SOIL DEGRADATION THREAT TO SLOVENIA's LANDSCAPES OGROŽENOSTI SLOVENSKIH POKRAJIN ZARADI DEGRADACIJE PRSTI Blaž Repe Soil degradation due to the urban land use (photography Blaž Repe). Degradacija prsti kot posledica urbane rabe tal (fotografija Blaž Repe) Abstract UDC: 911.2:631.4(497.4) 504.05:631.4(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 Soil Degradation Threat to Slovenia's Landscapes KEY WORDS: pedogeography, GLASOD methodology, soil degradation, ecology, Slovenia. Due to the past trends in the development of Slovenia, especially after the second world war, one can certainly expect some kind of degradation of Slovene landscape and consequently its soils. Soils are among less researched components of Slovene environment, which results in relatively poor quantity and quality of available data. Studying soil degradation has been performed using GLASOD (Global Assessment of Soil Degradation) methodology, which has not been introduced in Slovenia, in terms of researching. Methodology is based upon recognising a degree of soil degradation of chosen land unit. Degree is determined through combining soil degradation severity and extent of soil degradation. Every unit had been studied in sense of soil degradation. Three main types soil degradation had been chosen: water erosion, pollution of soils with heavy metals and loss of fertile soil through elimination from natural environment. In order to determine each degradation standard methods had been used, but were modified for specific Slovene circumstances. GLASOD methodology was successfully introduced to Slovene researching but better and quantitative results are not yet possible to obtain because of the lack of data. 504.05:631.4(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 Ogroženosti slovenskih pokrajin zaradi degradacije prsti KLJUČNE BESEDE: pedogeografija, GLASOD metodologija, degradacija prsti, ekologija, Slovenija. Zaradi preteklih razvojnih trendov, ki so, predvsem po drugi svetovni vojni, narekovali razvoj Slovenije, lahko upravi~eno pri~akujemo dolo~eno stopnjo degradiranosti slovenskih pokrajin in s tem tudi njenih prsti. Prsti spadajo med tiste pokrajinske komponente, ki so slab{e prou~ene. Prou~evanje degradacije prsti smo se lotili s pomočjo GLASOD (Global Assessment of Soil Degradation) metodologije, ki do sedaj, pri nas {e ni bila uporabljena. Metoda temelji na prepoznavanju stopnje ogroženosti pokrajinske enote zaradi degradacije prsti, na podlagi razširjenosti degradacije in stopnje degradiranosti prsti. Za vsako enoto smo ugotavljali ogroženost prsti zaradi vodne erozije prsti, onesnaževanja prsti s težkimi kovinami in izločitve prsti iz naravnega okolja, pri čemer smo uporabili uveljavljene metode, prilagojene slovenskim razmeram. GLASOD metodologijo smo uspešno prenesli v slovenski prostor, vendar nam za boljše in konkretne rezultate primanjkuje podatkov. The editiorialship received this paper for publishing in August 20th 2002. Prispevek je prispel v uredništvo 20 avgusta 2002. Izvleček UDK: 911.2:631.4(497.4) Contents - Vsebina 1 Introduction 103 2 Soil degradation 103 2.1 Water (soil) erosion 103 2.2 Soil pollution 104 2.3 Removal of soil from the natural environment 104 3 The GLASOD methodology 105 4 Soil degradation threat to Slovenia's landscapes 108 4.1 Research area 108 4.2 Water erosion threat to Slovenia's landscapes 108 4.3 Heavy metal pollution threat to Slovenia's landscapes 110 4.4 Threat to Slovenia's landscapes by the removal of soil from the natural environment 111 4.5 The GLASOD methodology- conclusion 112 5 Bibliography 113 6 Summary in Slovene - Povzetek 115 Address - Naslov: Blaž Repe Department of Geography Faculty of Arts Aškrceva 2 SI - 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia - Slovenija Phone- telefon: +386(1) 2411240 E-mail - el. pošta: blaz.repe@ff.uni-lj.si 1 Introduction In contrast to many other environmental problems, soil degradation is a very old phenomenon. Throughout history, man has changed the properties and nature of soil, and his existence has depended on soil fertility. The changes man induced sometimes benefited soil conditions and were good for crop growth. Unfortunately, inappropriate soil management and farming practices also led quite frequently to soil degradation. Soil can be degraded in many ways. However, not all types of soil degradation can be found in Slovenia, or their significance is of less importance (wind erosion, salinization) compared to other types. An important feature of soil degradation research in Slovenia is its emphasis on pollution recognition in highly degraded, small, localized areas. Understandably, these areas should receive as much attention as possible since they require quick and effective measures of remediation (Repe 2002). 2 Soil degradation Soil degradation is directly related to soil quality. Both terms are clearly subjective and anthropocen-tric, which indicates the clear connection between soil properties and man's present or future land/soil use. In terms of nature, every type of soil has its role in the ecosystem and every soil is fertile, this being its main characteristic (Repe 2002). The role of soil is closely linked to its functions (Council of Europe 1990): a) Natural functions: • production of biomass, providing nutrients, (partly renewable) source of energy and minerals, • filtering, storage, transformation, buffering, and neutralization of matter and energy, • biodiversity. b) Social functions: • physical media, • source of raw materials, • natural and cultural heritage. Soil degradation is a result of the loss or the domination of one or more of these functions (Blum 1988) and is an anthropogenic process that reduces the present and future capability of soil to support life on earth (Oldeman et al. 1991). 2.1 Water (soil) erosion Water erosion is a process that begins with particle removal from the topsoil and the deposition of removed material some distance away. The result is a poorer, less fertile, and more skeletal soil. Degradation continues with rill and gully formation (removal of vegetation, impassable landscapes) and ultimately the complete removal of topsoil and subsoil. Extremely high agrarian densities and pressure on fertile land forces farmers to cultivate less suitable areas. Steep slopes, shallow soils, high amounts of rainfall, and a lack of naturally protective vegetation cover have denuded numerous fields and vineyards down to the bedrock. Factors that influence water erosion include soil erodibility, rainfall erosivity, slope conditions, farming and soil management practices, and vegetation cover (Troeh et al. 1999). 2.2 Soil pollution One of very important characteristics of soil is its chemical composition. In nature, matter (elements, nutrients, etc.) cycles between systems (elements of the landscape), and soil represents an important storage and filter in this process. Soil is polluted when certain substances appear in forms that are not characteristic of soil and the amounts of the substances exceed the soil's buffer capacity and can not be neutralized (Leštan et al. 1997). These substances then enter plants and groundwater and therefore the food chain of animals and humans. Identifying polluted forest and farm land is based on finding soils containing hazardous substances that lower its self-remediative capability, damage its physical, chemical and biological properties, hinder and obstruct plant growth, pollute groundwater and plants, and permanently endanger soil fertility (Ur.l.RS 6/90). Among the substances that appear in Slovenia's soils, metals are the most problematic. In the natural environment they are found in very small concentrations and are also called »trace elements.« Trace elements with a density over 5 kg/dm3 receive special attention and are called »heavy metals.« Some of the metals found in soils are necessary for plant growth (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, etc.), but according to present knowledge, others are unnecessary (Pb, Hg, Cd, As, Cr, Se, etc.) (Alloway 1990). The heavy metals most studied include cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury. According to Sajn (1999), these elements show anthropogenic origins in Slovenia's soils. Specific values determine when soils are considered polluted. The criteria for the evaluation of the degree of pollution have been derived from standard values that were established in The Netherlands. The lower A (threshold, trigger) value applies to soils that are in a multifunctional and unpolluted state. Soils with contaminant levels below the A-value are considered »clean.« Soils with values between the A and B (warning) values are not »clean« in the absolute sense but do not require further action. If the B value is exceeded, more research is necessary, and depending on the type of soil and the circumstances, some remediation measures may be necessary. If the investigations reveal that the C (intervention, action) value has been exceeded, the soil in question may require clean-up measures, depending on site-specific circumstances (Moen & Brugman 1987). TABLE 1: THRESHOLD, WARNING AND INTERVENTION VALUES OF HEAVY METALS IN SLOVENIA'S SOILS. PREGLEDNICA 1: MEJNE VREDNOSTI ZA ONESNAŽENJE S TEŽKIMI KOVINAMI V PRSTEH SLOVENIJE. heavy metal threshold (A) value warning (B) value intervention (C) value (mg/kg of dry soil) (mg/kg of dry soil) (mg/kg of dry soil) cadmium 1 2 12 copper 60 100 300 lead 85 100 530 zinc 200 300 720 mercury 0.8 2 10 source: Uradni list RS, No. 68/96, pp. 5773-5774 2.3 Removal of soil from the natural environment In addition to physical and chemical degradation, the expansion of human activities onto farmland or areas with natural vegetation represents a major threat to the soils. According to Carter and Dale (1974), the priceless value of fertile soil was known to all ancient civilizations. These authors assert that soil degradation was among the main reasons for the decline and even the extinction of these civilizations. Specific land or space use removes soils from the natural environment. Soil as a fertile physical body is rarely used, but some types of land use can seriously affect soils. Herein lies the reason why this process of degradation is also known as irreversible land/soil use (Repe 2002). 1 I I 1 1 I 1 _ ■ iHoniininiii nm n ■ ■ ■ 1 ■ * ■ ■ ■ ■ . ■ ■ ■ □ ■ □ -a ■— CO -i= 0.1= percentage of natural land lost to urbanisation from the '50s to the '90s percentage of agricultural land lost to urbanisation from the '50s to the '90s urban sprawl: percentual increase in artificial area from the '50s to the '90s increase of sealed area in the period 1950s-1990s as percentage of the artificial area in the 1950s 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 % source: G.A.C.G.C, 1994 Figure 1: Loss of natural and farmland due to urbanization in selected European cities. Slika 1: Izguba naravnih in kmetijskih površin zaradi urbanizacije v nekaterih evropskih mestih. Irreversible soil use is frequently the consequence of urbanization and of land use linked to urbanization: housing, industry, infrastructure, recreation, etc. Some human encroachments such as covering areas with asphalt or concrete and dam and water reservoir construction can completely halt all natural processes in soil. Many times during major surface excavations, the entire soil layer may be removed and transferred to a different location to be brought back when the work is concluded. Although no harm is intended, restoring the exact previous state and the full functioning of the affected soil is impossible. Abandoned industrial areas with highly degraded soils or an absence of fertile soils remain as a sad warning of past human activities (Koželj 1998). 3 The GLASOD methodology Slovenia belongs to the Central Europe region where some of the most intensive industrialization and degradation of landscape occurred in the past. Particularly after World War II, Slovenia too took the path dictated by world and domestic economic trends. The result of this »progress« is multilayered. Some of the results were definitely positive and necessary for Slovenia's development. On the other hand, we had to face highly industrialized and degraded landscapes. According to the research (Stegnar et al. 1993; Souvent 1994; Štrbenk, Salej 1994; Lobnik et al. 1994; Zupan et al. 1996; 7. Leštan et al. 1997; Šajn et al. 1998, Špes 1998; Svetina et al. 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000), degraded soils can be found in these areas, and many authors describe situations for which there is no remedy. As in the rest of the world, soil degradation research in Slovenia was previously limited to individual landscapes, regions, sites, etc., but this is no longer the case. Since 1991, an estimate and a map of soil degradation have been available for the entire world (Oldeman 1991). From this work we also gained the generally recognized GLASOD (Global Assessment of Soil Degradation) methodology that enables better and more extensive soil degradation research. Although soil degradation is an old, widespread, and serious problem, very little was known about its geographical distribution. The need for this type of research was brought up by UNEP (United Nations Environment Program) in 1987. A year later UNEP initiated the GLASOD project, which produced its first result in 1991: the 1:1,500,000-scale World Map of the Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation (Oldeman 1991). The map itself does not contain quantitative data but does provide information about the level and distribution of soil degradation on the global level. TABLE 2: GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF SOIL DEGRADATION BY REGIONS AND LAND USE. PREGLEDNICA 2: SVETOVNA OCENA DEGRADACIJE PRSTI PO REGIJAH IN GLEDE NA RABO TAL. land use agricultural land permanent pastures forests and woodlands all used land total degraded % total degraded % total degraded % total degraded % region [million hectares] [million hectares] [million hectares] [million hectares] Africa 187 121 65 793 243 31 683 130 19 1,663 494 30 Asia 536 206 38 978 197 20 1,273 344 27 2,787 747 27 South America 142 64 45 478 68 14 896 112 13 1,516 244 16 Central America 38 28 74 94 10 11 66 25 38 198 63 32 North America 236 63 26 274 29 11 621 4 1 1,131 96 9 Europe 287 72 25 156 54 35 353 92 26 796 218 27 Oceania 9 8 16 439 84 19 156 12 8 644 104 17 World 1,475 562 38 3,212 685 21 4,048 719 18 8,735 1,966 23 source: Oldeman 1991 TABLE 3: CAUSATIVE FACTORS FOR SOIL DEGRADATION BY REGIONS. PREGLEDNICA 3: VZROČNI FAKTORJI DEGRADACIJE PRSTI PO KONTINENTIH. region deforestation over exploitation overgrazing (million hectares) farming (bio) industrial activity Africa 67 63 243 121 + Asia 298 46 197 204 1 South America 100 12 68 64 - Central America 14 11 9 28 + North America 4 -29 63 + Europe 84 1 50 64 21 Oceania 12 -83 8 + World 579 133 679 552 23 source: Oldeman 1991 Determining homogenous units (soil, relief, climate, vegetation, land use) was the first step toward creating the map. The next step was the recognition of types of degradation, the level of degradation, and its distribution. Degradation types 1. Water erosion 2. Wind erosion 3. Chemical degradation • Pollution • Salinization Degrees of soil degradation 1. Light: There has been only a small decline in agricultural productivity. Biotic functions are largely intact. Soils can be fully restored with changes in ongoing land use practices. 2. Moderate: Still permits continuing agricultural use of an area, but with greatly reduced productivity. Biotic functions are only partly destroyed. Restoration is possible with major changes in land use practices. 4. Physical degradation • Compaction • Waterlogging • Shrinking of organic soils 5. No degradation 3. Strong: Agricultural use under local land use management is no longer possible and most biotic functions have been destroyed. Restoration is possible, but at a high cost. 4. Extreme: The area has become unsuitable for agriculture and is beyond restoration. Biotic functions are completely destroyed. Relative distribution of degradation type within the unit: 1. Infrequent: up to 5% of the unit is affected, 2. Common: 6%-10% of the unit is affected, 3. Frequent: 11%-25% of the unit is affected, 4. Very frequent: 26%-50% of the unit is affected, 5. Dominant: more than 50% of the unit is affected. Level of degradation threat to a landscape unit The level of degradation threat to a landscape unit is calculated as a combination of the degree and relative distribution of the degradation and is divided into five classes: 1. -/no threat, 2. light threat, 3. moderate threat, 4. strong threat, and 5. extreme threat. As the diagram (Figure 2) clearly shows, this approach produces high values of threat at a high degree of degradation spread over small areas or low degrees that affect vast areas. Using this approach, the threat is deliberately stretched over an entire unit, which often results in the threat being assessed either too small or too large. We attempted to apply the GLASOD methodology to Slovene soils and modified the methodology accordingly. Only three types of degradation were taken into consideration: water erosion, pollution with heavy PERCENTAGE OF CARTOGRAPHIC UNIT AFFECTED 0 5 10 25 50 100 source: Oldeman, 1991 LJ- o ° i= J