinct-in other words, explaining the coherence of the signifying system. 2.5. Troping Although markedness provided an effective explanation for one type of growth in meaning, that by which a given category is further articulated, I was also intrigued by the possibility that something like metaphor might be operative in music. In Musical Meaning in Beethoven I was concerned to explain an indigenous form of metaphor, achieved by musical means, which could then be opposed to more literal correlations between sound and meaning. Links between sound and cultural meaning have been considered by cognitive theorists as metaphors since they involved a mapping between two domains. In common linguistic usage, however, the term metaphor is generally reserved for those figurai uses of language that have creative power, that create a new fusion of meaning, and that require interpretive unpacking, not merely recognition, as in the case of familiar topics and their correlations. In my 1988 paper (Hatten 1995) I specified ways in which the merging of two musical topics could aspire to the condition of inherently musical metaphor, as one species of troping. Example 1 illustrates how, in the Example 1. Beethoven, Piano Sonata in A Major, Op. 101, finale, opening theme. 1H Allanbrook, Rhythmic Gesiare in Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 1983; "Two Threads through the Labyrinth: Topic and Process in the First Movements of K. 332 and K. 333/ in Convention in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Music: Vssays in Honor of Leonard G. Ratner, ed. Wye J. Allanbrook, Janet M. Levy, and William P. Mahrl (Stuyvesant, N.Y.: Prendragon Press, 1992), 125-71. -' Wittgenstein, 'Ihe lilac and llnnt'tl Bt>oks (New York: Harper