Reboot: Should Organizations Rediscover Communication with Internal & External Stakeholders? BledCom 2022 29th International Public Relations Research Symposium July 1-2, 2022 Proceedings of the 29th International Public Relations Research Symposium BledCom EDITORS: Dejan Verčič, Ana Tkalac Verčič and Krishnamurthy Sriramesh Organized by: University of Ljubljana Faculty of Social Sciences Reboot: Should Organizations Rediscover Communication with Internal & External Stakeholders? Proceedings of the 29th International Public Relations Research Symposium BledCom July 1-2, 2022 EDITORS: Dejan Verčič Ana Tkalac Verčič Krishnamurthy Sriramesh PUBLISHED BY: University of Ljubljana Faculty of Social Sciences Kardeljeva ploščad 5 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia COPYRIGHT: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Social Sciences AVAILABLE AT: https://www.bledcom.com/ Ljubljana, 2022 Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID 135483651 ISBN 978-961-295-034-7 (PDF) CONTENTS 3 1. Editors 14 2. Authors 15 3. Paper Abstracts 35 4. Papers 162 5. Extended Abstract 289 PAPER ABSTRACTS 36 A Decade of Theoretical Frameworks in Social Media Research in Public Relations Avidar, Ruth, The Max Stern Yezreel Valley College (Israel) Roth-Cohen, Osnat, Ariel University (Israel) 38 Power of words and angry online publics: A study of discursive muscularity in networked mobilization of fan groups in China Ban, Zhuo, University of Cincinnati (USA) 40 PR Education: Reloaded. The Pandemic’s Legacy for Public Relations Teachers and Students Barlik, Jacek, University of Warsaw (Poland) 42 Adopting a network perspective for stakeholder engagement and research during Covid- 19: The case of GBV research among private sector organisations in South Africa Benecke, Dalien René, University of Johannesburg (South Africa) Davis, Corné, University of Johannesburg (South Africa) 44 Reboot: Rediscover Communication with Internal and External Stakeholders through Engagement on Social Issues Bernardino, Paula, Credibility Institute (Canada) CONTENTS 4 46 Governmental Use of Social Media and AI during Disasters, Crises, and Emergency Response Bowen, Shannon A., University of South Carolina (USA) 48 “It’s just a job” Public relations careers in the sex industry Bridgen, Elizabeth, Sheffield Hallam University (UK) 50 The impact of marketing communication strategies on online consumer-brand community engagement during COVID-19 pandemic Chan, Chun-Hsiang, Taipei Medical University (Taiwan) Wu, Shih-Chia, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) 53 All the lonely people: Considering the attributes of audiences who consume and share untruthful content Chmiel, Michal, Royal Holloway, University of London (UK) Thompson, Gareth, London College of Communication, UAL (UK) 55 Establishing ‘tacit’ support as ‘CSR risk’: The case study of Boohoo and Black Lives Matter Clarke, Faye, Pembroke and Rye (UK) Read, Kevin, University of Greenwich (UK) 57 Reboot communication job search after Covid-19 pandemic: an empirical analysis Colleoni, Elanor, Università IULM (Italy) Murtarelli, Grazia, Università IULM (Italy) Romenti, Stefania, Università IULM (Italy) 60 Analysis of the WHO’s social networking communication strategies during the COVID-19 infodemic: The consequences of managing Facebook page according to a diffusionist logic David, Marc D., Université de Sherbrooke (Canada) Carignan, Marie-Eve, Université de Sherbrooke (Canada) Champagne-Poirier, Olivier, Université de Sherbrooke (Canada) St-Pierre, Claudia, Université de Sherbrooke (Canada) CONTENTS 5 63 Role of the reflective (communication) strategist in obtaining social intelligence as part of environmental assessment: A case study of International Airport X Davids, Deidre, Cape Peninsula University of Technology (South Africa) 65 Dear COVID-19, Message from Employee Diaries: Reformulating Employee Communication with the Pandemic Görpe, Tevhide Serra, University of Sharjah (U.A.E.) Öksuz, Burcu, Izmir Katip Celebi University (Turkey) 67 Global Capability Framework in Turkey: Findings of the Delphi Study on Public Relations and Communication Profession Capabilities Görpe, Tevhide Serra, University of Sharjah (U.A.E.) Öksuz, Burcu, Izmir Katip Celebi University (Turkey) 69 The emotional toll of the Covid 19 pandemic on health communicators and its leadership effects Gregory, Anne, Huddersfield University Business School (UK) Davies, Eleanor, Huddersfield University Business School (UK) 71 Engaging Teachers through Effective Communication: Restarting the Government Communication in Education Hejlová, Denisa, Charles University (Czech Republic) Ježková, Tereza, Charles University (Czech Republic) Klabíková Rábová, Tereza, Charles University (Czech Republic) Konrádová, Marcela, Charles University (Czech Republic) Koudelková, Petra, Charles University (Czech Republic) Schneiderová, Soňa, Charles University (Czech Republic) 75 Actions speak louder than words. Though we see the same world, we see it through different eyes (Woolf, 1938, p.18) Hewson, Sinead, Webster University (The Netherlands) 77 Leading corporate communication practices for non-profit organisations in South Africa to reboot themselves and ensure purposeful communication with all stakeholders Holtzhausen, Lida, North-West University (South Africa) CONTENTS 6 79 Renewed interest in internal communication following the pandemic: How to consolidate its strategic role and meet the new demands of employees? Horlait, Déborah, Catholic University of Louvain, LASCO (Belgium) 81 It’s good for our reputation (?!) The impact of socio-political CEO communication on corporate reputation Jungblut, Marc, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (Germany) Sauter, Simon, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (Germany) 83 The Myth of Emotion-Focused Employee Crisis Communication: How Information-Focused Employee Crisis Communication Drives Post-Crisis Organization Commitment, Intent-to-Perform, and Organizational Trust in Hospitality Employees Kang, Minjeong, Indiana University (USA) 86 Typifying Personal Reputations Latif, Farah, George Mason University (USA) 88 From a VUCA to a BANI world: Has the view and practice of internal communication changed through the pandemic? Le Roux, Tanya, Bournemouth University (UK) Sutton, Lucinda B., North-West University (South Africa) 91 Internal Communication for Positive Organisational Culture Change: A Case Study Leahy, Hanna, Leeds Beckett University (UK) Tench, Ralph, Leeds Beckett University (UK) Arrigoni, Adalberto, Leeds Beckett University (UK) 94 Collecting Communicative Premium for Innovation: How Employees Recompensate Innovative Organization for Legitimation, Innovation, and Reputation Lee, Hyelim, University of Oklahoma (USA) Kim, Jeong-Nam, University of Oklahoma (USA) CONTENTS 7 96 Networked and engaged? Toward a critical framework for internal communication in the public sector Lovari, Alessandro, University of Cagliari (Italy) Materassi, Letizia, University of Florence (Italy) 98 Managing Diverse Stakeholder Expectations through Strategic Ambiguity: A Case Study of Public Sector Communication in Finland Lievonen Matias, University of Jyväskylä (Finland) Valentini, Chiara, University of Jyväskylä (Finland) Badham, Mark, University of Jyväskylä (Finland) 100 The Full-Stack Public Relations: Future-proofing communication management for stakeholder experience delivery and the digital transformation era MacKenzie, Lindsay, McMaster University (Canada) 102 The voice behavior of employees: How can their voice be the supervisors’ favorite sound Mourão, Rita, ESCS (Portugal) 104 Try before you buy: examining the relationship between communication organisations, higher education, and public relations students undertaking WIL Naqvi, Jeff, RMIT University (Australia) 106 Turnover Intentions among Millennial Public Relations Professionals in Latin America Navarro, Cristina, Gulf University for Science and Technology (Kuwait) Moreno, Ángeles, King Juan Carlos University (Spain) Fuentes, Cristina, King Juan Carlos University (Spain) 109 New challenges for the countries in external communications due to fake news blossoming Novoselova, Olga, Corvinus University of Budapest (Hungary) Ildikó Kemény, Corvinus University of Budapest (Hungary) CONTENTS 8 111 The Key to Improving ‘Team Virtuality’: Defining Internal and External Distractors of Virtual Meetings Pakozdi, Ivan, Edward Bernays University College (Croatia) Jakopović, Hrvoje, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Kanajet, Karlo, University of Zagreb (Croatia) 113 Rethinking Internal Communication between “New Normal” and “Next Normal”: An Overview of current and emerging practices Ravazzani, Silvia, Università IULM (Italy) Mazzei, Alessandra, Università IULM (Italy) Butera, Alfonsa, Università IULM (Italy) 115 Mediated Scandals as Show Trials: The Case Study of the COVID-19 Controversy with Serbian tennis player Novak Djokovic Selakovic, Marko, S P Jain School of Global Management (U.A.E.) Samoilenko, Sergei A., George Mason University (USA) Ljepava, Nikolina, American University in the Emirates (U.A.E.) 117 Designing an investor focused communication framework based on dialogic theory: An interpretative qualitative study of publicly listed companies in South Africa Serfontein-Jordaan, Muriel, University of Pretoria (South Africa) 119 Rebooting for the “New Normal” while “Working from Home”? Results from a long-term interview study concerning and Internal Socal Media among up to 500 German companies 2013-2022 Sievert, Holger, Macromedia University (Germany) Meißner, Florian, Macromedia University (Germany) 122 Mind the gap: Reconnecting employees and organizations after remote work during a crisis Steenkamp, Hilke, Zayed University (U.A.E.) Dhanesh, Ganga S., Zayed University (U.A.E.) 124 Role perceptions and challenges of internal communication practitioners in facilitating the shift toward a more flexible work environment Stranzl, Julia, University of Vienna (Austria) Einwiller, Sabine, University of Vienna (Austria) CONTENTS 9 126 Organizational purpose and public relations in hybrid organizations Sueldo, Mariana, ISM University of Management and Economics (Lithuania) Verčič, Dejan, University of Ljubljana and Herman & Partners (Slovenia) 128 Graphical distorsion and Impression Management techniques in Corporate sustainable reporting: An investigation of the sustainability reports in the top 100 companies in Italy Šimunović, Denis, IULM (Italy) Bonaccorso, Giuseppe, IULM (Italy) Murtarelli, Grazia, IULM (Italy) Romenti, Stefania, IULM (Italy) 130 How internal communication contributes to organizational success conditions Špoljarić, Anja, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Najjar Raškaj, Dijana, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Tkalac Verčič, Ana, University of Zagreb (Croatia) 132 From Situational Appraisals to Collective Action: An examination on Asian Americans’ Engagement in Collective Action during the COVID-19 Pandemic Tao, Weiting, University of Miami (USA) Chen, Zifei Fay, University of San Francisco (USA) Sun, Ruoyu, University of Miami (USA) He, Mu, University of Miami (USA) 134 Increasing employee advocacy through supervisor motivating language: The mediating role of psychological conditions Thelen, Patrick D, San Diego State University (USA) Yue, Cen April, University of Connecticut (USA) Verghese, Aniisu K., Sabre Poland (Poland) 136 Organizational culture and remote working in public relations agencies in Greece Triantafillidou, Amalia, University of Western Macedonia (Greece) Yannas, Prodromos, University of Western Macedonia (Greece) CONTENTS 10 138 The Four Realms of Digital Visual Experience: A Theoretical Framework Valentini, Chiara, Jyväskylä University School of Business & Economics (Finland) Mutarelli, Grazia, IULM University (Italy) 140 Employee satisfaction with internal communication in private companies during the first lockdown Vidaković, Ivona, Edward Bernays University College (Croatia) Dabo, Krešimir, Edward Bernays University College (Croatia) Gluvačević, Dejan, Edward Bernays University College (Croatia) 142 To Trust or Not to Trust: Consumer Perceptions of Brand Activism in Times of the Black Lives Matter Movement Wang, Yijing, Erasmus University Rotterdam (The Netherlands) Bouroncle, Linnéa, Erasmus University Rotterdam (The Netherlands) 144 Re-Framing Sustainability in a Pandemic. Understanding Sustainability Attitudes, Behaviors, Visions and Responsibilities for a Post-Covid Future Weder, Franzisca, The University of Queensland (Australia) Elmenreich, Wilfried, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) Hübner, Renate, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) Sposato, Robert, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) Mertl, Stefanie, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) 146 Development of an optimal reputation quantifier for the reboot of communication after Covid-19 Westermann, Arne, International School of Management (Germany) Homann, Reimund, IMWF Institute for Management and Economic Research (Germany) Forthmann, Jörg, Faktenkontor GmbH (Germany) 148 Corporate Philantropic Behavior and The Construction of Public Affective Trust. Shopping Spree After Hongxing ERKE Group’s Donation for the 2021 Henan Floods in China Wu, Jing, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Gao, Hao, Nanjing Normal University (China) Wang, Wendi, Nanjing Normal University (China) Li, Lina, Shanghai Normal University (China) CONTENTS 11 150 How does the motivation of watching live streaming commerce affect online purchase intention? Wu, Shih-Chia, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) Luk, Wing Hei, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) 152 A study of Memes, Conformity and Watching Intention: Squid Game as an example Wu, Shih-Chia, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) Chiu, Tsz Yan, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) 154 The state of internal communication in Latin America: An international Delphi Yue, Cen April, University of Connecticut (USA) Thelen, Patrick D., San Diego State University (USA) 156 Should we follow this advice? Introducing and testing a framework for assessing quality in communication consulting Zerfass, Ansgar, Leipzig University (Germany) Verčič, Dejan, University of Ljubljana and Herman & Partners (Slovenia) Ziegele, Daniel, Leipzig University (Germany) 159 Virtual stakeholder dialogues: Challenges and opportunities of moving face-to-face formats to online environments Ziegele, Daniel, Leipzig University (Germany) Kurtze, Hannah, Leipzig University (Germany) Zerfass, Ansgar, Leipzig University (Germany) 163 Establishing ‘tacit’ support as ‘CSR risk’: The case study of Boohoo and Black Lives Matter Clarke, Faye, Pembroke and Rye (UK) Read, Kevin, University of Greenwich (UK) 178 Dear COVID-19, Message from Employee Diaries: Reformulating Employee Communication with the Pandemic Görpe, Tevhide Serra, University of Sharjah (U.A.E.) Öksuz, Burcu, Izmir Katip Celebi University (Turkey) CONTENTS 12 186 Global Capability Framework in Turkey: Findings of the Delphi Study on Public Relations and Communication Profession Capabilities Görpe, Tevhide Serra, University of Sharjah (U.A.E.) Öksuz, Burcu, Izmir Katip Celebi University (Turkey) PAPERS 193 Engaging Teachers through Effective Communication: Restarting the Government Communication in Education Hejlová, Denisa, Charles University (Czech Republic) Ježková, Tereza, Charles University (Czech Republic) Klabíková Rábová, Tereza, Charles University (Czech Republic) Konrádová, Marcela, Charles University (Czech Republic) Koudelková, Petra, Charles University (Czech Republic) Schneiderová, Soňa, Charles University (Czech Republic) 204 The Full-Stack Public Relations: Future-proofing communication management for stakeholder experience delivery and the digital transformation era MacKenzie, Lindsay, McMaster University (Canada) 220 New challenges for the countries in external communications due to fake news blossoming Novoselova, Olga, Corvinus University of Budapest (Hungary) Ildikó Kemény, Corvinus University of Budapest (Hungary) 235 Rebooting for the “New Normal” while “Working from Home”? Results from a long-term interview study concerning and Internal Socal Media among up to 500 German companies 2013-2022 Sievert, Holger, Macromedia University (Germany) Meißner, Florian, Macromedia University (Germany) 245 Employee satisfaction with internal communication in private companies during the first lockdown Vidaković, Ivona, Edward Bernays University College Zagreb (Croatia) Dabo, Krešimir, Edward Bernays University College Zagreb (Croatia) Gluvačević, Dejan, Edward Bernays University College Zagreb (Croatia) CONTENTS 13 273 How does the motivation of watching live streaming commerce affect online purchase intention? Wu, Shih-Chia, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) Luk, Wing Hei, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) EXTENDED ABSTRACT 290 From Situational Appraisals to Collective Action: An examination on Asian Americans’ Engagement in Collective Action during the COVID-19 Pandemic Tao, Weiting, University of Miami (USA) Chen, Zifei Fay, University of San Francisco (USA) Sun, Ruoyu, University of Miami (USA) He, Mu, University of Miami (USA) 1 EDITORS 14 Dejan Verčič University of Ljubljana and Herman & part- ners (Slovenia) Dejan Verčič is Professor, Head of Centre for Marketing and Public Relations at the University of Ljubljana, and Partner in strategic consulting and communication company Herman & partners Ltd. Slovenia. He received his PhD from the London School of Economics and Political Science, UK. A Fulbright scholar, recipient of the Pathfinder Award, the highest academic honour bestowed by the Institute for Public Relations (IPR) in New York, and named a Distinguished Public Relations Scholar by the European Public Relations Education and Research Association (EUPRERA). In 1991 he was the founding director of Slovenian national news agency (STA). Organizing the annual International Public Relations Research Symposium – BledCom since 1994. Ana Tkalac Verčič University of Zagreb (Croatia) Ana Tkalac Verčič, Ph.D., is a Full Professor of Marketing communications and Public Relations at the Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb, Croatia. She is a former Fulbright scholar and a recipient of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations diploma. Ana Tkalac Verčič has authored, co-authored and edited numerous books including Public Relations Metrics: Research and Evaluation (with B. van Ruler and D. Verčič) and is the author of the first Croatian public relations textbook. She has published more than a 100 papers in various academic journals and serves in various editorial boards such as International Journal of Strategic Communication, Journal of Public Relations Research and Public Relations Review. Throughout her career professor Tkalac Verčič has received numerous awards, most recently, GrandPRx, the award for the development of public relations as a profession. She is a former president of the Croatian Public Relations Association. Krishnamurthy Sriramesh University of Colorado (USA) Krishnamurthy Sriramesh, is Professor of Public Relations at the University of Colorado, USA. He is recognized for his scholarship on topics such as global public relations, culture and public relations, corporate social responsibility, and public relations for development. Over 30 years he has advocated the need to reduce ethnocentricity in the public relations body of knowledge and practice in 8 books, over 110 articles and book chapters, and over 120 conference presentations around the world. His rich teaching experience includes teaching at 10 universities on four continents while also delivering seminars/talks in over 40 countries. He has won several awards for teaching and research at different universities including the 2004 Pathfinder Award from the Institute for Public Relations (USA) for “original scholarly research contributing to the public relations body of knowledge” and the PRIDE Award from the National Communication Association (USA). 2 AUTHORS 15 Arrigoni, Adalberto, Leeds Beckett University (UK) Avidar, Ruth, The Max Stern Yezreel Valley College (Israel) • Ruth Avidar (PhD) is the head of the marketing communications track in the Department of Communication at the Max Stern Yezreel Valley College, Israel. She is also a faculty member in the Department of Health Systems Management. Avidar earned her PhD at the University of Haifa and Master of Arts degree in communication and journalism at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Avidar is a former public relations practitioner, and her research has focused on online public relations, social media, customer and patient experience, dialogue and new technologies. Avidar is a member of the Center for Internet Research, University of Haifa. Badham, Mark, Jyväskylä University (Finland) • Mark Badham, Ph.D., is Senior Lecturer in Corporate Communication at Jyväskylä University School of Business & Economics, Finland. His research is focused on digital crisis communication, social media engagement, relationship management, organizational legitimacy, and news media roles in mass communication processes. Ban, Zhuo, University of Cincinnati (USA) Barlik, Jacek, University of Warsaw (Poland) • He is an assistant professor at the Faculty of Journalism, Information and Book Studies, the University of Warsaw, Poland (full-time since 2014, previously straddled business career and part-time teaching). He is also a seasoned public relations practitioner, with vast experience as an advisor to major Polish and international corporations, public institutions and NGOs. He has authored articles, chapters and a book on public relations, communication strategies, awareness campaigns, crisis communication, social media, PR theory, sales and persuasion (in Polish and English), and was a Fulbright scholar at the University of Maryland, College Park (USA). Benecke, Dalien René, University of Johannesburg (South Africa) • D Litt et Phil (2019) under supervision of late Prof Sonja Verwey with the title “ Social representation of PR activism in selected early-career South African Public Relations Practitioners. Rene is Associate Professor in Department of Strategic Communication and specializes in experiential learning for strategic communication students, activism, community influencers, network theory, internal communication and leadership. She is coordinating various work integrated learning placements for students and community engagements. She also mentors the Students’ Public Relations Association (SPRA). She served as President of the professional body the Public Relations Association of Southern Africa (PRISA) during 2019/20 and also holds the portfolio Education, Training and Research. Rene believes in providing students with the opportunity to make a difference in society through their experiential learning actions. Her community involvement includes the development of young practitioners through active citizenship. For more detail on her publications visit: https://www.uj.ac.za/members/prof-rene-benecke/ 2 AUTHORS 16 Bernardino, Paula, Credibility Institute (Canada) • Strategic Communication Management Professional (SCMP) with more than 15 years of experience working for large global corporations and not-for-profit organizations, Paula Bernardino is now a strategic consultant in communications and corporate social responsibility while also guest speaking at conferences and panels on sustainability, corporate social responsibility and strategic communications. She also collaborates with the Credibility Institute in Canada as their CSR Expert - Senior Strategist and Associate Research. She is also a course lecturer at McGill University in the Public Relations program and an instructor in the Professional Development Institute at the University of Ottawa. Her study “Engaging Employees through Corporate Social Responsibility Programs” won the “Best Paper – Practitioner” award at 2020 CCI Milan Conference on Corporate Communication on September 17, 2020. Bonaccorso, Giuseppe, IULM University Milan (Italy) • Giuseppe Bonaccorso is currently Ph.D. student in Markets, Communication and Society at IULM University in Milan. His field of research concerns the use of rhetoric in corporate sustainability communications, sustainability reporting and impression management. Bouroncle, Linnéa, Erasmus University Rotterdam (The Netherlands) Bowen, Shannon A. , University of South Carolina (USA) • Shannon A. Bowen (Ph.D. Univ. of Maryland) is a full Professor at the University of South Carolina. Her research focuses on ethical decision making and issues management, as well as c-suite inclusion and contributions by public relations. Dr Bowen teaches and researches ethics across corporations, pharmaceutical firms, governmental entities, and the public relations industry. Her most recent book uses grant-based research to explicate “Excellence in Internal Communication Management” (2017; Business Expert Press) with Rita L. Men. Dr Bowen is one of three joint-editors for the journal Ethical Space: The International Journal of Communication Ethics. She sits on the Board of Trustees of the Arthur W. Page Society and has won numerous awards for her research. Bridgen, Liz, Sheffield Hallam University (UK) • Liz Bridgen is Principal Lecturer in Public Relations at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. She is co-editor with Dejan Verčič of Experiencing Public Relations: International Voices and recently contributed a chapter, ‘The impact of diversity initiatives on practitioners and practice’ to in Platinum: Celebrating the CIPR and its members at 70. Her research explores on the lived experience of public relations practitioners with a focus on gender and technology and is currently developing a project on the marginalisation of public relations and its attempt to sanitise and be seen as a respectible occupation. 2 AUTHORS 17 Butera, Alfonsa, Università IULM (Italy) • Alfonsa Butera is Adjunct Professor of Corporate Communication and Head of Coordination and Researcher of the Centre for Employee Relations and Communication at Università IULM, Italy. She is a freelance consultant in the field of corporate communication, dealing with the strategic planning and operational management of the communication activities of B2B and B2C customers operating in various industrial sectors. Her main research interests are employee communication and engagement, internal crisis communication, employee voice and silence, media relations. Carignan, Marie-Eve, Université de Sherbrooke (Canada) • Marie-Eve Carignan, Ph.D, is an associate professor in the Department of Communication at the Université de Sherbrooke and director of the Media Division of the UNESCO Chair in Prevention of Radicalisation and Violent Extremism (UNESCO-PREV Chair). Her research focuses mainly on the impact of media in society, disinformation, risk and crisis communication, and communication strategies. She has contributed to several collective works and published in national and international journals in communication, health, journalism and history. She has extensive professional experience in communications and public relations in small and large organizations. Champagne-Poirier, Olivier, Université de l’Ontario (Canada) • Olivier Champagne-Poirier is a professor in the Department of Communication at the Université de Sherbrooke in Québec, Canada. He holds a doctorate from the Université du Québec a Trois-Rivières and has completed a postdoctoral fellowship at the Université de l’Ontario français. In the last 10 years, he has built an expertise in different fields, namely “communication and culture”, “mediatic discourse analysis” and “risk and crisis communication”. He specializes in qualitative research and has worked on numerous projects related to: COVID-19; different Canadian natural and industrial disasters; and various terrorist attacks in several countries around the world. Chan, Chun-Hsiang, Taipei Medical University (Taiwan) • Chun-Hsiang Chan is a PostDoc at Taipei Medical University. He received his Ph.D. from the Department of Geography, National Taiwan University. His recent research on the human dynamics (human-to-human and human-to-environment interactions) during the geographical process provides policy insights to industry stakeholders and government. He has experienced Data Analysis with a demonstrated history of working in the academic and information industry. He has skilled in complex network analysis, social media engagement, spatial statistics, and the air transportation market. Strong spatial and social network professional with a Ph.D. focus on the Integrated Market Analysis of Aviation Market and COVID-19 impact on public health and social media engagement. 2 AUTHORS 18 Chen, Zifei Fay, University of San Francisco (USA) • Zifei Fay Chen, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of public relations in the Communication Studies Department at the University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. Her research interests include corporate social responsibility, social media strategies, startup and entrepre-neurial public relations, and crisis communication and management. Chiu, Ariel, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, China) • Ariel Chiu is a master student in Corporate Communication at The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) and a marketer. With the marketing and communication background, she is broadly interested in social media influence, user behaviour and engagement. Chmiel, Michal, Royal Holloway, University of London (UK) • In his research, Michal compares advertising and public relations messages to identify how both types of communication work in unison to influence buying behaviour and produce the most favourable attitudes. Michal also analyses the societal impact of advertising and public relations communication. As a practitioner, Michal has more than 14 years of experience in incorporating social psychological evidence into PR and communications projects for multinational companies and public figures. Clarke, Faye, Pembroke and Rye (UK) • Faye is a Senior Account Executive at London based strategic PR consultancy, Pembroke and Rye. She is an MA graduate from Cardiff University in International Public Relations and Global Communications Management. At Pembroke and Rye, she has been encouraged to maintain a keen academic interest in CSR, ESG and reputation management. As a practitioner, she works for a range of industry-leading clients in aviation, technology, aerospace and events. She has also developed a specialist interest in data analysis and the preparation of management information reports. She regularly uses her analytical skills to inform strategic decision making and client planning. Colleoni, Elanor, University of Georgia (USA) • Elanor Colleoni, Ph.D. is currently Assistant Professor of Corporate Reputation at University IULM in Milan. Her work lies at the intersection of corporate reputation, organizational legitimacy, corporate social responsibility, and business ethics, with a particular focus on the impact of new communication technologies on corporate reputation and business ethics. Her research has been published in leading management and communication journals, such as Academy of Management Review, Busines & Society, Journal of Communication, among others. Čater, Tomaž, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Čater, Barbara, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) 2 AUTHORS 19 Dabo, Krešimir, University of Zagreb (Croatia) David, Marc D. , Université de Sherbrooke (Canada) • He worked for more than 15 years on many projects in public relations and marketing communications before becoming a professor of communication at the Université de Sherbrooke, where he teaches strategic communication and marketing communications. His research interests focus mainly on two axes. The first axis revolves around the analysis of communications strategies and the methodology for a communications audit. The second axis is concerned with the study of risk and crisis. Professor David is the co-founder of the International Network on the Professionalization of the Communicator, which brings together professional researchers and university scholars from France, Belgium, Canada and Morocco. Davids, Deidre, Cape Peninsula University of Technology (South Africa) • In June 2021, Deidre graduated cum laude with a master’s degree in strategic communication management from the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa. Her thesis focused on understanding the role of the reflective communication strategist in environmental scanning – how social intelligence is key to developing enterprise and communication strategy. During the last 17 years Deidre has been working in the aviation and tourism industry at Cape Town International Airport. Her most recent position was in top management as Senior Manager Corporate Affairs. She has recently started her own company, specialising in strategic communication, stakeholder relations, media strategy, social engagement and facilitation. Davies, Eleanor, Huddersfield University Business School (UK) Davis, Corné, University of Johannesburg (South Africa) • Corné Davis is a senior lecturer in Strategic Communication. She has been lecturing various communication subjects since 2000 and specialised in social systems theory and second-order cybernetics in her doctoral study. She participates in continuous curriculum development and postgraduate supervision. She facilitates and develops undergraduate and postgraduate modules in Strategic Communication. She has presented papers at a number of local and international conferences. She has published a number of articles in accredited journals. She is a known gender-based violence activist and has facilitated related workshops for UJ students. She is a trustee of Matla a Bana, a well-known NGO who campaigns against child rape and secondary abuse. She is an advisory to TEARS Foundation. She has been a keynote speaker at various events hosted by SAPS FCS Unit, the International Women’s Peace Group, UJ Transformation Unit and City of Jo’burg. She has been on the steering committee for five conferences and seminars co-facilitated and co-hosted by UJ Department of Strategic Communication, UJ Department of Family Law and UNISA Department of Corrections Management. For more information on her publications, visit: https://www.uj.ac.za/members/prof-corne-davis/ 2 AUTHORS 20 Dhanesh, Ganga S. , Zayed University (UAE) • Ganga Dhanesh (PhD, National University of Singapore) is Associate Professor and Associate Dean at the College of Communication and Media Sciences, Zayed University. She has published extensively on CSR and strategic communication in books and top-tier, peer-reviewed international journals in the areas of business and communication management. Dhanesh serves as Associate Editor for the Journal of Communication Management. A recipient of several research awards, Dhanesh actively consults for various national and multinational organizations. She is a lead researcher for the Global Capabilities Framework project in the UAE and university lead for the UN Women Unstereotype Alliance UAE chapter-Zayed University partnership. Einwiller, Sabine, University of Vienna (Austria) • Sabine Einwiller is the Professor of Public Relations Research at the Department of Communication, University of Vienna, Austria, where she heads the Corporate Communication Research Group. Since 2018 she is Head of the Austrian PR-Ethics-Council and serves as the Austrian representative of the European Communication Monitor. Since 2019 she is also Head of EUPRERA’s Scientific Committee. Sabine Einwiller has published more than 40 articles in international peer-reviewed journals and is co-editor of the Handbook of Employee Communication (Springer Gabler, in German). In her research, she is mainly interested in effects of corporate communication on stakeholders and in strategic communication management. Elmenreich, Wilfried, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) Erzikova, Elina, Central Michigan University (USA) • Elina Erzikova, Ph. D. – Professor of Public Relations at Central Michigan University, U.S. She is a Fellow of the Plank Center for Leadership in Public Relations at the University of Alabama. Her primary areas of interest include journalism & politics and public relations & leadership. She has published in Political Communication, Mass Communication and Society, Journalism Studies, Journalism Practice, Public Relations Review, International Journal of Strategic Communication and International Communication Gazette. She co-authored a book, Russian Regional Journalism: Struggle and Survival in the Heartland, published by Peter Lang Publishing in 2020. Forthmann, Jörg, Faktenkontor GmbH (Germany) • Dipl.-Ing. Ing oec. Jörg Forthmann, born 1968 in Heerlen (Netherlands) is managing partner of the IMWF Institute for Management and Economic Research in Hamburg. At IMWF, he is responsible for big data analysis based on social listening, which is carried out with the help of artificial intelligence. Forthmann worked in the press and public relations of the Bundeswehr, worked as a journalist for Axel Springer Verlag and learned the PR craft at Nestlé Germany. He later worked as a press spokesman for a management consultancy and founded the communication consultancy Faktenkontor. Fuentes, Cristina, King Juan Carlos University (Spain) Fux, Patricia, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) 2 AUTHORS 21 Gao, Hao, Nanjing Normal University (China) • He is Associate professor at School of Journalism and Communication, Nanjing Normal University. He holds the Ph.D. in Mass Communication, Communication University of China. From 2013 to 2014 he was a visiting scholar at Waseda University. Current research areas: Disaster communication, Social media and Japanese media. Research Grants: Disaster Communication and social responsibility of Media (Principal Investigator. The National Social Science Fund of China, The Functional Transformation of Media in Disasters of Japan (Principal Investigator. The Japan Foundation). More than 10 articles about media research have been published in CSSCI journals. Gluvačević, Dejan, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Görpe, T. Serra, University of Sharjah (U.A.E.) • Tevhide Serra Gorpe is a professor at University of Sharjah, College of Communication. (United Arab Emirates). She holds a BA in Psychology, an MA in Social Psychology (Bosphorus University, Istanbul) an MSc in Public Relations (Boston University) and a PhD in Public Relations and Advertising (Istanbul University). Her current research interests include: public relations education, crisis/risk management and CSR. Gregory, Anne, Huddersfield University Business School (UK) He, Mu, University of Miami (USA) Hejlová, Denisa, Charles University (Czech Republic) • Denisa Hejlova, Ph.D. is a leading Czech scholar and communication consultant. She focuses on research, education and practice in public relations, public affairs, trust management or fashion marketing. Since 2011, Denisa Hejlova is heading the department of Marketing Communication and PR at the Charles University in Prague, one of the most-want-ed study programs in the Czech Republic. Before she has served as a Vice-dean for PR or as a PR manager at the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Denisa was a Fulbright Visiting Scholar at Columbia University in New York. In 2015, Denisa published a comprehensive book about Public Relations for the Czech audience. In 2020, she started a first Czech MA program on Strategic Communication at the Charles University in Prague. Hewson, Sinead, Webster University (Leiden Campus) • Sinéad Hewson recently completed her PhD in TU Dublin, Ireland researching decisionmaking when communication is at the heart of an organisations’ strategy development. Her background is in health, business and communication specialising in co-opetition, group dynamics and gender equity. Based in the Netherlands, Hewson is a former Board Member of the European Institute of Women’s Health, former Chair of Education for the Public Relations Institute of Ireland. She sits on the advisory board of Women’s Business Initiative International. Sinead speaks internationally and lectures in Webster University Leiden, is a guest lecturer in TU Dublin and Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences. 2 AUTHORS 22 Holtzhausen, Lida, North-West University (South Africa) Homann, Reimund, IMWF Institut für Management- und Wirtschaftsforschung (Germany) • Reimund Homann, Dr., born in 1980 in Hamburg/Germany, is a Business Analyst at the IMWF Institut für Management- und Wirtschaftsforschung in Hamburg and a former Business Analyst at the Hamburg-based management-consultancy faktenkontor. At the IMWF he specializes in the quantitative analysis of digital communication. He is the author of several books dealing with mathematics and economical analysis of law and edited several books on various managerial and economical topics. He also has a vast experience as a lecturer in statistics and managerial sciences. Horlait, Déborah, Catholic University of Louvain, LASCO (Belgium) Hübner, Renate, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) Jakopović, Hrvoje, Edward Bernays University College Zagreb (Croatia) Ježková, Tereza, Charles University (Czech Republic) • T ereza Ježková is an Assistant Professor at Charles University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Marketing Communication and Public Relations. She holds a PhD in Media studies and focuses on research, education, and practice in public relations, online communication, art marketing, and creativity. Tereza has participated in research projects of communication of the Czech Ministry of Education or Czech government communication during the covid-19 pandemic. Before pursuing a full academic career, she worked for five years as a head of marketing and spokesperson for the National Gallery Prague. She has experience with public relations in the commercial sector as well. Jungblut, Marc, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (Germany) Kanajet, Karlo, Edward Bernays University College Zagreb (Croatia) Kang, Minjeong, Indiana University (USA) • Minjeong Kang (Ph. D in Mass Communication, Syracuse University) is an associate professor and teaches undergraduate and graduate strategic communication and research courses at the Media School, Indiana University. Her recent research interests have focused on understanding engagement in various stakeholder contexts such as member, employee, and volunteer relations and its positive impacts in eliciting supportive communication and behavioral outcomes. Additionally, Dr. Kang is working on understanding organizational listening by examining factors that contribute to employee silence motives. Dr. Kang serves as reviewer to various journals including Journal of Public Relations Research, which she is on the editorial board. 2 AUTHORS 23 Kemény, Ildikó, Corvinus University of Budapest (Hungary) • Ildikó Kemény is an Associate Professor at the Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary, at the Department of Marketing Research and Consumer Behaviour. Her research interest is online consumer behaviour. The previous years as a member and founder of an Omnichannel Research Group, she has started working on the understanding of omnichannel consumer decisions. She is also interested in quantitative methods of market research especially in PLS-SEM method. She has already published not only in domestic, but also in international journals, and participated in international and Hungarian conferences as well. Her main teaching focus is Market Research and online consumer behaviour. Kim, Jeong-Nam, University of Oklahoma (USA) Klabíková Rábová, Tereza, Charles University (Czech Republic) • Tereza Klabíková Rábová holds a PhD in Media studies and is Assistant Professor at Charles University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Marketing Communication and PR. In 2010 she was a doctoral scholar in EHESS, Paris. Her fields of study comprise current language, media and marketing language, media, public and institutional communication. Tereza has participated in research projects of communication of Czech Ministry of Education or Czech government communication during covid-19 pandemic. She prepares analyses of Czech television broadcasting and provides expert opinions on current public communication. She also worked in the radio or marketing department of an international corporation. Konrádová, Marcela, Charles University (Czech Republic) • Marcela Konrádová (1988) holds a PhD in political science and works as Assistant Professor at Charles University in Prague, Department of Marketing Communication and PR. Her research fields combine political and government communication, political marketing, personalization of politics and its consequences and electoral campaigns. Marcela has participated in several internships and trainee programs for organisations such as KohoVolit.eu or Demagog.cz, she was also an external collaborator of the Institute of Political Marketing and Campaigns.cz. She contributed to the preparation of the movement ANO 2011 or Slovak movement Sloboda a Solidarita election campaigns. On analytical positions, Marcela has worked on international projects in Germany, Serbia, Bulgaria and other countries. She also worked as a spokesperson at the Prague 8 City District Office. Koudlková, Petra, Charles University (Czech Republic) • Petra Koudlková holds a PhD in Management and economy of companies. She is Assistant Professor at Charles University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Marketing Communication and PR. Her fields of study comprise corporate social responsibility and sustainability approach of companies, above all SMEs and marketing and institutional communication. Petra has participated in a project of communication of Czech Ministry of Education, and in a project focusing on Increasing the Effectiveness of Direct Citizen Invitation to Screen Colon and Rectal, Breast and Cervical Cancer and others. She is the author of many research articles and two monographs. 2 AUTHORS 24 Kurtze, Hannah, University of Leipzig (Germany) • Hannah Kurtze is Graduate Student in Communication Management at Leipzig University. She has been research assistant for the Communications Trend Radar, an annual study on trends for corporate communications. Her current research focuses on the sustainability dimension of communication services. Latif, Farah, George Mason University (USA) • Latif works in the Department of Communication at George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia. She also serves on the faculty at the Department of Organizational Sciences and Communication, George Washington University, Washington, D.C. Her current research focuses on health communication in diaspora communities and issues of reputation management and its counteragent, character assassination. Her past research has focused on international public relations and the U.S. public diplomacy particularly the role it plays in countering violent extremism. She has held strategic communication positions in corporate and nonprofit organizations. Latif thinks it is quite odd to refer to herself in the third person. Leahy, Hanna, Leeds Beckett University (UK) Lee, Hyelim, University of Oklahoma (USA) • Hyelim Lee is currently a Ph.D. can-didate at Seoul National University. Her primary research interests are studies in public from the PR theory perspective. She has a tremendous interest in the public members’ relationships with the organizations. She recently published an article about the underground information market dynamics in the Dong-A Business Review (DBR). She conducted extensive survey research on employee communication of the major Korean companies such as KT and SK. Le Roux, Tanya, Bournemouth University (UK) • Tanya is a Principal Lecturer at Bournemouth University. Before stepping into academia, Tanya worked as a communication professional in South Africa and the UK. She consulted for large and small companies on strategic communication and communication management issues. She has lectured strategic communication management for 13 years in South Africa before joining BU in 2017. Tanya strongly believes in combining academic work and practical experience, locally and internationally, in order to benefit both academia and professional practice. Her research interest is focused on strategic corporate communication management, and specifically the application thereof within the field of disaster risk reduction. Li, Lina, Shanghai Normal University (China) Lievonen, Matias, Jyväskylä University (Finland) • Matias Lievonen, D.Sc. (Econ.), is Postdoctoral Researcher in Corporate Communication at Jyväskylä University School of Business and Economics (JSBE), Finland. His prior research has focused on stakeholder behavior, negative engagement, social media engagement, and online brand communities. 2 AUTHORS 25 Ljepava, Nikolina, American University in the Emirates (UAE) • She is MBA Program Director and Assistant Professor of Marketing at the American University in the Emirates, Dubai. She has more than ten years of international industry and consulting experience in North America, Europe and Asia, in the areas of marketing research, evaluation and online communications. She holds PhD from the University of Belgrade, two Master’s degrees: in E-business from the University of Belgrade, and Social Data Analysis, from the University of Windsor, and degree in Psychology from the University of Windsor. Dr. Nikolinàs research interests are related to the behavioral studies, cyber-psychology, digital marketing and research methods. Lovari, Alessandro, University of Cagliari (Italy) • He (Ph.D.), is Assistant Professor of Cultural and Communicative Processes at the University of Cagliari (Italy). He has been a visiting research scholar at Purdue University, University of Cincinnati and University of South Carolina (US). His research interests are public sector communication, public relations, and health communication. He also studies the impact of social media on companies and citizens’ behaviors. He’s a member of the scientific committee of the Italian Association of Public and Institutional Communication, and member of the technical committee of the European Project “Creative”. His works are published in several books and international journals. Luk, Wing Hei, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, China) • Wing Hei, Luk, an undergraduate student majoring in Global Communication at the School of Journalism and Communication of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Lukacovic, Marta N. , Angelo State University (USA) • Marta N. Lukacovic (PhD, Wayne State University, Detroit-Michigan) is an Assistant Professor at Angelo State University, USA. Her research has been primarily centered on trends in communication through digital media platforms; specifically, on how user-generated online content interacts with the matters of security and crisis. Her work has appeared in journals such as PACO, Frontiers in Communication, and International Communication Research Journal. She currently serves as the president of Communication Association of Eurasian Researchers (CAER). She is a co-editor of the book Media and public relations research in post-socialist societies (2021, Lexington Books – Rowman & Littlefield). MacKenzie, Lindsay, McMaster University (Canada) • Lindsay Mackenzie is a graduate of Canada’s master of communication management program at McMaster University. Her capstone research examined the emerging business discipline of Experience Management (XM) at 20 Canadian companies to find five core competencies strategic communication/PR needs to adopt to remain relevant in the XM ecosystem. During her studies, Lindsay made other academic contributions to the topics of crisis communication during crime spikes (MJC ‘22) and co-contributions by journalism and PR to media brands. Lindsay spent 10 years at Canada’s public broadcaster where she blazed a 2 AUTHORS 26 trail for community engagement in journalism across the news network and guided the adoption of an EDI initiative to track representation in news coverage. Lindsay lives in Winnipeg, Canada and is a senior consultant with Deloitte in their Human Capital, Organizational Transformation practice. Materassi, Letizia, University of Florence (Italy) • She is a sociologist in cultural and communicative processes. Since 2017 she is researcher at the University of Florence (Italy), at the Social and Political Sciences Department, where she graduated in 2002 and since then she is member of the research unit on communication, public relations and cultural changes. In 2010 Letizia completed her doctoral studies, deepening the role of ICT’s communities of practice in the Italian governments. Her current research interests particularly focus on social and digital changes and their impact on Public Administrations, on the organizational change management and the relationships between citizens and institutions. Mazzei, Alessandra, Università IULM (Italy) • Alessandra Mazzei is Associate Professor in Management at the Department of Business LECB “Carlo A. Ricciardi”, Università IULM, Italy. Her main research interests are: corporate communication; employee communication and engagement; organizational voice, silence and dissent; whistleblowing; diversity & inclusion, internal crisis communication. Her work has been published in journals such as Business Ethics Quarterly and Journal of Business Research. She is Coordinator of the bachelor programme in Corporate Communication and Public Relations, Deputy Director of the Department of Business LECB “Carlo A. Ricciardi”, and Director of the Centre for Employee Relations and Communication at Università IULM. Meißner, Florian, Macromedia University of Applied Sciences (Germany) Mertl, Stefanie, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) Moreno, Ángeles, King Juan Carlos University (Spain) Moss, Danny, University of Chester (UK) • He (PhD) is Professor of Corporate & Public Affairs at the University of Chester Business School where he is Programme Leader for the Chester Business Master’s and Co-Director of the International Centre for Corporate & Public Affairs Research. He has played a leading role in establishing Master’s level education in public relations in the UK at the University of Stirling and then at Manchester Metropolitan University. He was one of the co-founders of the Bled Symposium and co-founder and co-editor of the Journal of Public Affairs, and has authored and edited over 80 books, journal articles and conference papers. Mourão, Rita, Escola Superior de Comunicação Social – Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa (Portugal) • PhD student in the area of Communication Sciences, PhD in Communication Studies: Technology, Culture and Society, in Portugal. Lecturer in School of Comunication and Media Studies-Bachelor degree of “Publicity and Marketing” and “Public Relations and Organizational Communication”, having taught curricular units of “Consumer Behavior” and “Organizational Theories”, in Lisbon, 2 AUTHORS 27 Portugal. She was a lecturer at ISCTE between 2012 and 2015, having taught curricular units like: »Communication Techniques«; »Teamwork«; »Problem Solving and Decision Making« and »Conflict Management«. Murtarelli, Grazia, Università IULM (Italy) • Grazia Murtarelli, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor of Corporate Communication at Università IULM in Milan (Italy), where she teaches Digital Communication Management and Web Analytics. Her research focuses on the analysis of online scenarios and, more specifically, on the following issues: social media-based relationship management, online dialogue strategies, digital visual engagement processes and social media measurement and evaluation. She is also a faculty affiliate of the Center of Research for Strategic Communication at Università IULM. She was Public Relations Student & Early Career Representative at the International Communication Association. Naqvi, Jeff, RMIT University (Australia) • Jeffrey Naqvi leads the Master of Communication at RMIT University, as is an Industry Fellow of the undergraduate Public Relations program. Jeffrey brought his 20 years of industry experience as a Global Head of Public Relations into classrooms in 2015. In 2019, he won a grant for innovative assessment design, received national recognition for a best practice WIL course in 2020, and last year launched a new online WIL course for HDR students, now running in six universities. His engagement work includes Synthesis School, a US start-up from Ad Astra school founded by Elon Musk, is an Advance HE Senior Fellow, and a Fellow of the Public Relations Institute of Australia.” Najjar Raškaj, Dijana, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Navarro, Cristina, Gulf University for Science and Technology (Kuwait) Novoselova, Olga, Corvinus University of Budapest (Hungary) • Olga Novoselova is a PhD student at the Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary, at Business and Management Doctoral School. Previous years she has been engaged in International PR for educational institutions for 18 years and as a result her research focus in mainly concentrated to international PR, country brand, soft power, and fake news as a moderating tool. She has been participated in international conferences and has been published in international journals. Her main teaching focus is international PR, country brand and soft power. Öksuz, Burcu, Katip Celebi University (Turkey) • Burcu Oksuz is an associate professor in Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at İzmir Kâtip Çelebi University. She earned a BA degree from Ege University, an MA degree from Dokuz Eylül University, and a PhD degree in public relations from Ege University. Her research interests are reputation management, CSR, employer brand and corporate communication. 2 AUTHORS 28 Pakozdi, Ivan, Edward Bernays University College Zagreb (Croatia) • He (M.A.) is Executive Director for Development and lecturer at Edward Bernays University College in Zagreb, and is currently a doctoral student in the communication science interdisciplinary study programme at the Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek. He obtained a degree in Journalism from the Faculty of Political Science in Zagreb. He is a member of Communications and Public Relations Committee at the Croatian Council of Universities and University Colleges of Applied Sciences. He has 10 years of working experience as a PR consultant at Millenium PR, the largest Croatian communication consultancy. He was a member of the first generation of graduates from Matrix Croatica’s Communication Sciences School. Ravazzani, Silvia, Università IULM (Italy) • Silvia Ravazzani (PhD) is Associate Professor in Management at the Department of Business LECB “Carlo A. Ricciardi”, Università IULM, Italy, since 2019. Previously she held the same position at the Department of Management at Aarhus University, Denmark. Her research interests include crisis communication from an internal and multicultural perspective, employee communication, diversity & inclusion, and social media communication. Her work has been published in journals such as Group & Organization Management and Business Ethics Quarterly. She is vice-chair for the Crisis Communication Section of ECREA and Senior Project Leader of the Centre for Employee Relations and Communication at Università IULM. Read, Kevin, University of Greenwich (UK) • Kevin is CEO, and founding director, of strategic PR consultancy, Pembroke and Rye. Based in London, he has worked with global market leaders and challengers in financial and professional services, technology and energy for the last three decades. He specialises in strategic planning, thought leadership and board level coaching. He is a visiting fellow in the business school at the University of Greenwich, a fellow of the CIPR and the RSA, and a MA supervisor for Cardiff University’s International PR and Global Communications programme. Academic interests include NGOs and corporate partnerships, AI, creativity, business pitch-ing, CSR and ESG. Romenti, Stefania, IULM University Milan (Italy) • Stefania Romenti, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Strategic communication and PR at IULM University in Milan and President of EUPERA (European Association of Public Relations Education and Research Association). She is Delegate of the Rector for Sustainability at IULM University. She is Director of the Executive Master in Corporate Public Relations. She is Founder and Director of the Research Centre in Strategic Communication, and her research focuses on strategic communication, corporate reputation, stakeholder management and engagement, dialogue, social media, measurement, and evaluation. 2 AUTHORS 29 Roth-Cohen, Osnat, Ariel University (Israel) • Dr. Osnat Roth-Cohen is a lecturer in Communication and Media Studies at the school of Communication, Ariel University. Dr. Roth-Cohen is a research fellow in the institute for the study of new media, politics and society in Ariel University. Dr. Roth-Cohen’s’ research interests include public relations; creative in advertising; advertising in the new-media age. Samoilenko, Sergei A. , George Mason University (USA) • Sergei A. Samoilenko is Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at George Mason University. Sergei’s research focuses on issues in reputation management, crisis communication, political communication, and post-socialist research. Samoilenko is a founding member of CARP, the Research Lab for Character Assassination and Reputation Politics. He is the co-editor of Routledge Handbook of Character Assassination and Reputation Management, Handbook of Deception, Fake News, and Misinformation Online and other books and edited volumes. Sauter, Simon, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (Germany) Schneiderová, Soňa, Charles University (Czech Republic) • Soňa Schneiderová (1965) studied Czech launguage, holds a Ph.D. in this field, and works as an assistant professor at Charles University in Prague, Department of Marketing Communication and PR. Her research areas are discursive analysis of media texts and the culture of public communication. Soňa is the author of several publications analyzing the media text in terms of the appropriateness of expression in relation to the social context, is involved in projects analyzing government communications in emergency situations, such as the pandemic covid-19. Her work supports the media education of high school students. Selaković, Marko, SP Jain School of Global Management (UAE) • He (MSc, M.A.) is strategic management and communications professional with more than 15 years of experience in Europe and Gulf countries. Marko is specialized in international communications, stakeholder relations, knowledge management and crisis communications. Presently, he serves as Senior Manager – Institutional Development at SP Jain School of Global Management Dubai, Sydney, Singapore, Mumbai. He is also Vice-president of the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) GCC Chapter and member of the 2018 IABC World Communications Conference Program Advisory Committee. Marko is author or co-author of more than 10 papers published at international journals and conferences. Serfontein-Jordaan, Muriel, University of Pretoria (South Africa) • Dr Muriel Serfontein-Jordaan is a young academic in the field of Strategic Management, with a specific focus on Strategic Communication Management. She is a lecturer in the Department of Business Management at the University of Pretoria with specialisa-tion in Strategic Management subjects at postgraduate level. Dr Serfontein-Jordaan completed her PhD in August 2020. In her PhD research she expanded her research focus area to Strategic Investor Relations. 2 AUTHORS 30 Sievert, Holger, Macromedia University of Applied Sciences (Germany) • Prof. Dr. Holger Sievert is full professor for Communication Management at Macromedia University of Applied Sciences. He also heads the Cologne Media Faculty as well as the national Research Committee of his institution. In addition to teaching, he has always been active in communication management functions including Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, the Bertelsmann Foundation and the large German communication agency komm.passion. In research, he focuses on interactive, international and internal communication. His recent studies at the Macromedia University were conducted for partners such as the German Foreign Office, The Federal Press Office, the Council of Europe, Payback, TUI or Vodafone. Sposato, Robert, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) Sriramesh, Krishnamurthy, University of Colorado (USA) • Krishnamurthy Sriramesh, is Professor and Director of the Professional Master’s Program in Corporate Communication at the University of Colorado, USA. He is recognized for his scholarship on global public relations, culture and public relations, corporate social responsibility, and public relations for development. Over almost 30 years he has advocated the need to reduce ethnocentricity in the public relations body of knowledge and practice in 8 books, over 100 articles and book chapters, and over 120 conference presentations around the world. His rich teaching experience includes teaching at 10 universities on four continents while also delivering seminars/talks in over 40 countries. He has won several awards for teaching and research at different universities including the 2004 Pathfinder Award from the Institute for Public Relations (USA) for “original scholarly research contributing to the public relations body of knowledge.” Steenkamp, Hilke, Zayed University (UAE) • Hilke Steenkamp is an Assistant Professor in Integrated Strategic Communication at the College of Communication and Media Sciences, Zayed University. She holds a PhD in Communication Management from the University of Pretoria, South Africa. Steenkamp has published in the areas of corporate social responsibility, Ubuntu, communication management, social media, and corporate reputation management. Her current research focuses on artificial intelligence in communication management, and she is part of the research team for the Global Capability Framework project in the United Arab Emirates. St-Pierre, Claudia, University of Ottawa (Canada) Stranzl, Julia, University of Vienna (Austria) Sueldo, Mariana, ISM University of Management and Economics (Lithuania) Sun, Ruoyu, University of Miami (USA) 2 AUTHORS 31 Sutton, Lucinda B. , North-West University (South Africa) • Dr Lucinda Sutton teaches various corporate communication and public relations modules at undergraduate and postgraduate level at the North-West University (NWU), South Africa. She obtained her PhD in Communication at NWU on the topic of Internal Communication Trends in South Africa. Furthermore, she holds a MA degree in Communication Studies and a BA Hons degree in Corporate Communication Management which she both received cum laude. Her research interests stem from her experience in practice as a communication practitioner, which involves communication with a specific focus on managing relationships with internal and external stakeholders. Šimunović, Denis, IULM University Milan (Italy) • Denis Šimunović is currently Ph.D. student in Markets, Communication and Society at IULM University in Milan. His research interest lies in the relation between business and society from communication and organization theory. He’s currently working on CSR communication and emerging social evaluations. Špoljarić, Anja, University of Zagreb (Croatia) • Anja Špoljarić is a Research Assistant at the Department of Marketing at the Faculty of Economics and Business in Zagreb. She is working on a project funded by Croatian Science Foundation titled “The role of internal communication in an organization: position, channels, measurement and relationship with related concepts” and has recently enrolled a PhD at the Faculty of Economics and Business. Tao, Weiting, University of Miami (USA) Tench, Ralph, Leeds Beckett University (UK) Thelen, Patrick D. , San Diego State University (USA) • Patrick Thelen is an assistant professor in the School of Journalism & Media Studies at San Diego State University. Patrick’s research interests include relationship management, internal communication, leadership communication, and employee advocacy. His work has appeared in refereed journals such as Public Relations Review, International Journal of Communication, International Journal of Business Communication, and Communication Quarterly. Patrick is also the Chief Research Editor at the Institute for Public Relations’ Organizational Communication Research Center (OCRC). He began his professional career in Chile as a reporter and later transitioned to corporate communication. Thompson, Gareth, University of the Arts London (UK) • Gareth Thompson is a Senior Lecturer at London College of Communication, University of the Arts London. He has worked in public relations in the corporate, finance and technology sectors for over 20 years, as well as teaching the subject in London and at the French business school, ESCEM, in Poitiers. His book on Post-Truth Public Relations: Communication in an Era of Digital Disinformation, was published by Routledge in 2020. 2 AUTHORS 32 Tkalac Verčič, Ana, University of Zagreb (Croatia) • Ana Tkalac Verčič, Ph.D., is a Full Professor of Marketing communications and Public Relations at the Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb, Croatia. She is a former Fulbright scholar and a recipient of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations diploma. Ana Tkalac Verčič has authored, co-authored and edited numerous books including Public Relations Metrics: Research and Evaluation (with B. van Ruler and D. Verčič) and is the author of the first Croatian public relations textbook. She has published more than a 100 papers in various academic journals and serves in various editorial boards such as International Journal of Strategic Communication, Journal of Public Relations Research and Public Relations Review. Throughout her career professor Tkalac Verčič has received numerous awards, most recently, GrandPRx, the award for the development of public relations as a profession. She is currently the president of the Croatian Public Relations Association. Triantafillidou, Amalia, University of Western Macedonia (Greece) • Amalia Triantafillidou is an Assistant Professor of Communication and Public Relations at the Department of Communication and Digital Media at the University of Western Macedonia, Greece. She holds a Ph D in Marketing from Athens University of Economics and Business. Her research interests focus on public relations, crisis communication, e-campaigning, e-government, and consumer experience. She has published in referred journals such as Computers in Human Behavior, Public Relations Review, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, etc. She teaches courses related to Public Relations, Corporate Communications, Crisis Communication, Corporate Branding and Consumer Behaviour. Uršič, Dejan, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Valentini, Chiara, Jyväskylä University (Finland) • Chiara Valentini, Ph.D., is Professor of Corporate Communication, and Head of the Discipline, at Jyväskylä University School of Business and Economics (JSBE), Finland. She holds an Adjunct Professorship in Strategic Communication at IULM University in Milan, Italy, and is the current Head of the Scientific Committee at EUPRERA. Dr. Valentini is the author of numerous peer-reviewed publications and books in strategic public relations, government communication, and crisis communication in the digital environment. Former Chair of the Public Relations Division at ICA, she serves as reviewer and editorial board member of several international journals and is active with several professional organizations. Verčič, Dejan, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia), and Herman & partners (Slovenia) • Dejan Verčič is Professor, Head of Centre for Marketing and Public Relations at the University of Ljubljana, and Partner in strategic consulting and communication company Herman & partners Ltd. Slovenia. He received his PhD from the London School of Economics and Political Science, UK. A Fulbright scholar, recipient of the Pathfinder Award, the highest academic honour bestowed by the Institute for Public Relations (IPR) in New York, and named a Distinguished Public Relations Scholar by the European Public Relations Education and Research Association (EUPRERA). In 1991 he was the founding director of Slovenian national news agency (STA). Organizing the annual International Public Relations 2 AUTHORS 33 Research Symposium – BledCom since 1994. Verghese, Aniisu K, Sabre Poland (Poland) • Aniisu K. Verghese is an award-winning internal communications leader, author, speaker, trainer and blogger with over 22 years of experience. His mission is to help individuals and organizations discover and develop their sweet-spot through effective communications. He is the author of Internal Communications – Insights, Practices and Models and Get Intentional. Aniisu is passionate about engaging communicators and students through workshops, speaking engagements, teaching assignments and blogging. Vidaković, Ivona, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Wang, Yijing, Erasmus University Rotterdam (The Netherlands) Wang, Wendi, Nanjing Normal University (China) Weder, Franzisca, The University of Queensland (Australia) Westermann, Arne, University of Applied Sciences (Germany) • He, Ph.D., born in 1972 in Bochum/Germany, is Professor for Communications and Marketing at the International School of Management (ISM) in Dortmund. He is the Program Director for the Master Program Strategic Marketing Management and Head of the Brand & Retail Management Institute @ ISM. Additionally, he is in charge of Marketing in the ISM’s educational division. He is author of several books, studies and essays dealing with corporate communications as well as online communications and social media. In addition to his academic career he draws on vast experience as a practitioner and consultant in corporate and brand communications. Wu, Jing, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) • She holds Master of Marketing Communications from University of Melbourne, Australia. Research Orientation: Integrated Marketing Communications, Public Relations, Advertising Strategies. Research grant: Associate investigator,‘ A research on audience behaviorofscience communication in new media era’, China Research Institute for Science Popularization. Wu, Shih Chia, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, China) • Dr. Wu Shih-Chia, Deputy Director of M.S.Sc. in Corporate Communication from the School of Journalism and Communication, the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK). Her recent research on social media usage behavior and influence in Greater China has received attention from academia, industry, and media. She also accelerates the learning of corporate social responsibility (CSR) communication studies in Taiwan and Hong Kong’s universities. Her latest new book, “Style Marketing” in Chinese, has been published. Prior to CUHK, as an accredited communicator with rich industry experience, Dr. Wu is specialized in global brand management, corporate & crisis communication, and strategic planning. She used to work at Chanel, P&G, and DaimlerChrysler as executive management team member and served as the 2 AUTHORS 34 corporate spokesperson. Zerfass, Ansgar, University of Leipzig (Germany) • Dr. Ansgar Zerfass is Professor and Chair of Strategic Communication at the Institute of Communication and Media Studies at Leipzig University, Germany. He is also Professor of Communication and Leadership at BI Norwegian Business School, Oslo, Norway, and Plank Scholar at the Plank Center for Leadership and Public Relations at the University of Alabama, USA. He is editor of the “International Journal of Strategic Communication”, Routledge, USA; Board Member of the International Communication Association (ICA), Washington D.C.; and lead researcher for the Global Communication Monitor series with (bi-) annual surveys in more than 80 countries. Ziegele, Daniel, University of Leipzig (Germany) • Daniel Ziegele is Research Associate for Strategic Communication at the Institute of Communication and Media Studies at Leipzig University. He also leads the Communications Trend Radar, an annual study on trends for corporate communications by the Academic Society for Management and Communication. His research focuses on strategic communication, communication consulting and trends in communication management. Žabkar, Vesna, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Yannas, Prodromos, University of Western Macedonia (Greece) • Prodromos Yannas is Professor of International Relations and Communication-Publicity in the Department of Business Administration at the University of West Attica. He holds a BA in Economics from the College of Wooster (1981), an MA in Political Science from Miami University (1982) and a PhD in International Relations from the American University (1989). He has taught in the United States at the American University and Mount Vernon College (1989–1991) and in Greece at the Athens University of Economics and Business (1992–1995), the Hellenic Naval War College (1993–1998), the Technological Education Institute (TEI) of Western Macedonia (1998–2013), the Piraeus University of Applied Sciences (2013–2018) and the University of West Attica (2018–present). The research interests of Professor Yannas span three areas: International Relations, Public Relations and Communication. His publications have appeared in refereed journals, books chapters and international conference proceedings. He is member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Electronic Government Research. Yue, Cen April, University of Connecticut (USA) • Cen (April) Yue is an Assistant Professor of Marketing, Advertising, and Public Relations at the University of Connecticut. Her research interests focus on internal public relations, leadership communication, organizational change management, and relationship management. She has published in scholarly journals such as Public Relations Review, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, International Journal of Communication, and International Journal of Business Communication, among others. She has received over 10 top paper and research awards and recognitions from national and international communication associations and conferences. She is also a Research Editor at the Institute for Public Relations’ Organizational Communication Research Center. 3 ABSTRACTS 35 2022 PAPER ABSTRACTS 3 ABSTRACTS 36 A Decade of Theoretical Frameworks in Social Media Research in Public Relations Avidar, Ruth, The Max Stern Yezreel Valley College (Israel) Roth-Cohen, Osnat, Ariel University (Israel) Introduction and purpose of the study availability, convenience of use, personalization and rapid exposure to messages based on full Social media (SM) has become a key operating media consumer participation and the ability of channel in public relations (PR) and triggered both consumers and organizations to respond at PR scholars to learn more about the value of SM. any time. The centrality of SM in the field of PR In addition to PR practitioners that perceive SM has driven scholars to try and build a normative as changing the way PR is practiced (Wright & SM theory specifically tailored for PR based on Hinson, 2014), PR scholars have also demon- SM’s unique attributes such as dialogue, engage- strated an increased interest in this unique phe- ment, social presence, and conversational human nomenon over the last decade. However, from voice, in order to better understand the phenom- a scholarly standpoint, research has shown that enon and its practice. PR scholars often borrow theories and concepts from mass communication, journalism, advertis- Despite the above-mentioned studies, none of ing, and other fields when exploring SM in PR them have systematically identified peer-re- rather than building a unique SM theory of PR viewed journal articles in SM or presented the (Kent & Li, 2020) or even suggesting a unified theoretical growth of SM research from a PR terminology (Verčič, Verčič, & Sriramesh, 2015). perspective. To fill this gap, this study systemati- The aim of this study is to explore and analyze cally investigated theoretical frameworks used in the theoretical frameworks used in SM-related SM-related PR research in the last decade. PR research in the period of 2010-2020, to bet- ter understand the state of the field and future Methodology theoretical developments. This study is based on a systematic review and Literature review a content analysis of 575 articles addressing SM research from a PR perspective, published be- SM research is the fastest growing area in the tween 2010-2020 in nine PR-focused peer-re- history of PR, and new media are changing the viewed journals (Public Relations Review, Jour- way PR is practiced and the way organizations nalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, communicate with stakeholders, gatekeepers and International Journal of Strategic Communi- audiences (European Communication Monitor, cation, Corporate Communications: An Inter- 2021; Wright and Hinson, 2017). This might be national Journal, Journal of Communication due to the dominant features of SM: immediacy, Management, Public Relations Journal, Journal 3 ABSTRACTS 37 of Public Relations Research, Prism, and Public diated Crisis Communication Model (SMCC) Relations Inquiry). Articles were included in the over the past decade, and it became one of the sample if they were (1) full-length articles, (2) most used PR theories. Finally, the findings also published in one of the nine journals selected, point to the multidisciplinary of the field of PR (3) included one of 16 SM terms defined in ad- that still “borrows” theoretical frameworks from vance in their title, abstract or keywords, (4) other related fields such as mass communica-were conducted in the field of PR, and (5) were tion, journalism, and others. This finding is in published between January 1, 2010 to December line with Kent and Li’s (2020) argument that a 31, 2020. specific SM theory for PR does not really exist, though it is much needed considering the abun- Results and conclusions dance of scholarship on SM in PR. The search resulted in a total of 926 hits, and Limitations after cleaning the data (removing duplicates, commentaries, etc.) a total of 575 articles were Our data collection procedure included only included in the final sample. peer-reviewed articles published in 9 selected journals in English and no other venues, lan- A relatively high percentage (66.26%) of stud- guages, and disciplines. ies explicitly presented theoretical frameworks. The most frequently used theories were theories Implications for future research from the PR domain: Dialogic Theory and Situ- Our study can be viewed as a starting point for ational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT). the development of a stronger theoretical under- It is interesting to note that while relationship standing of incorporating SM within PR. It is management theory was the second most fre- expected that future theoretical frameworks will quently used perspective in PR research during relate to various developments in the field of PR, the first decade of the 21st century (Sallot, Lyon, such as new SM platforms, increasing organiza- Acosta-Alzuru, & Jones, 2003), it was less fre- tional capabilities to store and analyze big data, quently present in SM research from 2010 to and various ethical and moral challenges related 2020, in the articles assessed in this research. to privacy, transparency, personalization, and in- formation security. In addition to the popularity of SCCT, the in- creasing scholarly interest in crisis communica- Keywords: Social media, Systematic review, Content tion encouraged the development of Social-Me-analysis, PR theory, PR Journals 3 ABSTRACTS 38 Power of words and angry online publics: A study of discursive muscularity in networked mobilization of fan groups in China Ban, Zhuo, University of Cincinnati (USA) As the communication technology (ICT) shifts tions among online fan groups in China. Using and reshapes the modes and processes of social data collected from Weibo, a China-based so- interactions, there is increasing interest among cial media platform, I observe how members of public relations researchers in various online ac- fan groups combine the logics of ethical con- tivist publics and their impact on the strategic sumption, national pride, and celebrity-fan re- goals of organizations. In comparison to brick- lationship, and successfully mobilize collective/ and-mortar organizations in which members connective actions that specifically target at exercise embodied interactions with each other, non-discursive (i.e., material) outcomes using online activist networks or collectives are char- largely discursive means. In doing so, I argue acterized by exchanges in mediated and discur- that fan groups represent a discursively “porous” sive forms. As the discursive aspect is central to structure that can amplify the reifying power of understanding online publics, so is the question language. of discursive muscularity in their organizational processes. Does online activism have the same Social structures and organizations can be either “porous” or “impermeable” to material, substan- kind of social impact as protests in the street, for tive influences of discursive events. In highlight- example? Can an angry internet-based collective ing the impact of social structural and organi- pose similar challenges to business organize as zational features on discursive muscularity, I social movement organizations that work off- recognize that fan groups in China serves as a line? In other words, do discursively constructed “porous” organizational structure where mem- online collectives have the ability to bring about ber of the organization, fans of celebrities (most substantive, material outcomes? The question of them luminous figures in the entertainment about discursive muscularity becomes more im- industry), have found a clear and consistent portant during the COVID pandemic, as more pathway of using their individual or collective social collectives, even those that used to operate voices to influence socio reality that are other- face-to-face, are moving more of their activities wise impermeable. online. Fan pressure is a routine part of the life in a fan In this study, I examine the characteristics and group. Communication activities in the forms of processes of discursive muscularity of online discussions, petitions, informal sensus and votes, publics, using the example of activist mobiliza- and picketing (both on and off-line), etc., rou- 3 ABSTRACTS 39 tinely takes place in attempts to sway the deci- ROI, and brand image, the fan base largely de- sions of the celebrity on matters both private termines the professional and commercial value and public, ranging from marriage decisions of the celebrity. In this sense, fan power is not to sponsorship contracts, from outfit choice to real grassroots power, but power granted by the stance on political issues. The porousness of the multi-billion dollar celebrity-based industry, and fan group stems, first and foremost, from the more fundamentally, the “separation of labor” or internal logic of the groups. Such relationship, “outsourcing” of the communication-relation- based on the idea of a special celebrity-fan re- ship aspect of business by giant, consumer-based, lationship, legitimizes open exchanges over the industries. personal and professional lives of the celebrity and encourages impassioned pressure over their Based on my observation and analysis of online decisions, unbarred by ethical concerns for au- fan groups in China, I discuss how online activist tonomy or privacy. group like these gain ‘discursive teeth’, resulting in effective and consequential mobilization and Members of the fan group can set and reset, organization of connective actions. I also discuss draw and undraw organizational boundaries of- the theoretical and practical implications of new ten with no more than an impassioned exchange forms of connected activism, in particular the of words. Fan group activism is founded on the strategic maneuver of polarization and suppres- economic logic of “liking”. It is this economic sion that are demonstrated in the selected cases. logic that gives an online fan group its discur- sive porousness. As industries tap into the pop- Keywords: fan group, online activism, chinese social ularity of the celebrities for commercial success, media 3 ABSTRACTS 40 PR Education: Reloaded. The Pandemic’s Legacy for Public Relations Teachers and Students Barlik, Jacek, University of Warsaw (Poland) Introduction and purpose of the study RQ1 – How do PR students perceive the role of the PR industry, especially during the pandemic After two years of primarily remote public re- (and beyond)? Are they aware of reputational lations teaching due to the pandemic (which is issues that have been plaguing the field? expected to be over soon), PR educators and students prepare to shift to an in-person in- RQ2 – What are PR students’ expectations to- struction that had been common before spring wards their careers? Do PR studies prepare them 2020. This task will require reestablishment (or adequately for PR jobs, also in pandemic (by reboot) of relationships between instructors and mostly online instruction)? their students to meet the new, post-pandemic expectations of the PR industry. After the pan- RQ3 – Which online instruction methods have demic, some technology-based teaching methods been proven effective during the pandemic and are likely to stay on for longer. In contrast, oth- should be kept on in the PR curricula when the ers will be dropped as ineffective and harder to situation gets back to normal? implement, especially in such areas as PR ethics and professional standards in the industry. Re- Literature review search among PR students should help educators and PR industry leaders to improve PR studies Scholars pointed out that during the pandemic curricula in the post-pandemic era and to bet- and later, a heavy reliance on online education- ter respond to many challenges (like a lack of al techniques will create both threats and op- in-person relationships and online instruction at portunities to PR education: the former include schools) PR students have been facing over the declining academic standards and the lack of last two years. situational (in-person) learning, while the lat- ter refers to collaborative learning, open educa- Research questions tion resources, extended dialogic and feedback Therefore, several research questions on PR mechanisms, and to applying new technologies, students’ level of preparedness to work in their more student-friendly, especially online- and chosen field, their attitude towards the ethical mobile-based (Vujnovic, & Kruckeberg, 2021; problems and professional standards in the PR Fullerton, & McKinnon, 2015). industry, and the pandemic’s influence on pre- ferred teaching methods and effectiveness of on- Calls for ongoing dialogue among the PR indus- line instruction should be asked: try, practitioners, and educators to develop a PR curriculum relevant to contemporary challenges 3 ABSTRACTS 41 and needs of clients and employers, also created Results and conclusions by the pandemic and post-pandemic era, have been consistently voiced by PR experts and lead- The research will find out whether PR students ers. They address many vital themes in PR ed- (as would-be practitioners) are prepared ade- ucation, including a mix of theory and practice quately to make it in their field and whether PR in the PR curriculum, a list of required courses, curricula – primarily based on online methods skills and competencies of teachers, and tech- during the pandemic – are functional and effec- nological, cultural, and social aspects of com- tive from their point of view. The results will munication (Kim, Quesenberry, Sutherland, & also suggest which remote teaching techniques Freberg, 2021). However, they overlook the should be kept in PR schools beyond the current opinions and experience of PR students who pandemic, thus improving the overall quality of have to struggle and adjust to the PR industry’s PR education. requirements during their first professional ef- forts, like internships and entry-level jobs. Literature Methodology Fullerton, J.A., & McKinnon, L.M. (2015). U.S. Public Relations Students’ Perceptions of PR: The study will be based on quantitative research What College Students Think About PR Edu- among undergraduate and graduate PR students cation and the PR Profession. Public Relations in a European country. Respondents (at least Journal, vol. 9, issue 2, https://prjournal.insti-200 students) will be recruited by their teachers tuteforpr.org/wp-content/uploads/2015v09n- (by request of this researcher) at several univer- 02FullertonMcKinnon.pdf. sities that run PR sequences. As similar research Kim, C., Quesenberry, K., Sutherland, K., & Fre- was conducted previously (before the pandemic berg, K. (2021). Digital Learning: Standards in 2019 and at the height of it in 2021), the and Best Practices for Public Relations Edu- results will allow for comparisons of PR stu- cation in Undergraduate Programs. Journal of dents’ attitudes and expectations towards their Public Relations Education, vol. 7 no. 2, 77-105. field, their preferred teaching methods (includ- ing online ones), and awareness of ethical issues Vujnovic, M., & Kruckeberg, D. (2021). Run- and professional standards in the more extended ning Against the Tide: Educating Future Public period. Relations and Communications Professionals in the Age of Neoliberalism. ESSACHESS – Journal for Communication Studies, Vol. 14 Issue 1(27), 161-179. Keywords: functionalism, online teaching, public relations education, public relations students 3 ABSTRACTS 42 Adopting a network perspective for stakeholder engagement and research during Covid- 19: The case of GBV research among private sector organisations in South Africa Benecke, Dalien René, University of Johannesburg (South Africa) Davis, Corné, University of Johannesburg (South Africa) Introduction and purpose of the study must engage in issues that affect sustainability locally, as well as globally (Benecke, 2019). Pub-We aim to show how the new paradigm of stra- lic relations scholars have been researching the tegic public relations that embraces a network development of stakeholder networks, the vari- perspective (Yang & Saffer, 2019), supported ous nodes and actors involved, how these relate and enabled ground breaking GBV research that to each other and the issue at hand as well as not only fostered meaningful stakeholder en- the influence of these networks on society (Yang gagement, but also created new platforms for & Saffer, 2019). Networks increase interaction, multi-sectoral partnerships and collaboration in variation and selection (Davis, 2011) and in do- future research. This paper presents a case study on how a network approach was used to engage ing so they enable communication that would with leaders in private sector organisations in not have occurred otherwise. South Africa to explore their views and opinions Since the publication of the National Strategic about the private sector’s role and responsibili- Plan in South Africa on 11 March 2020, there ty in addressing GBV as in issue that affects all has been an increasing call on private sector sectors of society and that necessarily impacts organisations to participate in addressing gen- employees in all sectors. der-based violence (GBV) that is five times more Literature review prevalent in South Africa than in other coun- tries. Previously, GBV has been addressed pre- Over the past three decades there has been a dominantly as a public health concern and the noticeable paradigm shift in public relations private sector, as well as most social scientific theorising, placing increasing emphasis on the disciplines focused on organisations, business, or relationships between organisations and society strategy, had been excluded from GBV discours- (Holmström, 2006). The central tenet is that es and engagement (Davis, 2020). However, the all stakeholders, including private sector organ- business case for global sustainability has long isations, universities, government organisations, been established and the Economic, Social and non-government organisations and civil society Government (ESG) scores have become a key 3 ABSTRACTS 43 driver of strategy for the private sector. Since Reference list GBV has been flagged as a critical global sus- tainability issue, estimated at costing the global Benecke, D.R. (2019). The social representation economy more than $10 trillion annually (UN of Public Relations Activism in early career Women, 2016), it is indisputable that it is an South African Public Relations Practitioners. issue that necessitates all stakeholders to collab- Unpublished doctoral thesis. University of Jo- orate in addressing it. hannesburg. Cutler, A. (2004). Methodical failure: the use Research approach and data collection of case study method by public relations re- A case study research approach (Cutler, 2004) searchers. Public Relations Review, 30 (3), pp. is followed to investigate these stakeholder net- 365 – 375. works with a key focus being placed on the var- Davis, C. (2011). A second-order explanation ious nodes and actors involved and how inter- for the existence of network direct selling or- connectivity features and what the effects of the ganisations as self-creating systems. Doctoral various affiliations were on inter-organisational dissertation. UNISA. Unpublished. networks. Secondary data as presented by the Davis, C. (2020). How the private sector can various engagements between actors as well as address gender-based violence. African Safety interviews with selected organisational repre- Promotion 18(1):106-115. sentatives will be used to inform the findings. Holmström, S. (2006). The co-evolution of so- Contribution of the study ciety and organization. Organizational Legiti- macy and the Public Sphere, 1, 54-72. This study forms part of a bigger study involving the development of multi-organisational struc- Yang, A. & Saffer, A.J. (2019). Embracing a net- tures to address the GBV crisis in South Africa. work perspective in the network society: The This study will contribute in documenting the dawn of a new paradigm in strategic public re- various networks actors and nodes, their inter- lations. Public Relations Review 45(4):101843 actions and the influence of these interactions at the onset of the project. 3 ABSTRACTS 44 Reboot: Rediscover Communication with Internal and External Stakeholders through Engagement on Social Issues Bernardino, Paula, Credibility Institute (Canada) Introduction climate change or economic inequality – which contributes to the lack of trust”. The COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in March 2020 brought an opportunity to better define Employees and consumers, especially Millen- the “S” of ESG (Environment, Social and Gover- nials, are increasingly becoming more socially nance). Investors were quick at expressing want- conscious (and that trend is likely to continue ing to see a greater emphasis on the “S” of ESG with Gen Z). Younger consumers tend to re- by getting companies to reflect how they were search companies before they make purchasing treating their employees during these difficult decisions to identify these companies’ actions to- times and making it clear it was going to be a wards social issues. Younger employees do sim- consideration when analyzing their ESG reports ilar research before applying to a job posting. moving forward. This provides an opportunity for how organi- zations interact with their publics. Communica- Shortly after the pandemic outbreak, major soci- tion and public relation practitioners must play a etal issues emerged in 2020, whether the death role to earn back trust from their organizations’ of George Floyd in the United States in May stakeholders. 2020 which prompted the Black Lives Matter movement, or the discovery of unmarked graves Methodology at a former residential school sites in Canada in 2021, opening an era of communication ex- A media content analysis pectations from businesses on engaging and ad- dressing social issues. Research Problem and Questions Purpose (1) What is the history of organizations engag- ing on social issues? Edelman’s 2022 Trust Barometer identified a state of “cycle of distrust” where people do not (2) Which stakeholders voice stronger opinions trust businesses to actually “walk the talk” when on businesses embracing social issues? it comes to social issues and values, which clash- • shareholders es with people’s expectations wanting more from • employees businesses when it comes to engagement on so- cial issues. In most cases, respondents said “com- • consumers panies aren’t doing enough to address issues like • board members 3 ABSTRACTS 45 (3) What is the state of businesses communicat- References ing social issues around the world? 2022 Edelman Trust Barometer – The Cy- • USA cle of Distrust - https://www.edelman.com/ • Canada trust/2022-trust-barometer • Europe Activists target public relations groups for greenwashing fossil fuels, by Andrew Edge- (4) What are the current trends in communicat- cliffe-Johnson in Financial Times (January ing social issues? 11, 2022) - https://www.ft.com/content/ (5) What are future perspectives in social issues f90562d6-6673-457a-901e-257eb4578d98 management? How communicators can help break the ‘cycle of distrust’, by Emma Atkinson in PR Daily Conclusions and Key Take Aways (January 24, 2002) - https://www.prdaily. com/how-communicators-can-help-break-the- Answers to the five research questions helped: cycle-of-distrust/ • Determine what is “responsible, sincere and ‘Social Washing’ Is Becoming Growing Head- authentic communications”. ache for ESG Investors, by Alastair Marsh • How communications and public relation in Bloomberg News (April 9, 2020) - https:// practitioners can avoid the trap of “wash- www.bnnbloomberg.ca/social-washing-is-be- ing” their messages on social issues. coming-growing-headache-for-esg-inves- tors-1.1419774 • Which social issues businesses need to embrace and communicate based on their Workers losing faith in employers as they stakeholders. head back to the office, by Matthew Boyle in Bloomberg News (January 26, 2022) - https:// financialpost.com/fp-work/workers-losing- faith-in-employers-as-they-head-back-to-the- office Keywords: corporate social responsibility, CSR, corporate responsibility, corporate reputation, social issues, authenticity, trust, issues management, credibility 3 ABSTRACTS 46 Governmental Use of Social Media and AI during Disasters, Crises, and Emergency Response Bowen, Shannon A., University of South Carolina (USA) Introduction and Purpose Limitations and Suggestions for Future Re- search This paper explores the conference theme of whether social media could use a reboot in com- Hurricane response was used as an example in municating with stakeholders during disasters, a coastal southeastern state in the USA. This re- crises, or emergencies. To some extent, this “re- search is illustrative of response in that state but boot” is not optional: it is happening due to rap- due to variances in states and governing struc- id changes in technology such as AI and machine tures, and across nationalities, the conclusions learning, and due to social changes and pressures should not be applied to other areas without from the sustained crisis of the global Covid-19 further study. Future studies could compare and pandemic. contrast other states, public sector organizations, and nationalities in use of social media and AI in Literature Review emergencies. This study examines the literature of crises, Results and Conclusions emergency, and disaster management, as well as government and public affairs, ethics of gov- Officials detailed the extent to which they used ernmental relations, and applications of artificial different social media platforms during such an intelligence in communication and social media emergency, how media relations takes place, use. RQ: This paper asks, to what extent are how misinformation is handled (from honest mistakes to maleficent bad actors), and how cit- public affairs officers (PAOs) - or Public Infor- izen-stakeholders are communicated with via mation Officers (PIOs) - using social media and social media during crises. Participants want an Artificial Intelligence (AI) to help manage cri- AI that can show sentiment analysis, monitor ses, emergencies, and disasters? Method: Data news sources, measure the reach of their own collection and analyses is still ongoing: Two fo- messages disseminated via social media, and find cus groups and 8 in-depth interviews with 40 problematic or incorrect information. Current- PAOs working in governmental agencies were ly, research, data analytics, and AI are little-used conducted to understand how social media is in governmental public affairs, especially during used during a crisis, the extent to which misin- crises. This finding shows a need for formative formation interferes with accurate information, and evaluative research, as well as a potential for and the potential for AI application in optimiz- marked improvement in efficiencies via AI ap- ing efficiencies during a crisis or natural disaster. plications. 3 ABSTRACTS 47 Practical and social implications PAOs/PIOs could have a revolutionized ability to identify information reach, flows, provenance, and authenticity as well as to address misinfor- mation on social media via the use of AI. As a computer science team develops the AI sup- porting this research, the use of AI and machine learning will be tested which can speed the effi- ciency and accuracy of responses to hurricanes and other crises/disasters. Emergency manage- ment could be improved in numerous ways and used in many locales. Keywords: Public Affairs; Social Media; Crisis; Disaster; AI Acknowledgment: Research funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF). 3 ABSTRACTS 48 “It’s just a job” Public relations careers in the sex industry Bridgen, Elizabeth, Sheffield Hallam University (UK) Introduction and purpose of study Practical and social implications The positioning of public relations as a strategic The ‘public relations’ experienced by older prac- management function is the result of it drawing titioners, freelancers, and those working in mar- its body of knowledge and justification from a ginalised occupations (such as the sex industry reasonably mainstream range of organisational and for ‘unethical’ causes such as tobacco as well types and cultures. Public relations may be more as for radical causes) and those whose appear- – or less – than this. We do not know because ance, abilities, culture, religion or nationality the research around the value of public relations marks them as ‘different’ are excluded as subjects to organisations has given little space to the from most public relations research. As a result, opinions, innovations and experiences of those the industry’s desire for ‘diversity’ falls short – working in marginalised or ‘dirty’ roles or occu- sometimes diversity of thought appears only to pations. As Edwards points out: “the other must be acceptable when it comes from people con- be allowed to speak [… and…] be able to con- sidered worthy of inclusion by industry leaders struct a narrative of the world that reflects their and researchers. This, of course, excludes many own experience.” (2015:8) and as researchers, modes of public relations practice that fall out- we have a duty to include all worlds when we side the dominant paradigm. talk about the public relations industry and not just draw our understanding from those we see Literature Review as acceptable or performing the ‘right’ type of public relations. Some may find the idea that the adult industry has public relations roles and a career structure To play a small part in including the views of problematic – how, for instance, does this sit ‘others’, my paper explores the lives and work with the notion that a public relations profes- of women working in public relations and sional should be the “conscience of an organi- communication roles in the ‘adult’ industry sation” (e.g. Neill, & Drumwright, 2012)? But (worth an estimated $15 billion worldwide). dismissing a highly profitable but ‘dirty’ sector is Tibbals notes that “the voices and experiences to overlook and denigrate the people who work of women working in the adult film industry are in it and the experiences and knowledge creat- often overlooked” (2013:21). In other words, ed therein. For instance, Calvert and Richards just because we find an organisation distasteful, (2006), who interviewed five women working should it mean that we disregard the experiences in professional roles in the adult film industry, of those who work in it? noted that it was important to “benefit from un- derstanding the viewpoints and options of real people who produce and perform the content 3 ABSTRACTS 49 which is of scholarly debate” (261). Bibliography Within the adult industry the role of public Calvert, C., & Richards, R. D. (2006). Porn in relations is acknowledged and foregrounded. Their Words: Female Leaders in the Adult Cormella (2008), writing of the AVN Adult Entertainment Industry Address Free Speech, Entertainment Expo, Las Vegas observed that at- Censorship, Feminism, Culture and the Main- tendees included “adult retailers, manufacturers, streaming of Adult Content. Vanderbilt Jour- porn producers, industry talent, fans, public re- nal of Entertainment and Technology Law , lations experts, and members of the media.” And 9(2), 255-300 Tibbals noted that the adult industry was more Comella, L. (2008). It’s sexy. it’s big business. diverse in its recruitment than mainstream pub- and it’s not just for men. Contexts, 7(3), 61-63. lic relations, giving employment to those who did not have “both a relevant degree and the Edwards, L. (2015.) Power, Diversity and Public class privilege required to complete an unpaid Relations. Abingdon: Routledge internship” (2013:30). Neill, Marlene S. & Drumwright, Minette E. (2012). PR Professionals as Organizational Research questions Conscience . Journal of Mass Media Ethics 27 What is the lived experience of women working (4):220-234. in public relations and communications in the Tibbals, C. A. (2013). Sex work, office work: adult industry? Women working behind the scenes in the US adult film industry. Gender, Work & Organiza- What do these women think about the ‘main- tion, 20(1), 20-35. stream’ public relations industry and their mar- ginalised position within it? Keywords: Public Relations; adult industry; professionalism; lived experience; practitioners; pornogra-Methodology phy To explore my research questions, I gathered in- formal interview data from women working in public relations and communications roles in the adult industry. Results and conclusions My early research demonstrates that high qual- ity public relations work is carried out within the adult industry and that professional qualifi- cations are not unusual but those working in the industry feel excluded from many discussions about the role of public relations. 3 ABSTRACTS 50 The impact of marketing communication strategies on online consumer- brand community engagement during COVID-19 pandemic Chan, Chun-Hsiang, Taipei Medical University (Taiwan) Wu, Shih-Chia, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) Introduction and purpose of the study media account would be appropriate. Consider- ing the high social media penetration rate and Online brand community engagement plays industry characteristics (one of the most affected a vital role in developing and sustaining con- industries), the official Facebook account of a sumer-brand interaction to disseminate the lat- premium chain restaurant brand in Taiwan was est news to drive purchase intention (Bilro & selected. Loureiro, 2020). Due to the social distancing and lockdown policies that led to various mea- Literature review surements against the local epidemic, the online brand community became the major communi- The process of behavioral engagement of com- cation channel for brands during the COVID-19 munity members on social media could be explic- pandemic. In turn, various waves of pandemic itly elaborated by stimulus-organism-response measurements may affect consumer-brand inter- (S-O-R model), brand-generated content stim- actions differently. To investiage the phenome- ulates (S) consumer’s emotional reaction (from non, this study aims to quantitatively evaluate brand learning, entitativity, and hedonic values) the changes in consumer-brand interactions on that drives consumer’s behavior response (Carl- social media between two pandemic waves, in- son, Rahman, Voola, & De Vries, 2018). More- cluding pre-, during, and post-pandemic periods. over, the stimulation of behavior engagement is based on service-dominant (S-D) logic, referring Since the outbreak of Covid-19, Taiwan has to an inherently beneficiary-oriented and rela-been one of the few areas with less confirmed tional framework (Chandler & Lusch, 2014). cases after adopting solid epidemic prevention From a practical perspective, Raïes, Mühlbach- policies. Both moderate and rigorous epidemic er, and Gavard-Perret (2015) mentioned that prevention policies have been implemented, re- behavioral engagement could be quantified by spectively, from January to April 2020 and from the frequency and level of brand-consumer in- May to July 2021. Therefore, using Taiwan as teractions. The context of behavioral engage- an example to assess longer term consumer en- ment on Facebook is adequate to elaborate its gagement behavior on an official brand social changes due to epidemic prevention policy be- 3 ABSTRACTS 51 cause consumer-brand interaction is multilevel likes ( p < 0.001), comments ( p = 0.091), and (posts, comments, and shares) and multivariate the daily number of shares ( p = 0.004) in the structure (reacts and replies) (Ángeles Ovie- share levels in L2EA were significantly higher do-García, 2014). than L3EA. Though L3EA showed a higher en- gagement in the pre-pandemic, this trend did Methodology not sustain during the pandemic and post-pan- The engagement data from the Facebook fan page demic periods. of the premium chain restaurants were collected Practical implications in 2020 and 2021 via web crawler technique, including posts (numbers of likes, comments, As one of the most affected industries during the and shares within a post), comments (numbers pandemic, restaurants initiated many new ways of likes, replies within a comment, and the dai- to engage consumers through their online brand ly number of comments), and shares (numbers community by posting food delivery services, of likes, comments, shares within a shared post, takeout, and food tips. During both pandemics, and the daily number of shares). Two pandemic the restaurant brand attempted to capture con- waves in Taiwan were examined from January sumers’ attention and to stimulate their intrinsic 23 to April 13, 2020 (level 2 epidemic alert – motivation into behavior engagement response L2EA) and from 15 to July 26, 2021 (epidemic with similar services. One possible explanation alert – L3EA). of higher engagement in L2EA is that consumers had strong emotional needs of having restaurant The pre- and post-pandemic periods were de- services in the beginning of the pandemic that is termined by the range of available data in the in line with the S-O-R model. two epidemic periods, covering one month of the pre-pandemic period of L2EA and L3EA and L3EA, one year after the pandemic, did not four months after the two pandemics. In total, perform a higher engagement that may result 192 posts, 19,912 comments, and 15,400 shared from the anticipated hedonic or utilitarian ser- posts were collected. An independent t-test was vices from the restaurants that may not be able adopted to examine the engagement variation to satisfy consumers. The use of similar stimu- between the two pandemic periods. li (the post content) could not raise the same engagement response or sustain engagement Results and Conclusion of brand-consumer interactions, resulting in a diminishing marginal utility effect in the on- In the pre-pandemic period, numbers of likes ( p line brand community. Hence, in the restau- < 0.001) and replies within a comment ( p = rant industry, the descending trend of online 0.004) in the comment level in L3EA was sig-brand-consumer engagement could be expected nificantly higher than L2EA, while numbers of in the future possible pandemic periods if no likes within a shared post ( p = 0.006) in the new or strong intervention. L2EA share level was significantly higher than L3EA. During the pandemic, the comment level in L2EA was similar to L3EA, while numbers of likes ( p = 0.001) and comments within a shared post ( p = 0.056) in the share level in L2EA were significantly higher than L3EA. In the post-pandemic period, the daily number of comments in the comment level ( p = 0.011) and numbers of 3 ABSTRACTS 52 References Ángeles Oviedo-García, M. (2014). Metric pro- posal for customer engagement in Facebook. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 8(4), 327-344. doi:10.1108/JRIM-05-2014-0028 Bilro, R. G., & Loureiro, S. M. C. (2020). A con- sumer engagement systematic review: synthe- sis and research agenda. Spanish Journal of Mar- keting - ESIC, 24(3), 283-307. doi:10.1108/ SJME-01-2020-0021 Carlson, J., Rahman, M., Voola, R., & De Vries, N. (2018). Customer engagement behaviours in social media: capturing innovation opportu- nities. Journal of Services Marketing, 32(1), 83-94. doi:10.1108/JSM-02-2017-0059 Chandler, J. D., & Lusch, R. F. (2014). Service Systems: A Broadened Framework and Research Agenda on Value Proposi- tions, Engagement, and Service Experi- ence. Journal of Service Research, 18(1), 6-22. doi:10.1177/1094670514537709 Raïes, K., Mühlbacher, H., & Gavard-Perret, M.- L. (2015). Consumption community commit- ment: Newbies’ and longstanding members’ brand engagement and loyalty. Journal of Busi- ness Research, 68(12), 2634-2644. doi:https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.04.007 3 ABSTRACTS 53 All the lonely people: Considering the attributes of audiences who consume and share untruthful content Chmiel, Michal, Royal Holloway, University of London (UK) Thompson, Gareth, London College of Communication, UAL (UK) Introduction conspiracy theories relating to COVID-19 and measures to mitigate the pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic has had profoundly negative effects globally. Beyond the immediate Purpose challenges to physical health of the virus itself, the policies and associated public communication Scholars in public relations, public health and of many national governments to protect their other fields have already diligently attended to populations from physical harm – such as the senders and their messaging in relation to the authoritarian advocacy of lockdowns, self-iso- pandemic and other crises. The focus of this lation and social distancing – have generated project is to help public relations practitioners unintended consequences in the form of mental to better understand audiences in these situa- health issues. In particular, while many people tions. In particular, the purpose of the study that have reported a combination of anxiety, isola- follows is to explore how various individual psy- tion and loneliness during the pandemic, Jones chological attributes affect an audience’s suscep- et al. (2021) identified that vulnerable minority groups such as ethnic minorities, LGBTQ+ com- tibility to receive and accept untruthful content, munities, low-income families and those already as well as drive their propensity to share such in poor health were at significantly greater risk material on social media. of experiencing loneliness. Literature Review The public communication style of many gov- ernments has combined authoritarianism with Previous studies suggested that supporters of paternalism in order to compel citizens to com- right-wing ideologies manifest a stronger ten- ply with loose guidance and obey new and often dency to share fake news (FN) but political ori- hastily-imposed laws restricting freedoms. De- entation alone did not explain the tendency to spite this public communication effort, a propor- spread FN. Collective Narcissism (CN, de Za- tion of citizens in many nations remains indif- vala et al. 2009) defined as an unrealistic and ferent or opposed to public health messages on exaggerated belief in greatness of one’s ingroup topics such as vaccination. Moreover, over two was identified as a moderator of sharing FN. The years on from the initial reports of COVID-19, more in-group self-esteem on an implicit level groups and individuals continue to generate and was lower the higher was the tendency to share distribute untruthful content, fake news and fake information. 3 ABSTRACTS 54 In the domain of conspiracy theories, Albarracín In the next stage loneliness was experimentally (2021) suggested a motivational continuum, induced. Finally, participants were shown fake ranging from knowledge to social integration news information about risks associated with whereby believing in conspiracy theories can COVID-19 vaccine and asked to assess it on serve an ego supporting function. More specifi- several scales, including probability of sharing cally, this motivation entails defending the ego from (separately) it on social media and among their unpleasant thoughts about the self (p. 206 , Albar-peers. Participants also completed the Revised racín, 2021) . Several other motivational forces UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russel et al. 1980) are also said to play a role in support for con-twice – before and after experimental manipu- spiracy theories: reduction of uncertainty, need lation. for cognitive closure and need for uniqueness. After the study, all participants received thor- These factors have been separately investigated ough debrief information explaining the manip- as correlates of loneliness (e.g. Joubert, 1987; ulation, fake COVID-19 information and were Parlapani et al. 2020). suggested several credible sources with vacci- nation information. They were also encouraged Given this pattern of evidence, it would be inter- to participate in the Covid 19-vaccination pro- esting to investigate how a state of very few links gramme. with others (=loneliness) can further affect shar- ing fake information. The present study focuses References specifically on the phenomenon of sharing fake information and its potential ascendants: lone- Albarracín, D. (2020). Conspiracy Beliefs. liness, need for uniqueness and need for cog- Knowledge, ego defense, and social integration nitive closure and CN. Fake News sharing (for in the processing of fake news. In R. Greif- the definitional discussion see Edson et al. 2017) eneder, M. E. Jaffé, E.J. Newman & N. Schwarz is distinguished form disinformation as the lat- (Eds.), The Psychology of Fake News Accepting, er of the terms implies the deceptive intent of Sharing, and Correcting Misinformation (pp. the source (e.g. Greifeneder et al. 2021), while 196-219). Routledge. the goal of the study is to identify motivations Edson C. Tandoc Jr., Zheng Wei Lim & Rich- of sharing fake information without making as- ard Ling (2018). Defining “Fake News”, sumptions about harming or deceiving others. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137-153, DOI: 10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143 Methodology Golec de Zavala, A., Cichocka, A. K., Eidelson, R., Experimental design was proposed to establish & Jayawickreme, N. (2009). Collective narcis- causal relationships between investigated vari- sism and its social consequences. Journal of Per- sonality and Social Psychology, 97, 1074–1096. ables. Responses from 240 participants were collected as per sample size calculations provid- Keywords: Fake News, Collective Narcissism, Need ed by G*Power (Faul at al. 2009). After col-for Uniqueness, Loneliness. lecting demographic and social media use in- formation, Collective Narcissism (de Zavala et al. 2009), Need for Cognitive Closure (Roets & Hiel, 2011) and The Self Attributed Need for Uniqueness (Lynn & Harris, 1997) scales were administered. 3 ABSTRACTS 55 Establishing ‘tacit’ support as ‘CSR risk’: The case study of Boohoo and Black Lives Matter Clarke, Faye, Pembroke and Rye (UK) Read, Kevin, University of Greenwich (UK) Introduction Critique During the pandemic, and following the COP26 This framework, whilst useful for helping to summit, there has been growing pressure, espe- understand activists’ reactions to specific policy cially from millennials, Gen Z, consumer activ- or corporate action, is less helpful when trying ists and institutional investors for Governments to understand the impact that tacit support for and corporations to pursue a wider range of a cause might have for an enterprise. For ex- CSR initiatives. Whilst many new initiatives are ample, during 2020 many corporations offered underway, there has also been a growing number their support for the Black Lives Matter (BLM) of enterprises deciding to communicate public movement. Such support was not always linked support for specific causes. This paper will ex- directly to pre-existing CSR policies and in part plore whether publicly offered support can rep- was often an expression of abhorrence about the resent a significant reputational risk. murder of George Floyd. Literature review Purpose Coombs and Holladay (2015) acknowledged This exploratory paper will study the conse- that CSR can be harmful for an organisation’s quences for the UK based Boohoo fashion group, reputation if it is poorly executed. Both gre- whose brands include Pretty Little Thing, Karen enwashing (Lim et al., 2013), inconsistencies Millen and Wallis, of tacitly supporting the BLM and mismatches of actions (Bhattacharya et al., movement in the summer of 2020. Their act of 2011) are highlighted as potential stimulants support stimulated a rapid and powerful con- for reputational challenges. However, these re- sumer activist response. Boohoo’s support for a actions assume that the policy or action taken is cause rather than a specific set of actions linked intended to tackle or highlight issues that relate to pre-existing CSR policies and programmes, to specific corporations’ intentions. They relate stimulated hostile consumer reactions. This rais- to when CSR activity is used to mitigate poten- es a number of new questions around tacit sup- tial corporate risks (Bebbington et al., 2008) port that require exploration. and cover when it aims to enhance a pre-existing reputation or counter activist engagement. 3 ABSTRACTS 56 Core Questions The key focal point being whether Boohoo had the moral legitimacy to support BLM when they Firstly, can tacit support for a cause, unrelated had failed to ensure that those producing their to previous CSR activity or policies, be deemed high street garments received the National Min- a CSR risk? Secondly, will support for different imum Wage. types of cause stimulate different levels of reac- tion and types of consumer activism? Further- The speed and intensity of the consumer activ- more, if tacit support causes a strong reaction, ists’ threats are highlighted along with an explo- will a previous track record as a ‘good’ corporate ration of the notion that race was a particularly citizen with effective engagement with stake- intense trigger for action. holders, help mitigate against hostile consumer Limitations activism? Finally, when tacit support triggers consumer activism, are there preferred strategies This initial study is not designed to present a to help deal with the type of risk? complete framework for understanding tacit support as a CSR risk. Further research is re- Research quired in relation to other circumstances where tacit support has promoted a hostile reaction. To initially address these questions, findings Equally, further work is required to help develop from Clarke’s (2021) study of the Boohoo cri- a classification of risk. Potential corporate reac- sis will be presented for the first time. They are tions also need to be studied further. based on an interpretivist and multi-method ap- proach that allows for individual perceptions to Application of Findings be used to help create new thinking around how we can understand ‘tacit support’ and ‘CSR risk’. Learnings from this study can be used by corpo- rates to help assess the level of risk that is being The study draws upon content analysis of taken when tacit support is publicly offered for 180 tweets from consumer activists criticising a cause. Boohoo’s support for the BLM movement and subsequent accusations of failing to pay workers It will also be suggested to corporates and con- sultants that tacit support for a cause may vary the National Minimum Wage in their garment widely according to the issue that is being dis- factory in Leicester, England. Focus group work cussed. For example, it is speculated that issues will also reveal attitudes of consumers and activ- of race represent a higher level of risk. ists with regard to tacit support for causes. Finally, this study is set to open a dialogue with The 2021 study looks at the circumstances of PR professionals about relevant ways to respond Boohoo providing tacit support for the BLM to activist challenges that arise from tacit sup- movement. It meticulously considers tacit sup- port for a cause. port as a crisis risk. Keywords: CSR risk, BLM, Boohoo, Tacit CSR Support 3 ABSTRACTS 57 Reboot communication job search after Covid-19 pandemic: an empirical analysis Colleoni, Elanor, Università IULM (Italy) Murtarelli, Grazia, Università IULM (Italy) Romenti, Stefania, Università IULM (Italy) Purpose tions about sustainability issues. “If last year was about responding to an un- The health emergency has provided an opportu- precedented shock, this year is about recover- nity to change the games rules in the profession- ing” (Deloitte, 2022). Covid-19 pandemic has al development field by creating new jobs linked totally affected the scenario where public rela- to sustainable issues; by replacing jobs in indus- tions and communication practitioners operate tries characterised by negative environmental by increasing risk perception and a sense of un- impact with more sustainable jobs; by satisfying certainty towards different aspects of social and the educational need for competences, skills, and professional life (Zerfass et al. 2021). Profes- capabilities to manage socially responsible is- sionals have been forced to reinvent themselves sues and activities. According to this scenario, it and their work tasks due to the pandemic ef- seems necessary to investigate how communica- fects of digital transformation of workflows and tion jobs and skills demand has changed during disintermediation of relationships with isolated and after Covid-19 emergency with a specific stakeholders. focus on the area of sustainability and social re- sponsibility. Moreover, according to OECD, Covid-19 has upended how we approach our economies and Methodology society, by underlining the urgency to recon- struct a more resilient labour market addressed A systematic analysis of communication job to be sustainable and socially responsible (Laub- listings published on LinkedIn platform within iger et al., 2020). More specifically, empirical the geographical area of European Union will studies conducted by OECD have underlined be implemented. The research approach will how much Covid-19 pandemic has emphasised include the following steps: a) the application the importance of strategically addressing the of a multi-keyword search for monitoring job issues of circular economy, sustainable devel- advertising within communication field includ- opment, diversity, equity, and inclusion. During ing keywords linked to sustainability (i.e. “CSR”, the pandemic, we have assisted to short-term re- “Corporate Social Responsibility”; “Circular duction in environmental pressure (for instance Economy”, “Sustainability”, “Green Economy”, energy-related emissions have been reduced by “Environmental Communication”; “Sustainable 7%). The short-term results have heightened en- Report”); b) the implementation of webscrap- vironmental and social awareness and has awak- ing technique, which extracts information from ened consciences of public and private organiza- LinkedIn announcements by retrieving the con- 3 ABSTRACTS 58 tent based on a query, aggregating it, and con- related to the topic model analysis, as the short verting it from unstructured data into structured text, the lack of structure and the lack of context forms (Mitchell, 2018); c) the implementation characterising LinkedIn job postings could affect of a semantic analysis and the machine learn- the machine learning techniques. ing-based technique of topic modelling which identifies and organises words co-occurrence in Practical and Social Implications. large collections of textual data, by attributing categories or labels based on topics or themes The study provides useful insights for aligning identified within the text (Hu et al. 2014). job and skills demands from communication market labour and educational programs offered Research Findings by universities and business schools. The study contributes to delineate a draft of hypothetical A total amount of 59581 job postings have been professional profiles within the sustainable com- emerged in the first part of the analysis. munication field. Originality and Value Number of job Keywords listings This study enriches the stream of research fo- cused on analysing the development of commu- Sustainability 20595 nication profession with a specific interest to the CSR 17200 new trending disciplinary area of sustainability. Environmental Communication 9860 References Sustainable Report 6286 Deloitte (2022). “Global Marketing Trends Corporate Social Responsibility 4129 2022. Towards customer centrity”. Available at the following link: https://www2.deloitte.com/ Circular Economy 1279 content/dam/Deloitte/it/Documents/strategy/ DI_2022-Global-Marketing-Trends.pdf Green Economy 232 Laubinger, F., E. Lanzi and J. Chateau (2020), A classification of professional competences “Labour market consequences of a transition linked to sustainability will be provided to iden- to a circular economy: A review paper”, OECD tify professional activities required in the com- Environment Working Papers, No. 162, OECD munication field. Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ e57a300a-en. Research Limitations Mitchell, R. (2018). Web scraping with Python: The study is characterised by some limitations. Collecting more data from the modern web. Lon- First, on LinkedIn, job advertisements are us- don: O’Reilly Media, Inc. er-generated contents, inserted and modified Hu, Y., Boyd-Graber, J., Satinoff, B., & Smith, A. manually by LinkedIn users. This means that (2014). Interactive topic modeling. Machine information included in the job posting could learning, 95(3), 423-469. change or job advertisement could be deacti- Zerfass, A., Buhmann, A., Tench, R., Verčič, D., & vated during the analytical process. Therefore, Moreno, A. (2021). the crawlers used for collecting data need to be maintained and fixed. The second limitation is 3 ABSTRACTS 59 European Communication Monitor 2021. Com- mTech and digital infrastructure, video-con- ferencing, and future roles for communication professionals. Results of a survey in 46 coun- tries. Brussels: EUPRERA/EACD. Keywords: Sustainability; CSR; Job search; Professional Development 3 ABSTRACTS 60 Analysis of the WHO’s social networking communication strategies during the COVID-19 infodemic: The consequences of managing Facebook page according to a diffusionist logic David, Marc D., Université de Sherbrooke (Canada) Carignan, Marie-Eve, Université de Sherbrooke (Canada) Champagne-Poirier, Olivier, Université de Sherbrooke (Canada) St-Pierre, Claudia, Université de Sherbrooke (Canada) The COVID-19 pandemic, who could be de-the public (WHO, 2020b). scribed as a “megacrisis” (Sellnow-Richmond & al., 2018), has given rise to a second crisis—the Methodology “infodemic.” This last word refers to an over- abundance of online and offline information of This paper explores how the WHO has used Face- varying degrees of veracity, including inaccurate, book as an international strategic information misleading or fabricated news, images and vid- and/or communication strategy in order to ful- eos circulating about the disease (World Health fil its mandate during the COVID-19 pandemic. Organization [WHO], 2020a). The effects of More specifically, we analyzed content published disinformation are not insignificant, as they can on the WHO page (4.8 million members at the weaken the actions of agencies tasked with effec- time of conducting the study) between January tively managing the crisis (Brünker et al., 2017), 10 and September 19, 2020. We then performed undermine the communication of trustworthy a socio-technical analysis of the platform (Cham- information to the public (Dornan, 2020), and pagne-Poirier & Ben Affana, 2016) focused on potentially damage the reputations of healthcare 1) the page’s technical architecture, 2) its in-organizations. teraction structures, and 3) the experiences and In the context of a global crisis such as COVID-19, contributions of the users. Our analysis is mixed the World Health Organization (WHO) has an in that it qualifies and quantifies WHO practices obligation, as part of its mandate, to commu- as well as providing a better understanding of nicate scientific information (Blouin Genest, how the users participate in and contribute to 2015) on public health. To this end, the WHO the platform. Finally, linking our data to WHO uses both public relations media (press releases obligations and objectives allowed for an anal- and press conferences) and social networking ysis and interpretation of the communication sites to communicate public health messages to strategies put in place. 3 ABSTRACTS 61 A total of 481 WHO Facebook posts about sures and information dictated by the WHO. The the COVID-19 pandemic published during the contamination of the WHO’s statements is a con- study period were analyzed. These posts gener- cern in that it may undermine the fight against ated more than 3,343,636 comments, 250,000 COVID-19 (Bridgman & al., 2020; Pavelea & of which we processed in order to reach what we al., 2021). Indeed, the WHO’s communication consider to be “theoretical saturation” (Corbin efforts were not adapted to the reality of the & Strauss, 2015). multidirectional exchanges on its Facebook page. Results In sum, our paper aims to enable the WHO and more importantly all public health organizations Our mixed analysis of the 481 posts led, among other things, to the observation that the publi- to better understand the communicative nature cation types used most frequently by the WHO of social networking sites in order to better use are infographics (42%), Facebook Lives (38%) them in their communication strategies aiming and animated videos (11%). The three themes to mitigate the impacts of the pandemic on citi- most addressed by the WHO in its 481 publi- zens and users. cations are preventive measures (26%), current Bibliographical list: events (20%) and conceptual and medical ex- planations (16%). Our qualitative analysis of the Blouin-Genest, G. (2015). World Health Orga- comments helped identify nine types of commu- nization and disease surveillance: Jeopardizing nicative intentions and twelve interrelated user global public health? Health, 19(6), 595-614. profiles. Modeling of these relationships, as well https://doi.org/10.1177/1363459314561771 as the specificities of the intentions of the WHO and user profiles, revealed that (unidirectional) Bridgman, A., Merkley, E., Loewen, P. J., Owen, diffusionist information strategies did not allow T., Ruths, D., Teichmann, L., & Zhilin, O. for an effective management and moderation of (2020). The causes and consequences of alarming, misinformative, disinformative or con- COVID-19 misperceptions: Understanding spiratorial comments and contents (Landi & al., the role of news and social media. The Har- 2021; Malecki & al, 2021). vard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-028 Conclusion and implications Brünker, F., Lehr, J., Marx, J., Mirbabaie, M., Globally speaking, the extent of interactions on Schwenner, L., & Stieglitz, S. (2017). Sensem- the WHO Facebook page during the pandemic and aking and Communication Roles in Social Media the different ways it has been used show its im- Crisis Communication. 13th International Con- portance in the WHO’s communication strategy. ference on Wirtschaftsinformatik, St. Gallen, This project demonstrates the many different at- Switzerland. tempts made by users (the users/receivers) to Champagne-Poirier, O., & Ben Affana, S. (2016). participate in mediatization and sensemaking Construction sociotechnique du web 2.0 : La around the COVID-19 crisis through this page Tribune de Tout le monde en parle. Dans J. (Weick & Sutcliffe, 2015; Généreux & al., 2020). Luckerhoff (ed.), Médias et société : la perspec- tive de la communication sociale (p. 131-150). The page also exhibits a lack of moderation on the part of the WHO. This is particularly prob- Presses de l’Université du Québec. lematic considering that a large number of com- ments made on the page went against the mea- 3 ABSTRACTS 62 Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. L. (2015). Basics of Weick, K. E., & Sutcliffe, K. M. (2015). Manag-Qualitative Research (4th ed.). Sage Publications ing the Unexpected – Sustained Performance in a Ltd. Complex World (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Dornan, C. (2020). La désinformation en science Ltd. dans le contexte de la Covid-19. Forum des poli-World Health Organization. (2020a, September tiques publiques. https://ppforum.ca/wp-con- 23). Managing the COVID-19 infodemic: Promot- tent/uploads/2020/06/LaD%C3%A9sinforma- ing healthy behaviours and mitigating the harm from tionEnScience-FPP-Juin2020-FR-1.pdf misinformation and disinformation. https://www. Généreux, M., David, M. D., O’Sullivan, T., Cari- who.int/news-room/detail/23-09-2020-man- gnan, M., Blouin-Genest, G., Champagne-Poir- aging-the-covid-19-infodemic-promot- ier,O., Champagne, E., Bulone, N., Qadar, Z., ing-healthy-behaviours-and-mitigat- Herbosa, T., Jimg. K.,Ribeiro-Alves, G., Arruda, ing-the-harm-from-misinformation-and-dis- H., Michel, P., Law, R., Poirer, A., Murray, V., information Chan, E., & Roy, M. (2020). Communication World Health Organization. (2020b, November strategies and media discourses in the age of 9). WHO and the WHA – an explainer. An intro- COVID-19: An urgent need for action. Health duction to the World Health Organization, its vital Promotion International, 36(4), 1178-1185. role in the fight against COVID-19, and the virtu- https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daaa136. al World Health Assembly. https://www.who.int/ Landi, S., Costantini, A., Fasan, M., & Bonaz-about/governance/world-health-assembly/sev- zi, M. (2021). Public engagement and dia- enty-third-world-health-assembly/the-who- logic accounting through social media dur- and-the-wha-an-explainer ing COVID-19 crisis: a missed opportunity? Keywords: Strategic communication, COVID-19; Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Facebook, World Health Organization, public health 35(1), 35-47. https://doi.org/10.1108/AAAJ-08-2020-4884 Malecki, K. M. C., Keating, J. A., & Safdar, N. (2021). Crisis Communication and Public Perception of COVID-19 Risk in the Era of Social Media. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 72(4), 697-702. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa758 Pavelea, A. M., Neamtu, B., & Pavel, A. (2021). Do social media reduce compliance with COVID-19 preventive measures? Policy Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2021.200 0595 Sellnow-Richmond, D. D., George, A. M., & Sell- now, D. D. (2018). An IDEA Model Analysis of Instructional Risk Communication in the Time of Ebola. Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research, 1(1), 135-166. https://doi.org/10.30658/jicrcr.1.1.7 3 ABSTRACTS 63 Role of the reflective (communication) strategist in obtaining social intelligence as part of environmental assessment: A case study of International Airport X Davids, Deidre, Cape Peninsula University of Technology (South Africa) Introduction and purpose reflective strategist role in the corporate communication domain, conceptualised and empirically The case selected for this multidisciplinary re- verified in South Africa (SA) by Steyn (2000); search in the corporate communication and and to explore it in the context of obtaining strategic management domains is Interna-social intelligence as part of the environmental as-tional Airport X -- Africa’s third largest, most sessment process. Secondly, to reaffirm this role award-winning airport (e.g. Skytrax World Air-empirically, according to senior management’s port Awards ranked it 22nd Best Airport in the normative expectations and their perceptions of its World in 2019). Seven of its eight senior man-performance. agement team members were the respondents in the descriptive survey conducted. As the re- The major research objective set to address searcher, the eighth (Senior Manager: Corporate this two-fold problem is to explore and de-Affairs) was excluded. scribe the role of the reflective (communication) strategist in obtaining social intelligence as part of The main problem of this intrinsic case study the environmental assessment process at the soci-is that the Airport’s stakeholder/issues landscape etal (macro) level of an organisation, to be used is shifting drastically, inter alia due to pending as input into enterprise strategy development. infrastructural developments and extensive land acquisitions (e.g. a new runway has major con- Literature review sequences for the three surrounding informal settlements/shanty towns). Although competi- In the field of corporate communication, the tive intelligence is gathered as part of the envi- focus was to identify questionnaire statements ronmental assessment process, the need for and for the descriptive survey (in November 2019) importance of obtaining social intelligence as a to reaffirm the relevance of the reflective (com-tool to address stakeholder/societal expectations munication) strategist role two decades later. The and values as well as the early identification of point of departure was the stream of research concerns/issues, do not appear to be fully under- on the “PR strategist role” initiated by Steyn stood by senior management. (2000); Steyn and Green (2006) who added a reflective dimension (based on the EBOK proj- The secondary problem of this instrumental ect); Everett (2006); Niemann (2009); and US case study is theoretical: Firstly, to relook the researchers Tindall and Holtzhausen (2011). 3 ABSTRACTS 64 Other strategic roles research -- notably Beur- ment on a regular basis. er-Züllig, et al. (2009); Zerfass and Viertman (2017) -- provided conceptual guidance in de- The above strategic and applied research find- veloping new statements. ings contribute substantially towards addressing the intrinsic case problem. Although the findIn the field of strategic management, the focus ings cannot be generalised, they provide guide-was on obtaining an initial understanding of the lines to senior management in the private, public other major concepts environmental assessment and non profit sector. and social intelligence (“competitive intelligence” from marketing provided most guidance). (While not a research objective), the findings of the survey’s 32 items provided the foundation Methodology for the reconceptualisation of the reflective strategist role in providing social intelligence as part Mixed methods (triangulation) was selected by of the environmental assessment process, which conducting secondary research (literature re-advances theory -- likewise the conceptualisa- view) and primary research (descriptive sur- tion of social intelligence based on the literature vey). The sample size of seven was small but review. These basic and introspective research represented a census. Eight previously verified findings contribute substantially towards ad- measurement items (i.e. 25% of the 32 items) dressing the study’s instrumental case problem. from the early stream of research was replicated in order to reaffirm the original “PR strategist/ Future research (to address limitations) reflectionist” role. The other 24 items were de- veloped based on the literature review. Hypoth- Exploratory/empirical research to provide a esis testing (paired samples t-tests) was done on clearer understanding of the interrelationship of the findings of all 32 items. the concepts reflective strategist role, social intelligence and environmental assessment. The rationale for a descriptive survey was to maximise the valuable time of senior execu- Further research on environmental assessment can tives; establish the purpose through the state-address the ‘how’ it is to be done, i.e. develop a ments provided; provide a common frame- formalised system (and not only the ‘what’). work amongst respondents to improve validity; Limited literature on social intelligence necessi-and serve as an educational tool re the major tates further research of the concept. concepts. Based on recent roles research, statements (ac- Implications of results and conclusions tivities) to broaden the reflective strategist role The survey provided senior management’s ex-can be developed and measured. pectations and perceptions of performance with Keywords: Corporate communication strategist, PR regard to gathering social intelligence as part of strategist role, reflective strategist, environmental as-the environmental assessment process and the po-sessment, social intelligence. tential role of the reflective strategist therein. Organisations of today need to adopt a structured, formalised environmental assessment approach whereby senior management listens to, interacts with, and obtains feedback from their external (and internal) stakeholder and societal environ- 3 ABSTRACTS 65 Dear COVID-19, Message from Employee Diaries: Reformulating Employee Communication with the Pandemic Görpe, Tevhide Serra, University of Sharjah (U.A.E.) Öksuz, Burcu, Izmir Katip Celebi University (Turkey) Introduction and purpose of the study ever falls into a vacuum in people’s heads” (Dav- enport and Barrow, 2009, p. 21). Organizations The aim of the study is to understand the chal- need to work to develop and nurture commit- lenges of the employees who are working re- ment to employees that requires two-way re- motely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. What lationships (Robinson et al., 2004). “Employ- are their (non)challenges they went through ees are seeking to be informed, reassured, and with the shift of working remotely? What type encouraged” (DuFrene and Lehman, 2014, p. of future are they forecasting in employee re- 444). COVID-19 global pandemic had created lations? What are the lessons to be taken from a global impact in the lifetime of many people in this experience for restructuring the employee many ways. A study conducted by Institute for relations in the future? There are not many stud- Public Relations and Peppercomm on how busi- ies which look at the impact of working from nesses are handling the crisis have found out that home on employee relations/communication. communicating the employees on COVID-19 With COVID-19 pandemic, working from home was a priority for the communication function. has been widespread all over the world, in many (2020) industries, and in different type of organizations. Employee working can also employ a hybrid ap- Methodology proach in future. This research can create aware- ness and may help to reshape employee and The research is qualitative. Diary method will management communication/relations. be used. “A diary can be defined as a document created by an individual who has maintained a Literature Review regular, personal and contemporaneous record.” (Alaszewski, 2006, p.1). It is an innovative way Communicating effectively is always difficult, of gaining rich insights about the daily process- and when people are under stress, anxious and es, relationships, products and consumers (Pat- sad, this becomes even more difficult (DuFrene terson, 2005, p. 142). “Diaries, self-report in- and Lehman, 2014, p. 444). Effective commu- struments used repeatedly to examine ongoing nication positively affects employees to engage experiences, offer the opportunity to investigate in their jobs and achieve their goals in difficult social, psychological, and physiological processes, times (Chanana, 2020). ‘No communication within everyday situations.” (Bolger et al., 2003, 3 ABSTRACTS 66 p. 580). The sample of the study consists of 10 also other negative impacts such as affecting the randomly chosen employees who are working ei- socialization and being accessible all times. The ther from home or hybrid. They will be asked to research will uncover the specific issues of em- write their diary for a work period of five days. ployees who are working from home and sug- The employees will be asked to write on “how gest a guide for psychologically healthy employ- they spend their workday at home,” “how they ee who would be more productive and happier dream spending their next workday,” and “what at the same time. could be done to make their next day a better day.” Diary method is usually used with another References method and the same group of people will also Alaszewski, A. (2006). Using diaries for social re-be interviewed. Diary method is not often used search. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Pub- in communication studies so a research paper on lications. employee relations during the COVID-19 pan- demic can provide valuable insights. Bolger, N., Davis, A., & Rafaeli, E. (2003). Diary methods: Capturing life as it is lived. Annual Results and Conclusion review of psychology, 54(1), 579-616. The study is work-in-progress. Chanana, N. (2020). Employee engagement practices during COVID‐19 lockdown. Journal Limitations of the study of Public Affairs, DOI: 10.1002/pa.2508. Barrow, M. S., & Davenport, M. J. (2012). Em- It is exploratory research and the number of par- ployee Communication During Mergers and Ac- ticipants to the study are limited. quisitions. Gower Publishing, Ltd. Suggestions for future research DuFrene, D. D., & Lehman, C. M. (2014). Nav- igating change: Employee communication in The diary method can be used with a larger times of instability. Business and Professional number of employees working remotely, and Communication Quarterly, 77(4), 443-452. industry specific employee experiences and per- Patterson, A. (2005). Processes, relationships, ceptions could be studied as well. settings, products and consumers: the case for Practical and social implications qualitative diary research. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 8(2), 142-The public relations/communication and human 156. resources functions of organizations have now Robinson, D., Perryman, S., & Hayday, S. (2004). actually an issue (COVID-19) where they can The drivers of employee engagement. Insti- equally partner in managing employee relations. tute For Employment Studies Report, https:// The research will inform us on communication www.employment-studies.co.uk/system/files/ challenges of working from home, expectancies resources/files/408.pdf of employees, and how to integrate human factor COVID 19: How businesses are handling the in this “isolated” environment. Suggestions will crisis (March 12 2020) https://instituteforpr. be made on how to communicate with employ- org/coronavirus-covid-19-comms-report/ ees and how employees want to communicate with the management and with their colleagues. Keywords: employee communication, COVID-19, Working from home may have benefits such as diary method, employee not commuting to work, (losing time) and has 3 ABSTRACTS 67 Global Capability Framework in Turkey: Findings of the Delphi Study on Public Relations and Communication Profession Capabilities Görpe, Tevhide Serra, University of Sharjah (U.A.E.) Öksuz, Burcu, Izmir Katip Celebi University (Turkey) Introduction and purpose of the study are linked to competencies, but they are more dynamic. Gregory (2008) defines competencies The researchers extended the project of Global as “behavioral repertoires or sets of behaviors that Alliance Global Capability Framework (GCF). support the attainment of organizational objec- GCF is a global study which has been carried by tives (p. 216). many countries’ researchers to explore the ca- pabilities required for the public relations and Methodology communication profession. This is a replication of the study which has three phases, Delphi, sur- The research aims to look for the most import- vey and focus groups. The aim of the paper is to ant capabilities in public relations and commu- share the results of the Delphi round carried out nication management in Turkey. The initial stage with a panel of public relations/communications compromised of a Delphi study in which a panel experts to explore the capabilities. of experts were asked to identify the core capa- bilities of the field. The objective was to come up Literature Review with agreed core capabilities. In the first round, the panel members were asked to list and de- Knowledge has been discussed in public re- fine these capabilities. In the second round, they lations education, both in undergraduate and were asked to rate them in terms of importance. graduate curriculums, but there is not much in- In the final round, they were asked to indicate formation on the knowledge areas of European the top most important ones by ranking them. practitioners (Tench and Moreno, 2013). Of the The Delphi study carried out had 14 experts of many contributions of Global Alliance is a glob- which 6 of them are academics, 5 practitioners al standard (GBOK project) for the practice by and 3 employers. studying the research, educational frameworks and credentials. From the GBOK project, an- Results and Conclusion other project developed- the Global Capability Framework. The rationale behind it is that public The paper will share the results from the Del- relations is not practiced in every country in the phi panel. From the first round 30 capabilities same way, therefore there is a need to approach came out. The contribution to the communi- it from the “capability” perspective. Capabilities cation strategy, managing corporate reputation, 3 ABSTRACTS 68 integration of the organization to updated na- References tional and international developments, effective use of digital and conventional communication Gregory, A. (2008). Competencies of senior channels, management of issues, risks and crisis, communication practitioners in the UK: An following the trends in the business world and initial study. Public Relations Review, 34(3), integrating them to business models in the orga-215-223. nization and following the technological advanc- Gregory, A and Willis, P.(2013) Strategic public es are some of the highlighted capabilities by the relations leadership. London: Routledge. Delphi analysis. Tench, R., & Moreno, A. (2015). Mapping com- Limitations of the study munication management competencies for Eu- ropean practitioners. Journal of Communication This is the first stage of a comprehensive study. Management, 19 (1). 39 - 61. Suggestions for future research Keywords: public relations capabilities, Turkey, Global Capability Framework, Global Alliance The study will be carried out with a survey which will reach to a broader base of public relations professionals, and academic in Turkey. Then there will be also three focus groups conducted. Practical and social implications The findings of the study after being endorsed by the public relations professional associations in Turkey and communicated widely in the ac- ademia as well can be used by practitioners and employers. The academia also has an action plan to incorporate these in the public relations pro- grams. 3 ABSTRACTS 69 The emotional toll of the Covid 19 pandemic on health communicators and its leadership effects Gregory, Anne, Huddersfield University Business School (UK) Davies, Eleanor, Huddersfield University Business School (UK) The Covid 19 pandemic is an extended crisis. dialogue. The main purpose of pandemic out- Its nature and longevity have challenged national break communication is to influence behaviours health communication professionals on multiple at scale in order to affect health outcomes posi- fronts, requiring them to engage with broader, tively. However, there is a gap in both literatures and often new, audiences, new ways and in a about the lived experience of health communica- complex and rapidly changing environment. Sig- tors going through a pandemic and in particular, nificant emotional resilience has been demand- their emotional response to it. ed of them by their organisations and society in general. Drawing on qualitative interviews, this This research addresses this gap by examining paper examines four dimensions of emotional the individual emotional experiences of senior impact on the crisis on health communicators: communications professionals in the UK Na- the specific triggers that generated an emotional tional Health Service: the world’s largest public- reaction, the emotions these evoked, the support ly funded health care system. Seventeen health mechanisms communicators used and the differ- communicators from across the NHS system, ential effects it had on those communicators as including hospitals, ambulance, mental health, leaders in their organisations. commissioning and regulatory organisations, participated in a two stage qualitative data col- In their extensive review of the public relations lection process. First each respondent inde- crisis literature Manias-Munoz, Jin & Reber, pendently made audio recordings which asked (2019) conclude that field is organisation-cen- them to focus on three ‘critical incidents’ of their tric and focuses on reputation and image repair. choice and which captured the strongest positive Crises affecting whole populations are rarely or negative emotional reactions the pandemic covered. Outside the public relations field there had caused. They were asked to reflect on those is significantly more literature on pandemic emotional reactions and articulate what they felt communication with a number of reviews (Loud and why, what actions they took and why, how & Simpson, 2017; Infanti el al., 2013) and they would have liked things to be different, and models and recommendations for effectiveness what support they did/would have liked to have. (Staupe-Delgado & Kruke, 2018; Amirkhani They were also asked to reflect on what changes et al., 2016). Much of this literature mirrors they would like for the future. Thematic analy- principles outlined in the public relations crisis sis of these incidents revealed clear emotional literature such as the importance and nature of ‘triggers’ as well as the types of emotions expe- 3 ABSTRACTS 70 rienced. However, there were two clear tracks References on the other topics covered in the recordings around reactions, actions taken and support rec- Amirkhani, A.H., Saremi, A.R., & Shahrasp, R. ommendations. In the second stage of data col- (2016), The relationship between structural lection, respondents were interviewed individ- and content dimensions of organization with ually by the research team. Each of the themes crisis communications preparedness, Mediter- was explored in depth and participants were giv- ranean Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 3, en the opportunity to bring other perspectives pp 54-64 which they believed to be pertinent. Infanti J, Sixsmith J, Barry MM, Núñez-Cór- doba J, Oroviogoicoechea-Ortega C and The paper presents insights into the nature of Guillén-Grima F. A (2013). Literature review the triggers to the emotional responses of health on effective risk communication for the prevention communicators, their responses to emotional ex-and control of communicable diseases in Europe, periences and their subsequent reflections. The Stockholm Sv: ECDC. findings also cover the effect on the leadership of these senior communicators, both positive Loud, E. & Simpson, I. (2017). D3.3 Review of and negative. Distinct differences between indi- best practice, inventory of digital/social media for viduals in their response patterns were observed communications and analysis of current systems which the authors characterise as broadly com- and technologies, PANDEM – Pandemic Risk pliant or commanding. The variables that have and Emergency Management: pandem.eu.com led to this are explored and explained. The im- Manias-Munoz, I, Jin, Y. & Reber, B. (2019). pacts on health communicators as individuals, as The state of crisis communication research well as broader implications for the communica- and education through the lens of crisis schol- tion function are also examined. ars: An international Delphi study. Public Rela- tions Review, no. 45, article 101797. The research has led to policy recommendations for the NHS which will ensure that the emo- Staupe-Delgado, R., & Kruke, B.I. (2018). Pre- tional well-being of those who form the ‘second paredness: unpacking and clarifying the con- front-line’ of healthcare is factored in to emer- cept. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Manage- gency plans for the future. ment, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 212-224. Keywords: Covid-19, emotion, emotional toll, health communication professionals, triggers 3 ABSTRACTS 71 Engaging Teachers through Effective Communication: Restarting the Government Communication in Education Hejlová, Denisa, Charles University (Czech Republic) Ježková, Tereza, Charles University (Czech Republic) Klabíková Rábová, Tereza, Charles University (Czech Republic) Konrádová, Marcela, Charles University (Czech Republic) Koudelková, Petra, Charles University (Czech Republic) Schneiderová, Soňa, Charles University (Czech Republic) Introduction and purpose of the study rules to their students and pupils, they were of- ten fighting with lack of digital literacy and use The pandemic situation has uncovered and ex- of modern communication tools, such as online posed many issues in communication between video teaching, instant messaging applications, the government and its citizens, not only in the or even emails. And in some cases, they were health sector, but also in education. During the also in a double role of parents who shall have pandemic, schools have been under many gov- home educate their children too. The goal of ernment restrictions, and they’ve had to follow this study is to bring new knowledge about the many unprecedented rules – such as wearing state of (strategic?) government communication masks, social distancing or even closed schools in education, identify potential communication and online teaching. The governments had to knots (problems) and draft managerial implica- communicate new rules and restrictions to var- tions for strategic communication (Holtzhausen ious stakeholders in the education sector: to the and Zerfass, 2015). In this study, which is a part founders of the schools (usually municipalities, of a larger project examining the government private or religious organisations), to the direc- communication of the Czech Ministry of Educa- tors of the schools and to the teachers, as well tion, Youth and Sports (MEYS), we have raised to the “recipients” of education: pupils, students, research questions: and their parents. In many cases, this communi- cation did not go smoothly and soon many prob- • RQ1. How do the teachers perceive and lems arose: the stakeholders, including teachers, trust the MEYS and its role in education? were confused about the government regula- tions, they did not want to follow them, the dis- • RQ2. Where do teachers gain information information and various Covid-related hoaxes (concerning education or government mea- spread quickly and the trust towards the govern- sures) from? What information sources do ment fell even lower. Teachers found themselves the teachers use? often in a difficult position: they were often the • RQ3. What opinions do teachers hold about ones who were expected to understand the new specific stakeholders in education, such as 3 ABSTRACTS 72 governmental and non-profit organisations? research team but executed with the help of the • RQ4. Are there any communication or oth- IPSOS Czech Republic research agency. er barriers or problems in communication Results and conclusions between the teachers and MEYS? Our results show (RQ1) that the teachers have Literature review very low expectations from MEYS and their The field of government communication has contact with this top government institution is emerged recently to analyse and understand the very distant. 71 % of the respondents have never nature of communication of democratic gov- been in direct communication with MEYS, de- ernments with its citizens (Sanders and Canel, spite only about half of the teachers thinks that 2013). Public communication is represented they are well informed about the news and im- with multifaceted and complicated interactions portant information in education. Most of the with various stakeholder groups. It’s effective- teachers don’t value MEYS as the key leader in ness is necessary for the functioning of the dem- education nor as a trend-setter of innovation in ocratic society (Luoma-aho and Canel, 2020). communication. Teachers expect from MEYS The government communication in democratic support (22 %), precise directions (15 %) and societies is under media control, which is neces- punctual information on time (15 %). However, sary to keep it under control (Liu and Horsley they don’t meet these expectations – only 38 % 2007, p. 378, Liu et al., 2010, p. 190, Gelders et of teachers state that the MEYS at least partial- al. 2007, p. 328, Fredriksson and Pallas, 2016, ly meets their expectations. Therefore, (RQ2) p.149). teachers don’t even try to reach the MEYS for obtaining information – instead, they reach to Methodology their bosses (principals) (68 %) or they search internet in general (33 %). Only 14 % of teach- We have used both qualitative (Creswell, 2007) ers declare they follow social media of MEYS and quantitative research methods (Bradburn, and this number is in reality probably even low- Sudman and Wansink, 2004; Berger, 2016) in er due to the low numbers of the MEYS’s so- this study. Concerning qualitative research, we cial media account followers. (RQ3) Teachers have conducted 3 focus groups with teachers reach for different opinion leaders in education, (pre-school, primary, secondary and high school but mostly they follow their principal. For the teachers, excluding universities and higher edu- teachers, it’s important to have not a vertical cation, mixed gender and age groups) in three communication line, but horizontal – to have regions of the Czech Republic (Praha, Ostra- the possibility to share or discuss information va and Hradec Králové), N=18 (3 FGDs per 6 with their peers or colleagues. They also cherish teachers) in October – November 2020 (on- traditional media formats as a bulletin or fixed line). In quantitative research, we have conduct- information board on the wall in their meeting ed an online opinion research among teachers room. There are many communication barriers (N=530) in length about 28 minutes from April between the MEYS and the teachers: only 13 % 16th until August 6th, 2021. The qualitative re- of teachers think that the government commu- searched helped us to get insight and draft the nication targeting teachers from MEYS is pro- later quantitative questionnaire. Both quantita- fessional, transparent, or friendly to them. More tive and qualitative research was designed by the importantly, they also think that the communi- cation is not understandable (86 %) and even clear (83 %). 3 ABSTRACTS 73 in can mentor them and try to be perceived as an innovation leader. This requires a strategic Practical and social implications communication plan, scenarios for social change Firstly, the MEYS must acknowledge the fact and long-term implementation, with the respect to its democratic boundaries (Holtzhausen and that one of their key and primary stakeholders, Zerfass, 2015, Sanders and Canel, 2013; Gelders the teachers, don’t have a very favourable view and Ihlen, 2010). of them and don’t perceive their communication as understandable, clear, or timely. Therefore, we Literature have to recommend getting back to the very ba- sics of the public relations theory, first drafted by Baines, Paul, Egan, John & Jefkins, Frank. 2011. Scott Cutlip and known as 4 Cs in communica- Public relations: contemporary issues and tech-tion and then later elaborated on by many com- niques. London: Routledge. munication scholars and practitioners (Grunig Berger, Arthur A. 2016. Media and communica- 2002; Baines and Frank 2011). The MEYS tion research methods: an introduction to quali-should develop a strategic government com- tative and quantitative approaches. Los Angeles: munication plan and re-engage with teachers Sage. through new communication approach (Sand- ers and Canel, 2013; Holtzhausen and Zerfass, Bradburn, Norman M., Sudman, Seymour & 2015; Falkheimer and Heide, 2018; Fredriksson Wansink, Brian. 2004. Asking questions: the de- and Pallas, 2016). finitive guide to questionnaire design--for market research, political polls, and social and health ques-Secondly, the MEYS needs to establish a system tionnaires. New York: Wiley. for getting feedback and enabling the teachers to Canel, María J. & Luoma-aho, Vilma. 2018. Pub- ask further questions, either on their website or lic sector communication: closing gaps between easily searchable telephone numbers with clear citizens and public organizations. Hoboken, NJ: competencies. Wiley. Thirdly, despite MEYS has invested large sums Carey, James W. 2008. C ommunication as culture. in social media and online communication, this Essays on media and society (rev. ed.) . London: form of communication does not reach the Routledge. teachers. It needs to engage in teachers in a dif- Creswell, John W. 2007. Qualitative inquiry and ferent communication mode, respecting them, research design: choosing among five approaches. creating more horizontal communication ex- (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. periences, such as workshops or shared groups, Falkheimer, Jesper & Mats, Heide. 2018. Strategic where they can participate and engage more ac-communication: an introduction. London: Rout- tively. The top-down communication, which re- ledge. sembles the army system, is paradoxically avoid- ed and not respected by the teachers, despite Fredriksson, Magnus & Pallas, Josef. 2016. the education system in the Czech Republic is „Characteristics of public sectors and their still much based on the Habsburg’s idea of top- consequences for strategic communication.“ down structure and “one size fits all” approach. International Journal of Strategic Communication, To sum up, MEYS has to implement options for Vol. 10, No. 3, s. 149–152. ritual communication (Carey, 2008) to regain Gelders, Dave & Ihlen, Oyvind. 2010. „Govern- trust and build relations with teachers, only then ment communication about potential policies: 3 ABSTRACTS 74 public relations, propaganda or both?“ Public Relations Review, Vol. 36, No. 1, s. 59–62. Grunig, James E. et al. 2002. Excellent public relations and effective organizations: a study of communication man- agement in three countries. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Holtzhausen, Derina and Zerfass, Ansgar (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Strategic Communication. London: Routledge. Liu, Brooke Fisher & Horsley, Suzanne J. 2007. „The government communication decision wheel: toward a pu- blic relations model for the public sector.“ Journal of Public Relations Research, Vol. 19, No. 4., s. 377–393. Liu, Brooke Fisher & Horsley, Suzanne J. 2010. The government and leadership: a reference hand- book. Washington, D. C.: Sage Press. Sanders, Karen a Canel, José M.. 2013. Govern- ment Communication: Cases and challenges. New York: Bloomsbury. Keywords: government communication; strategic communication; stakeholder management; education 3 ABSTRACTS 75 Actions speak louder than words. Though we see the same world, we see it through different eyes (Woolf, 1938, p.18) Hewson, Sinead, Webster University (The Netherlands) This paper discusses transparency, trust, how we leadership teams assume that “comms will fix show up and whom do we serve and whether it”(Hewson, 2021, p. 155). It explores what oc- communicators are contractually obliged to be- curs when an organisation communicates a mes- have in alignment with the messages they com- sage and then behaves contrary to that message municate on behalf of their employer. It access- disengaging stakeholders. Moreover it possible es unpublished interview transcripts from the to rebuild reputation, credibility and trust? doctoral thesis “Communication at the Core: Exploring decision-making when communica- Two examples of globally recognisable organi- tion is at the heart of an organisation’s strate- sations, and three country based organisations gy development.” In the study 34 international whose corporate behaviours do not match their communication and organisations commented mission, vision and values are examined. on how communicators are perceived in the board-room and at grassroots level. This topic Organisation leaders are on public record has gained momentum in 2022 specifically re- demonstrating this. The examples cited go on lating to the behaviour and ethics of communi- to explain and how social media platforms and cation professionals in high profile government, activist communicators escalated the issue en- international institutions and media outlets. It abling public discourse and a commitment from explores whether communication professionals the organisations concerned for independent act as a reflection of the organisations they rep- analysis, transparency and to take on board any resent, the mouth-piece of the CEO or trusted recommendations from formal enquiries. The advisors offering counsel to organisations. Has examples cited also demonstrate that “the most the role of modern communicators shifted to in- impactful stakeholders, are employees who can termediaries managing mistrust and the balance communicate in their own right and act a reflec- of power (Bourne, 2013, p. 72), sense-makers tion of the organisations they represent build- (Fiske, 1982, p. 19) or are they digitally dexter- ing trust through personal and professional net- ous technicians (Gartner, 2019, p. 11)? works” (Hewson, 2021, p. 149). The paper shares examples of communication Can communicators act as intermediaries man- best practise and questionable behaviours of ac- aging mistrust and the balance of power (Bourne, tions not aligning with corporate messaging and 2013, p. 72). Although communicators are well points out that communicators are often taken placed to address this issue, a number of high for granted by internal and external stakehold- profile communicators have compromised public ers. For instance when a problem arises trust in the sector. The paper asks whether the 3 ABSTRACTS 76 profession needs to (i) galvanise holding those who compromise the profession to account, (ii) regulate the sector to enable consistency of prac- tise, standards, transparency and ethics or (iii) keep the status quo. The paper concludes with a call to action to calibrate and standardise communication defi- nitions, professional qualifications, ethical & professional standards and work flows; and to facilitate research to advance the profession and quantify the impact and value of communication in terms of transparency, process gains and lev- els of trustworthiness. Transparency implies openness, communica- tion, accountability and trustworthiness. Is that enough? Keywords: transparency, trust, mistrust, communication, public relations, power dynamics 3 ABSTRACTS 77 Leading corporate communication practices for non-profit organisations in South Africa to reboot themselves and ensure purposeful communication with all stakeholders Holtzhausen, Lida, North-West University (South Africa) Introduction and purpose of the study Literature review South African Non-profit organisations have From a corporate communication perspective, reached a crossroads and they need to reboot the turning point is all about creating trusting themselves. They are facing a tremendous fund- relationships, generating positive associations, ing crisis: many of these organisations have been maneuvering the organisations’ operational forced to close their doors and most have had to needs, open and honest dialogue, stakeholder cut back dramatically on welfare services they engagement, reaching out and accepting that provide in their communities. This has wors- when people understand the societal need as ened since the worldwide Covid-19 pandemic. well as the benefit NPOs offer, making the leap These organisations can no longer rely on the to generating support is met with less pushback. South-African developing nation status which As the NPO creates a culture of data collection, has assisted in securing support from interna- the process of collection, review and refining tional partners. They need to rediscover com- becomes second nature and aligns with organi- munication with their internal and external zational planning, providing valuable guidance stakeholders to secure support from donors and as to the direction and activities that benefit they need to become competitive, because their the organization. Creating a strong reputation, current funding crisis is already threatening crit- built on trust, is essential to a communication ical services to poor and vulnerable communi- plan. A trusted reputation generates a positive ties. This situation can threaten and affect the association with the organization. Earning trust capacity of poor communities to access critical through reputation management is important for survival services. This presentation aims to ad- managing day-to-day challenges, gaining buy-in dress the following research question: What are of unpopular decisions and maneuvering the the leading corporate communication best practices organization’s operational needs. Brand man-that should be applied in an attempt to address the agement can be achieved through various activ-NPO reboot phenomenon in South Africa to ensure ities, chief among them being open, honest and purposeful communication with all internal and ex- approachable in discussing the activities of the ternal stakeholders? organization. Similar to brand and reputation 3 ABSTRACTS 78 management, the nonprofit’s communications ing the organizations’ operational needs, open strategy should include stakeholder engagement. and honest dialogue, stakeholder engagement, Stakeholder engagement includes reaching out reaching out and generating support that affirms to diverse audiences, including staff, volunteers, their ability to take on the future. the board, donors, competitors and the govern- ment and may require several different activities Limitations and future research to successfully work with the interests and needs of these groups. NPOs should convene them- The limitation of this study was the exploratory nature and including non-profit organizations selves to determine their agenda in the context who indicated their willingness to partake. Rec- of national development challenges and priori- ommendations are made as they pertain to the ties and reclaim their role and space. NPO sector in general and not to a particular Methodology sector within the NPO context of SA. Future re- search would assist in purposefully including a The research approach is qualitative in nature, specified number of NPOs in a particular con- drawing on corporate communication literature text as well as ensuring that NPOs from different as applied in both the for-profit and not-for- sizes reflect the context more accurately. profit sectors as well as semi-structured inter- Practical and social implications views with 30 non-profit organizations spread across various sectors of the South African soci- As the NPOs create a culture of sustainability, it ety. The chosen non-profit organizations range allows them to align stakeholders with the or- from large non-profit organizations with stra- ganization’s planning and provides guidance as tegic communication departments responsible to the activities that benefit the organization, for the communication and marketing function its stakeholders and the developing South Afri- of the organizations to small non-profit orga- can society. NPOs who succeed in this mission nizations who do not have any communication might ensure multiple and unrestricted funding infrastructure to support their communication year after year. and marketing functions. The sampling methods was random sampling and various non-profits Keywords: Non-profit organizations, developing organizations were requested to take part in this country, stakeholders, communication, integration exploratory study. and re-alignment, South-Africa Results and conclusions NPOs can in an attempt to free themselves from these times of turmoil advance themselves through the integration of functions such as marketing, brand and reputation management, public relations, external relations, governance and fundraising so that they can work together to attract and maintain support for their strate- gies. From a corporate communication perspec- tive, the turning point for NPOs is about cre- ating trusting relationships, generating positive associations with the organizations, maneuver- 3 ABSTRACTS 79 Renewed interest in internal communication following the pandemic: How to consolidate its strategic role and meet the new demands of employees? Horlait, Déborah, Catholic University of Louvain, LASCO (Belgium) While it sometimes seemed to suffer from a lack ployees. The second survey, carried out in Febru- of visibility or recognition, the COVID-19 crisis ary 2021, was administered to 550 respondents has put internal communication in the spotlight. and also examined employee engagement and By transmitting operational information, reas- well-being. As a follow-up to these two studies, a suring employees, maintaining the social link third survey will be launched in February 2022 and employee commitment, internal communi- to analyze employees’ current perceptions and cation has demonstrated the importance of its expectations of internal communication. The role since the beginning of the pandemic and has data collected through these different surveys are consolidated its legitimacy within organizations. particularly rich and offer us a transversal vi-With the introduction of new work dynamics sion of the evolution of internal communication and the accelerated deployment of digital collab- throughout the crisis. orative tools, internal communication has also undergone profound changes in its practices. At The results of our surveys have highlighted the the same time, employees are making increas- good practices of internal communication imple- mented at different stages of the crisis and invite ingly high demands for good internal commu- us to reflect on the evolution of internal commu- nication. nication in a post-pandemic world. For example, Since the beginning of the crisis, we have suc- in the first phase of the crisis, employees have cessively conducted three quantitative and qual- appreciated a certain return to the “basics” of itative surveys to analyze the internal commu-internal communication with regular and trans- nication experience of employees working in parent communication, especially regarding the organizations in Belgium. Each quantitative situation of the organization, the use of effective survey was built around a common structure channels and relevant content adapted to their needs. Some factors, such as managerial commu- measuring different dimensions of internal com- nication, have been critical throughout the crisis. munication (access to information, team com- munication, channels and formats, managerial Another key finding of our research is that em- communication, etc.), employees’ needs and re- ployees no longer appreciate being treated as a lationship with their organization. The first sur- homogeneous entity to which communication vey was conducted in April 2020, at the time of is addressed in a generalized way but expect the first lockdown in Belgium, among 515 em- communication that takes their reality into ac- 3 ABSTRACTS 80 count. Our results have led to the identification redeploy communication strategies. Moving to of groups of employees with a distinctive level a more strategic role entails financial costs and of satisfaction, specific needs and expectations human investments that teams must be able to regarding internal communication. This con- support. firms the importance for communication pro- fessionals to develop a deep understanding of In this communication, we propose to review internal stakeholders in order to align internal the main results of our surveys and to discuss communication with their needs. It should be their implications for the evolution of internal noted, however, that the publics and the way of communication. identifying them have changed at the different stages of the crisis. At the same time, we have References observed a fluctuation in communication needs Cardwell, L. A., Williams, S., & Pyle, A. (2017). and expectations during the crisis. Corporate public relations dynamics: Internal These findings echo recent works and raise cer- vs. external stakeholders and the role of the practitioner. Public Relations Review, 43(1), tain challenges for internal communication pro-pp. 152–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. fessionals. The workforce today appears to be pubrev.2016.11.004 increasingly diverse within organizations. For Welch (2012), employees should be considered Men, R. L., & Bowen, S. A. (2016). Excellence as “a multi-dimensional set of diverse internal in Internal Communication Management [EB- stakeholders”. Several authors have highlighted ook]. Business Expert Press. ISBN-13:978-1- the importance for communication profession- 63157-676-8 als to understand and manage the diversity of Suh, T., & Lee, J. (2016). Internal audience seg- internal publics that exist within the organiza- mentation and diversity in internal commu- tion (Men & Bowen, 2016 ; Suh & Lee, 2016 ; nication. Corporate Communications: An Inter- Welch, 2012) and to move into a more strategic national Journal, 21, pp. 450–464. https://doi. role of managing internal relationships (Card- org/10.1108/CCIJ-05-2015-0024 well et al., 2017). And future research has been Welch, M. (2012). Appropriateness and ac- encouraged to explore how to segment internal ceptability: Employee perspectives of internal stakeholders, understand their specific needs and communication. Public Relations Review, 38(2), the most effective way to reach them (Men & pp. 246–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Bowen, 2016). pubrev.2011.12.017 While this renewed interest in internal commu- Keywords: internal communication, internal pub-nication is intended to be positive, it also puts lics, internal communication needs a strain on communication teams in terms of the efforts they have to make to maintain a high quality internal communication and to respond to fluctuating employee demands. Indeed, our results showed that not only the publics them- selves, but also their needs and expectations, can change rapidly according to the changing context. This demonstrates the need to measure internal publics more regularly, to strengthen listening and dialogue with them, in order to 3 ABSTRACTS 81 It’s good for our reputation (?!) The impact of socio-political CEO communication on corporate reputation Jungblut, Marc, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (Germany) Sauter, Simon, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (Germany) CEOs and top-tier executives are increasingly CSA, existing literature focuses on the impact on taking a public stance on controversial socio-po- stakeholder behavior and attitudes. So far, rep- litical issues. That is also because in polariz-utation has barely been used as an operational- ing societies with polarizing public discourses, ization of attitudes. However, several empirical stakeholders are more and more expecting cor- findings indicate that CSA can positively affect porations to fulfill a societal and even moral stakeholder’s perceptions of a company when responsibility that goes beyond the economic they share the position and vice versa. Following scope of profit-oriented organizations or clas- a stakeholder-centric approach, Heider’s Balance sical CSR concepts (van der Meer & Jonkman, Theory adds further value to these findings in 2021). Even though recent publications from terms of providing a theoretical framework: It the field of communication science acknowledge conceptualizes the relationship between CEO, this trend, it remains largely underexplored. stakeholder, and issue. Following the theory’s Especially regarding the impact on corporate assumptions, the direction of reputational ef- reputation, there is a lack of empirical findings. fects depends on whether stakeholders share the Therefore, the presented study aims to address CEO’s socio-political position (Heider, 1946). this research gap by posing the question how Unlike previous studies with comparable scope, socio-political CEO communication impacts the reputation is conceived as a multidimensional stakeholder’s reputation assessment. construct with an economic-functional, emo- tional-expressive as well as social dimension Literature review (Eisenegger, 2015). Dodd and Supa’s approach of Corporate So- Methodology cial Advocacy (CSA) can be applied to describe company representative’s positioning towards To answer the research question raised, a fully socio-political issues that are being discussed standardized online survey with an experimen- controversially in the public sphere (e.g. man- tal between-subject design and three groups was datory COVID-19 vaccinations). Within the conducted (N=330). The participants were ran- conceptualization of CSA, the authors acknowl- domly assigned to read a fictional CEO Twitter edge that due to the controversial nature, it re- statement that either (1) supports, (2) oppos- mains questionable whether positive reputation es or (3) remains neutral towards two different effects can outweigh negative effects (Dodd & controversial socio-political issues (gender-neu-Supa, 2014). Looking at the state of research on tral language, special rights for persons with 3 ABSTRACTS 82 COVID-19 vaccination). Afterwards, the partic- From a practitioner’s perspective, the empirical ipants were asked to evaluate the reputation of findings provoke a paradox: On the one hand, the company and their own position towards the stakeholders increasingly expect companies to issue. Furthermore, various contextual factors take part in the socio-political discourse. This were measured (cognitive/affective involvement, underlines the politicization of corporations in perceived credibility of the statement). polarized, modern societies (van der Meer & Jonkman, 2021). On the other hand, reputation Results and conclusions effects seem to be predominantly negative. Re- Even though theoretical assumptions suggest garding corporate communication practitioners that negative as well as positive effects can be this begs the question, whether or not to imple- expected, the results of this study indicate that ment socio-political positioning as part of their socio-political CEO communication has solely communication strategy. negative effects on stakeholder’s assessment of Limitations corporate reputation. Thus, the results are con- sistent with other studies that pinpoint a nega- There are limitations on a theoretical as well as tivity bias when it comes to the impact of CSA a methodical level: Within the concept of CSA it on stakeholders’ attitudes and behavior. For cor- is not clearly defined whether or not socio-polit- porate communication practitioners this implies ical positioning is limited to strategic dimension that socio-political CEO communication must or also includes spontaneous communication. be understood as a risky strategy (Jungblut & Furthermore, the presented setting refers to a Johnen, 2021). While negative effects apply to dual communication process between company the emotional-expressive and social dimension (representative) and stakeholder. Therefore, it of reputation, they do not become evident re- neglects the role of other societal institutions garding economic-functional reputation. It could (e.g. media). Apart from common methodolog- therefore be assumed, that the reputational im- ical limitations (e.g. representativity of sample) pact of taking a public stance on socio-political it should be critically mentioned that a fiction- issues is limited to the stakeholder’s evaluation al company and CEO were used. The extent to of the social and emotional realm but does not which this represents a reliable basis for measur- extend to the economic perception of a compa- ing corporate reputation should be viewed with ny. In other words, you might deeply reject the caution. values that a company and its CEO represent, but nonetheless you still acknowledge the quality Keywords: Corporate Reputation, Corporate Social of their products and services or their perfor-Advocacy, Corporate Social Responsibility, Balance mance within the economic system. Theory, Experimental Research 3 ABSTRACTS 83 The Myth of Emotion-Focused Employee Crisis Communication: How Information- Focused Employee Crisis Communication Drives Post-Crisis Organization Commitment, Intent-to-Perform, and Organizational Trust in Hospitality Employees Kang, Minjeong, Indiana University (USA) Introduction Literature Nearly two years of the ongoing Covid pandem- One of the plausible explanations for the un- ic have shifted the dynamics of the labor market. precedented employee exit and labor shortage in The US Labor Department reported the highest hospitality and service sectors may be found in job turnover in the survey’s history in November how employers were treated before and at the 2021. As possible reasons behind this unprec- onset of the pandemic, which induced furloughs edented turnover rate in the US labor market, and layoffs. Change communication and employ- labor market experts have attributed to employ- ee crisis communication literature also suggests ees wanting to pursue better job opportunities the crucial impact that internal communication with competitive pay, flexibility, job burnout, etc. during organizational change/crisis has on pos- Hospitality and service sectors have been par- itive post-change/crisis organizational outcomes ticularly hit hard by this massive employee exit (Mazzei et al., 2012). Organizational communi- (aka, The Great Resignation), which spurred cation scholars have been arguing for the sem- inal importance of internal communication in many employers to raise wages and offer gen- bringing out positive employee outcomes such erous cash bonuses to entice workers. Despite as positive communication, loyalty intentions, these efforts, the worker shortage continues to job engagement, etc. (e.g., Kang & Sung, 2017), cripple these sectors, and fewer people seem to as well as preserving organizational reputation be willing to go back to their previous job de- post-change/crisis via supportive employee com- spite higher wages and better perks in the hos- munication (Kim & Rhee, 2011). Mainly, how pitality and service sectors. Economically, The organizations treat and communicate with their Great Resignation defies common sense and la- employees during organizational change/crisis bor market logic. can determine employees’ attitude and willing- 3 ABSTRACTS 84 ness to support their organizations and stay loy- Results al during and after a significant organizational crisis/change such as the shutdown induced by Partial correlations analysis (controlling for the covid-19 pandemic. employees’ need for employment and rehire competency) revealed that EF employee cri- Scope sis communication was significantly associat- ed with pre-shutdown leadership perception The scope of the current research is descrip- and pre-shutdown relationship quality. Mean- tive in that it aims to explore and describe how while, IF employee crisis communication was during-shutdown employee crisis communica- significantly associated with post-shutdown in- tion has affected hospitality workers’ commit- tent-to-perform, trust in the organization, and ment to their organizations, intention to return organizational commitment (affective, norma- to work post-shutdown, and their intent to per- tive, and continuance). form. Additionally, the current study examined how organizational justice (distributive, pro- When the pre-shutdown leadership and LMX cedural, and interactive) was associated with relationship quality were additionally controlled during-shutdown crisis communication with for in the partial correlation analysis, only IF employees. employee crisis communication was significant across post-shutdown loyal intentions by em- Methods ployees in terms of intent-to-perform, intention to return to work post-shutdown, and organiza- Survey with North American 412 employees tional commitment. (full-time and part-time) in the hospitality sec- tor was conducted on Prolific in August 2020, Conclusions when the pandemic shutdown was at its peak with many hospitality workers out of their job These findings suggest that IF employee crisis either furloughed or laid off. communication is more effective in maintaining organizational commitment, intent-to-perform, Employee crisis communication was measured intent to return, and organizational trust post with 11 items from change communication liter- organizational change/crisis, compared to EF ature. The 11-item scale of employee crisis com- employee crisis communication, which may be munication was reliable, and the exploratory fac- limitedly influential. Limitations of the study in- tor analysis (EFA) indicated the scale measured cluded the limited scope of the industry repre- the concept in two distinctive dimensions, which sented in the study sample. dubbed as “Emotion-Focused (EF)” and “Infor- mation-focused (IF)” Seven items measured EF References employee crisis communication (e.g., gave you individualized attention; helped you understand Kang, M., & Sung, M. (2017). How symmetrical the crisis; helped to reduce your feelings of fear employee communication leads to employee and uncertainty) and four items measured IF engagement and positive employee commu- employee crisis communication (e.g., made sure nication behaviors: The mediation of employ- to correct any false information; were effective ee-organization relationships. Journal of Com- in sharing messages about important issues; pro- munication Management, 21(1), 82-102. vided timely and continuous updates) Kim, J.-N., & Rhee, Y. (2011). Strategic think- ing about employee communication behavior (ECB) in public relations: Testing the models 3 ABSTRACTS 85 of megaphoning and scouting effects in Korea. Journal of Public Relations Research, 23(3), 243-268. Mazzei, A., Kim, J.-N., & Dell’Oro (2012). Strategic value of employee relationships and communicative actions: Overcoming corporate crisis with quality internal communication. In- ternational Journal of Strategic Communication, 6, 31-44. Keywords: Employee crisis communication; organizational commitment, intention to return, intent-to-perform. 3 ABSTRACTS 86 Typifying Personal Reputations Latif, Farah, George Mason University (USA) Introduction, Purpose, and Rationale PR, marketing, economics, business. Inevitably, multiple ways of theorizing and conceptualizing There is little research in the communication CR have emerged because the literature is field to discern the concept of personal reputa- embedded in different fields (Ali et al., 2015; tions - or the reputations of individuals, which Chun, 2005; Gerring 1999; Lange et al. 2011; is the reason for little conceptual understanding Walker, 2010), lending little to advance personal of personal reputations. Literature that exists reputations literature. in personal reputations exists in the case study analyses that add little to this concept›s This research is one of several studies to ad-conceptual and methodological advancement. vance the research topic of personal reputation management (PRM) in the communication The motivation to expand this line of research field. This paper identifies the types of personal comes from a realization that reputations are im- reputation; however, to achieve this, the author perative to individuals’ well-being, whether they first looks at other important questions such as are in the public eye or private citizens. There- where threats to reputations emerge from and fore, this research is carried out with a funda- the threats to reputations. mental assumption that reputations are valuable assets of all individuals regardless of their social Methodology influence or public clout. Researchers must step away from emphasizing the reputations of pub- The purpose of the research is to explore an lic figures and pay attention to reputations as a unfamiliar concept through the participant›s concept critical to all individuals. perspectives, experiences, and views. Thus, elite interviews are well-suited for exploratory Thus, the purpose of advancing this research is research (Gubrium & Holstein, 2001; Hertz & to recognize that because reputations are a valu- Imber, 1995). The participants included in the able asset of all people (Veh et al., 2018), their elite group possessed a combination of three cri- concerns and how these reputations are created teria: (1) they are professionals or academics are different from each other. Further, the study who have experience with personal reputation aims to fill some existing gaps by typifying per- management and reputation attacks; (2) they sonal reputations and how personal reputations are prominent in their respective fields of study are created. or profession or public figures; and (3) they are highly educated. Literature Review Results and Conclusions There is scant research on personal reputations in the public relations (PR) field; However, The analysis revealed that personal reputation corporate reputation (CR) has captivated the threats could be examined based on three char- attention of scholars in research areas, such as acteristics that fall on a continuum: (1) self-ini- 3 ABSTRACTS 87 tiated (SI) or other-initiated (OI); (2) orches- Practical and Social Implications trated threats or Unorchestrated threats, and; (3) threats based on factual or fictitious events. This study is significant as it closes several crit- Concerning the threats, the analysis discovered ical gaps in the PRM literature by conceptualiz- that there are four significant threats to personal ing the term personal reputations. Moreover, the reputations; these are: (1) bad behavior; (2) vil- study will help generate greater interest among ification; (3) character assassination (CA), and; communication scholars in personal reputations, (4) scandals. Furthermore, personal reputations contributing to public relations and crisis com- are of four types: (1) intrinsic reputations; (2) munication fields. concurrent reputations; (3) legitimate reputa- tions; (4) fabricated reputations. This research will help future public relations researchers advance theory-driven approaches Limitations to reputations management. Also, practitioners can benefit from these typologies by narrowing This research takes one step toward conceptual- the segmenting audiences based on each type of izing personal reputations; however, many ques- reputational crisis. tions remain unanswered. For example, future researchers should focus on deeper inquiries, Keywords: Personal reputations, reputations man-such as what motivates individuals to earn and agement, typologies of reputations, reputation threats. maintain favorable reputations? How are repu- tations established in the public eye, and what role do the public perceptions play in perpetuat- ing reputations? Also, little is known about what constitutes a bad reputation and what conditions define when a reputation crisis may have started and ended. Additionally, the majority of research focuses on Western perspectives, with little at- tention paid to diverse cultural norms that may dictate the construction and destruction of rep- utations. 3 ABSTRACTS 88 From a VUCA to a BANI world: Has the view and practice of internal communication changed through the pandemic? Le Roux, Tanya, Bournemouth University (UK) Sutton, Lucinda B., North-West University (South Africa) Introduction and purpose of the study sense giving to showcase organisation compe- tence and resilience. Previously researchers argued that a volatile, un- certain, complicated, and ambiguous (VUCA) This study will aim to understand how the view environment, together with the development of and practice of internal communication has new technologies, were considered the great de- changed as we moved from a VUCA to a BANI terminants of trends in the internal communica- world during the pandemic, by using South Af- tion field. rican internal communication information in a qualitative longitudinal study. However, the Covid-19 pandemic delivered even greater challenges to organisations, as it creat- Literature review ed a suddenly volatile situation. This new reality that was created can be explained by using Cas- The study is conducted from a systems and re- cio’s BANI acronym that describes the situation flective approach and will use a multi-dimen- as brittle, anxious, nonlinear, and incomprehen- sional theoretical framework to accommodate sible (MJV Team 2021). Interestingly, and in the complex research context. Elements from the line with the strategic focus of internal commu- following theories will be incorporated in the nication, a BANI world requires a focus on soft theoretical framework: stakeholder relationship skills and relational elements. management theory, strategic communication management theory, technological acceptance This makes it clear why internal communica- model, uses and gratification theory, and the tion suddenly became the lifeline for organi- gamification phenomenon. In particular, atten- sations during the pandemic, where employees tion will be paid to the description of the BANI were dispersedly working from home. Aspects world. like creating meaning, constructing emotion, and displaying leadership guidance – sometimes The baseline study that would provide informa- even more than sharing information – become tion to the research is Sutton’s (2020) PhD in crucially important in a consistently uncertain which she explored views on internal communi- world. Internal communication rapidly became cation in South African organisations. Her main the representative of empathy, reassurance, and findings included: 3 ABSTRACTS 89 • That although great efforts are made, South participate in the study. African organisations only meet some of the internal communication and relation- The study started in January 2022 and aim to ship building requirements as set out in lit- conclude by May 2022. erature. Results and conclusions • That it is believed that the volatile and di- verse South African environment is the The expectation is to uncover a view of the major driver in impacting on how internal renewed focus on internal communication an- communication is executed and constantly swering to the BANI needs explained above. It developing. is expected that the importance of internal com- • That the definition of internal stakeholders munication as more than information sharing, can vary depending on the VUCA circum- will be highlighted by the South African exam- stances and industry. ple. It is also expected that the conflict between the strategic intent and operational realities will • That the internal communication channels be emphasised. Although the information will used in this VUCA context, mostly reflect focus on the South African context, it is expect- traditional routes and not stakeholder needs. ed that trends that are relevant globally, will be reflected in the findings. Methodology Practical and social implications A qualitative, longitudinal view will be used by comparing the pre-pandemic data (gathered by Lessons learnt from this research could include Sutton in 2019) and comparing it to data gath- recommendations for internal communication ered towards the end of the pandemic (in 2022). practitioners on a practical and strategic level. A qualitative longitudinal method was seen as On an academic level, future studies could build appropriate to investigate the research question, on this study’s BANI context and combine global as it provides rich information that explores the dynamic nature of respondents’ views over time (Neale, 2021). Furthermore, is provides an op- portunity to identify trends that might impact the internal communication field. This qualitative study will follow on the data gathering technique of the Sutton’s (2020) study and make use of in-depth semi-structured interviews with ten internal communication practitioners at the Top 500 companies in South Africa, as well as with eight internal communi- cation consultants in South Africa that were pur- posively selected for their achievements and ex- perience in corporate internal communication. These participants are responsible for internal communication management at large South Af- rican organisations in various sectors. The cur- rent study will target the same individuals to 3 ABSTRACTS 90 information to build the post-pandemic internal communication discipline. References MJV Team. 2021. From a VUCA world to a BANI one: how uncertainty has changed and how your company can prepare [online]. MJV Technology and Innovation. Available from: https://www.mjvinnovation.com/blog/from-a- vuca-world-to-a-bani-one/ Neal, B. 2021. Qualitative longitudinal research: Research methods. Bloomsbury Academic. London. Sutton, LB. 2020. A framework for strategic in- ternal communication management in South Africa, based on current trends [Afrikaans] [online]. Thesis (Phd). North-West Univer- sity. Available from: https://repository.nwu. ac.za/bitstream/handle/10394/36349/Sutton_ LB.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Keywords: Internal Communication; Covid-19; VUCA; BANI 3 ABSTRACTS 91 Internal Communication for Positive Organisational Culture Change: A Case Study Leahy, Hanna, Leeds Beckett University (UK) Tench, Ralph, Leeds Beckett University (UK) Arrigoni, Adalberto, Leeds Beckett University (UK) Introduction the organisation and workforce. Effective internal communication is agreed as Methodology imperative for positive organisational culture. Both internal communication and organisational A workforce-centric lens necessitated a collabo- culture influence the antecedents of workforce rative, qualitatively led case study inquiry aimed productivity, which are broadly encapsulated by at identifying informed actions for positive employee engagement and wellbeing. The wide- change. One participant SME was purposefully spread and costly need for improvement across recruited as “an exemplar of the phenomena of these dimensions is consistently agreed; yet, de- interest” (Vissak et al., 2020) for a naturalis-finitive solutions are lacking. tic, in-depth inquiry. A single punctuated longi- tudinal case study design (Soulsby and Clarke, Literature Review 2011) provided a detailed, processual and lon- gitudinal view of the role of internal communi- Despite wide and promising multi-disciplinary cation in organisational culture change. existent literature, there is a lack of clarity re- garding their exact nature, interrelation and Data consisted of thirty-four activities charac- processes for improvement. To exacerbate dis- terised by knowledge-exchanges with key infor- agreement, existent work evaluates the relevant mants, a fifteen-day non-participant observation constructs in relative isolation or employs rel- study and seven semi-structured interviews. The atively narrow foci and methods. Disparity is latter data were analysed using reflexive themat- documented between leadership and workforce ic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2021) that was perceptions of culture (Hofstetter and Harpaz, complemented with a critical realist (Bhaskar, 2015), further hindering organisationally driven 2008) view of reality. The themes were mapped effective change. with a processual framework pertaining to the This research addresses these gaps through a generation of workforce perceptual outcomes. holistic approach that considers and investigates Results the relevant phenomena as interrelated. Practi- cal utility of the research outcomes was tangible, The phenomena were demonstrated as inter-de- and successful change is expected to benefit both pendent, complex and varied; yet, internal com- 3 ABSTRACTS 92 munication provided the common explanatory holistic approach to changing organisational cul- factor. ture through communication. The multi-faceted change process is theoretically modelled, includ- Inadequate organisational knowledge regarding ing the role of expertise. Future work should the role of internal communication in shaping evaluate the generalisability and utility of this and therefore changing organisational culture ac-theoretical model and research approach. counted for the lack of internal communication strategy and resource. This fostered a multitude Practical Implications of negative outcomes: positively intended organ- isational statements and actions caused negative Internal communication should form the target consequences because of misaligned content and of and vehicle for culture change, and the or- poor implementation. The lack of effective two- ganisational and workforce constructs should be way communication exacerbated deleterious approached as interdependent. Further, imple- facets of climate, compromised employee voice mentation of change should be comprehensively and contributed to dissonant perceptions of cul- considered and applied to prevent dissonance ture between leadership and the workforce. The between leadership intentions and workforce perceived dissonance between organisational perceptions. HRM and communication expertise value-laden statements and actions fostered mis- appear integral for successful change. trust within the workforce. References The advent of the pandemic (Covid-19) yield- ed opportunity for a quasi-experimental con- Braun and Clarke - 2021 - One size fits all firmation of the formative role of all internal What counts as quality practice.pdf. Avail-communication for organisational culture. The able from: [Accessed 24 January of organisational communication. Technology 2022b]. for digital communication was considered as Foreign market entries, exits and re-entries: paradoxical. The role of knowledge, network relation- Conclusions ships and decision-making logic - Science- Direct [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed 24 internal communication is proposed as the man- January 2022c]. ifestation of culture. Bhaskar, R. (2008) A realist theory of science. Although generalisability is limited, a novel an- London; New York, Routledge. alytical framework demonstrated that increased Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2021) One size fits all? solution-focussed insight can be gained from a What counts as quality practice in (reflexive) 3 ABSTRACTS 93 thematic analysis? Qualitative Research in Psy- chology, 18 (3), pp.328–352. Hofstetter, H. & Harpaz, I. (2015) Declared versus actual organizational culture as indicat- ed by an organization’s performance apprais- al. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26 (4), pp.445–466. Soulsby, A. & Clark, E. (2011) Theorizing Process through Punctuated Longitudinal Case Study Research. Rethinking the Case Study in Internation-al Business and Management Research. Available from: [Accessed 24 January 2022]. Keywords: Organisational communication; organisational culture change; organisational climate; relational communication; workforce productivity. 3 ABSTRACTS 94 Collecting Communicative Premium for Innovation: How Employees Recompensate Innovative Organization for Legitimation, Innovation, and Reputation Lee, Hyelim, University of Oklahoma (USA) Kim, Jeong-Nam, University of Oklahoma (USA) Employees and their communicative behaviors such as organization culture and perceived or- have been re-recognized as a most important or- ganization support (POS), but this paper adopts ganization’s key public and for its impacts on organizational entrepreneurship ( OE) as a fo-organizational effectiveness. They are causes cal antecedent as it entails organizational cul- and consequences of management success (Kim ture and support together. To posit the concrete & Rhee, 2011; Mishra et al., 2014). Today, the mechanism between organization entrepreneur- employees’ thoughts about the organization are ship and ECBs, the paper also considers a medi- more crucial than in the past because of digi- ator as well, which is an employee-organization tal media. Employees are empowered to deliv- relationship ( EOR). er opinionated information to the mass without any obstacles. Their voices could be accepted as ECBs have been newly defined based on two reliable information for the other publics. Al- types of behaviors (voice and silence) and lo- though the academic interest in employees’ voic- cation (inside and outside of the workplace), ing outside of the workplace is growing (e.g., so that the paper will suggest its bidirectional Lee, 2021), sufficient research is still not being interaction between inside ECBs ( ECBIs) and conducted much compared to its importance outside ECBs ( ECBOs). Lastly, the paper will (Cassinger & Thelander, 2020). This study will propose two moderators to affect the linear rela- extend the previous studies’ efforts on the em- tionship between OE, EOR, ECBIs, and ECBOs: ployees’ voicing behavior by examining the an- prosocial motivation (PM), and organizational tecedents to affect the level of positive Employee commitment (OC). Figure 1 depicts the detailed Communication Behaviors ( ECBs hereafter). relationship among the concepts. Specifically, the model proposes that the higher perceived OE by The current study extends the research idea employees will predict the more prosocial EC- about ECBs to find the antecedents of ECBs. It BIs via the more positive evaluation about EOR will try to configure the organizational anteced- of employees and the more prosocial ECBIs will ents and their relationship with ECBs. There predict the more pro-organization ECBOs. The could be many various organization-level factors employees’ prosocial motivation will increase 3 ABSTRACTS 95 the positive relationship between EOR and EC- BIs and organization commitment will increase the positive relationship between ECBIs and EC- BOs. FIGURE 1: The Conceptual Model Benevolence Perceived Prosocial Organizational Integrity Fairness (PF) Motivation (PM) Commitment (OC) P8 P9 P2 P6 Organizational Prosocial ECBs Pro-organization ECBs Entrepreneurship Inside of the Workplace P5 Outside of the Workplace (OE) (ECBIs) (ECBOs) Advocacy Innovativeness Strategic Voice Positive Employee-Organization Megaphoning Relationship (EOR) Scouting Proactiveness Strategic Silence Information- Protection P1 Spill-over Effects P3 P4 Within the Organization Outside of the Organization P7 References Kim, J. -N., & Rhee, Y. (2011). Strategic think- ing about employee communication behavior (ECB) in public relations: Testing the models of megaphoning and scouting effects in Korea. Journal of Public Relations Research, 23(3), 243-268. Cassinger, C., & Thelander, Å. (2020). Voicing the organization on Instagram: Towards a per- formative understanding of employee voice. Public Relations Inquiry, 9(2), 195-212. Lee, Y. (2021). Employees’ Negative Megaphon- ing in Response to Organizational Injustice: The Mediating Role of Employee–Organiza- tion Relationship and Negative Affect. Journal of Business Ethics, 1-15. 3 ABSTRACTS 96 Networked and engaged? Toward a critical framework for internal communication in the public sector Lovari, Alessandro, University of Cagliari (Italy) Materassi, Letizia, University of Florence (Italy) Introduction and purpose of the study a map of practices to analyze the evolving role of internal communication and employee engage- Covid-19 pandemic has impacted on organiza- ment in the public sector. tions, transforming working routines and com- munication practices across the world. The na- Literature review tional lockdowns and the need to reduce social distancing pushed organizations to switch or in- Nowadays internal communication is recognized crease remote working or working from home. as one of the crucial leverages for the engage- After the first phase, this working model was ment of employees in companies, and in general continuously adopted at different stages follow- in organizations. This role, if strategically con- ing the pandemic waves. Public sector organi- ceived, managed, and planned, is not only use- zations were fully immersed in these processes, ful for transferring information and instructions and they were among the few organizations to within the corporate context, with a functional be resilient and active to deliver public services. aim. It has also a symbolic purpose, strengthen- They use communication as a strategic leverage ing the sense of belonging, creating a shared cul- to coordinate and empower their collaborators, ture of transparency between management and and to timely inform citizens. collaborators (Men & Bowen 2017), as well as encouraging identification of the values and the In this context, the paper aims to describe the alignment of the objectives of the collaborators main dimensions of a new theoretical frame- with those of the organizations (Mazzei et al., work to investigate the evolution of internal and 2019). Internal communication impacts also on employee communication in the public sector, in organizational cultures and influences the or- an era characterized by a remotization of work- ganizational climate. An organizational culture ing activities and by a growing role of digital is thus strictly connected to the collaborators platforms. Within a public relations perspective, working for the organization, and it is shaped it proposes a critical analysis hybridizing three by employees’ behaviors and attitudes (Grunig specific groups of theories: public sector com- et al., 2002). Moreover, the quality of employ- munication (Canel & Luoma-aho 2019; Lovari ees’ relations is today considered strategic to in- et al. 2020); internal communication and em- crease the efficacy of the internal communication ployee engagement (Men & Bowen 2017; Maz- flows, but also to nurture organizational repu- zei 2010); social media logics and platformiza- tation with prosocial activities (Dalton, 2010), tion (van dijck et al., 2018). The study will draw or enhancing positive megaphoning behaviors 3 ABSTRACTS 97 (Kim & Rhee, 2011), also to improve the qual- Practical and social implications ity of product/service offered, as well as to mit- igate possible crisis or emergencies (Mazzei et The ongoing Covid-19 emergency requires a al., 2021). Digital platforms have broadened the deep understanding of those work-related fac- spectrum of channels for internal communica- tors that contribute to the redefinition of in- tion’s purposes. Indeed, they can strengthen the ternal communication activities in the public sense of belonging and enhance the exchange of sector. These critical insights could represent a information, thus making a concrete contribu- useful framework for future empirical studies, tion to the development of good relationships highlighting communication behaviors, practic- and impacting on external relations with other es, and relational models that, arose during the stakeholders. pandemic, could be integrated into the “new normality”. All these dynamics had an impact on the pub- lic sector during the pandemic, an emergency References considered the world’s ‘largest work-from-home experiment’ (Banjo et al., 2020). Before 2020, Canel M.J., Luoma-aho V. (2019). Public Sector only a limited number of institutions have ex- Communication, Wiley Blackwell, NY. perienced flexible remote working practices. Lovari A., D’Ambrosi L., Bowen S. (2020). With the pandemic, administrations have been Re-connecting voices. The (new) strategic role obliged to adopt such routines, experimenting of public sector communication after Covid-19 new internal communication practices to in- crisis, Partecipazione e Conflitto, 13(2),970-form, motivate and empower collaborators, thus 989. redefining meanings and goals of their internal Mazzei A., Quaratino L., Ravazzani S. (2021). relationships. Digital platforms, with their logics Internal crisis communication in the time of and affordances (van dijck et al. 2018) represent Covid-19 Pandemic, FrancoAngeli, Milano. today a new environment for managing relations with collaborators, opening new challenges for Van Dijck J., Poell T., Waal M. de (2018). The the public sector. Platform Society: Public Values in a Connective World, Oxford University Press, NY. Methodology Keywords: internal communication, public sector A review of the scientific literature related to the communication, remote working, platforms three groups of theories (public sector organiza- tions; internal communication; platformization) will be carried out, to be framed into the speci- ficities of public institutions. Results and conclusions This is a conceptual, study in progress paper. At the conference the model will be presented, dis- cussed, and operationalized. The map of prac- tices will help researchers to identify the main dimensions for internal communication investi- gation and strategic planning. 3 ABSTRACTS 98 Managing Diverse Stakeholder Expectations through Strategic Ambiguity: A Case Study of Public Sector Communication in Finland Lievonen Matias, University of Jyväskylä (Finland) Valentini, Chiara, University of Jyväskylä (Finland) Badham, Mark, University of Jyväskylä (Finland) Purpose a powerful form of promotional content compa- nies can embrace to fulfil multiple purposes and The increasing stakeholder expectation toward convey information to several publics. This has organizations societal role are leveraging a also implied an increase adoption of impression higher degree of required transparency in their management techniques with the goal of deliv- communication. This implicates that disclosing ering as much as possible positive information, exclusively financial information is no longer to the point of distorting the graphs in the con- enough as companies need to be held account- text of corporate reporting. Indeed, several stud- able also for their impact on society in terms of ies analyzing the impression management tech- environmental and societal activities (Moreno niques in annual report highlights how reports & Capriotti, 2009). To comply with this surg- easily adapt to deliberately alter perception of ing demand, companies have therefore begun to the company’s performance (Beattie & Jhones, publish sustainability reports to communicate 2002). However, while extensive literature has their activities and impacts. been dedicated to the graphical distortion pres- ent in company’s reports, the focus has pre- Despite the fact that several standards are avail- dominantly fallen on annual reports or financial able, the reporting scenario remains still frag- reports. Sustainability reporting is an increas- mented and unregulated regarding how compa- ingly studied area of inquiry for communication nies should present their data (Lock & Arujo, scholarship. To contribute to the discussion by 2020). Due to the volatile attention scarcity of expanding the existing gaps, the present study the audience, companies need to implement en- fits in with the goal of studying under the lens of gaging and timely data communication tactics. impression management techniques are deliber- The emergence of the “visual turn” in CSR com- ately conceived to alter the public perception of munication (Lock & Arujo, 2020) is exemplified companies’ sustainability performance. by the increasing predominance of infographics and data visualization elements in sustainability reporting. The available visualization techniques have now transformed sustainability reports into 3 ABSTRACTS 99 Design/Methodology unified standard for a more transparent commu- nication. On the other side, the research raises In particular, in order to assess whether and to awareness on the issue of graph literacy among what extent companies use impression manage- corporate report publics as an antecedent of cor- ment techniques. We analyzed a sample of 65 rect data consumption and misuse identification. companies listed in the Italian stock exchange, systematically collecting their reports and cat- References egorizing them by their market capitalization. This method of selection seems to be favorable Beattie, V., & Jones, M. J. (2002). Measurement for what concerns the industrial sectors of anal- distortion of graphs in corporate reports: an ex- ysis. Indeed, selecting companies based on their perimental study. Accounting, Auditing & Ac- market capitalization and not on industry specif- countability Journal, 15(4), 546–564. https:// ics allows to gain an overview also on different doi.org/10.1108/09513570210440595 aspects of different sectors. Hence, even though Brennan, N., Guillamon Saorin, E., & Pierce, this sampling cannot be defined as purely ran-A. (2008). Impression Management: Devel- domized, at the same time it offers a good ap- oping and Illustrating a Scheme of Analysis proximation of what the market is like. for Narrative Disclosures - A Methodological Note. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi. Findings org/10.2139/ssrn.1284904 By using an analytical framework informed in Cho, C. H., Laine, M., Roberts, R. W., & Rodrigue, the impression management theory, we found M. (2016). The Frontstage and Backstage of undeniable evidence of the adoption graphical Corporate Sustainability Reporting: Evidence from the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Bill. distortion techniques by companies, supporting Journal of Business Ethics, 152(3), 865–886. the idea that sustainability reports are employed https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3375-4 not only to convey important and truthful in- formation about the firms’ sustainability perfor- Lock, I., & Araujo, T. (2020). Visualizing the mance, but also a favorable image of the compa-triple bottom line: A large‐scale automated ny. Consistently with the studies on impression visual content analysis of European corpora- management (Cho et al., 2018), the results of tions’ website and social media images. Corpo- the analysis confirmed that graphs are not only rate Social Responsibility and Environmental largely adopted forms of communication but Management, 27(6), 2631–2641. https://doi. also largely altered ones where selectivity, pre- org/10.1002/csr.1988 sentational enhancement, and measurement dis- Moreno, A., & Capriotti, P. (2009). Commu- tortions convergently appear. nicating CSR, citizenship and sustainabili- ty on the web. Journal of Communication Theoretical and practical contributions Management, 13(2), 157–175. https://doi. org/10.1108/13632540910951768 Theoretically, the research problematizes and extends studies on the impression management Keywords: CSR reporting, impression management, techniques deployed in CSR reporting. Practical-data visualization, transparency ly the research informs the sustainable reporting sector by providing evidence on the actual stage of CSR impression management and possible av- enues to increment and regulated 3 ABSTRACTS 100 The Full-Stack Public Relations: Future- proofing communication management for stakeholder experience delivery and the digital transformation era MacKenzie, Lindsay, McMaster University (Canada) Communication management has long claimed this expectation, Experience management (XM) responsibility for stakeholder relationships and applies agile design processes and mines digital enshrined the function as part of the defini- connectivity to deliver robust business intelli- tional identity for practitioners and academics. gence tools and an intimate understanding of the During an era of unprecedented digital trans- stakeholder journey. formation and shrinking stakeholder proximity, the author interviewed c-suite executives at ten Literature Review publicly traded companies operating in Canada to explore the role for strategic communication/ Broadly examining the landscape of organiza- public relations in the growing field of experi- tional transformation in the 21st century, Holtz ence delivery. (2002), Castells (2000) and Hax (2010) high- light how social and digital ecosystems are al- These conversations were augmented by ten in- tering how stakeholders interact with brands terviews with experience management (XM) and are shifting business strategies from product experts and practitioners – those who monitor differentiation to service experience. In order to employee, customer, product and brand percep- explore shifting priorities of senior leaders, com- tions using predictive behavior data – to give munication management as a strategic function the organization a robust understanding of all is explored in literature. Mcnamara (2015) evi- relationships impacting business performance. denced a long history of difficulty measuring and evaluating (M&E) programs and responsibilities Underscored by an integrative literature review, for communication practitioners and academ- the applicability of communication management ics. Supporting this finding Huang and Zhang is examined through communication, organi- (2013) thoroughly critique organization-pub- zation-public relationships (OPR) and brand/ lic relationship measurement scales to similarly image reputation activities. However, communi- find outcomes are elusive. The major commu- cation management continues to struggle with nication activities such as the tactic of commu- delivering measurement and evaluation (M&E) nicating (Hutton, 1999; Macnamara, 2018; van for their programs and responsibilities. Mean- Ruler, 2018), organization-public relationships while, organizations have increased their appe- (OPR) (Bruning & Ledingham, 2000; Hon & tite for actionable insights that will cause behav- Grunig, 1999; Finne and Grönroos, 2009; Mac- ior change in important relationships. Meeting namara, 2015) and image/reputation monitor- 3 ABSTRACTS 101 ing through crisis and issues management (Bun- message clarifying for strategic priorities, is the ting & Lipski, 2000; Coombs & Holladay, 2005; tactical function most needed at a program level Gotsi & Wilson, 2001; Macnamara, 2020; mur- and senior executive level in organizations. Oth- ray & White, 2005) are given as context for the er insights found: strategic communicators could role of communication practitioners in organi- play a role in determining the mission of analyt- zations. In contrast, the new field of experience ics and data collection as ethical advisors; letting delivery (Macik, 2017) is explored through go of managerial ownership with stakeholder re- computer sciences literature including the In- lationships; find influence with chief technology ternet of Things (IoT) (Amodu et al., 2019) and strategy officers; overwrite traditional com- and human to computer connectivity (Fletcher, munication plans to incorporate design-thinking 2015) showing that senior leaders are looking principles of empathy and feedback loops; and for analytics to identify gaps in the perception finally, improving data and analytics fluency as it that stakeholders have of a brand/organization relates to experience delivery. (Grannan & Geoffroy, 2016) and that indicate behavioral intention as well (Qualtrics, 2021; The author submits that communication man- Palmer, 2010). agement is poised for an upgrade. The modern practitioner should be “full-stack” much like that Methodology of a software developer who can solve custom- er-facing aspects of design and diagnose internal This is an exploratory, qualitative research study system-related issues as well. to introduce experience (XM) management into communication management literature. Practical and Social Implications The sample size consisted of twenty in-depth To ensure relevance after digital transforma- interviews: ten senior leaders who had author- tion, communication management must find a ity in operational and strategic decisions and place for communication, crisis and issues man- ten experts and practitioners in the experience agement as well as reputation activities within delivery ecosystem at publicly traded compa- the agile, cross-functional ecosystem of today’s nies operating in Canada and undergoing digital modern, data-informed organizations who are transformation. Three broad interview questions using experience delivery models. discussed experience delivery, stakeholder rela- tionship management and strategic communica- The findings are instructive for professionals tion activities. The qualitative synthesis focused performing communication activities and re- on words, descriptions, concepts, perceptions searchers studying them, as well as institutions and sentiments expressed by participants. Narra- offering academic study in strategic communica- tive analysis revealed mindsets and perspectives tion and public relations. of interview participants while thematic analysis revealed similarities and differences that could Keywords: public relations theory, communication be grouped together for deeper interpretations. theory, experience management, relationship management, organization-public relationships Results and conclusions The results of this study are expected to be completed by March 2022 as part of a master’s thesis defence. Early analysis shows the activi- ty of communication, as message sending and 3 ABSTRACTS 102 The voice behavior of employees: How can their voice be the supervisors’ favorite sound Mourão, Rita, ESCS (Portugal) Introduction and Purpose of the Study The promotional voice conceptualized by Van Dyne and LePine (1998) is related to the ex- According to Berkovich (2014) leaders assume pression of new ideas or suggestions to improve the behavior of promoting dialogue more in the functioning of the work or the organization. flexible structures than in rigid structures. It is Is promotive in the sense that it focuses on an known that there is a specific performance ap- ideal future state. It is challenging because it praisal named “360-degree evaluation” that is suggests change. The prohibitive voice describes more applied in organizational contexts of great- expressions of concerns regarding employee er power sharing. In this sense, this study seeks work practices, incidents, or behavior. Further- to understand if there is a relationship between more, this serves an important function for the this type of evaluation and the communication health of the organization, mainly because these that supervisors have with their subordinates. In alarming messages put problems previously not this way, we have the hypothesis: detected in the collective agenda, to be solved, avoiding some problems in the organization. In The application of 360º performance evaluation some cases, this type of voice can even be bene- is positively related to the voice behavior of em- ficial, since it involves less time than the promo- ployees, when mediated by the communication tional voice and, currently, organizations operate climate. at great speed. Literature Review According to some studies, the voice behaviors may be beneficial to the organization, with peo- The voice behaviors have been a topic of inter- ple tending to evaluate organizational actors est in the past decade (Mowbray, Wilkinson & more positively when they have more voice be- Herman, 2015). The notion of voice behavior haviors (Whitning, Maynes, Podsakoff & Podsa- emerged with Hirschman (1970), who found koff, 2012). that when employees were not satisfied with their working conditions, they tended to leave Since the 21st century the perception of lead- the organization or remain, but revealing their ers as the people who has the power has been concerns. changing, and this notion been replaced by the concepts of coach, mentor and facilitator (Jo- The author Morrisson (2014), in turn, divid- hansson, 2018). For this reason, the more recent ed voice behaviors into two types: promotional companies have been searching an organizational voice behaviors and prohibitive voice behaviors. democracy in which it occurs the involvement of 3 ABSTRACTS 103 all members in decision making (Cunha & Rego, These results are in line with previous studies, 2005). This organizational democracy may be as it is known that more and more companies related to 360-degree evaluation and the sup- have been seeking to promote an organization- port communication. This is a type of evaluation al democracy in which all organizational actors that promotes an active voice of employees when can be involved in decision-making (Cunha & compared to a top-down performance appraisal. Rego, 2005), this kind of democracy is promot- In this way, it is important to find out if the em- ed, many times, by the application of 360-degree ployees have more voice behaviors when there evaluation (Mamatoglu, 2008). is a trust, opening and support communication. This study is innovative, since the majority of Methodology the studies in this context focus only on direct relationships between variables, not considering The main objective of this study was to under- mediations and moderations. Considering the stand if the application of 360-degree evaluation leaders ‘and followers’ views also becomes inno- may be positively related to the adoption of voice vative, as the most studies take into account only behaviors by employees, when it is mediated by one view (the view of the employees). Further- the climate of communication of trust, openness more, there are few national studies linking the and support. For this, a theoretical model with 360-degree evaluation and the communication three variables was created: the independent climate. variable (application of the 360-degree evalu- ation); the communication climate-related me- Practical and Social Implications diator variable of the original Communication In practical terms, this study may be useful to Measurement Scale (Smidts, Pruyn & Van Riel, the development and application of an innova- 2001) and the type of voice (defensive voice and tive type of performance evaluation, namely, the prosocial voice) – dependent variable, derived 360º performance evaluation, enabling commu- from the original Scale of EVLN Model (“Exit”; nication of greater dialogue between supervisors “Voice”; “Loyalty” and “Neglect”, by Dyne, Ang and subordinates. Furthermore, this study allows & Botero 2003). These scales were evaluated by training supervisors with regard to communica- applying a questionnaire to a sample (non-prob- tion and evaluation processes, contributing to a abilistic) convenience and snowball sample, con- better organizational effectiveness. sisting of a total of 704 individuals (managers and / or subordinates), inserted in the Portu- Key-words: Voice behaviors; Employees; Organiza-guese Labor Market, during the year 2019. tions; 360-degree Feedback Results and Conclusions The analysis of the results allowed the creation of a theoretical model of mediation in which it was found that the application of the 360-degree evaluation was positively related to the defensive and prosocial voice of employees, when mediat- ed by climate of communication of trust, open- ness and support. 3 ABSTRACTS 104 Try before you buy: examining the relationship between communication organisations, higher education, and public relations students undertaking WIL Naqvi, Jeff, RMIT University (Australia) Introduction • RQ2: How did the pandemic impact host organisation experiences of students under- The pandemic necessitated a shift in how indus- taking WIL? try, higher education, and students collaborate via internships. Traditionally a capstone offering • RQ3: What implications does this have for in undergraduate programs, many institutions higher education institutions? had to suspend their internship programs, or Literature review strike a balance across remote, onsite, or blend- ed modes. What lessons can be learned from this The study is situated in the crosshairs of a few necessity? research agendas in work-integrated learning (“WIL”): the role of industry as a primary stake- Purpose holder in higher education (Naqvi 2021); the push for collaboration across higher education This study examines student experiences of institutions (Cameron et al 2020) to operate work integrated learning, specifically intern- sustainable models under government policy ships, during the pandemic. It will explore how directives; and, a need for research which goes such experiences differed, whether the experi- beyond the ‘outputs’ of WIL, and looks at the ence was taken onsite, remotely, or a combina- strategy of WIL for three stakeholders namely tion of both (“blended”). The study will seek to industry, academia, and the student (Cooper et identify implications for higher education insti- al. 2010). tutions and whether such WIL experiences – and the relationships which underpin them – need Methodology recalibrating in the “new normal” post-pandem- ic conditions. A critical realism paradigm underpins the explo- ration of the study. Critical realism’s subjectivist The following research questions (RQ) guided epistemology recognises that some reality – in the study: this study, the internship experience – cannot be objectively measured (Stolz 2020). Studies with • RQ1: How did the pandemic impact stu- a subjectivist epistemology are well-suited to a dent experiences when undertaking WIL in qualitative design, and that of phenomenology either onsite, remote, or blended contexts? (Blundel 2007). 3 ABSTRACTS 105 The purpose of phenomenology is to describe comes in terms of workplace task productivity. a phenomenon as the lived experience of indi- However, most noticeable, was a lack of social viduals (Speziale et al. 2011). As an inductive engagement and exposure to workplace culture. approach to research, the lived experience gives The findings amongst host organisations sug- a subjective meaning to an individual’s percep- gest that whilst students completed set tasks to tion of the stated phenomenon. A common form a satisfactory level, supervision was problematic of phenomenology in education research is the for internships having any remote component. descriptive approach, which is used in this study. Allocated tasks also differed significantly across the three internship modes. Also, there may be The study implemented the phenomenological an emerging reduction in willingness for organ- approach through a quasi-field experiment de- isations to extend ongoing offers of employment sign, with three data collection components: to participating students, post-WIL. This has im- • a reflective journal maintained by student plications for the tripartite relationship between participants in the study during their in- student, university, and industry, as one of the ternship. Moon (2006) cites six key factors primary motivators for organisations participat- in how students learn from reflective jour- ing in such programs is to access a pipeline of nals. Of specific relevance to this study, the future talent. role of emotion in a student’s learning as Limitations they experience their internship under one of three modes (dependent variables); This study focuses on one higher education in- • a survey completed by students at the end stitution and thus is not representative of all of the internship; and, public relations students nor all higher educa- tion institutions. • a survey completed by a host organisation representative. Suggestions for further research Quantitative surveys provide a complementary Further study into the perspectives of communi- data point to the qualitative reflective journals, cation organisations and their intake of students ensuring the student has an opportunity to re- for internships conducted onsite, online, or a flect upon their experiences in real-time, as well blend of both, would be suggested. as to look back once it is complete. Descriptive statistics were used to bring the raw data into Possible areas of contribution – now and as fu- due form. ture exploration – are in the areas of work-in- tegrated learning pedagogical practices in higher Sample sizes: education. In addition, there is a possible contri- bution in evolving the role of industry, alongside • Reflective journals: n = 6 academia as well as government, in developing • Survey 1 (student): n = 25 the next generation workforce. Further research will also explore the development of an industry • Survey 2 (industry): n = 15 engagement framework for use across higher ed- Results and conclusions ucation institutions. This study is continuing at the time of writing, Keywords: Work-integrated learning; Industry en-however initial indications are that students un- gagement; Higher education; Public relations; Stake-dertaking WIL remotely experience similar out- holder relations 3 ABSTRACTS 106 Turnover Intentions among Millennial Public Relations Professionals in Latin America Navarro, Cristina, Gulf University for Science and Technology (Kuwait) Moreno, Ángeles, King Juan Carlos University (Spain) Fuentes, Cristina, King Juan Carlos University (Spain) Introduction • RQ3. Does job satisfaction have positive impact on Millennials employee retention? The topic of the Millennial Generation in the workplace has gained momentum since the re- • RQ4. Does trust have positive impact on tention and turnover of younger employees have Millennials employee retention? become a challenge for companies around the • RQ5. Does job engagement have positive world (Sujansky & Ferri-Reed, 2009). Expec- impact on Millennials employee retention? tations of acceptable workplace behavior and • RQ6. Does excellent leader performance performance differ across generational cohorts has a positive impact on Millennials em- (Stewart, Oliver, Cravens, & Oishi, 2017). Un- ployee retention? derstanding these differences could have major implications for the way organizations recruit, Literature review hire, train, reward, promote, and terminate their employees (Costanza, Badger, Fraser, Severt, & Empirical research on generations’ work atti- Gade, 2012). This is even more critical for the tudes is sparse and mixed. In accordance with the Public Relations industry, a knowledge-intensive past literature, seven factors encourage employee field characterized by their focus on intellectu- retention among employees: challenging work, al or human capital to produce their products opportunities to learn, positive relationships and services. This paper focuses on six research with colleagues, compensation and appreciation questions: of the work performed, recognition of capabil- ities, work–life balance and good communica- • RQ1: What is the strength of the relation- tion. Research on Millennial employees working ship between Millennial PR professionals in full-service communication firms (Gallicano, and their employers in terms of relation- Curtin, & Matthews, 2012) depicts a genera- ship outcomes (job satisfaction, trust, job tion that enjoys positive relationships with their engagement, and employee retention)? agencies but also expresses their frustration of a lack of empowerment, significant hierarchy, and • RQ2: Do additional sociodemographic fac- distance from managers. tors, particularly gender, hierarchical levels and salary, affect the relationship outcomes Factors affecting employee turnover have re- of Millennial PR professionals? ceived significant attention from academia and 3 ABSTRACTS 107 practitioners during the last decades. Through ing t- tests (p < 0.05) of overall job satisfaction, a meta-analytic review of organizational liter-and turnover intentions, but did not influence ature Cotton and Tuttle (1986) identified 24 on engagement and trust. Moreover, practi- variables impacting employee retention and tioners working in excellent departments report classified them into three correlates: external, statistically higher levels of job satisfaction (90.2 work-related, and personal characteristics. Meng percent, p ≤ 0.05), engagement (88.7 percent, and Berger (2019) also confirmed the strong p ≤ 0.05), organizational trust (85.5 percent), impact that organizational culture and lead- p ≤ 0.05, and lower turnover intentions (32.2 er performance could have on public relations percent, p ≤ 0.05). professionals’ work engagement, trust, and job satisfaction. There is a strong correlation between job satis- faction and the willingness to leave. Professionals Method that want to move out of communications and change employers are the less satisfied with their The data used for the study were gathered us- job (19.6 percent, p ≤ 0.05). Strong association ing an online survey designed in Qualtrics. The between perceived trust in the organization and questionnaire was active from April to August of Latin American Millennials turnover intentions 2019 and was available in both Spanish and Por- was also found. In fact, one-third practitioners tuguese. A total of 2,575 professionals from 19 reporting low level of organizational trust want countries started the survey and 1,229 of them to change employer, comparing with 20.6 per- completed. The final evaluation is then based on cent (p ≤ 0.05) of those with a high level of the completed responses of 1,165 public rela- organizational trust. tions professionals. Practical Implications Findings This research not only informs supervisors about Results show that Latin American Millennials what they can do to motivate workers and pro- present significant lower levels of job satisfaction, vide for job satisfaction and retention but gives engagement, and trust in the organization than them insight into what type of leader’s Millen- Gen Xers and Boomers (p ≤ .05). When asked nials may become based on what is important about their plans for the further development to them. Overall, this study can be used to teach of their career, 45.3 percent of the respondents organizations to facilitate trainings, develop bet- want to leave his or her current employer, com- ter leaders, create a culture that promotes job pared with 35.4% of Gen X and 28.1% of Baby satisfaction, and increase the retention of good Boomers. Almost half of the participants in the public relations Latin American Millennial em- survey (46.7%) show little engagement or even ployees. a complete disengagement. X-Gers and Boomers Limitations practitioners report a significantly higher work engagement (p ≤ 0.05). Similarly, findings in- The study has several limitations that require dicate significant differences across generational consideration when interpreting the findings. cohorts regarding trust in the organization. 12.7 First, a large sample of professionals was ap- percent of the Millennials respondents report a proached, but a much small number initiated low level of trust, compared to 10.3 percent of and completed the online survey. Second, be- Generation X and 3.5 percent of the Boomers. cause of the possible systematic bias in the con- Salary was a statistically significant predictor us- venience sample as used here, the results of this 3 ABSTRACTS 108 research should be seen as a pilot study giving public relations agency employees. Journal of an indication of the distribution of the results Public Relations Research, 24(3), 222–242. in the entire population. Third, as in any study Meng, J., & Berger, B. K. (2018). Maximizing using self-report measures, the results may have the Potential of Millennial Communication been influenced by participants’ acquiescence Professionals in the Workplace: A Talent Man- and need for social desirability. agement Approach in the Field of Strategic References Communication. International Journal of Strate- gic Communication, 12(5), 507-525. Costanza, D. P., Badger, J. M., Fraser, R. L., Stewart, J. S., Oliver, E. G., Cravens, K. S., & Oi-Severt, J. B., & Gade, P. A. (2012). shi, S. (2017). Managing Millennials: Embrac- Cotton, J. L., & Tuttle, J. M. (1986). Employee ing generational differences. Business Horizons, turnover: A meta-analysis and review with im- 60(1), 45-54. plications for research. Academy of management Sujansky, J. and Ferri-Reed, J. (2009), Keeping Review, 11(1), 55-70. the Millennials: Why Companies are Losing Bil- Gallicano, T. D., Curtin, P., & Matthews, K. lions in Turnover to this Generation-and What to (2012). I love what I do, But. . . A relationship do About it, John Wiley & Sons, New Yok, NY. management survey of Millennial generation Keywords: Employee retention, Employee engagement, job satisfaction, Millennials, Latin America, Public relations. 3 ABSTRACTS 109 New challenges for the countries in external communications due to fake news blossoming Novoselova, Olga, Corvinus University of Budapest (Hungary) Ildikó Kemény, Corvinus University of Budapest (Hungary) The wide spreading of fake news in recent years, Kim, 2018; Vargo et al., 2017). Relatively little especially in Covid19 period, has been caused by research has investigated fake news in the con- the rise of social media worldwide as nowadays text of brand management and communication this medium have become the main source of and there is absolutely no research in the context getting information. Therefore, fake news detec- of country brand or country of origin product tion has become an emerging topic, and more brand. Berthon and Pitt (2018), one of the first and more technical giant companies are seeking researchers who has analyzed different situations future solutions for recognizing online fake in- in which brands come in touch with fake news formation. However, accurate fake news detec- and the potential negative outcomes of such re- tion, is still challenging, due to the dynamic na- lationships and highlighted the symbiotic rela- ture of the social media, and the complexity and tionship between fake news and brands. It was diversity of online communication data. As well empirically examined & results showed there as, it is not clear if the detection of fake news was indeed a chain of effect from fake news on may limit the sharing process made by users. As consumers’ trust toward brands that appeared a time when research shows that 75 per cent next to fake news, and such effects were medi- of American adults who were familiar with a ated by the credibility of the news and sources fake news headline viewed the story as accurate (Visentin et al., 2019). (Silverman and Singer-Vine, 2016), and facts are less important the emotional desire in high Some scientists have proposed Antecedents and spreading of fake news (BBC research), con- outcomes and persuasion knowledge toward sumers are more likely than ever to pass along a fake news post regarding a brand (Chen & “news” that is inaccurate and potentially even Cheng, 2019), whereas, others discusses how harmful. consumers process fake news and its relevance to marketing communications (Nyilasy, 2019, By conveying biased and false information, De Regt and al. 2019) have identified seven de- fake news can destroy folk’s faith and beliefs nialistic marketing tactics that contribute to the in authorities, experts and the government. Al- diffusion of fake news in the health and beauty though the unprecedented scale of fake news has industry and Weidner and al. (2019) present a brought more scholarly attention in recent years, framework to examine the different impact of most studies focused on the public policy and fake news, taking consumers’ confirmation bias political communication perspectives (Jang et into account. 3 ABSTRACTS 110 According to hypothesis of this study, the im- China and Chinese Universitates as a product pact of fake news is especially notable in the case category from that country were chosen and of country image since knowledge about other 290 Russian students respondents took place in countries is often limited, it is reasonable to as- the survey. The survey questionnaire incorporat- sume that the media significantly influence the ed four sections. In the first section, respondents thoughts on which people rely in order to judge were asked to provide the general characteristics countries or its products. and the atmosphere or mood and measurement of categories of country brand equity before Thus, this study is going to shed the light on reading fake news. In the second component, re-consequences and further challenges for country spondents were given created by us fake news brand or country-of-origin product brand oc- messages which had negative connotation con- curred after reading fake news. So, the question cerning this country and after reading fake news, which is going to be answered: Does fake news participants were asked to indicate their attitude influence country brand or brand of specific toward the truthfulness of the news on three product category from that country what way? items anchored with a 7-point scale and further The distinction between projected and perceived section again was devoted to measure country image is applied as useful approach for analyz- brand equity categories. ing the contribution of fake news on country The results of this survey were obtained in the and product brand from a methodological point middle of January and in the process of analyz- of view and country brand equity approached is ing and more detailed results will be present- used as a theory to measure brand. ed at the conference. However, already now we In other words, if projected images by fake news may see the decrease of country brand and even are evaluated on changes in country and product stronger damage to country-of-origin product perceived brand and how it is, in its turn, relates brand in the category of higher education. with country or product awareness, associations, These results will identify the weakest points in quality and loyalty. Higher education was chosen the fight of fake news consequences that would as a foreign product because the impact of fake give a ground for further proposing different re- news may vary significantly. sponse strategies for governments or organiza- tions in the work of improving crises situation. Keywords: fake news, country brand, China, country-of-origin product brand, Chinese Universities. 3 ABSTRACTS 111 The Key to Improving ‘Team Virtuality’: Defining Internal and External Distractors of Virtual Meetings Pakozdi, Ivan, Edward Bernays University College (Croatia) Jakopović, Hrvoje, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Kanajet, Karlo, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Introduction and purpose of the study Literature review As part of a wider research on virtual communi- Numerous books and papers, including Kirkman cation patterns and practices in large companies, & Mathieu (2005), Anderson et al. (2007), Kock the study focuses on employees’ requirements (2008), Salmons & Wilson (2009), Mayadas & towards their managers/employers to improve Hultin (2010), Chudoba et al. (2011), Amcoff the technical aspects of using collaborative plat- Nyström & Asproth (2013), Kurtzberg (2014), forms for internal and external virtual meet- Abrahamsson Lindeblad et al. (2016), Kolbaek ings. It defines the most common technical and (2018), Frisch & Greene (2020), Handke et. personal distractors which influence employees al. (2020), Afflerbach (2020), Baker & Mur- and thus affect the quality of virtual meetings phy (2021), Swartz et al. (2021), and Dumitru and e-collaboration in large companies. The (2022), explored the communication practices study will provide qualitative insight into areas developed by remote virtual teams in periods of corporate virtual communication and the use before the COVID-19 pandemic and during the of collaborative platforms that can be improved pandemic, as a sudden and unexpected event by implementing the ‘team virtuality’ concept, that provoked a certain response. Numerous re- which, according to Kirkman & Mathieu (2005), cent scientific and practical research studies, in- consists of three dimensions: the degree that on- cluding LaBerge et al. (2020), Lifesize (2020), line teams use virtual tools to coordinate and Twillio Inc. (2020), Buffer.com (2021), Mic- communicate (the reliance on virtual tools and rosoft (2021), Statista.com (2021), and Zer- the extent to which teams use virtual technolo- fass et al. (2021), are also available to identify gies to coordinate work activities); information communication procedures in order to make virtual meetings as effective as possible in the value (communication and data that is valuable ever-evolving ‘new normal’. to a team’s effectiveness, such as the technolo- gy’s capability to transmit cognizable informa- Methodology tion); and synchronicity (how well employees are able to support simultaneous communication The authors of this paper conducted a survey through video conferencing). on employees (N=188) from communication, marketing, and human resources departments in medium-sized and large companies of var- 3 ABSTRACTS 112 ious businesses in Croatia ranked in the TOP most common internal and external distractors 505 companies based on the report by Bisno- of virtual meetings and help raise the level of de Dun & Bradstreet on revenues in 2017 and understanding of requirements and expectations 2018, with the aim of gathering quantitative regarding personal and technical aspects of in- data concerning employees’ views on distractors ternal virtual communication. The conclusion of in virtual meetings, which limit their effective- the research could be a step closer to a new cor- ness in internal and external communication porate culture model which is more adapted to during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study will the new conditions of internal communication be qualitatively supplemented by the semi-struc- in the virtual world. tured interview method conducted through 10 semi-structured interviews focusing on CCOs Practical and social implications who are in charge of communications in Cro- atian medium-sized and large companies of Besides contributing to the practical and academ- various businesses that have introduced virtual ic thought of internal virtual communication, this study will help companies to conceptualize communication and/or remote work in the last and better understand personal and technical re- two years. Using mixed methods research, the strictions and interferences that affect the quality authors of this study will conduct a comparative of internal virtual communication. Managers in analysis of employees’ requirements and expec- organizations, aware of the limiting circumstanc- tations towards their employers and vice versa in es in which employees participate in the process order to improve the technical aspects of using of internal virtual communication, will be able collaborative platforms for internal and external to develop a new set of tools, communication virtual meetings. training programmes or expertise to optimize Results and conclusions and upgrade the personal and technical aspects of internal virtual communication. A review of various global studies on virtual meetings, as well as empirical research among Keywords: team virtuality, e-collaboration, internal employees in medium and large companies in communication, virtual meetings, remote work Croatia show that there are no significant differ- ences in the way employees in Croatia approach the organization and conduct team communica- tion in a virtual environment. Although we are witnessing a change in the communication para- digm in the last two years, numerous similarities which appear in communication patterns during virtual meetings can be noted, especially when distractors of virtual meetings are observed. In most cases, these distractors, which affect the quality of internal and external communication, are the result of lack of understanding between employees and employers in companies in terms of acceptance of communication requirements, or in other words, a discrepancy between com- munication practices and expectations. The re- search will provide valuable insights into the 3 ABSTRACTS 113 Rethinking Internal Communication between “New Normal” and “Next Normal”: An Overview of current and emerging practices Ravazzani, Silvia, Università IULM (Italy) Mazzei, Alessandra, Università IULM (Italy) Butera, Alfonsa, Università IULM (Italy) Introduction and purpose aking, facilitating learning through sharing new insights out of the crisis (Heide & Simonsson, Among the key conference subthemes and cur- 2019). For this purpose, literature within inter- rent challenges for organizations, there is inter- nal communication, internal crisis communica- nal communication and the profound changes it has undergone during the Covid-19 pandemic. tion, and employee relations in Covid-19 times Social distancing and remote working, fast be- is drawn upon. come the routine for millions of workers world- Methodology wide, have deeply impacted employee sense of security, identification, socialization, engage- The study presents an empirical research based ment, and organizational culture at large. In the on the perceptions and experiences of 29 inter- face of an ever-evolving health and work con- nal communication managers and professionals text, organizations need to constantly redesign working in 15 Italian companies. Qualitative new ways of working and communicating. The data were collected from 3 focus groups carried purpose of this study is to scrutinize internal communication practices, focusing on the role out throughout 2021, when the “new normal” of internal communication for rebooting and re- was gradually established in organizations and vitalizing organizations in the “new normal” and the “next normal” began to make its way into in the “next normal” following the crisis. management discussions and priorities for the near future. Literature review Results and conclusions The study builds on research related to inter- nal communication practices relevant to capture Focus groups results help delineate the evolution and make sense of this evolving context, such of internal communication objectives, tools, and as those aimed at ensuring closeness to employ- contents. In addition, the analysis reveals three ees despite physical distance and work digitali- key themes: the “new way of working”, the “dig- zation (Mazzei, Quaratino & Ravazzani, 2021), ital workplace”, and the “leadership for transi- building up resilience through internal sensem- tion”. 3 ABSTRACTS 114 Participants’ experiences highlight, first, the ex- competencies, as well as ensuring continuous perimentation of a new way of communicating, alignment between leaders’ sensegiving and em- emerged from the effort to cope with the “new ployees’ sensemaking. way of working” that became somehow estab- lished after the first phases of the pandemic (the Given the constantly evolving context and sub- “new normal”). Main endeavours regard effective sequent impact on employee needs and work ways to communicate in a still uncertain health routines, additional research is in the pipeline to and legal context, and in hybrid environments delve further into the “next normal” and forth- with employees working partly in presence and coming internal communication practices. This partly from home. These unprecedented work- would also allow to enlarge the number of com- ing conditions bring with them the risks of iso- panies and perspectives involved in the current lation and burnout of employees, and of losing a study. common sense of purpose and belonging, which internal communication must prevent. Internal Practical implications communication finds itself increasingly engaged Insights from this study have implications for also in key organizational processes such as so- internal communication practitioners when re- cialization, onboarding of newcomers, and cul- thinking work and communication models and tural change. experiencing the adaptive learning processes ini- tiated by the current pandemic. While showing Linked to this is the “digital workplace” theme. how internal communication has changed so Internal communication reinvents itself to con- far in the way it is conceived and practiced, this tinue sustaining motivation and engagement of study also offers reflections useful for handling those employees who have been working re- the “next normal”. This will pose the questions motely for months, most of them with no prior of getting remote employees back to office work experience of virtual work and home office. Both and reboot, once again, personal relationships employees and internal communicators across and collaboration routines; and/or maintaining the studied organizations have approached this hybrid solutions for individual and organiza- drastic cultural and technological change from tional sustainability finding the balance between a learning-by-doing perspective. A digital work- office time and remote work. place is also a matter of technological infrastruc- tures: in this sense, the internal communication References function has helped develop these new platforms, designing communication flows and communi- Heide, M., & Simonsson, C. (2019). Internal crication areas that efficiently sustained business sis communication: Crisis awareness, leadership processes and employee interactions. and coworkership. Routledge. Mazzei, A., Quaratino, L., & Ravazzani, S. Finally, “leadership for transition” emerges as a (2021). Internal crisis communication in the time central theme especially when envisioning the of Covid-19 pandemic. Company strategies and post-pandemic scenario of the “next normal”. working experience of employees. FrancoAngeli. Results stress the critical role of organization- al leaders in anticipating and mastering change, Keywords: internal communication, remote work-and enacting the emerging values of persever- ing, hybrid workplace, leadership for transition, new ance, transparency, sustainability. Internal com-normal, next normal munication must do its part in training leaders, facilitating the development of new leadership 3 ABSTRACTS 115 Mediated Scandals as Show Trials: The Case Study of the COVID-19 Controversy with Serbian tennis player Novak Djokovic Selakovic, Marko, S P Jain School of Global Management (U.A.E.) Samoilenko, Sergei A., George Mason University (USA) Ljepava, Nikolina, American University in the Emirates (U.A.E.) Introduction and purpose of the study the last decades can be attributed to the overall transformations of media and journalism in the In April 2020, Serbian professional tennis play- digital age (Haller & Michael, 2022). er Novak Djokovic indicated in a Facebook live stream that he would not wish to be forced to The creation of scandal news and partisanship take a vaccine to attend tennis tournaments. in reporting contributes to the slant in the news. Djokovic’s views on vaccination came under The 24/7 news cycle supports a Twitter cycle increased scrutiny in late 2021, in the run-up that requires a constant supply of news fodder. to the 2022 Australian Open, which stipulated Public interest in some personalities is constant- COVID-19 vaccinations. The issue escalated in ly high and can thus be monetized by various January 2022 when Djokovic was detained at media retailers through positive or negative cov- Melbourne Airport by Australian Border Force erage. Naturally, negativity is quite profitable in officials for failing to produce the necessary pa- times of social media (Samoilenko & Mirosh- perwork to enter the country. Later, Djokovic nichenko, 2019). Essentially, the media’s focus was deported after losing an appeal to stay and on capitalizing on and monetizing scandals af- play at the Australian Open. This case study dis- fects their ability to cover basic news, much less cusses a celebrity detained and labelled by the undertake nonpartisan investigative journalism. media as an anti-vaxxer amid growing hostility towards people who appear to be unvaccinated. Klicperová-Baker (2019) defines show trials The whole time, the media across the world cap- as staged spectacles that conveniently combine italized on his downfall by publishing scandalous public shaming and prosecution. A defamation content about Djokovic and his past transgres- media campaign precedes the actual trial. During sions. a public trial, targets are often forced to discredit their characters through widely publicized pub- Literature review lic confessions before an official verdict. A multitude of political scandals is coming to public attention in recent years across the world. A cause for the number of political scandals in 3 ABSTRACTS 116 Methodology Practical and social implications The case study of the COVID-19 Controversy The complex nature of highly mediated events with Novak Djokovic is analyzed according to often impedes crisis managers from controlling the framework of character assassination typol- for multiple reputational risks and responding to ogy. This framework assumes that a social event new emergencies. This case is a scansis situation produced by character assassination is multidi-that involves a character assassination attempt of mensional and thus should be examined in terms a celebrity figure via a mediated scandal. Scan- of five contributing elements (Icks, et al., 2020). sis represents the intersection of a scandal and This interdisciplinary framework pays attention crisis, essentially when a reputational crisis be- to how the attacker, target, audience, media and comes a scandal (Coombs & Tachkova, 2019). context intersect to determine the effectiveness This case is illustrative of how mediated scandals and longevity of attacks. These puzzle pieces involving celebrities can be used as show trials should be considered in relation to each other to ensure compliance gaining and conformity while assessing the probability of reputational with health regulations. crisis and public outrage following an attack on character. Keywords: character assassination, crisis communication, reputation management, public relations, Results and conclusions Novak Djokovic The document analysis of media content re- viewed as a part of this case study supports the notion of mediatization as “the growing intrusion of media logic as an institutional rule into fields where other rules of defining appropriate behav- iour prevailed” (Esser & Matthes, 2013, p. 177). One critical impact of mediatization is that the production of news content has become ever more dictated by commercial imperatives and consumers’ expectations. Online platforms seek to deliver edgy click-bait content to niche audi- ences who are eager to demonstrate their moral and intellectual superiority in online battles. As a result, today’s mass media provide a condu- cive environment for character attacks amplified by the negative effects of mediatization, such as simplification of content, personalization and infotainment favouring conflict, drama and neg- ative representation of social and political life (Esser, 2013). 3 ABSTRACTS 117 Designing an investor focused communication framework based on dialogic theory: An interpretative qualitative study of publicly listed companies in South Africa Serfontein-Jordaan, Muriel, University of Pretoria (South Africa) Introduction and Purpose The aim of this study was to propose an inves- tor focused communication framework based on In recent times, the South African capital market dialogic theory, for South Africa organisations has been plagued by a myriad of corporate scan- listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. This dals, with the likes of Steinhoff, Tongaat Hulett, was done by investigating investor relations the- and EOH being amongst the latest transgressors. ory within the broader context of dialogic theo- These corporate scandals served as a reminder ry and crystallising the most critical constructs that all too many organisations take a myopic to include in a communication strategy. view of their business, considering financial bottom lines as the be-all and the end-all. As Methodology a result, stakeholders are understandably more sceptical about the accuracy and transparency of The research design employed in this study was information being communicated to them. an interpretive multiple case study qualitative in- quiry which included an investigation of current An integral stakeholder group which forms part investor relations regulations that publicly listed in the success of an organisation is its inves-organisations have to adhere to and engage in. tors (Hoffmann and Fieseler, 2018:405, Laskin, 2018:75). Since investors have increasing de- The research took place in three phases, con- mands and specific information needs, it is es- sisting of both an empirical and non-empirical sential that organisations communicate relevant component. The three phases of the research and useful information by means of investor re- conducted in this study were as follows; research lations. phase one, the non-empirical component, con- sisted of an extensive literature review of the key However, despite its importance, academic re- concepts of this research, showcasing various search in the field of investor relations, specifi- conceptualisations and relationships. Ultimately cally in terms of communication, is lacking and the literature review crystallised the conceptual does not correlate with the importance of the framework for this study, against which com- function in corporate practice (Hoffmann et al., municative products were assessed, and which 2018:299, Laskin, 2014). assisted in the development of the initial inter- 3 ABSTRACTS 118 view schedule utilised in research phase three of References the research. Hoffmann, C. & Fieseler, C. 2018. Sharehold- The empirical component consisted of two parts; er activism and the new role of investor re- research phase two, a qualitative content analysis lations. . In: Laskin, A. (ed.) The handbook of of the Case Organisation’s communicative prod-finacial communication and investor relations. ucts; including SENS announcements, annual Wiley-Blackwell. integrated reports, and websites. The aim of this Hoffmann, C., Tietz, S. & Hammann, K. 2018. analysis was to assess the status of the commu- Investor relations – a systematic literature re- nicative products against the conceptual frame- view. Corporate Communications: An Interna- work put forth in research phase one, and hence tional Journal, 23, 294-311. assist in the refining of the interview schedule developed in research phase one. Laskin, A. 2014. Strategic financial communica- tion. International Journal of Strategic Communi- During the second part of the empirical com- cation, 8, 127-129. ponent of the research, research phase three, Laskin, A. 2018. The handbook of financial com- in-depth semi-structured interviews were con- munication and investor relations, Wiley-Blackducted with the IR officers of each of the Case well. Organisations whose communicative products were analysed. These interviews were main- Keywords: dialogic communication management ly confirmatory, the results of these interviews theory; investor relations; publicly listed organi- were used to substantiate, and where necessary sations; South Africa adapt the final framework put forth. Proposed Framework The proposed framework is the culmination and outcome of a synthesis of an in-depth lit- erature review, a content analysis of communi- cative products- and semi-structured interviews with the investor relations officers of the case organisation. Propositions informing the proposed framework is put forth and the proposed framework serves as the original contribution of this study. The proposed framework consists of intricate el- ements represented in three spheres that are in- fluenced by, and in turn, exert influence on each other; (i) the communication process, (ii) IR, and (iii) the regulatory environment. In order for engagement with investors, as per the pro- posed framework, to be successful, these three spheres cannot be considered in isolation, but rather in a holistic all-encompassing manner. 3 ABSTRACTS 119 Rebooting for the “New Normal” while “Working from Home”? Results from a long-term interview study concerning and Internal Socal Media among up to 500 German companies 2013-2022 Sievert, Holger, Macromedia University (Germany) Meißner, Florian, Macromedia University (Germany) Introduction and purpose of the study per, the stakeholder theory based “Internal com- munication matrix” from Welch and Jackson According to the Call for Paper for this confer- (2007) will used. It differentiates between in- ence, the pandemic had demonstrated the fragil- ternal line management communication, internal ity of humans and the societies we inhabit. As team peer communication, internal project peer stated there, “[a]tomized employees were asked communication and internal corporate commu- to work from home, and the very definition of nication – four dimensions which are also cru- the workplace seems to have been redefined” cial for the use of internal social media within (Call for Paper). Internal Social Media and En- companies since all these levels should be part of terprise Social Networks play an important role it. Especially the two mentioned peer levels were during this process, because a “rapid expansion heavily concerned during the Covid-19 pan- of ESN use and its significant role in the ‘new demic when suddenly if ‘working from home’ normal’ have combined to create a substan- (WFH) become the ‘new normal’. Following Ip- tial change to the context of work” (Dickin- sen et al. 2021, most knowledge worker in Eu- son 2020). To analyse current changes linked to these developments, a long-term perspective rope had a more positive rather than negative might be helpful to distinguish Covid-19 related experience of WFH during lockdown, but work developments from other, even more fundamen- uncertainties (which normally can be dealt with tal effects. Therefore, this paper will use a gen- through intensive peer dialogue) and inadequate eral stakeholder approach on internal communi- tools had been identified among the three most cation and apply it to analyse some data from a negative factors. Based on this, the vast majority long-term interview study concerning the use of seems know to wish to continue to work flexibly internal socal media among up to 500 German on a remote basis, at least to some extent (Kunze companies 2013-2022. et al. 2020). Looking at Internal Social Media and following Huck & Sandhu (2015), social Literature Review media applications open up new possibilities for collaboration, participation and – above all – di- As a general theoretical framework for this pa- alogue communication in organisations. 3 ABSTRACTS 120 Methodology However, also these mixed forms are only pos- sible using an appropriate technology as well as The survey studies were conducted in 2013, having an adapted meeting and company culture. 2016, 2019 and 2022, in each case in January, More results on this are part of the survey and with 579, 555, 352 and 421 respondents re- will be analysed for the conference and and the spectively. The online questionnaire was distrib- full paper. uted to company representatives (mainly in the areas of communications, human resources and Practical and Social Implications general management) via address lists and edi- torial references. While this study is, like many The practical implication of this study should company studies, not really representative, it be quite evident: Only if internal social media does, however, entail a good selection of com- communication do take into account the specif- panies in the country, roughly corresponding to ic stakeholder dimension of international com- official statistics. Above all, however, it is highly munication in general, it can be successful. And comparable in terms of developments over time only if internal social media communication is since there is a very similar composition of dis- successful, the digital side of a flexible workplace tributors and participants for all four surveys. with flexible working hours can be realised ap- propriately – and organizations might be able to First results and conclusion rediscover communication with internal stake- holders. Since this study was realised in January 2022, only some results have been analysed so far. References What is interesting to observe in a first place, is Dickinson, D. A. (2020). The Role of Enterprise the development of the preferred working place Social Networks (ESN) in Maintaining Or- over the timeframe as well as its linkage to the ganizational Rhythms During the COVID-19 own experiences with internal social media. In Pandemic. National University of Ireland. 2013 and 2016, the office workplace with flexi- ble working hours was with 41 and 37.4 percent Huck-Sandhu, S. (2015). Interne Kommunika- by far the most preferred solution among em- tion im Wandel. Heidelberg: Springer. ployees interviewed concerning internal social Ipsen, C., van Veldhoven, M., Kirchner, K., & media. On the either side, a flexible workplace Hansen, J. P. (2021). Six Key Advantages and with flexible times was only preferred by 2 or Disadvantages of Working from Home in Eu- 3.2 percent nine and six years ago, compared to rope during COVID-19. International Jour- 27.1 percent at the beginning of 2022. However, nal of Environmental Research and Public WFH has even been reduced as preferable solu- Health, 18(4), 1826. tion from 5.0 percent in 2013 (with fixed work- Kunze, F., Hampel, K., & Zimmermann, S. ing hours) to 1.9 percent in 2022 (with flexible (2020). Working from home in the Corona- hours). Overall mixed forms are currently most virus crisis: Towards a transformation of work preferred (40.6 percent). environments? Policy Paper. University of Konstanz. The findings show quite clearly WFH from a stakeholder perspective: since spontaneous peer communication is getting quite difficult in main- ly WFH based model, this is even more rejected than 9 years ago and mixed forms are preferred. 3 ABSTRACTS 121 Welch, M. and Jackson, P.R. (2007), „Rethink- ing internal communication: a stakeholder approach“, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 177- 198. Keywords: Stakeholder Approach, Internal Communication, Internal Social Media, Enterprise Social Networks 3 ABSTRACTS 122 Mind the gap: Reconnecting employees and organizations after remote work during a crisis Steenkamp, Hilke, Zayed University (U.A.E.) Dhanesh, Ganga S., Zayed University (U.A.E.) Introduction ly when employees work remotely and have to re-engage with the organization on returning to The Covid-19 pandemic necessitated organiza- the workplace. tions to adopt various short- and medium-term operating models that had a direct impact on This study, therefore, aims to examine chang- interpersonal interactions. This included im- es in relationships between employers and their plementing remote work to reduce the physical employees over the course of remote work. proximity between employees (Lund et al., 2021). While these measures had to be taken during the The pandemic has also amplified various tensions onset and height of the pandemic, survey data and paradoxes in the workplace. In the context from the United Kingdom suggest that organiza- of EOR, employees were confronted with no- tions plan to adopt hybrid work models that al- tions such as being connected/disconnected, low employees to work from home at least some dealing with flexibility/inflexibility, standing of the time after the pandemic (YouGov, 2021). together while being apart; and navigating the Another study highlighted the consequences of blurred boundaries between work-life and pri- pivoting from in-person work to hybrid/online vate life. A dialectical approach (Mumby, 2005; interactions during the pandemic. For example, Tracy, 2004) provides a useful lens through employees’ hours worked increased, including which these tensions in organizational life and outside normal business hours; communication the renegotiation of the boundaries spanning re- and task coordination costs increased while at lationships can be studied. the same time employees communicated with fewer individuals and departments both inter- Literature review nally and externally; and employees received less coaching and fewer one-on-one meetings with Employee-organization relationships (EOR) supervisors (Gibbs et al., 2021). The relational outcomes of EOR are trust, sat- It is in this context that employees and organi- isfaction, commitment, and control mutuality, zations had to navigate employee-organization while effective relationship maintenance strat- relationships (EOR). Although EOR have been egies include access, openness, positivity, net- theorized robustly within public relations schol- working, and sharing of tasks (Hon & Grunig, arship, little research has explored the anteced- 1999). However, existing models of EOR, in- ents, states, and outcomes of EOR, particular- cluding antecedents, states, and consequences 3 ABSTRACTS 123 call for a re-examination especially when the exploring employers’ perceptions of their rela- employee-organization relationship moves on- tionships with employees during remote work line and back, such as in the case of remote and conditions. The researchers will employ pur- in-person work during the Covid-19 pandemic. poseful sampling to recruit participants with some experience of remote working. The pop- Relational dialectics theory ulation will be employees working in organiza- tions listed in the Fortune 500 100 best compa- Relationships are maintained through com- nies to work for and/or Great place to work in the munication, but these relationships are often UAE indexes. Interview data will be analyzed by characterized by contradictions and tensions means of qualitative thematic analysis. as relationships grow and develop (Baxter & Montgomery, 1998). Communication schol- Implications ars have called for a nuanced, multilayered ap- proach to investigate the dualities and contra- Theoretically, the findings of this study will add dictions that underlie organizational interactions to emergent empirical insights into relationship as well (Mumby, 2005; Tracy, 2004). Following management in the context of remote work in Mumby’s (2005) assertion that organizational turbulent contexts. The study aims to demon- behavior can be understood through discours- strate the impact of remote work on EOR and es, a dialectical approach is used to examine the provide future research directions for the suc- communicative utterances used by employers to cessful management of EOR in times of crises. construct new understandings of their relation- ship with employees during remote work. The Keywords: employee engagement, remote work, em-research questions posed to guide the study are: ployee-organization relationships, relational dialectics, public relations, UAE • RQ1: Did employee-organization relation- ships (EOR) change over the course of remote work during the pandemic? If yes, then how did they change? • RQ2: What were some of the factors that led to the changes, if any? Were there dif- ferences due to antecedents of EOR such as openness, access, networking, and pos- itivity? • RQ3: What are the short term and long-term outcomes of the changed relation- ships? Methodology The methodological approach is qualitative and will employ in-depth interviews with senior managerial employees (representing employers/ organizations) who worked remotely during the Covid-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emir- ates. This is regarded as a suitable approach for 3 ABSTRACTS 124 Role perceptions and challenges of internal communication practitioners in facilitating the shift toward a more flexible work environment Stranzl, Julia, University of Vienna (Austria) Einwiller, Sabine, University of Vienna (Austria) Introduction and purpose Literature review As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, orga- Various scholars examined the roles and func- nizations are experiencing fundamental changes tions of internal communication in different in their daily operations. Above all, the unprec- organizational contexts, which Men (2021) edented shift to homeworking or mobile work- categorized as follows: Internal communication ing is driving virtualization which requires the professionals must keep employees informed, lis- implementation of new digital tools and ways of ten to their perspectives, concerns and ideas, and how work is organized. It also initiated a change help build relationships within the organization. towards more flexibility, which causes challeng- In addition, internal communication is responsi- es for most organizations, particularly for those ble for inspiring and acculturating employees as who had a pronounced culture of presence prior well as helping them to make sense of the situa- to the pandemic. Internal communication as- tion. Finally, they play an important role in mo- sumes a key role in addressing these challeng- tivating and engaging employees. “Overall, the es in that it is to strategically guide this change role and function of internal communication can process and fulfill its function as facilitator of be summarized as informational (to inform), re-the organization-employee relationship. This lational (to listen, connect), motivational (to ac- raises the question how internal communication culturate, inspire, motivate), and behavioral (to practitioners experience the change and evaluate engage)” (Men, 2021, p. 6). their roles in this process: Especially during crisis-induced changes, em- • RQ1: How do internal communication pro- ployees benefit from internal communication fessionals perceive their role in the pan- that reduces situational uncertainties, misun- demic-driven shift toward a more flexible derstandings, rumors, and negative communi- work environment? cation behaviors. A lack of employee-centered, two-way symmetrical communication would en- • RQ2: Which challenges do internal commu- hance negative outcomes during these times. As nication professionals perceive in the pan- emphasized by Heide and Simonsson (2021), demic-driven shift toward a more flexible we investigate whether communication profes- work environment? sionals use a process approach to internal crisis 3 ABSTRACTS 125 communication as it helps to reduce negative everyone equally and preventing on-site workers outcomes and motivate employees to actively to feel left out. With regard to home workers, the support the organization. challenge is to intensify the exchange between managers, supervisors and employees and find Methodology appropriate communicative strategies to moti- vate and engage employees. Since gaining insights into the reflections of in- ternal communication professionals is required Research results imply that virtualization of to answer the research questions, a qualitative work enlarges professionals’ functions by en- research approach was chosen. Between March abling, and broadens their radius of action. At and May 2021, 16 qualitative, semi-structured, the same time, they have more responsibility and problem-centered interviews were conducted a higher risk of losing employees – increasing, with internal communication professionals from for example, their frustration or disengagement. large, globally operating organizations in Ger- In order to overcome the challenges, profession- man-speaking countries. The selection of suitable als must adapt their existing workflows, and interview partners was based on a convenience need to learn and experiment with novel formats sampling strategy. In order to test the quality of and messages. the interview guide, two pretest interviews were conducted. All interviews were conducted via Future studies could use case studies to further MS Teams or Zoom. The analysis of the material examine different perspectives during the tran- is based on a deductive and inductive structural sitioning from a culture of presence to a culture content analysis and supported by the software of flexibility. In addition, it would be valuable program MaxQDA18. to capture employees’ perspectives on their per- ceptions of internal communication during the Results and implications change to deepen findings on communication challenges. The results show that the shift toward a “culture of flexibility” requires that communication pro- References fessionals deepen their knowledge of employee Heide, M., & Simonsson, C. (2021). What was needs, concerns, and habits in order to develop that all about? On internal crisis communica- targeted communication strategies and promote tion and communicative coworkership during participatory employee behaviors. Fostering em- a pandemic. Journal of Communication Manage- ployees’ commitment to the organization is one ment, 25(3), 256-275. of the biggest challenges named by practitioners. The situation has strengthened the role of com- Men, L. R. (2021). Evolving research and prac- munication professionals as enablers who active- tices in internal communication. In L. R. Men ly support leaders and employees to adapt and & A. Tkalac Verčič (Eds.), Current trends and enhance their own communication behavior. issues in internal communication (pp. 1-18). Furthermore, communication that addresses the Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. relationship with employees is key to engender Keywords: internal communication, change, flexibil-employees’ support during the change. This re- ity, qualitative research quires listening and being transparent, apprecia- tive and supportive. Organizations with a high proportion of employees working in production on-site face a particular challenge of reaching 3 ABSTRACTS 126 Organizational purpose and public relations in hybrid organizations Sueldo, Mariana, ISM University of Management and Economics (Lithuania) Verčič, Dejan, University of Ljubljana and Herman & Partners (Slovenia) Organizational purpose is the reason for an orward multiple stakeholders (Jongbloed, 2015). ganization to exist and the essence of its identity. It can be also claimed that, in turn, the particular Most organizations strive to define and commu- communication concerns of hybrids partly in- nicate their unique purpose as a particular way stitutionalize these emerging forms so as to po- of satisfying stakeholders’ expectations and con- sition them in one or another sector (Birkholz, tributing to society. C., 2015); (Buhmann and Schoeneborn, 2021). This study seeks to explore how hybrid orga- Methodology: in order to answer the research nizations reconcile and communicate multiple question, qualitative data were collected through organizational purposes, more specifically in mini-Delphi with public relations and communi- private universities as hybrid institutions with cation experts (N=15) and in-depth interviews elements from the logics of education and busi- (N=40) personally held on campus with univer- ness. The following research question is raised: sity executives, communication specialists and academics from three countries. • RQ1: How do hybrid organizations com- municate multiple purposes? Results and conclusions: findings show that pri- vate universities tend to declare a single organi- Hybrid organizations emerge out of public-pri- zational purpose as a mission statement blending vate partnerships or a combination of non-prof- their particular commitment with specific groups it/for-profit components, comprising elements of stakeholders. In some cases, the organization- from at least two different sectors with their in- al purpose has already changed since foundation stitutional logics, values or rationalities, hence (which may entail a different essence or identi-paving the way to multiple organizational pur- ty), while in others it has remained unwavering, poses (Schmitz and Glänzel, 2016). Due to the strategically blended, disseminated and integrat- hybrid nature, such organizations may not be ed as the backbone and centre of all decisions. entirely and exclusively assigned to either sector, Contrastingly, double narratives and mismatches which may raise tensions and pose the challenge between internal and external messaging reveal to handle the communication of multiple logics mission drift leaning towards one dominant log- and purposes and balancing claims from differ- ic at the expense of another, also leading to le- ent sectors. gitimacy deficit. And since hybrids are typically more complex to This study further develops the incipient con- govern, hybridization calls for new management ceptualization of hybrid organizations as actors paradigms and new ways of accountability to- combining different logics and provides a typol- 3 ABSTRACTS 127 ogy enriched with private universities as hybrid institutional forms in the Higher Education sec- tor. Purpose emerges as an essential governance mechanism of hybrid organizations to avoid mis- sion drifts and maintain hybridity (Mair, Mayer and Lutz, 2015). Hence, the vital role of public relations in aligning multiple institutional pres- sures (Wolf and Mair, 2019), activating favoura- ble behaviours and generating identification and adhesion to the organizational values declared in the organizational purpose. To achieve this, the conceptualization of purpose-driven pub- lic relations is suggested, whereby the purpose and values are defined with the stakeholders and not just for the stakeholders (Fontán, Alloza and Rey, 2019, p. 110). The upheld values should then be reflected in the communication practic- es, contents and decisions (Siwale, Kimmitt and Amankwah-Amoah, 2021). Organizational pur- pose then becomes the departure and destination point in the strategic loop to evaluate communi- cation performance. An acknowledged limitation of this research is that the phenomenon of hybridization has been empirically explored only in private universities as explicitly de iure hybrid institutions in the Higher Education sector, where state-owned institutions are gradually becoming de facto hybrid forms (Jongbloed, 2015). Keywords: organizational purpose, public relations, hybrid organization, university, mission drift, Higher Education Institutions. 3 ABSTRACTS 128 Graphical distorsion and Impression Management techniques in Corporate sustainable reporting: An investigation of the sustainability reports in the top 100 companies in Italy Šimunović, Denis, IULM (Italy) Bonaccorso, Giuseppe, IULM (Italy) Murtarelli, Grazia, IULM (Italy) Romenti, Stefania, IULM (Italy) Purpose and data visualization elements in sustainability reporting. The available visualization techniques The increasing stakeholder expectation toward have now transformed sustainability reports into organizations societal role are leveraging a a powerful form of promotional content compa- higher degree of required transparency in their nies can embrace to fulfil multiple purposes and communication. This implicates that disclosing convey information to several publics. This has exclusively financial information is no longer also implied an increase adoption of impression enough as companies need to be held account- management techniques with the goal of deliv- able also for their impact on society in terms of environmental and societal activities (Moreno ering as much as possible positive information, & Capriotti, 2009). To comply with this surg- to the point of distorting the graphs in the con- ing demand, companies have therefore begun to text of corporate reporting. Indeed, several stud- publish sustainability reports to communicate ies analyzing the impression management tech- their activities and impacts. niques in annual report highlights how reports easily adapt to deliberately alter perception of Despite the fact that several standards are avail-the company’s performance (Beattie & Jhones, able, the reporting scenario remains still frag- 2002). However, while extensive literature has mented and unregulated regarding how compa- been dedicated to the graphical distortion pres- nies should present their data (Lock & Arujo, ent in company’s reports, the focus has pre-2020). Due to the volatile attention scarcity of dominantly fallen on annual reports or financial the audience, companies need to implement en- reports. Sustainability reporting is an increas- gaging and timely data communication tactics. ingly studied area of inquiry for communication The emergence of the “visual turn” in CSR com- scholarship. To contribute to the discussion by munication (Lock & Arujo, 2020) is exemplified expanding the existing gaps, the present study by the increasing predominance of infographics fits in with the goal of studying under the lens of 3 ABSTRACTS 129 impression management techniques are deliber- ing sector by providing evidence on the actual ately conceived to alter the public perception of stage of CSR impression management and pos- companies’ sustainability performance. sible avenues to increment and regulated unified standard for a more transparent communication. Design/Methodology On the other side, the research raises awareness on the issue of graph literacy among corporate In particular, in order to assess whether and to report publics as an antecedent of correct data what extent companies use impression manage- consumption and misuse identification. ment techniques. We analyzed a sample of 65 companies listed in the Italian stock exchange, References systematically collecting their reports and cat- egorizing them by their market capitalization. Beattie, V., & Jones, M. J. (2002). Measurement This method of selection seems to be favorable distortion of graphs in corporate reports: an ex- for what concerns the industrial sectors of anal- perimental study. Accounting, Auditing & Ac- ysis. Indeed, selecting companies based on their countability Journal, 15(4), 546–564. https:// market capitalization and not on industry specif- doi.org/10.1108/09513570210440595 ics allows to gain an overview also on different Brennan, N., Guillamon Saorin, E., & Pierce, aspects of different sectors. Hence, even though A. (2008). Impression Management: Devel- this sampling cannot be defined as purely ran- oping and Illustrating a Scheme of Analysis domized, at the same time it offers a good ap- for Narrative Disclosures - A Methodological proximation of what the market is like. Note. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi. Findings org/10.2139/ssrn.1284904 Cho, C. H., Laine, M., Roberts, R. W., & Rodrigue, By using an analytical framework informed in M. (2016). The Frontstage and Backstage of the impression management theory, we found Corporate Sustainability Reporting: Evidence undeniable evidence of the adoption graphical from the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Bill. distortion techniques by companies, supporting Journal of Business Ethics, 152(3), 865–886. the idea that sustainability reports are employed https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3375-4 not only to convey important and truthful in- Lock, I., & Araujo, T. (2020). Visualizing the formation about the firms’ sustainability perfor-triple bottom line: A large‐scale automated mance, but also a favorable image of the compa- visual content analysis of European corpora- ny. Consistently with the studies on impression tions’ website and social media images. Corpo- management (Cho et al., 2018), the results of rate Social Responsibility and Environmental the analysis confirmed that graphs are not only Management, 27(6), 2631–2641. https://doi. largely adopted forms of communication but org/10.1002/csr.1988 also largely altered ones where selectivity, pre- sentational enhancement, and measurement dis- Moreno, A., & Capriotti, P. (2009). Commu- tortions convergently appear. nicating CSR, citizenship and sustainabili- ty on the web. Journal of Communication Theoretical and practical contributions Management, 13(2), 157–175. https://doi. org/10.1108/13632540910951768 Theoretically, the research problematizes and extends studies on the impression management Keywords: CSR reporting, impression management, techniques deployed in CSR reporting. Practical-data visualization, transparency ly the research informs the sustainable report- 3 ABSTRACTS 130 How internal communication contributes to organizational success conditions Špoljarić, Anja, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Najjar Raškaj, Dijana, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Tkalac Verčič, Ana, University of Zagreb (Croatia) Introduction and purpose of the study cation within their organizations feel motivated and display higher levels of engagement at work. Internal communication was previously recog- At the same time, clear communication helps nized for its considerable contribution to orga- organizations manage perceptions and expecta- nizations (Špoljarić & Tkalac Verčič, 2021). Its tions. This reflects in higher perception of orga- significance within organizations has recently nizational support, psychological contract fulfill- grown even further. Due to the current glob- ment (Špoljarić & Verčič, 2022; Tkalac Verčič et al crisis, which caused most employees working al., 2021) and internal employer attractiveness from home, internal communication suddenly (Tkalac Verčič et al., 2021). These positive prac- became critical for everyone. In our study we tices within organizations lead to positive recog- test the extent of internal communication’s in- nition among external publics, which is made up fluence on job attitudes and its contribution to of corporate reputation and external employer perception of the organization among both in- brand perception. However, the relationship be- ternal and external publics. Within our research tween these internal and external contributors to we turned to employee engagement, perceived organizational success has never been fully es- organizational support and psychological con- tablished (Tkalac Verčič & Sinčić Ćorić, 2018). tract fulfillment in order to portray employees’ job attitudes. Internal perception of the organi- Methodology zation is displayed by internal employer attrac- tiveness, while reputation and external employer In order to analyze internal communication’s attractiveness demonstrate external perception contribution to organizational behavior and per- of the organization. Additionally, we explore the ception of organizations among employees, we potential effect internal communication has on applied predesigned measurement instruments. overall organizational success caused by indirect This part of the research was done as a large effects through reputation. communication survey among 1805 employees from 12 companies. The communication sur- Literature review vey was a part of a four-year national scientific project to map out internal communication. The Internal communication and level of satisfaction choice of organizations that were approached with it have a great impact on employees’ ati- within the project was based on the typical unit tudes and perception of their employers (Tkalac criteria. In selecting the organizations for the Verčič et al., 2021). Research has shown that sample, the project team reached a consensus employees that are satisfied with the communi- on what is considered typical and which criteria 3 ABSTRACTS 131 should be typical. Number of employees range The relationship between reputation, employer from 60 up to 10 000. Within each company, branding and corporate social responsibility. significant effort was made to include represen- Public Relations Review, 44(4), 444-452. doi: tative samples of employees. Additionally, among https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2018.06.005 organizations’ external publics, an analysis of Tkalac Verčič, A., Galić, Z., & Žnidar, K. (2021). reputation and external employer attractiveness The relationship of internal communication was conducted. satisfaction with employee engagement and em- Results and conclusion ployer attractiveness: Testing the joint mediating effect of the social exchange quality indicators We are still in the process of data collection [Advanced online publication]. International among organizations’ external publics. We will Journal of Business Communication. doi: https:// complete our research and conduct appropriate doi.org/10.1177/23294884211053839 analysis before July 2022. Keywords: Internal communication, employer Practical and social implications brand, organizational reputation, employee engage- ment, job attitudes. The global crisis that occurred after the SARS- CoV-2 pandemic further established the impor- tance of internal communication for organi- zational success. With this research we aim to show just how important internal communica- tion is to organizations. We expect to show its influence on several organizational outcomes, which include employee engagement, perceived organizational support, psychological contract fulfillment, internal employer attractiveness, or- ganizational reputation, external employer at- tractiveness, and ultimately, profit. Bibliography Špoljarić, A., & Tkalac Verčič, A. (2021). Inter- nal communication satisfaction and employee engagement as determinants of the employer brand [Advanced online publication]. Journal of Communication Management. doi: https://doi. org/10.1108/JCOM-01-2021-0011 Špoljarić, A., & Verčič, D. (2022). The effects of social exchange quality indicators on employee engagement through internal communication [Man- uscript submitted for publication]. Faculty of Economics & Business Zagreb, University of Zagreb. Tkalac Verčič, A. & Sinčić Ćorić, D. (2018). 3 ABSTRACTS 132 From Situational Appraisals to Collective Action: An examination on Asian Americans’ Engagement in Collective Action during the COVID-19 Pandemic Tao, Weiting, University of Miami (USA) Chen, Zifei Fay, University of San Francisco (USA) Sun, Ruoyu, University of Miami (USA) He, Mu, University of Miami (USA) Introduction and Purpose of the Study during political campaigns, the use of social media on Asian Americans’ well-being, mental The COVID-19 pandemic is not only a global health issues among Asian Americans, and so on health crisis but has also uncovered many under- (e.g., Lee & Waters, 2021; Yang et al., 2020). lying societal issues of disparity, inequity, and in- Apart from addressing the immediate impact justice. In the United States, along with the vast during the pandemic, scholars have also noted spread of COVID-19 is the uptick of hate inci- that the uptick of hate incidents against Asian dents, discrimination, and racist attacks against Americans has its historical roots. The portrayal Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPI). of Asians as the “Yellow Peril” and “perpetual According to Stop AAPI Hate, a total of 10,370 foreigners,” along with the pervasive “model mi- hate incidents were reported from March 19, nority” myth, has resulted in Asian Americans’ 2020 to September 30, 2021 in the United voices on their experiences of discrimination be- States. These hate incidents took place in var- ing delegitimized and silenced. This has further ious forms that ranged from individual acts of led to limited empirical research evidence on verbal harassment, shunning, physical assaults, the impact of racial discrimination among Asian to civil rights violations such as workplace dis- Americans, especially when it comes to activism crimination and refusal of service. This study, and collective action (Lee & Waters, 2021). The in this regard, sets out to examine the factors knowledge on collective action—the action that and mechanisms that drive Asian Americans’ aims at changing the status of a disadvantaged engagement in collective action in combating group—could be especially instrumental as com- anti-Asian discrimination and racism during the munity members, activists, and scholars continue COVID-19 pandemic. exploring viable measures to combat anti-Asian discrimination and racism at individual, institu- Literature review tional, and societal levels. Scholars from various fields have conducted Drawing on insights from the Situational Theory studies that examined the anti-Asian rhetoric of Problem Solving (STOPS) (Kim & Grunig, 3 ABSTRACTS 133 2011), societal risk reduction motivation model this study suggested a multi-facet approach that (SRRM) (Cho & Kuang, 2014), and collective encompasses consideration at perceptual, cogni- action (Van Zomeren et al., 2008), this study tive, and emotive levels in gauging Asian Ameri- proposes a model that comprises perceptual, cans’ online and offline collective action. By pro- cognitive, emotive, and motivational factors that viding an integrated framework that delineates could drive Asian Americans’ online and offline the process from situational appraisals to collec- collective action in combating anti-Asian dis- tive action, this study helps shed insights on the crimination and racism. role public relations could play in advocating for social change and creating a more humane and Methodology just world. An online survey was conducted in August References 2021 among 505 Asian Americans residing in the U.S. at the time of the study. Participants Cho, H., & Kuang, K. (2014). The societal risk were recruited via Dynata survey panel, repre- reduction motivation model. The SAGE hand- senting diverse ethnic backgrounds among the book of risk communication, 117-132. Asian American communities spanning across Kim, J. N., & Grunig, J. E. (2011). Problem solv- 41 states in the U.S. ing and communicative action: A situational Results and Conclusions theory of problem solving . Journal of Commu- nication, 61(1), 120-149. Results revealed the perceptual, cognitive, emo- Lee, S., & Waters, S. F. (2021). Asians and Asian tive, and motivational factors that drove Asian Americans’ experiences of racial discrimina- Americans’ online and offline collective action. tion during the COVID-19 pandemic: Impacts Perceptual factors including Asian Americans’ on health outcomes and the buffering role of involvement recognition, their perceptions of social support. Stigma and Health, 6(1), 70–78. self-efficacy, group efficacy, and governmental Van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. efficacy fostered situational motivation to com- (2008). Toward an integrative social identi- bat anti-Asian discrimination and racism. The ty model of collective action: a quantitative emotive factor of discrimination-inflicted arous- research synthesis of three socio-psychologi- al also generated Asian Americans’ situational cal perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 134(4), motivation. Asian Americans’ motivational state, 504-513. in turn, facilitated their online and offline collec- tive action in combating discrimination and rac- Yang, C., Tsai, J., & Pan, S. (2020). Discrimi-ism. Given that this study particularly pertains nation and well-being among Asians/Asian to the context of anti-Asian discrimination and Americans during covid-19: The role of so- racism during COVID-19, future research could cial media. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social further test our model among other marginal- Networking, 23(12), 865-870. ized communities and in different sociocultural contexts to enhance its theoretical and practical Keywords: Racial Discrimination, Collective Action, utility. Asian Americans, Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS), COVID-19 Practical and Social Implications For public relations professionals, activists, poli- cy makers, and the society at large, findings from 3 ABSTRACTS 134 Increasing employee advocacy through supervisor motivating language: The mediating role of psychological conditions Thelen, Patrick D, San Diego State University (USA) Yue, Cen April, University of Connecticut (USA) Verghese, Aniisu K., Sabre Poland (Poland) Introduction and purpose of the study ical safety, job meaningfulness, and psychological availability. To fill the research gap and expand Research on leadership has attracted the atten- the body of knowledge on leadership communi- tion of scholars and practitioners for decades. cation and internal communication, this study The positive impact that leaders can exert on focuses on the psychological conditions of em- a wide range of individual and organizational ployees and looks at how supervisor ML influ- outcomes, such as commitment, trust, and per- ences employee advocacy behaviors through the formance, have contributed to this widespread mediating mechanisms of safety, meaningfulness, interest. However, leadership and leadership and availability. communication are broad terms that apply to an extensive range of communication behaviors. As Literature review noted by Mayfield and Mayfield (2017), stud- ies examining leader communication behaviors When employees feel psychological safety, find need to focus on specific aspects. Therefore, the work worthwhile, and can channel their phys- current study analyzed leadership communica- ical, emotional, and psychological resources for tion through the lens of motivating language focused tasks, they are inclined to do more for (ML), a framework of leader-to-follower speech their organizations (Kahn, 1990). The mediat- (Sullivan, 1988). More specifically, we exam- ing role of work meaningfulness, psychological ined ML’s relationship with employee advocacy, safety, and psychological availability have been a type of organizational citizenship behavior in studied in various settings, including work rela- which employees voluntarily support, recom- tionships, career adaptability, and performance mend, or defend an organization to internal or (Jannesari & Sullivan, 2019). Overall, when em- external publics (Thelen, 2020). ployees perceive a supportive environment, in- clusive leadership, and communication that ad- In addition to examining the relationship be- dresses their physical, cognitive, and emotional tween ML and employee advocacy, insights on needs, they are more likely to advocate for the the mechanisms through which ML impacts ad- organization. When leader communication in- vocacy behaviors are needed. In his seminal study, cludes motivating language, it builds confidence, Kahn (1990) identified three specific psycho- reduces stress, and encourages staff to experi- logical conditions that help determine whether ment in a safe environment. When motivating and how people engage in their roles: psycholog- language is an ongoing priority for leaders, it 3 ABSTRACTS 135 helps staff view work as meaningful and increas- ployees in the United States. This result suggests es their likelihood to speak up (Sullivan, 1988) that feeling confident about their work abilities and potentially advocate for their organization. is not enough for employees in the United States to feel an intrinsic desire to advocate for their Methodology organization. Finally, our study indicated that We administered an online survey on Qualtrics work meaningfulness mediated the relationship and used quota sampling to obtain samples from between motivating language and employee ad- vocacy in India and the U.S. the U.S. and India. These samples provide an opportunity to compare the proposed model Practical and social implications across varied settings that differ vastly in cultur- al and economic environments. Data collection This study impacts the profession and society was conducted on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk in in several ways. First, internal communicators August 2021. Our sample consisted of 354 par- and leaders need to understand the impact of ticipants from India and 441 participants from cultural differences while investing in employee the U.S. advocacy programs. There is no one-size-fits-all model. Second, a supervisor’s role in, for exam- Results and conclusions ple, emphasizing a program’s goals and focusing on employees’ collective and individual aspira- The results from the current investigation con- tions is crucial in shaping employees’ actions. firmed that leader motivating language was pos- Third, infusing meaningfulness at work by help- itively correlated with psychological safety, work ing employees understand how their work is im- meaningfulness, and psychological availability in portant, worthwhile, and significant can generate India and the U.S. The study also provided em- the conditions that will encourage employees to pirical evidence for the effectiveness of supervi- advocate on behalf of their organization. sor motivating language in nurturing employee advocacy behaviors. Keywords: supervisor motivating language, employee advocacy, psychological safety, work meaningful-Additionally, the study looked at the relationship ness, psychological availability that psychological safety, work meaningfulness, and psychological availability have with employ- ee advocacy. Among these three variables, only work meaningfulness had a positive relationship with advocacy behaviors in both countries. The positive relationship between psychological safe- ty and advocacy was only significant among U.S. workers. The Indian system is profoundly hier- archical, and employees are highly status-con- scious. Therefore, a plausible explanation for the nonsignificant relationship could result from the higher levels of power distance that exist in In- dia. The current study also found a positive re- lationship between psychological availability and employee advocacy in India. Surprisingly, psy- chological availability did not have a significant relationship with employee advocacy among em- 3 ABSTRACTS 136 Organizational culture and remote working in public relations agencies in Greece Triantafillidou, Amalia, University of Western Macedonia (Greece) Yannas, Prodromos, University of Western Macedonia (Greece) Introduction and purpose of the study tivities to a work-from-home style. Teleworking has been associated with several benefits such as The Covid-19 pandemic has brought significant greater employee autonomy, better work-life bal- changes in the workplace environment with re- ance, reduced stress, and greater job satisfaction. mote working being one of the major challenges On the other hand, work-from-home can cause for organizations. The pandemic also transformed social isolation, work overload, family-work existing organizational cultures by shifting and conflict, employees’ alienation, and weak rela- replacing deep-rooted values, rituals, and shared practices among employees. The aim of the present tionships between employees (Contreras et al., study is to explore the post-covid organizational 2020). Under these new working conditions, or- culture of public relations agencies in Greece. To- ganizational culture can be weakened (Chatman wards this end the following research questions and Gino, 2020) or transformed as new digital will be addressed: What are the main types of norms arise. Organizational culture has been de- organizational culture that emerged in public re- fined as the shared values, beliefs, assumptions, lations agencies in Greece as a response to the rituals, symbols, and practices of organizations Covid-19? How did public relations agencies try (Schein, 2004). Thus, in a remote working situ- to communicate their organizational cultures to ation, the shared aspect of culture can be jeopar- their employees and other stakeholders during dized (Ranghuram, 2021) if not communicated the pandemic? What engagement practices were effectively. utilized by agencies (e.g., employees, customers) during the lockdowns? What are the perceived Methodology benefits or disadvantages of remote working for To answer the research questions an online survey public relations executives? How leadership was will be conducted directed to executives working exercised in virtual teams? and whether remote in public relations agencies in Greece. Open-end- work is here to stay, replacing face-to-face meet- ed as well as close-ended questions will be used ings with employees or customers? regarding the types of culture that exist or the Literature review new forms that arose; the practices and channels for communicating organizational culture; the While teleworking was not a new practice for stakeholder engagement tactics; the leadership public relations professionals, Covid-19 caused style in virtual teams; as well as the benefits and agencies to urgently switch almost all their ac- challenges associated with remote working. 3 ABSTRACTS 137 Results and conclusions Raghuram, S. (2021), “Remote Work Implica- tions for Organisational Culture”, Kumar, P., Due to the characteristics of the public relations Agrawal, A. and Budhwar, P. (Ed.) Work from industry in Greece that is comprised of small- Home: Multi-level Perspectives on the New sized agencies, it is suggested a clan culture will Normal, Emerald Publishing Limited, Bingley, be favored after the occurrence of Covid-19 due pp. 147-163. to its flexibility and internal focus. Moreover, it is expected that hybrid modes of communication Schein, E. (2004 ), Organizational culture and practices and channels (online as well as offline) leadership, 3rd ed (San Francisco, CA: Jossey- will be utilized by agencies given that the public Bass). relations industry in Greece is still dominated by Keywords: organizational culture, public relations a clientelist approach that focuses on the culti-agencies, virtual leadership, remote working, com-vation of personal relationships with customers, munication practices, employee engagement. media, politicians, etc (Garcia, 2015). However, it is also expected that in a feminized public re- lations industry the “work-from-home” will be preferred along with a team leadership. Practical and social implications This present study will be among the first to map the changes in organizational culture, working, virtual leadership, and communication practic- es that the public relations industry in Greece has undergone due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Moreover, important managerial implications will be suggested for effective communication of organizational culture. References Chatman, J., & Gino, F. (2020). Don’t Let the Pandemic Sink Your Company Culture. Har- vard Business Review online. Available at https://hbr. org/2020/08/dontlet-the-pandem- ic-sink-your-company-culture. Contreras, F., Baykal, E., & Abid, G. (2020). E-leadership and teleworking in times of COVID-19 and beyond: what we know and where do we go. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 3484. García, C. (2015). PR, clientelism and econom- ics: A comparison of Southern Europe and Latin America. Journal of Communication Man- agement, 19(2), 133-149. 3 ABSTRACTS 138 The Four Realms of Digital Visual Experience: A Theoretical Framework Valentini, Chiara, Jyväskylä University School of Business & Economics (Finland) Mutarelli, Grazia, IULM University (Italy) Communication management has long claimed applies agile design processes and mines digi- responsibility for stakeholder relationships and tal connectivity to deliver robust business intel- enshrined the function as part of the defini- ligence tools and an intimate understanding of tional identity for practitioners and academics. the stakeholder journey. During an era of unprecedented digital trans- formation and shrinking stakeholder proximity, Literature Review the author interviewed c-suite executives at ten Broadly examining the landscape of organiza- publicly traded companies operating in Canada tional transformation in the 21st century, Holtz to explore the role for strategic communication/ (2002), Castells (2000) and Hax (2010) high- public relations in the growing field of experi- light how social and digital ecosystems are al- ence delivery. tering how stakeholders interact with brands These conversations were augmented by ten in- and are shifting business strategies from product differentiation to service experience. In order to terviews with experience management (XM) explore shifting priorities of senior leaders, com- experts and practitioners – those who monitor munication management as a strategic function employee, customer, product and brand percep- is explored in literature. Mcnamara (2015) evi- tions using predictive behavior data – to give denced a long history of difficulty measuring and the organization a robust understanding of all evaluating (M&E) programs and responsibilities relationships impacting business performance. for communication practitioners and academ- ics. Supporting this finding Huang and Zhang Underscored by an integrative literature review, (2013) thoroughly critique organization-pub- the applicability of communication management lic relationship measurement scales to similarly is examined through communication, organi- find outcomes are elusive. The major commu- zation-public relationships (OPR) and brand/ nication activities such as the tactic of commu- image reputation activities. However, communi- nicating (Hutton, 1999; Macnamara, 2018; van cation management continues to struggle with Ruler, 2018), organization-public relationships delivering measurement and evaluation (M&E) (OPR) (Bruning & Ledingham, 2000; Hon & for their programs and responsibilities. Mean- Grunig, 1999; Finne and Grönroos, 2009; Mac- while, organizations have increased their appe- namara, 2015) and image/reputation monitor- tite for actionable insights that will cause behav- ing through crisis and issues management (Bun- ior change in important relationships. Meeting ting & Lipski, 2000; Coombs & Holladay, 2005; this expectation, Experience management (XM) Gotsi & Wilson, 2001; Macnamara, 2020; mur- 3 ABSTRACTS 139 ray & White, 2005) are given as context for the er insights found: strategic communicators could role of communication practitioners in organi- play a role in determining the mission of analyt- zations. In contrast, the new field of experience ics and data collection as ethical advisors; letting delivery (Macik, 2017) is explored through go of managerial ownership with stakeholder re- computer sciences literature including the In- lationships; find influence with chief technology ternet of Things (IoT) (Amodu et al., 2019) and strategy officers; overwrite traditional com- and human to computer connectivity (Fletcher, munication plans to incorporate design-thinking 2015) showing that senior leaders are looking principles of empathy and feedback loops; and for analytics to identify gaps in the perception finally, improving data and analytics fluency as it that stakeholders have of a brand/organization relates to experience delivery. (Grannan & Geoffroy, 2016) and that indicate behavioral intention as well (Qualtrics, 2021; The author submits that communication man- Palmer, 2010). agement is poised for an upgrade. The modern practitioner should be “full-stack” much like that Methodology of a software developer who can solve custom- er-facing aspects of design and diagnose internal This is an exploratory, qualitative research study system-related issues as well. to introduce experience (XM) management into communication management literature. Practical and Social Implications The sample size consisted of twenty in-depth To ensure relevance after digital transforma- interviews: ten senior leaders who had author- tion, communication management must find a ity in operational and strategic decisions and place for communication, crisis and issues man- ten experts and practitioners in the experience agement as well as reputation activities within delivery ecosystem at publicly traded compa- the agile, cross-functional ecosystem of today’s nies operating in Canada and undergoing digital modern, data-informed organizations who are transformation. Three broad interview questions using experience delivery models. discussed experience delivery, stakeholder rela- tionship management and strategic communica- The findings are instructive for professionals tion activities. The qualitative synthesis focused performing communication activities and re- on words, descriptions, concepts, perceptions searchers studying them, as well as institutions and sentiments expressed by participants. Narra- offering academic study in strategic communica- tive analysis revealed mindsets and perspectives tion and public relations. of interview participants while thematic analysis revealed similarities and differences that could Keywords: public relations theory, communication be grouped together for deeper interpretations. theory, experience management, relationship management, organization-public relationships Results and conclusions The results of this study are expected to be completed by March 2022 as part of a master’s thesis defence. Early analysis shows the activi- ty of communication, as message sending and message clarifying for strategic priorities, is the tactical function most needed at a program level and senior executive level in organizations. Oth- 3 ABSTRACTS 140 Employee satisfaction with internal communication in private companies during the first lockdown Vidaković, Ivona, Edward Bernays University College (Croatia) Dabo, Krešimir, Edward Bernays University College (Croatia) Gluvačević, Dejan, Edward Bernays University College (Croatia) Internal public relations, ie internal communica-special emphasis on organizational culture and tion, includes communication within the organi- relations with employees and employee satis- zation that can flow from superiors to employ- faction with internal communication during the ees, from employees to superiors and between first lockdown. The period of the first lockdown employees. Quality internal communication in in the Republic of Croatia includes March, April times of crisis is the key to the company’s survival and May 2020. For the purposes of this paper, in the future, so in March, April and May 2020 an anonymous questionnaire was conducted on many Croatian companies found themselves in a sample of 84 respondents. The questionnaire an uncertain situation where they had to adapt sought to examine the satisfaction of respon- internal communication and organizational cul- dents with internal communication and com- ture to new circumstances. The COVID-19 cri- munication channels in their companies with an sis hit the whole world in 2020, and it is still in- emphasis on organizational culture and relation- conceivable what and how many consequences it ships with employees during the first lockdown will leave behind. Its effects are clearly visible in in the Republic of Croatia. The results of the the day-to-day operations of most companies. In survey indicated that respondents were satisfied the most challenging period during March, April with the communication processes in their orga- and May 2020, companies had to show how nizations during the first lockdown, and that the they cope with the crisis and how much they are COVID-19 crisis did not significantly change ready for it in all aspects of their business and the attitude of employees towards employers, management. Why is employee satisfaction with but the results showed that there is room for internal communication important? The reason improvement in internal communication man- is very simple, satisfied and motivated employ- agement culture. ees and successful communication with internal stakeholders will create satisfied customers, us- Literature ers and successful communication with all exter- Bahtijarević-Šiber, F., Borović, S., Buble, M., Du- nal stakeholders. janić, M., Kapustić, S. (1991). Organizacijska The subject of this paper is the internal com- teorija. Zagreb: Informator. munication of Croatian companies during the Baines, P., Egan, J., Jefkins, F. (2004). Public COVID-19 crisis and the first lockdown with Relations – Contemporary Issues and Tech- 3 ABSTRACTS 141 niques. Burlington: Elsevier. Milas, Z. (2011). Uvod u korporativnu komu- Bubić, A. (2020). Kako se nositi sa situaci- nikaciju - teorijski pristupi i organizacijski jom prouzrokovanom pandemijom koronavi- modeli. Zagreb: Novelti Millenium. rusne bolesti (COVID-19)? Psihološki aspekti Rupčić, N. (2015). Suvremeni menandžment kriznih situacija i savjeti za lakše nošenje s nji- – teorija i praksa. Rijeka: Ekonomski fakultet ma. Jastrebarsko: Naklada Slap. Sveučilišta u Rijeci. Crandall, W., Parnell, J., Spillan, J. (2014). Crisis Sikavica, P., Novak, M. (1999). Poslovna orga- Management int the New Strategy Landscape. nizacija. Zagreb: Informator. Thousand Oaks. London: Sage Publications. Tomić, Z. (2016). Odnosi s javnošću. Zagreb: Duraković, J. (2019). Poslovno komuniciranje u Synopsis. novomedijskom okruženju. Sarajevo: Univer- Tench, R., Yeomans, L. (2009). Otkrivanje odno- zitet u Sarajevu, Fakultet političkih nauka. sa s javnošću. Zagreb: Biblioteka Print. Fox, R. (2001). Poslovna komunikacija. Zagreb: Tkalac Verčić, A. (2015). Odnosi s javnošću. Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada. Zagreb: Hrvatska udruga za odnose s javnošću. Fearn-Banks, K. (2011). Crisis Communica- Weihrich, H., Koontz, H. (1994). Menadžment, tions: A Casebook Approach. New York: Rout- Deseto izdanje. Zagreb: MATE. lege. Žugaj, M., Cingula, M. (1992). Temelji Jugo, D. (2017). Menadžment kriznog komuni- organizacije. Varaždin: FOING. ciranja. Zagreb: Školska knjiga i Edward Ber- nays. Keywords: internal communication, lockdown, COVID-19 crisis, employees, organizational culture Karić, M. (2005). Ekonomika poduzeća. Osijek: Ekonomski fakultet u Osijeku. 3 ABSTRACTS 142 To Trust or Not to Trust: Consumer Perceptions of Brand Activism in Times of the Black Lives Matter Movement Wang, Yijing, Erasmus University Rotterdam (The Netherlands) Bouroncle, Linnéa, Erasmus University Rotterdam (The Netherlands) Introduction and purpose of the study Methodology The salience of socio-political issues on social An online survey was conducted ( N=375). Par-media has led to increasing pressure on com- ticipants were recruited using a convenience panies to engage in corporate social advocacy sampling method through Amazon Mechanical (CSA), referring to them taking a stance on Turk. these issues (Austin et al., 2019; Edrington and Lee, 2018; Gaither et al., 2018). CSA may in- Results and conclusions clude taking actions such as contributing to a certain cause financially, creating advertising The results revealed that values-driven motives campaigns related to the issue, lobbying local and egoistic-driven motives were significant and state governments, making donations and predictors of consumer skepticism. However, engaging in philanthropic efforts known to the no significant impact of strategic-driven motives public, or using the company’s large platform and stakeholder-driven motives was discovered to raise awareness, for instance through social on consumer skepticism. In addition, consumer media (Waymer and Logan, 2021). Despite this skepticism was found to be a significant media- new phenomenon, the research on CSA is limit- tor of the relationship between egoistic-driven ed in literature, and CSA has often been classi- motives and brand equity. The results however fied as a subset of corporate social responsibility did not reveal any significant moderation effect rather than its own category of corporate action. of social issue involvement. This paper aims to understand to what extent perceived corporate motives of engaging in CSA Practical and social implications affect consumer skepticism and brand equity. We The findings imply that companies need to de- also examine whether a consumer’s social issue velop a good understanding of the consumers’ involvement moderates the proposed relation- attributions when engaging in CSA as the latter ship. can result in consumer skepticism and negative impact on brand equity. References Austin, L., Gaither, B. and Gaither, T. K. (2019) Corporate social advocacy as public interest 3 ABSTRACTS 143 communications: Exploring perceptions of corporate involvement in controversial so- cial-political issues. The Journal of Public In- terest Communications 3(2). Edrington, C. L. S. and Lee, N. (2018) Tweet- ing a social movement: Black Lives Matter and its use of Twitter to share information, build community, and promote action. The Journal of Public Interest Communications 2(2): 289- 306. Gaither, B. M., Austin, L. and Collins, M. (2018) Examining the case of DICK’s Sporting Goods: Realignment of stakeholders through corporate social advocacy. The Journal of Public Interest Communications 2(2): 176-201. Waymer, D. and Logan, N. (2021) Corporate social advocacy as engagement: Nike’s social justice communication. Public Relations Re- view 47(1). Keywords: Corporate Social Advocacy, Black Lives Matter, Rebranding, Corporate Motives, Consumer Skepticism, Brand Equity 3 ABSTRACTS 144 Re-Framing Sustainability in a Pandemic. Understanding Sustainability Attitudes, Behaviors, Visions and Responsibilities for a Post-Covid Future Weder, Franzisca, The University of Queensland (Australia) Elmenreich, Wilfried, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) Hübner, Renate, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) Sposato, Robert, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) Mertl, Stefanie, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt (Austria) There is no doubt that the Covid-19 pandemic kind of globalization and climate change-related means much more than a health challenge and transformation (reduction of fossil fuels, less air more than a potential economic catastrophe. It and car travel, shift to a meatless diet, some form is the beginning of a social change process and of basic income (Moriarty & Honnery, 2020; a test for our civilization on how we deal with Goffman, 2020). transformation. It is also time for asking for the moral principles that will guide transformation. With the study at hand, we aimed at understand- Our response as society as a whole, as collectives ing people’s visions for a “new normal” and what and communities, as institutions and individu- role sustainability as a moral principle might als will highlight our capability to deal with and play in this process of change and redefinition manage cultural and social change in the future. of “normal”. Staying at home and away from travelling, con- sumption, and playgrounds have changed our Theoretically, we first conceptualize how sus- behavior and lifestyle, with positive and negative tainability is defined and a sustainable future effects. It also changed our attitudes from pref- possibly envisioned by organizations and indi- erences to moral imperatives, from being driven viduals. Second, we introduce the concept of by conventions and habits to moral convictions moral agency to better understand how individ- and new perceptions of our very individual re- uals perceive their responsibility when it comes sponsibility in these societal transformation pro- to sustainable development and social transfor- cesses (Weder et al., 2021). During the first year mation processes – or how much they allocate of the pandemic, people did not only return to the responsibility to “others,” mainly political in- their local structures and developed a solidary stitutions, “the government,” but also corporates. “we-culture” (Zukunftsinstitut, 2020) and a new consumer sentiment (Kittel et al., 2020). With empirical data from a quantitative survey Much more, organizations sketching the future with complementary qualitative elements (n picture the future as the opportunity for a new = 264; 2020, Austria), we can not only show 3 ABSTRACTS 145 that people increasingly use sustainability as a The insights gained from the survey show that principle to evaluate their behavior (“during the people tend to use three narratives for the fu- Corona-restrictions, but I was also much more ture, which are related to a certain degree of sustainable because I didn’t travel”). Much more, morality, the perception of being a change agent, we can see that this is not necessarily related to and, therefore, the willingness to take responsi- the willingness or readiness to change and the bility as an individual: they range from rather commitment to keep the changed and more sus- fear- or concern-driven resignation (Type A), tainable practices in the future (taking agency to guilt-driven resilience (Type B) and to an an- for the future, feeling responsible). ger-driven, courageous responsibility (Type C). Limitations of the study and future research po- tential will be also presented and discussed at the conference. 3 ABSTRACTS 146 Development of an optimal reputation quantifier for the reboot of communication after Covid-19 Westermann, Arne, International School of Management (Germany) Homann, Reimund, IMWF Institute for Management and Economic Research (Germany) Forthmann, Jörg, Faktenkontor GmbH (Germany) Introduction and purpose of the study reputation of a company. The formula resulting from this reduction can then be used as an ‘opti- To reorganize communication with internal and mal reputation quantifier’. external stakeholders after a drastic event such as a pandemic, and to check whether changes Literature review are necessary, a sound orientation is required. In this context, reputation measurement is be- The authors reviewed existing literature and em- coming increasingly important for companies, pirical research concerning different concepts of because eruptive shifts in stakeholder perception reputation, then consider especially the model may have occurred. This measurement of repu- developed by Charles J. Fombrun et al. (2000) tation as an important control variable for the and the functional dimensions (sustainability, communication management of companies is economic performance, employer performance, made more difficult by the digitalisation of com- products & services, management performance) munication on the internet – with significantly defined in this model, focusing primarily on re- increased speed and frequency of interaction as search dealing with the question of how far the well as with a greatly increased number of send- different dimensions interact and influence each ers. At the same time, this digitalised communi- other. Furthermore, the literature review identi- cation makes it technically easier to be record- fied and discussed existing research analysing in ed and analysed, for example with the help of what way external events which are beyond the artificial intelligence. So far, there is no known control of the organisation, such as the corona- instrument with which the overall reputation of virus pandemic, can influence a reputation. a company can be precisely quantified when the Methodology reputation of partial aspects is known. The aim of this study, therefore, is to find a quantification The authors combined two data sources for their mechanism with which the reputation of a com- research: market research data was used for the pany can be precisely calculated. The basic ap- long-term adjustment of the optimal reputation proach is to apply a dimensional reduction pro- quantifier. This was combined with social listen- cedure to a set of known reputation dimensions ing data for the short-term adjustment of the to obtain a single value representing the overall reputation measurement. Social listening collects 3 ABSTRACTS 147 data via the analysis of internet sources with re- Literature spect to statements concerning the different rep- utation dimensions. These statements are then Fombrun, C.J., Gardberg, N.A., Sever, J.M. analysed with the help of artificial intelligence, (2000), The reputation quotient: a multi-stake- i.e. with specially trained algorithms which can holder measure of corporate reputation. Jour- identify and categorise the linguistic content of nal of Brand Management, vol.7, no.4, p.241- written statements. 255. Westermann, A., Forthmann, J. (2020), Social Results and conclusions listening: a potential game changer in rep- The data show that due to the high correlation utation management. How big data analysis of the different reputation dimensions in relation can contribute to understanding stakeholders’ to one another, the basic idea of using a process views on organizations, in: Corporate Com- of dimensional reduction to achieve a quantifi- munications: An International Journal, DOI cation for an overall reputation works basically 10.1108/CCIJ-01-2020-0028. well. The results of the dimensional reduction Keywords: reputation management, interaction of further imply that although each reputation di-reputation dimensions, social listening, big data mension does have a significant influence on a total reputation, the strengths of the individual influences differ. The interaction of the reputa- tion dimensions is likely to vary from industry to industry and possibly from company to com- pany; this study explores the general approach. Practical and social implications Nevertheless, the study is suitable for providing cross-sectoral orientation as to which reputation dimensions deserve greater attention in order to improve corporate reputation in a targeted manner. Two levers are relevant here: In which reputation dimension is the company strong or should it strengthen itself? In which reputation dimension should communication be intensified to influence the public’s perception? With this approach, it is possible to put exter- nal communication to the test and – in terms of corporate reputation – to optimise it. Changes in the reputation quantifier, for example because of a pandemic, can also be recorded in a structured manner and transferred into modified commu- nication accordingly. 3 ABSTRACTS 148 Corporate Philantropic Behavior and The Construction of Public Affective Trust. Shopping Spree After Hongxing ERKE Group’s Donation for the 2021 Henan Floods in China Wu, Jing, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Gao, Hao, Nanjing Normal University (China) Wang, Wendi, Nanjing Normal University (China) Li, Lina, Shanghai Normal University (China) Introduction and purpose Literature review The 2021 Henan Floods in China have triggered Trust contains two major forms in social scienc- a wave of public donations among Chinese en- es: cognition-based trust and affectbased trust terprises. In July 2021, Hongxing ERKE Group (McAllister, 1995). Affective trust is the confi- (ERKE), a Chinese domestic trendy sports dence one places in another and the willingness brand, donated CNY 50 million in materials for to open up to another, including the dimensions disaster relief, even facing its poor business per- of integrity and dependability (Hon & Grunig, formance. Then, topics related to ERKE rushed 1999). ERKE’s philanthropy awakens public af- to the trending topic and became the hot search. fective trust and support. However, researchers Securities Times reported that relevant public have found that crowd-sourced CSR does not opinions reached 39,684 posts one week af- always produce positive results. The CSR will ter the ERKE donation, with 75% positive and create positive outcomes when the company has 24% negative emotions. Also, ERKE’s donation established positive feelings or trust and the pub- has set off ‘crazy consumption’ that consumers lic infers that the behaviors are consistent with spontaneously rushed into the online and offline motives (Rim, Park & Song, 2018). stores to buy products crazily. Methodology As a typical case of earning public affective trust We collected data from the official Weibo ac- with corporate social responsibility (CSR), this count of ERKE and conducted a content analysis study will explore the public opinions about the with the comments left on ERKE’s posts. ERKE’s donation and how ERKE gained pub- lic trust, solidarity, and support with its philan- thropic behavior from the perspective of emo- tions. 3 ABSTRACTS 149 Results and conclusions ERKE still donated even with a business dilem- ma. The charity behavior is also in line with the According to the content analysis of their com- Chinese traditional cultural values of “help those ments on ERKE’s posts, the study revealed Weibo in distress,” “ help people for happiness,” and users’ strong solidarity and support for ERKE, “uphold virtues and kindness,” gaining wide- mainly including affective support and behavior- spread public affective recognition and empathy. al support. Affective support takes the domain The public affective and behavioral support to and involves three types of performance: public ERKE reflected that the public migrates their af- expression of positive feelings and attitudes such fective identification to the company and brand. as recognition, love, support, and trust; affective Also, the public satisfies their own patriotic and empathy and sympathy for ERKE’s philanthropy; social feelings through supporting ERKE. The and defense and support for ERKE through a common affective connection is further diffused crusade against its ‘opponents.’ Behavioral sup- and sublimated through the communication be- port in this case contains three types of behav- tween social media users and the enterprise, pre- iors: expressing purchase intentions; providing senting new features of constructing public trust consultation and suggestions on the products; with corporate philanthropic behavior on social and call for rational consumption to support media. ERKE. Limitations There is a certain limitation of this study that evaluating public opinion only from social media users’ comments but still provides a perspective for public affective trust research. Keywords: CSR; corporate philanthropic behavior; public affective trust; social media users 3 ABSTRACTS 150 How does the motivation of watching live streaming commerce affect online purchase intention? Wu, Shih-Chia, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) Luk, Wing Hei, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) Introduction and Purpose of the Study portion selling groceries (53.8%) in Hong Kong, is the targeted platform for this study. Live streaming from various social media net- works offers users news, production informa- Literature Review tion, entertainment, and shopping functions. Live streaming commerce has become an upris- Live streaming commerce is defined as a subset ing trend with the utilization of live streaming of e-commerce embedded with real-time social for commercial purposes (Wongkitrungrueng et interaction, including real-time video and text- al., 2021; Cai & Wohn, 2019; Hamilton et al., based chat (Wongkitrungrueng et al., 2021; Cai 2014), commonly seen selling apparel, fashion, & Wohn, 2019; Hamilton et al., 2014). It is pre- beauty, food, consumer electronics, furnishing, dicted that people are motivated to watch live home décor, and automobiles (Mckinsey Digital, streaming commerce by the perceived function- 2021). Originated from China, live streaming al value (capacity for functional, utilitarian, or commerce has been expanding rapidly and ad- physical performance), epistemic value (capacity opted by dominant e-commerce platforms such to arouse curiosity, provide novelty, and satisfy as Amazon and Taobao, to enhance customer a desire for knowledge), and conditional value engagement and boost revenue. Live stream- (specific situation facing the choice maker), and ing commerce provides product demonstration, the values are positively related to online pur- product information, and excitement to consum- chase intention. In addition, under the theory of uses and gratifications, the gratifications of so- ers (Wongkitrungrueng et al., 2021). cial interaction, enjoyment, and pass time, are This study adopted both the consumption val- also expected to be the motivations for people to ue theory that has not been widely discussed in watch live streaming commerce, and positively the context of live streaming commerce, and the affect people’s purchase intention online. uses and gratifications theory, to investigate the Methodology motivations of people watching live streaming commerce and the motivations’ relationship with Online quantitative survey using the snow- online grocery purchase intention. HKTVmall, a ball-sampling technique was adopted for the leading e-commerce platform with a huge pro- study and conducted from Nov 5 to Nov 19, 3 ABSTRACTS 151 2021. HKTVmall users were the targets. Only significant reasons affecting purchase intention the respondents who had watched live streaming online. in HKTVmall before were appropriate. 149 ques- tionnaires out of the total of 257 questionnaires As the enjoyment perceived by live streaming collected were valid for analysis. The qualitative has the most strong and positive influence on data were analysed using IBM SPSS. purchase intention online. While even the con- sumption values did not directly affect consum- Results & Conclusion ers’ online purchase intention, they are proven motivations for people to watch live streaming All the consumption values: function val- on groceries or household goods. These imply ue (Mean= 3.54, SD= 0.68), epistemic value the feasibility of taking a content-based approach (Mean= 3.65, SD= 0.68), conditional value when performing live streaming commerce, (Mean= 3.66, SD= 0.96), are regarded to be the which includes product-related and non-prod- motivations to watch live streaming. In regards uct-related content, to arouse consumers’ inter- to the gratifications, only enjoyment (Mean= est and possibly increase their purchase inten- 3.35, SD= 0.83) is the motivation for people to tion online (Wongkitrungrueng et al., 2020). watch live streaming commerce, while social in- teraction (Mean=2.37, SD= 1.08), and passing Future studies can be expanded to other catego- time (Mean=2.71, SD= 0.11) are not. At the bi- ries of online products for more understanding. variate level, all the factors are correlated with respondents’ purchase intention online. Howev- References er, from the regression model, only the gratifi- cations of social interaction (coefficient = .209, Wongkitrungrueng, A., & Assarut, N. (2020). p ≤ .05) and enjoyment (coefficient = .457, p ≤ The role of live streaming in Building Con- .001), are proven to have a significant effect on sumer Trust and engagement with Social Com- online purchase intention. merce Sellers. Journal of Business Research, 117, 543–556. From the result, despite the consumption values Lu, B., & Chen, Z. (2021). Live streaming com- are proven to be the motivation for people to merce and consumers’ purchase intention: An watch live streaming commerce, still, it is unable uncertainty reduction perspective. Information to predict consumers’ online grocery purchase & Management, 58(7), 103509. intention in the context of live streaming com- merce. In terms of the effect on purchase in- Keywords: live streaming commerce, uses and grat-tention online, social interaction and enjoyment ifications theory, consumption value theory, online are proven to have a significant effect on online purchase intention groceries purchase intention. Theoretical and Practical Implications The results imply that people still regard live streaming commerce as media products, that they are searching for enjoyment and social interac- tion from consuming live streaming commerce, treating and selecting live streaming commerce more as a media when coming to consumption choice-making, hence making the gratifications 3 ABSTRACTS 152 A study of Memes, Conformity and Watching Intention: Squid Game as an example Wu, Shih-Chia, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) Chiu, Tsz Yan, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, SAR China) Introduction and purpose of the study ity/humor (people tend to share positive content online), whimsical Content/participation (people According to Shifman (2014), meme has become reproduce the content and share), evoking emo- an important element in internet culture and has tions (stories that evokes more positive emotions been defined as a form of digital content, such as would be shared more) and simplicity/language “me and the boys…,” “HACKERMAN,” etc., that is (content with simple meaning is easier to be generated by different users in the digital world. shared) (Shifman, 2014). In 2021, the Korean thriller series “Squid Game” had quickly become the most-watched TV series Conformity refers to consumers’ feedback, rating, on Netflix, with more than 142 million viewers purchase intention and behaviour will be affected during its first 28 days of launch (Nolan, 2021). by the group’s feedback, and they would use oth- Upon its launch on the streaming platform, the ers’ suggestions as reference to change themselves buzz around the plot continued non-stop and to fit the group expectation or get accepted by the therefore, a lot of memes were created, echoing group (Lascu & Zinkhan, 1999). The framework the series’ phenomenal spread around the globe of Theory of Planned Behaviour(TPB) developed through social media which have drawn our atten- by Ajzen (1991) is adopted in the study which tion to examine the relationship between meme includes three constructs: Attitude, Perceived Con- and watching intention of Squid Game. Further- trol of Behaviour and Subjective Norms which can more, conformity, the bandwagon effect, and the be linked to Conformity. Uses & Gratifications Theory (U&G), would be relevant factors in attracting more people to watch U&G is a well-utilized framework in defining mo- Squid Game. tives behind the use of any given medium (Gan, 2017). With reference to the prior research, six The aim of this study is to find out the relationship U&G factors are selected in order to create a re- among meme, conformity, U&G and watching in- lationship study on watching intention of Squid tention. Game, which includes: Exposure, Social Sharing, Entertainment, Information Seeking, Escape and Literature review Affection (Gan, 2017). Meme includes 4 key viral elements, i.e., positiv- 3 ABSTRACTS 153 Methodology Practical and theoretical implications Two runs of data collection were carried out with As shown in the findings, conformity and U&G the general public in Hong Kong, during the pe- are both positively related to consumers’ watching riod of 24th to 27th November 2021 and 1st to intention, which implies that both collective and 3rd December 2021 respectively. A total of 226 individual factors would stimulate the audience’s adults have participated, with 71 adults joining in intention to consume cultural products. Fur- the second run of study. Participants had watched thermore, the predictive power of conformity is Squid Game the TV series and seen memes on stronger than factors of U&G, which suggests that their social media. Data collection was carried out streaming platforms and production companies by snowball sampling through internet. A five- could concentrate on manufacturing the trend at point Likert the collective level and not forget to create chances for the audience to feel entertained, to be exposed Scale was adopted for respondents to evaluate the to the cultural product, to share with family and different measures of our research models where friends, to be escaped from reality, to get access to Extremely Disagree = one and Extremely Agree = much more information and to fulfill the affective five. Data analysis with Pearson Correlation was demands. computed in SPSS to assess the relationship be- tween the variables of this study. The findings also show that meme does not explain the change in consumers’ watching intention. One Results and conclusion of the possible explanations is that most memes The results of statistical analysis indicate that there are created after the release of the TV series, with is a weak correlation between Meme and Watch- content that is closely related to TV series’ plots. ing intention. Specifically, among four meme viral- This characteristic makes it difficult for consumers ity factors, Evoking Emotions has the most pow- to understand and be attracted by memes if they erful impacts (R = .314, p = .001), followed by haven’t watched the TV series. Consumers tend Participation (R = .259, p = .007) and Positivity to participate in spreading memes only after they (R = .208, p = .032). Simplicity, as one of meme have watched the TV series, rather than watching virality factors, is not found having significant re- this cultural product with the aim to understand lationship with Watching intention (R = .087, p = memes. This finding suggests that it is necessary .372). In testing the relationship between Confor- for streaming platforms and production compa- mity and Watching intention, both two variables, nies to create memes that are understandable to Attributions about group behavior (β = .624, p < consumers. .001) and Informational influence (β = .581, p References < .001), have positive impact on Watching inten- tion. Furthermore, U&G, which is measured by six Lascu, D. N., & Zinkhan, G. (1999). Consumer factors in this study, is tested as positively related conformity: review applications for marketing with Watching intention at a moderate level. In theory and practice. Journal of Marketing Theo- details, Entertainment is most predictive (r = .525, ry and Practice, 7(3), 1-12 p < .001), followed by Exposure (r = .507, p < Shifman, L. (2014). Memes in Digital Culture. .001), Social Sharing (r = .505, p < .001), Escape Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. (r = .459, p < .001), Information Seeking (r = .410, p = .002) and Affection (r = .290, p = .03). Keywords: meme(s), conformity, Uses & Gratifications theory, watching intention 3 ABSTRACTS 154 The state of internal communication in Latin America: An international Delphi Yue, Cen April, University of Connecticut (USA) Thelen, Patrick D., San Diego State University (USA) Introduction and purpose of the study: cation, and the state of internal communication practice. Internal communication is a fast-growing spe- cialization in public relations and communica- Literature review tion management that has emerged as a critical function for organizations (Tkalac Verčič et al., Latin America, comprising 20 countries and one 2012). Not surprisingly, the amount of internal territory, accounts for 64% of the population of communication research has flourished during the the Western Hemisphere and 8% of the global past decade, and scholars have examined the role population (Statista, 2021). Despite its cultur- that internal communication plays in employee al diversity and growing political and economic behaviors, leadership, organizational culture, or- force, public relations scholars have not exten- ganizational crises, reputation, and employee so- sively explored this region (Molleda et al., 2017; cial media communication. Despite the increasing Thelen, 2021). A quantitative content analysis literature, researchers have recognized the need examining 223 internal communication articles to increase the documentation and the perspec- published in public relations and communication tives of public relations and internal communica- journals between 1970 and 2019 found that none tion in underrepresented regions (Molleda et al., of the articles focused on Latin American coun- 2017). Latin America is the least researched re- tries (Lee & Yue, 2020). This reality prompted gion globally, and there is a strong need to further us to explore internal communication within this explore how internal communication is practiced region. and understood in this region (Thelen, 2021). Given the lack of research on internal commu- To fill in the research gap and diversify the body nication in Latin America and the importance of of knowledge in internal communication, the enriching and diversifying our existing body of current study aimed to explore internal com- knowledge that is U.S. and European centered, munication in Latin America, specifically how the current study explored four overarching re- seasoned internal communication practitioners search questions: (1) How is internal commu- understand and practice internal communication nication defined and understood by practitioners in Latin America. We provided answers that tap in Latin America? (2) What are the skills and into different aspects of Latin American internal knowledge needed in internal communication communication practice, including how internal practice in Latin America? (3) What is the val- communication is defined and understood, the ue of internal communication? (4) What is the skills and knowledge needed in internal commu- state of internal communication practice in Latin nication practice, the value of internal communi- America? 3 ABSTRACTS 155 Methodology communication. They also suggested that the in- fluence of internal communication has substan- Although there are several means to examine tially increased within the past decade. Neverthe- the unchartered territory in internal communi- less, one of their main challenges is to position cation, the current study used the Delphi tech- themselves as strategic partners and to be seen as nique. This method gathers data from selected a critical area for organizational growth, employ- individuals within their domain of expertise via ee retention, and innovation. an iterative process that continues until there is some degree of consensus among participants or Practical and social implications until researchers believe that no extra rounds of questions will provide new insights (Wakefield & This study impacts the profession in several ways. Watson, 2014). Twenty internal communication First, it analyzes the specific knowledge and skills experts from Latin America with at least ten years that practitioners need to be successful in their of experience completed the first and the second careers. Second, it highlights how internal com- round of the data collection from September to munication practitioners currently measure the November 2021. The participants were from Ar- impact of their efforts and addresses the major gentina (n = 4), Chile (n = 4), Colombia (n = challenges they encounter in measurement and 3), Guatemala (n = 2), Mexico (n = 1), Panama evaluation. Third, the study provides insights (n = 1), Peru (n = 3), Uruguay (n = 1), and regarding the future direction of the practice in Venezuela (n = 1). Latin America. Results and conclusions Keywords: internal communication, public relations, Latin America, Delphi study Participants agreed that formal internal commu- nication encompasses (1) top-down, bottom-up, and diagonal information, (2) communication between team members, (3) communication between members of a specific project, and (4) communication of messages between an organi- zation and all of its members. Regarding the pri- mary role of internal communication, the findings suggested that the function should manage infor- mation, facilitate relationships within an organi- zation, and ensure that employees are connected to their organization’s mission, vision, and values. In addition to understanding internal commu- nication and its role within an organization, all participants agreed that practitioners should be knowledgeable about organizational culture and crisis communication. It is noteworthy that skills like listening, empathy, and interpersonal com- munication were underscored by the participants. Latin American practitioners have a mature un- derstanding of the strategic value of internal 3 ABSTRACTS 156 Should we follow this advice? Introducing and testing a framework for assessing quality in communication consulting Zerfass, Ansgar, Leipzig University (Germany) Verčič, Dejan, University of Ljubljana and Herman & Partners (Slovenia) Ziegele, Daniel, Leipzig University (Germany) Introduction and purpose of the study the CMS III Communications Management Standard used by communication consultancies Communication leaders in organizations of any associations like ICCO, PRCA, GPRA, etc.) are kind have to tackle several challenges at the limited to managing agency business and cam- same time. Right now, they need to find new paigns, but do not cover consulting processes ways of engaging with stakeholders in a rapidly (ICCO, 2022). changing economic and political landscape with a wide range of innovate media channels and in- It is therefore quite important to develop a com- struments. They also need to future-proof their prehensive understanding of the quality of con- functions and departments: Objectives, services, sulting. This will help clients assess the relevance operations, and resources must be regularly re-of advice and whether to follow it, consultants viewed and optimized to ensure efficiency and focus their services on the most important as- effectiveness. pects, and both parties develop measures to en- This increases the need for external help from hance their interaction. consultants. Communication consulting can be de-The aim of the study is to close this gap by fined as the process by which consultants help developing a comprehensive conceptual quality or enable organizations to solve challenges re- model for communication consulting on a conceplated to their communication activities and/or tual level and by using this model to empirically their structures and processes for communica- research how consultants and clients evaluate key tion. A look into practice shows that the need quality dimensions in practice with three research for external consulting and the range of available questions: consulting services is increasing. The communi- cation consulting industry is becoming more and • RQ1: How can quality be defined and sys- more diversified and complex. Many consultants tematized in the communication consulting claim to be competent and trustworthy advisers process? for multiple challenges ranging from designing creative campaigns to introducing digital tools • RQ2: At what stage of the consulting pro- or agile ways of working. However, these claims cess do conflicts most often occur? are hard to substantiate or evaluate. Existing • RQ3: What is important to secure the qual- certification procedures in the profession (e.g., ity of communication consulting? 3 ABSTRACTS 157 Literature review An interdisciplinary literature review was con- ducted to develop a comprehensive quality mod- el for communication consulting. Interesting- ly, consulting is hardly the subject of scientific studies in communication management research. This also applies to quality of communication consulting. The few studies and articles iden- tified either deal with individual aspects of the consulting process (e.g., the requirements for a high-quality briefing) or take a one-sided view Figure 1. A comprehensive model for communi- of the topic (e.g., from the client’s point of view, cation consulting quality. without including the consultant’s perspective). A comprehensive model does not yet exist. Empirical study However, a number of quality models from The newly developed framework will be tested management, health care, or education research in a quantitative survey of practitioners work- (e.g., Donabedian, 1980; Schiersmann & Weber, ing in communication departments of for-prof- 2017) were identified and combined with exist- it, non-profit, and governmental organizations ing knowledge from the field of communication (clients) and in agencies, consulting firms, or management to construct a novel, comprehen- as freelance consultants (consultants) across sive model for communication consulting qual- Europe. To answer the research questions, the ity (see figure). The model maps the consulting model was operationalized based on the findings process from input to output and outcome, tak- of the literature review. For example, in order to ing into account the interaction between con- identify quality conflicts and measures to lever- sultants and clients at each stage of the process. age quality, the input–throughput–output–out- The overall quality can be assessed and secured come dimensions and the relationship level were on two different and intertwined levels: A func- operationalized on the basis of two items each. tional level and a relationship level. The indi-Respondents are asked to assess the importance vidual components can be further broken down on a 5-point Likert scale. The study has been into quality attributes such as the consultant’s pre-tested. Data collection takes place in Febru-industry knowledge in the domain of ‘structures, ary and March 2022. A sample size of n > 1,000 processes and people’ or a sound briefing at the is expected. Results cannot be reported yet, but beginning of the ‘realization’ phase of consulting will be shown at the conference. activities. Practical and social implications The comprehensive model of communication consulting quality developed in this study offers a variety of starting points for further research. The model can be used to examine the quali- ty of consulting from the perspective of clients and consultants in order to find out what is par- ticularly important for each actor involved. Ap- proaches to ensure this quality can be explored 3 ABSTRACTS 158 in detail. A practical added value is that clients and consultants will be enabled to review their processes. The model and its findings could also serve as a blueprint for the development of qual- ity standards for communication consulting that could be integrated into existing certification procedures in the industry. Keywords: Communication consulting – quality model – client-consultant relationship – consulting process 3 ABSTRACTS 159 Virtual stakeholder dialogues: Challenges and opportunities of moving face-to-face formats to online environments Ziegele, Daniel, Leipzig University (Germany) Kurtze, Hannah, Leipzig University (Germany) Zerfass, Ansgar, Leipzig University (Germany) Introduction and purpose of the study Nevertheless, it is important to continue inter- acting with all types of stakeholders, especially The global pandemic has affected the relation-in times of social division in many societies. This ships between companies and their stakeholders raises the questions of whether and how stake- in many ways. Most communications profession- holder dialogs can be virtualized, what experi- als have found it comparatively easy to shift in- ences of pioneers can be identified in corporate teractions with employees, consumers, investors or journalists to online formats – although the practice, and what factors should be considered learning curve has often been hard and steep for when introducing virtual stakeholder dialogues all involved. as a new format of corporate communication. The research questions of the study are therefore: At the same time, it has been much more dif- ficult than in the past to build or maintain re- • RQ1: What are the advantages and disad- lationships with stakeholders who are neither vantages of virtual stakeholder dialogues bound by self-interest nor formally connected compared to face-to-face settings? to organizations. Many companies, especially in • RQ2: What factors must be taken into ac- much-criticized industries (energy, fashion, food, count for the successful implementation of infrastructure, etc.), have long conducted stake- virtual stakeholder dialogues? holder dialogues as closed and in-person plat- forms to engage with activists, local communi- Literature review ties, policymakers, researchers, and other critical stakeholders or opinion leaders. Typical goals are Through an interdisciplinary literature review to understand different perspectives, build per- on stakeholder dialogues, four research directions sonal relationships and trust, and identify com-could be identified. They can be conceptualized mon ground without having to play by the rules a) as a specific form of events, b) as instruments of the mass media. Most stakeholder dialogues in the field of corporate social responsibility were canceled or postponed during the pandem- (CSR), c) from a strategic perspective, and d) ic. Conducting them virtually was seen as diffi- from a consensus-oriented perspective. However, cult at first glance because of the importance of it is not appropriate to speak of clearly defined personal exchanges, confidentiality, authenticity, perspectives, as the levels of abstraction in the lit- and informality. erature vary. There is little explanatory potential 3 ABSTRACTS 160 for multi-layered topics and settings. ory approach. This is also true for virtualization as a trend in Results and conclusions corporate communications. The conceptual un- derstanding of what virtual means varies widely. The study identified and systematized the small In this study, “virtual” is used in the sense of a) body of practical knowledge about virtual stake- geographically separated, b) technology mediat- holder dialogues. Advantages and disadvantag- ed, c) structurally dynamic, or d) nationally di- es of the format can be illustrated in a SWOT verse. matrix. The strengths (e.g., low participation re- quirements) point to clear advantages of virtual By combining both strands of literature, the fol- over face-to-face settings, while the weaknesses lowing conceptual definition was developed: list clear disadvantages (e.g., less interaction). However, a majority of the identified features are Virtual stakeholder dialogues are symmetrically both opportunities and threats (e.g., technology designed, dialogue-oriented communication in-can make dialogues more engaging, efficient, and struments for face-to-face, confidential, and is- effective or lead to frustration due to technical sue-centered exchange between an organization problems) – these features unfold their potential and critical stakeholders on problems of various depending on the situation and require sound de- origins, supported by digital technologies so that cisions and preparations by communication pro- all or some of the participants are not located in fessionals in charge of the formats. the same place. They take place primarily syn- chronously, although asynchronous elements are To realize the full potential of virtual stakehold- conceivable. The goal of the participants is mutu- er dialogues, several success factors were derived al understanding, whereby in each case strategic from the interviews: Alignment of the chosen considerations as well as collaborative problem format with strategy and goals, targeted use of solving and participation can form the founda- technology and optimal timing, knowledge of tion. participants’ needs and requirements, rigor- ous facilitation and moderation activation of all Empirical study stakeholders, demonstration of appreciation and respect as hosts, and respect for privacy and con- Since it was not possible to build on existing evi- fidentiality. dence, a qualitative design with expert interviews was chosen to explore the field. An interview Practical and social implications guide was developed from the literature review. It maps the key steps and drivers in planning and The study shows that virtual stakeholder dia- conducting stakeholder dialogues and addresses logues are an instrument that can offer numerous the opportunities, prerequisites and barriers to advantages for rediscovering the potential of cor- virtualization in individual cases. Communica- porate communications with external stakehold- tion professionals in Germany with proven ex- ers. The illustration of strengths and weaknesses perience in planning or conducting stakeholder as well as success factors provides guidance for dialogues were interviewed. The final sample (n practitioners who canceled face-to-face meetings = 39) consisted of 27 communications directors with these stakeholders during the pandemic. from large international and national companies Engaging in dialogues on socially relevant top- and 12 managing directors from consulting firms ics such as sustainability of products and critical specializing in this topic. All interviews were infrastructure is always important – whether in transcribed and analyzed using a grounded the- person or virtually. 3 ABSTRACTS 161 Keywords: Virtuality; Stakeholder dialogue; Corporate communications; Corporate social responsibility; Business ethics 4 PAPERS 162 2022 PAPERS 4 PAPERS 163 Establishing ‘tacit’ support as ‘CSR risk’: The case study of Boohoo and Black Lives Matter Clarke, Faye, Pembroke and Rye (UK) Read, Kevin, University of Greenwich (UK) Introduction from Israeli settlements in the occupied West Bank and East Jerusalem. In a statement, they Growing pressure, particularly from consumers said that the occupied territories were “inconsis- and employees, on corporates to take specific tent with our values” (BBC, 2021). Additional- public stands over a variety of social, cultural ly, Nike showed support for Colin Kaepernick, and economic issues (Chatterji and Toffel, 2015, an American football player, after he refused to 2018 and 2019), has led to a wider range of stand for the national anthem for police killings risks for corporations and organisations. of African Americans and was subsequently out- cast from the sport (Kelner, 2018). Support offered can be short-term, opportunis- tic, and well-intended but can also cause adverse Whilst understanding the risks associated with reactions, especially if it is not aligned with embarking on CSR programmes is well devel-pre-existing CSR programmes or the values and oped (Coombs and Holladay, 2015a, 2015b: purpose of an organisation. Scholars have sug- Lange and Washburn, 2012), the existing litera- gested that CEOs (Chief Executive Officers) can ture does not look at the risks associated with a have a significant role in this type of activism corporate, or other organisations, offering sup- (Chatterji and Toffel, 2019; Dahan, Hadani and port for a cause on a short term, transient or Schuler, 2013; and Hadani, Bonardi and Dahn, one-off basis. 2017; and Eesley and Lennox, 2006). Others ar- gue that corporates and other organisations will The range of concerns includes taking follower take up positions in either an ad hoc or acciden- positions, offering opinions with insufficient un- tal manner (Mukherjee and Althuizen, 2020). derstanding, absence of credibility and authen- Alternatively, they may have well intended and ticity (Holt, 2002) and a lack of foresight on considered plans, which have been labelled as how to support an initial position. In addition, corporate advocacy (Heath, 1980). Another support can be at arms-length, whereby dona- emergent trend is where corporates are encour- tions are made to a cause without any further in- aged to remain silent on issues and not offer any volvement. As such, these donations can be seen support to causes. to fit into a wider group of ‘neo-philanthropic’ actions (Villadsen, 2011). Equally, there is little Positions taken can involve taking a ‘non-neu- research looking at when stakeholders seek to tral’ stance around a controversial issue. For in- scrutinise or critically evaluate support positions stance, Ben and Jerry’s withdrew their products taken by corporates. 4 PAPERS 164 When corporations take public stands, such as ic-by-issue basis (Vahdati and Voss, 2019); in- Boohoo’s support of Black Lives Matter (BLM), tensity around issues can vary over time (Bhag- following the murder of George Floyd, new risks wat et. al., 2020) and opinions and responses are can arise as stakeholders scrutinise the authen- mediated by specific contextual factors. (Atanga ticity, sincerity and consistency (Cuypers et.al., et.al., 2022). 2016) of newly stated opinions. Linkage or oth- erwise, to previously stated policies and CSR Literature Review actions, are likely to be considered, as are the motivations of a corporate (Moorman, 2020; CSR Origins Nalick et.al., 2016), especially whether they link Whilst the term CSR (corporate social responsi- to stated values and their purpose. bility) was coined in the 1920s by Oliver Shel- This paper takes a case study approach with don, it was not widely discussed until the 1950s (Murphy, 1978). There are many definitions specific reference to Boohoo and its support for (Sarker and Searcy, 2016) and as a term, cor- BLM, post the murder of George Floyd. Boohoo’s pus of thinking and a collective term for many approach is considered separately from similar corporate actions, it is under attack from those action over issues publicly contested by other pursuing environmental and sustainable and corporations including Ben and Jerry’s, Star- pioneers and promoters of ESG (environmen- bucks, Pepsi and Chipotle in relation to BLM tal, social and corporate governance) thinking and LGBTQAI+ issues (Bhagwat et al., 2020; (MacNeil and Esser, 2022). Vredenburg et. al., 2020). Early CSR debates focused on what the wider Specifically, it looks at the lexicon of risks for responsibilities of business should be and were corporates, including the CEOs who may lead usually seen as voluntary (Carroll 1979; 1991). them, and who show public support for causes Counter criticisms questioned whether busi- or issues. This support may, among other rea- nesses have such obligations (Freidman, 2007). sons, arise from employee demands or consumer Others focused on the need to move concerns activism. We suggest that such actions can be re- away from shareholders toward a wider set of ferred to as acts of ‘tacit support’ and we provide stakeholder groups (Post, 2003). an initial working definition. From the 1950s onwards, more corporations However, we also examine the risks, particularly were ready to consider and act upon what they associated with ‘novel’ actions that can stimu- felt their responsibilities were (Davis, 1960). A late close examination of support for causes and growing trend to wider involvement of the state campaigns. We specifically focus on employee, in the everyday running of people’s lives in the consumer and activist engagement. This phe- 1970s both tackled a wider range of social is- nomenon is described as ‘tacit CSR risk’. sues including race relations and women’s rights. This widening role of the state was perhaps also Finally, drawing upon content analysis of social a precursor to stronger, practical thinking on media activity following Boohoo’s initial support how corporations could widen their responsibil- for BLM, we explore the extent to which scru- ities from the narrow shareholders to a wider tiny of supportive social posts varies according cross-section of stakeholders (Committee for to the issue around which the support is given. Economic Development, 1971). Our approach builds on research that suggests that: the level of controversy can vary on a top- By the end of the 1970s thought had gone to 4 PAPERS 165 exactly what types of obligations firms were fac- began examining how CSR could be judged as ing and what action they should consider tak- to whether it was responsible or irresponsible ing. Carroll’s widely cited CSR pyramid – set Lange and Washburn, 2012). out distinct spheres of activity – legal, economic, ethical and philanthropic (Carroll, 1977, 1991). Armstrong and Green (2013) suggested that Later models looked more closely at the inter- CSR can be viewed as either responsible or ir- action between each element and developed responsible behaviour. The establishment of the more dynamic thinking (Chufama et al., 2021), idea that CSR could indeed be irresponsible dropping the initial hierarchy. At the same time, opened-up the corporate world’s eyes to the idea there was a growing corporate sympathy to pur- that there may indeed be distinct risks involved sue CSR programmes despite the fact they were in pursing CSR programmes. Furthermore, the typically influenced by pre-existing corporate emergence of distinct activist programmes tar- values and behaviours, and there was no consis- geted at corporates further highlights the risk tent way of measuring impact – a problem still of engaging with specific issues or in some cases in existence today. not tackling harmful corporate behaviours (de Bakker, 2012). A growing participation, and The establishment of a growing need for CSR awareness of the impact of CSR, meant that an programmes to be assembled, managed and di- approach to responsibility was gathering major rected at stakeholder needs was also typically pace but at the same time required greater levels based on a voluntary, self-governed approach, of organisation, promotion and critical manage- with boards often taking diverse courses (Car- ment. Specifically, the management of risk. roll, 2008). From the 1980s onwards corpora- tions steadily increased their CSR involvement CSR Risks and diversity of activities. Some areas, such as philanthropic behaviour were contested and Coombs and Holladay look closely at how the different models were developed according to dimensions of risk and CSR can be viewed, argu- whether the organisation was looking through a ing for CSR’s increasing role in reputation man- social, economic or political lens (Sulek, 2010; agement and specifically that any organisation Muller, 2006). seen to act irresponsibly can have a direct and harmful impact on its reputation (Coombs and Organisationally, CSR programmes were often Holladay, 2015a). This analysis moves beyond delivered by specialist teams, and initially had a previous scholarship which talk of how an effec- strong focus on looking at the outputs and im- tive CSR programme can act as a protective asset pacts achieved. Sometimes activities were cov- when a crisis emerges (Barton, 2001, Eiseneg- ered in annual reports, but the lack of clear met- ger and Schranz, 2011) and generally cultivate rics meant they often sat rather awkwardly. In positive reputational benefits (Fombrun, 2005). many cases, this has now been eclipsed by the modern corporate practice of supplying separate Coomb’s seminal paper also raises the issue of CSR reviews. However, the growth in reporting specific CSR-based challenges from stakehold- and activity also prompted questions about what er groups. A rise in the level of challenges hav- corporate and social activity were truly respon- ing previously shown by King (2011). In other sible, and in recent times there has been a ma- words, “publicly engaging in CSR efforts to en- jor shift to ensuring governance and a practical hance the organisation, managers can be creating focus on sustainability. Furthermore, perhaps as new crisis risks.” (King, 2011:145). This is not a a precursor to ‘greenwashing’ critiques, scholars self-inflicted challenge that may arise from gre- 4 PAPERS 166 enwashing (Delmas and Burbano, 2011) – typi- impact on consumers when causes are supported cally, the deliberate misleading, or overstating, to (Atanga et al., 2022). stakeholders of environmental actions. Instead, it refers to CSR actions that are being redefined Chatterji and Toffel (2019) argue that CEOs by stakeholders as irresponsible and which may increasingly support social and economic is- progress into a crisis. Such crises may also be sues that do not relate to their company’s core precipitated by organisations not including in business. In other words, their interventions lie their CSR programmes concerns that are im- outside an organisation’s traditional corporate portant to their stakeholders (Coombs and Hol- social responsibility programmes. They may also iday 2015, p148). Simply, corporations are just not align with existing values and the purpose not doing enough. of the business. Such thinking builds on earlier work highlighting the role that consumers can Attribution theory has been used (Lange and play to influence the behaviour of corporations Washburn, 2012) to help explain why people (Loader et al, 2014). It also echoes wider calls make judgements about whether corporations from consumers, employees and activists to take are acting responsibly with their CSR pro- public stances on issues. The authors will con- grammes; the mere act of doing something is no tend that such pressures can lead to corporates longer accepted as a positive action. Their model offering support for causes without reference to hinges on stakeholders perceiving an undesirable their pre-existing CSR programmes – and are societal action; feeling the personal impact of the hitherto defined as acts of tacit support. intended programme and not being able to limit the undesirable impact. Emergence of Tacit Support Other well-established factors may also cause an Pursuance of tacit support, especially when poor- organisation’s reputation to falter following the ly planned and unconnected to existing plans can planning and execution of a CSR programme. quickly become CSR risk to a corporation. This Typically, occasions occur where a programme is may occur because stakeholders are affected by poorly executed. Equally, an initiative may not fit the ‘novel’ nature of new public positions (Atan- well with an organisation’s mission or purpose ga et al., 2022). They look to understand why (Sen and Bhattacharya, 2001), and tensions a position has been taken, and in turn they may wish to investigate a corporation’s motivations, and difficulties in planning and execution may and whether it is behaving consistently and au- arise with an ill-fitting partner (Read and Diehl, thentically. 2019). Henceforth, evidence of these actions will cause However, whilst the risks of pursuing CSR pro- initial tacit support being subject to tacit CSR grammes are well defined, there are also a new risk. The existence of tactic CSR risk itself can set of risks that have emerged as stakeholders, act as a precursor to a full-blown crisis for a especially employers, consumers and ‘agitators’ corporation. have placed pressure on corporations to take high profile social, economic and political stanc- Whilst tacit support and tacit risk are newly es around causes. Such pressures often result in explored areas for research, it is important to causes being supported, often outside pre-ex-recognise that earlier research has already high- isting CSR programmes. Additionally, scholars lighted that not all risks can be considered equal. have tended to promote the pivotal role of CEOs Previous studies have suggested that the nature as activists (Chatterji and Toffel, 2019) and the of the cause (Barton et al., 2018), previous CSR 4 PAPERS 167 activity (Friestad and Wright, 1994), a firm’s cifically, by drawing on microanalysis techniques, motivation (Yoon et al., 2006) and the specific it focuses on looking at how Boohoo interacted context (Vredenburg et al., 2020) can influence with the BLM movement and the reactions of a the level of risk. variety of stakeholders. Background to Boohoo’s support for BLM Firstly, it examines Boohoo’s tacit support for the BLM movement and explores its corpo- On 25th May 2020 in the USA, George Floyd, rate motivation for offering support. Second, a Black man, was murdered by a White police it chronicles how stakeholder responses shifted officer who suffocated Floyd with his knee on from initial support to significant negative ac- his throat (BBC 2020). The tragic words ‘I can’t tivist reactions. Thirdly, it analyses how activ-breathe’ echoed around the world. From this ab- ist groups used power, legitimacy and urgency horrent injustice emerged fresh collective deter- to mount their challenge. Finally, it reflects on mination to fight against injustice and for equal- ity. There were traditional protests that spread whether different topics of support cause differ- across 60 countries. Social media was also a cru- ent activist reactions. cial point of activism (Anderson et al., 2020). The research is framed around four research Indeed, 11 days after Floyd’s murder, #Black- questions. LivesMatter had been used roughly 47.8 million times on Twitter, an average of just under 3.7 • Research Question 1: Did Boohoo initiate million times per day (Anderson et al., 2020). tacit support for the BLM movement which was not linked to their pre-existing CSR Boohoo joined in with this support and posted programmes or a specific Equality, Diversi- on social media with messages of outrage and ty and Inclusion policies? support for the BAME community. Six weeks later, in August, The Sunday Times published an • Research Question 2: How did stakeholder article titled: ‘Boohoo: fashion giant faces ‘slav- attitudes shift from Boohoo’s initial support ery’ investigation’ (Bassey et al., 2020). Through for the BLM movement through to when a their investigative journalism, The Sunday support gap was highlighted in The Sunday Times found that Boohoo was paying workers Times article? only £3.50 per hour at their Leicester factory. • Research Question 3: To what extent were These illegalities found in Boohoo’s payment of the inconsistencies between Boohoo’s tac- workers were a dichotomous act compared to it support and its earlier CSR programme their posts of support for the BAME communi- stimulated by a hostile media article and a ty. This triggered stakeholder activists to look at desire of activists to intervene? Boohoo’s support and highlighted what we de- fine as tacit CSR risks. • Research Question 4: To what extent did the subject of Boohoo’s tacit support stimu- Methodology late activist behaviour? This exploratory case study uses an interpretiv- The study looks at the circumstances of Boohoo ist and multi-method approach. This allows for providing tacit support for the BLM movement. individual perceptions to be used to help create It suggests that tacit support for causes can be new thinking around how we can understand a crisis risk. The key focal point being wheth- a brand’s support for causes not linked to their er Boohoo had the moral legitimacy to support CSR programmes (Saunders et al., 2016). Spe- BLM when they had failed to ensure that those 4 PAPERS 168 producing their high street garments received 34 years and 17.1% are 18-24 years (Dixon, the National Minimum Wage, and more widely 2022). Consequently, this limits the represen- whether a tacit claim decoupled from pre-exist- tation of opinion. Furthermore, the time period ing CSR activity led to hostile stakeholder reac- selected was set at 16 days placing limitations on tions. The speed and intensity of the consumer what point this research assesses tacit CSR risk. activists’ threats are highlighted along with an exploration of the notion that race was a greater Equally, because categories were used to codify stimulus than other themes. tweets, the nuances of language could have been diminished. Despite a range of categories having To assess these factors, the study draws upon been created, making qualitative data into quan- a content analysis of 180 tweets from consum- titative data has its limitations which are import- er activists. Archival research was conduct- ant to acknowledge. The data analysed solely ed as tweets that used the word ‘Boohoo’ and focuses on the consumer activists’ perspective ‘Leicester’ were assessed retrospectively during and does not assess in detail how the corpo- a two-week period between the 4th and 19th rate mediated Twitter. In this way, the research July 2020. These dates were selected as it fol- is limited to how stakeholder criticism affected lows The Sunday Times’ exposé article being tacit CSR risk as opposed to the reaction, or lack published on the 5th of July 2020 and a 16- thereof, from the corporation. day period was decided to be a suitable period to assess the crisis using Saunders’ framework This case study uses the exposé article as a trig- (Saunders, 2016, p.294). The content analy- ger point for tacit CSR risk which is a unique sis coded various themes including the account situation and may have disproportionately af- holder, engagement rate, primary theme and ex- fected the scale of the risk. Overall, these limita- ternal links. tions are acknowledged by the researchers and the framework is presented with the knowledge The data was examined using Microsoft Excel. that further research needs to be carried out to This platform was chosen for its capabilities confirm the findings. to sort a large quantity of coded data and to analyse quickly, with the use of pivot tables, and Research Findings multiple variables. As Bree and Gallager note, This research presents four key findings. The this is a cost-effective approach which can be initial finding provides evidence of Boohoo’s used to aid the thematic analysis and triangula- tacit support for BLM, giving clarity to what tion of qualitative data collected (Bree, R. and triggered consumer reactions. These consumer Gallagher, G., 2016). The categories interrogat- reactions are then accounted for, and the find- ed were; follower count, main theme, hashtags, ings present evidence of the shift in lexicon on links tagged, the target of criticism, newspaper Twitter before and after the exposé article was articles, number of likes, number of retweets and published. The third finding moves into the de- number of comments. Together these provided tail of activist behaviour and how they created a holistic understanding of the tweets and their power, urgency and legitimacy (Mitchell et al., users’ power, urgency and legitimacy. 1997), to create what we define as a tacit CSR risk. The final finding hints at how different is- It is important to address the limitations of the sues create varied levels of scrutiny. From these study. Due to the nature of Twitter, the tweets findings, a new framework emerges. analysed were from a specific demographic of individual, as 38.5% of users are between 25- The first finding outlines Boohoo’s support for 4 PAPERS 169 the BLM movement. Boohoo shared support online storm. on socials which was both organisationally and socially led. Boohoo was amongst thousands of The second finding outlines the shift in stake- organisations that showed support for the BLM holder activists’ support for Boohoo’s support. movement, suggesting that their support was Within the space of 5 weeks, consumers went socially led. It was also organisationally led as from admiration for Boohoo’s support to hostile they also showed elements of neophilanthropy, responses. Prior to The Sunday Times exposé whereby they shared an undisclosed donation article, Boohoo received comments such as “Ma- to the NAACP, a civil rights organisation in the jor respect” on their socials, as seen in Figure UK, without a specific remit on how it should 2. After the article was posted, comments shift- be spent. However, their support was not linked ed to hostile responses including “You should be ashamed of yourselves”, as seen in Figure 3. to their pre-existing CSR programmes which There was a shift in public opinion of Boohoo largely concentrated on sustainability and body which was stimulated because of the contradic- positivity. tions between their tacit support for BLM and Following Boohoo exposing themselves to ac- the treatment of their employees. tivities beyond their existing CSR programmes, The third finding outlines how the exposé arti- an exposé article was published by The Sunday cle stimulated a change in stakeholder activists’ Times on the 5th July 2020. This was titled use of Twitter. It triggered stakeholder activists “Boohoo: fashion giant faces ‘slavery’ investi- to look at Boohoo’s inconsistencies between gation”. The combination of the article plus the Boohoo’s tactical support for BLM, their existing growing anxiety amongst stakeholders on the CSR programmes and how their workers were inconsistencies of Boohoo’s support created an being treated. In this study, it was found that Figure 1. Boohoo’s social media posts between 31st May and 4th June 2020. 4 PAPERS 170 Figure 2. Consumer comments on Boohoo’s post on 1st June 2020. Figure 3. Consumer comments on Boohoo’s post between 9th and 11th June 2020. consumers used Twitter to progress their pow- and 32 by minor individuals. This illustrates er, urgency and legitimacy (Mitchell et al., 1997 that consumers, and specifically macro influenc- and developed by Coombs et al., 2015a). In this ers had the most engagement with the Boohoo/ way, this research supports Triantafillidou and Leicester crisis and can therefore be attributed Yannas’ work which found that Twitter is the as having the most power when triggering tacit most used social platform in a crisis (2020). CSR risk. Consumers had varying levels of power. The re- Urgency is illustrated through consumers’ de- search categorised this depending on the indi- mands of wanting accountability now. This can viduals’ follower count. The researcher defined be viewed as effective as Boohoo sought out a these as either macro influencers, micro influ- member of the Queen’s Counsel to investigate encers or minor individuals. When coding data, their manufacturing plant. Finally, consumers minor individuals were defined as those with asserted legitimacy to their claim through the 1000 or less followers, micro influencers were investigation of The Sunday Times article which those with 1000 - 2000 followers and macro found wrongful working conditions. Consumers influencers were those with more than 2000 also began demanding for change in behaviours followers. The total number of tweets catego- and started using the hashtag #boycottboohoo. rised as consumer accounts was 132 tweets; 87 In a brief period, Boohoo’s tacit support for by macro influencers, 13 by micro influencers BLM was challenged and major inconsistencies 4 PAPERS 171 found by a variety of stakeholders, prompting a be studied further. Whilst acknowledging these specific trading crisis for the company. Consum- limitations, the core findings outline that there ers displayed a social concern that a social good are risks associated with ‘novel’ actions (Atanga, (Mitchell et al 2017) p.875) voiced through 2022), this is described as ‘tacit CSR risk’. Addi- tacit support was unfulfilled. Deep inconsisten- tionally, the level of scrutiny of supportive social cies led to a crisis rather than ‘greenwashing’ or posts varies according to the issue around which accusations for irresponsibly supporting a cause. the support is given. Once the inconsistencies had been shown, many Discussion targeted comments strongly focused on mod- ern slavery and race; this leads to the fourth re- The authors use the core research findings to search question of whether these subject areas suggest a new framework that explores when were more likely to stimulate risks and stimulate corporates provide positive support for a cause crises among stakeholders. In other words, we that is not linked to existing CSR programmes. asked whether all tacit support is equal. Over The framework goes onto explore specific risks the 2-week period it was found that the theme that may arise and in turn emerge as an unin- of modern slavery was the most salient. It re- tended crisis. ceived the highest number of comments, likes and retweets suggesting this theme was at the The rise of tacit support heart of the tacit CSR risks that Boohoo faced. Many organisations are now offering support to Race-themed tweets received over half the en- causes without any direct intention for this to gagements received by modern slavery. This sug- form part of a structured CSR programme of gests that race has a major impact on engage- activity or to be connected to it. As discussed ment. In turn, this hints that racial issues have a by Chatterji and Toffel (2019) and Atanga et high stimulatory effect. al., (2022) such actions are becoming more fre- quent but do not fit into classic definitions of It needs to be acknowledged that this is an initial corporate advocacy. Equally, it seems inappro- study and is not designed to present a complete priate to label the support as irresponsible, or framework for understanding tacit support as suggest it can be viewed as an act of greenwash- a CSR risk. Further research is needed in rela- ing. tion to other circumstances where tacit support has promoted a hostile reaction. Equally, further We propose that the term ‘tacit support’ should work is needed to help develop a classification of be used explicitly to explain when a corporate risk. Potential corporate reactions also need to offers support or encouragement for a cause out- Figure 4. Count of primary themes and the sum number of likes, comments and retweets these themes had. 4 PAPERS 172 side of a pre-existing programme. By tacit we holders to scrutinise whether the stated support does are not saying support for the cause has not been connect, or contradict, with pre-existing CSR pro- expressed. grammes or other relevant corporate programmes.” Rather that the support has been expressed (of- Risks arising from tacit CSR support ten clearly and publicly) but sits in isolation from a wider CSR programme. Equally we argue that Once tacit CSR support is acknowledged by the when ‘tacit support’ is offered, especially around public the range of risks are far higher than when global causes, and based around genuine values, tacit support is initially offered. When examining it should not be viewed as ‘irresponsible’. As in the risks arising from connecting tacit support the case of Boohoo’s initial support for BLM it to CSR, the authors refer to the term tacit CSR was not the organisation’s motives or values that risk. This is defined as: initially came into question. “A risk that arises for corporates amongst stakehold-Tacit support and CSR Linkage er groups, typically including, employees, consumers and activists, when tacit support for a cause is The case study of Boohoo and the BLM move-implicitly or explicitly linked, or in some cases dis-ment presents one illustration of how a corpo- tanced, to an organisation’s CSR programmes.” rate offered tacit support to BLM. It also clearly showed how in Boohoo’s case considerable risks From our study of Boohoo, and wider consider- were associated with offering support. Content ations, we contend that the risk to the organisa- analysis showed that various stakeholders were tion rises if the organisation concerned: not content with Boohoo providing support in isolation. • Does not develop concrete programmes of action concerning the causes supported This caused a closer examination of why (Boohoo did not look to link its tacit sup- Boohoo’s support did not link with a wider CSR port to a wider programme) programme, and ultimately The Sunday Times • If the acknowledged tacit support proves working practices exposure revealed not just incompatible with existing CSR commit- a poor link but a fundamental inconsistency. ments (not relevant to the Boohoo case) Whilst a corporate entity does not make a con- nection between supporting a cause and its wid- • If other corporate behaviours or policies are er CSR programme, stakeholders may choose to inconsistent with the stated tacit support examine the link. Such examination may lead to (The Sunday Times Modern Slavery accu- specific linkage with prior CSR activity. When sation evidences high profile inconsistencies these linkages are either looked for, or proved, with tacit support) it is necessary to redefine the term tacit support. Today, there is pressure on corporations to show Our working definition is to suggest that there support for causes. However, consumers are be- is a shift from isolated tacit support to tacit CSR coming more aware of corporations seemingly support. Its defined as: showing support for causes whilst other aspects of their activity are dichotomous to their sup- “When positive corporate support for a specific cause port. We provided the BLM movement as one or set of actions is not directly linked to existing CSR example of this but there are many examples of programmes, values or purpose but nevertheless, af-support including for LGBTQAI+ and Interna- fords the opportunity for internal and external stake-tional Women’s Day and criticism of the over- 4 PAPERS 173 turning of Roe vs Wade and Ukrainian crisis, to has come to the fore. Equally, we’ve seen the be studied. growth of consumers and stakeholders demand- ing that corporates take opinions and action on As the pressure increases for corporates to show political, economic and social issues. The risks, support for emerging issues so too does the risk specifically associated with providing public sup- of showing tacit support. This is because corpo- port (or as the authors suggest tacit support) rates rush into showing support without con- for such causes, especially when they link awk- sidering how they align with the cause in other wardly with pre-existing CSR programmes or aspects of their operation. If this is done, con- jar with pre-existing values, have not hitherto, sumers can create risks for corporations which been considered. this study has illustrated. Stakeholder attitudes shifted from admiration for Boohoo showing The findings from the Boohoo case study sug- support to hostile responses. gest that support for a public cause can stim- ulate an initial level of support from multiple Moreover, as this study also hints, the risk stakeholders. However, initial support can also around tacit support varies depending on the stimulate scrutiny from consumers and activists theme. Our findings from the Boohoo study as to whether it is authentic and prompt con- suggest that themes of race are rightly sensitive, sideration of whether this support is consistent however, further research needs to be done to with other CSR programmes. In other words, substantiate this finding. ill-considered, inconsistent support for a cause can represent a risk to the corporation. Overall, organisations must carefully select the causes which they show support for to avoid In the case of Boohoo, the tacit CSR risk rapid- being subject to tacit CSR risks. Contradictory ly rose as a national newspaper exposé showing support can be damaging to their reputation and that the company was not paying their highly cause more damage than not showing support in diverse workforce the minimum wage in their the first instance. factories, stimulated deep questions about the motives for supporting BLM and raised ques- Summary tions about what kind of employer they were. The study also raises questions about the extent The need for a corporation to show that it can to which consumer or activist behaviour can act in a responsible manner has shifted from be- be stimulated by the specific type of issue that ing a voluntary act to one that is now de rigu- a corporation takes a stand on. More research er (Tench, 2017). However, as businesses have needs to be done in this area. grappled with how to move beyond statutory and legal requirements to embrace a wider un- The use of a single study is insufficient to build a derstanding of their impacts on their employees clear model of what corporates should do when and the communities they relate to, greater care supporting causes, especially if they are ill-fitting has been taken to ensure CSR activity is authen- with existing CSR activity. However, it is pos- tic and ethical. Such actions have prompted both sible to conclude, that when considering offer- activism for consumer activists and wider stake- ing tacit support the panoply of associated risks holders to challenge irresponsible behaviour and needs to be considered. Furthermore, if or when call out greenwashing, rainbow-washing, or sim- critical concerns are raised with stakeholders, ilar acts. In turn, the risk of pursuing CSR activ- these need to be treated very seriously and be ity has been carefully examined and the need for considered within the wider framework of re- carefully considered and consistent programmes quiring a suitable crisis response. 4 PAPERS 174 References yse qualitative data: a simple, cost-effective approach’. The All-Ireland Journal of Teach- Anderson, M. et al. 2020. ‘#BlackLivesMatter ing and Learning in Higher Education, 8(2), surges on Twitter after George Floyd’s death’. pp.2811-28114). 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Öksuz, Burcu, Izmir Katip Celebi University (Turkey) Introduction (Voorhees, 2020). Institutions and employees had to transform their operational routines al- It is a universal fact that any institution relies most overnight, resulting in unprecedented de- upon its employees and the employees consti- mands for employers to make decisions upon tute the foundation of any institution. Without in such uncertain circumstances (Sanders et al., their employees, it is impossible for institutions 2020). to bring their strategies into reality (Constantin & Baias, 2015). Excellent employee communi- Employee Communication and COVID-19 cation is essential if any institution is to sur-Pandemic vive and thrive (Chen, 2008). However, it is not enough for an institution to have a well-defined Communication for people is crucial within mission, an excellent internal set of rules, solid business life and plays a prominent role on the values, or a perfect strategy. Employees should studies carried out by the institution to achieve be informed about these since it is essential that their goals (Celikdemir & Paker, 2019). There- people working for the institution are aware of fore, it is important for institutions to be aware them, recognize them and comprehend them in of the importance of employee communication the same way (Constantin & Baias, 2015). and the use of appropriate channels in employee communication (Ean, 2010). “No communica- The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a global tion ever falls into a vacuum in people’s heads” shock which disrupted the way people work. (Davenport & Barrow, 2009, p. 21). Institutions Institutions have had to rapidly implement new need to work to develop and nurture commit- working methods such as remote working and ment that requires two-way relationships (Rob- organize workflow and interactions within the inson et al., 2004). “Employees are seeking to be institution (Mihalache & Mihalache, 2022). informed, reassured, and encouraged” (DuFrene COVID-19 has also changed the way consum- & Lehman, 2014, p. 444). Employees desire to ers, employees and institutions interact in a very be involved in processes and to feel that they are short span of time. Individuals, employees, and a part of the process and to understand their role institutions have stumbled in order to deal with (Baron, 2006). As employees do their jobs, in- health risks and regulations that conduct rou- teract with customers and other employees, they tines which have not been previously structured. always face problems, inefficiencies, inappropri- 4 PAPERS 179 ate activities, opportunities for improvement, satisfaction has an important role in employee strategic issues, and many more (Morrison, engagement (Verčič & Vokić, 2017). Thus, as ef- 2014). Communication is important in terms fective employee communication contributes to of keeping employees well informed about the the identification of employees with their insti- vision and strategy of the institutions, as well tutions, it benefits the performance and success as helping each person in the institution work of the institution (Smidts et al., 2001). together for a shared purpose (Ean, 2010). “Minimal attention has been given to what em- Effective communication in an organizational ployees would like their organization to commu- environment has a critical role in shaping em- nicate.” (Ruck & Welch, 2012, p. 295). Welch ployee perceptions and the institution’s strategy and Jackson (2007) emphasize the need to ex- (Abugre, 2011). Employee communication is plore employee preferences for the channels and often seen as a key element of an institutional content of internal corporate communication to strategy for employee engagement (Thornhill ensure that employees are meeting their needs. et al., 1996). One of the important purposes of employee communication is to mobilize employ- Despite the fact that it is always difficult to com- ees to support corporate goals (O’Neil, 2008). municate, it becomes even more difficult when A highly committed employee may need more people are stressed, worried and sad (DuFrene information to sustain a sense of belonging to & Lehman, 2014, p. 444). Effective communica- the organization (Juholin et al., 2015). Em- tion positively affects employees’ engagement in ployee communication responds to these needs their work and achieving their goals in challeng- by allowing all employees to stay in touch with ing times (Chanana, 2020). “The most realistic what is going on within their institution and way to be close to employees and understand thus, they accept communication as an indicator the problems they face is to be in constant com- of their values in their institutions (Krishnan & munication with them.” (Basaran & Unal, 2021, Wesley, 2013). p. 660). As in communication with external stakeholders, it is a necessity to transfer infor- The way in which employers and employees mation quickly, instantly and accurately in com- communicate is crucial in the improvement of munication processes within institutions (Onat, business performance and thus overall organi- 2021).A study conducted by Institute for Public zational success (Abugre, 2011). Good commu- Relations and Peppercomm on how businesses nication is a necessary tool for achieving high are handling the crisis has found that communi- performance and maintaining strong working cating with employees on COVID-19 was a pri- relationships within the institution since effec- ority for the communication function (2020). tive communication increases employee produc- tivity and connects employees (Hee et al., 2019). Method Employee communication plays the most vital role in maintaining a good relationship between The aim of this study is to understand the chal- employees, and consistent and honest communi- lenges of employees who are working remote- cation is an important management tool for em- ly due to the COVID-19 pandemic. What are ployee engagement (Krishna & Wesley, 2013). their (non)challenges they went through with “Employees’ responses to organizational poli- the shift of working remotely? What type of fu- cies, practices and structures affect their poten- ture are they forecasting in employee relations? tial to experience engagement” (Leiter & Bakker, What are the lessons to be taken from this expe- 2010, p. 2). Moreover, internal communication rience of restructuring employee relations in the 4 PAPERS 180 future? There are not many studies in Turkey Table 1. Participants and sectors which look at the impact of working from home Name Sector on employee relations/communication. With the COVID-19 pandemic, working from home has Aylin Energy been widespread all over the world, in many in- Bahar Food dustries, and in different types of organizations. Erkin Telecommunications Remote working can also employ a hybrid ap- Filiz Education proach in the future. Thus, this research may Gülin Electronics and white goods create an understanding of employee and man- İlknur Banking agement communication/relations nowadays. Burak Public The research conducted is qualitative. The di- Özlem Energy ary method is used. “A diary can be defined as Selin Electronics and white goods a document created by an individual who has Nilay Education maintained a regular, personal and contempo- raneous record.” (Alaszewski, 2006, p.1). It is an innovative way of gaining rich insights into tion between employees, forgetting the concept the daily processes, relationships, products and of work hours, negative health-related issues, consumers (Patterson, 2005, p. 142). “Diaries, communication problems, unplanned meetings, self-report instruments used repeatedly to exam- technical issues and problems in customer rela- ine ongoing experiences, offer the opportunity to tions. Figure 1 summarizes the challenges of the investigate social, psychological, and physiologi- employees. cal processes, within everyday situations.” (Bolg- Not being able to reach colleagues, not receiving er et al., 2003, p. 580). The sample of the study responses to e-mails, not being able to contact consisted of 10 randomly chosen employees who by phone, not responding to messages are some are working either from home or hybrid. They of the challenges mentioned by the participants. are asked to write a diary for a work period of five days. The employees are asked questions on “how they spend their workday at home”, “how they dream of spending their next workday”, and “what could be done to make their next day a better day.” and asked to write answers to them. Table 1 shows the participants and their sectors. Findings The findings are grouped on the themes of the diary which are challenges, advantages and ex- pectancies. Challenges Participants conveyed the challenges of the Figure 1. Challenges COVID-19 pandemic in terms of communica- tion in their institutions as lack of communica- 4 PAPERS 181 The fact that you receive a late reply from the Distant communication caused misunderstand- other party in written communication, especial- ings and reduced communication effectiveness ly in e-mail communication, causes us to move due to the participants’ lack of using body lan- away from the subject matter in the e-mail. (Er- guage and inability to express themselves cor- kin) rectly. Especially, there are communication problems I think in face-to-face communication, mimics due to the fact that the employees in other units and emotions are more in the picture, while in of our organization did not direct their office phone and written communication, there is mis-phones during the period when they were work- understanding. When I was talking to my man- ing remotely and did not check their e-mails on ager, there was a tension and this was emotion- time. (Burak) ally tiring. (Aylin) One of our colleagues had a late return to his Online education does not make face- to- face phone due to his workload, and I had a hard communication possible and a healthy commu- time for a while because I could not move to the nication with your colleagues and peers is al- next step without reaching him because he was most impossible. (Nilay) the key point of the chain. (Gulin) In phone communication with BT teams, I was Some of the problems experienced by the partic- not able to explain the details as easily compared ipants were that the concept of working hours to using body language. (Erkin) was forgotten, employees were contacted when they spent private time, meetings were held Unplanned meetings caused people to delay the during those hours, and business and private life work they were working on and to work with were intertwined. the idea of meeting constantly. It is very intensive. It can be very tiring to work For immediate action, calling for meetings with- at home and have a child to care for at the same out a planned time, and learning the agenda of time. (Aylin). the meeting during the meeting. (Özlem) On the first day of the week, you have a heavy The technical problems experienced by the em- ployees adversely affected their ability to do load along with passing from the weekend. Be- business, communicate and work performance. cause of pandemic, we are sitting at home, and this laziness of the weekend is difficult to over- Audio and visual problems of Webex, during the come on Monday. (Ilknur). meetings the audio was lost from time to time. (Erkin) Working and communicating through a com- puter also caused some health problems for the I wish for a day where expectancies are clear and participants. obvious and no issues on Internet. (Gülin) Sitting in front of the computer creates back In my location, the GSM operator was not pow- aches…after work hours, lying down and listen- erful enough so I had to rely on WhatsApp and ing to classical music is a method of resting for Teams. No problems apart from technical issues. me. (Ilknur) (Selin) 4 PAPERS 182 Remote communication also created a problem same environment. The video meeting made us in terms of employees’ communication with cus- feel good. (Filiz) tomers and weakened the bond between employ- ees and customers. In the words of one partici- Because of being digitalized to the highest pos- pant, “Telephone communication with customers sible level, we have advantages in terms of fast can create distrust.” (Ilknur) communication, follow-up, and problem solving. (Burak) Advantages I think the downside of working from home is Participants conveyed the advantages of the that after a while it becomes routine. However, communication they establish while working there is also the fact that an employee works remotely, as fast and easy communication, visu- more comfortably at home compared to the al meetings, quick problem solutions and home comfort of a workplace, so there are positive as- comfort. See Figure 2. pects as well. (Ilknur) The participants explained the advantages such Expectancies as being able to meet with employees in different The expectations of the participants in the com- cities, solving problems more easily and quickly, munication processes while working remotely and avoiding problems such as traffic as follows: were conveyed as planned meetings, short meet- ings, working within work hours, face-to-face Because we held meetings via Zoom, we were communication, easy adaptation to work and able to communicate easily with everyone. We accurate and understandable communication. held a meeting with our colleagues in Istanbul, Denizli and Bursa offices. We did not have con- Participants describe their expectations from nection problems. (Bahar) communication while working remotely as fol- lows: We held our meeting, which was supposed to be face-to-face, over Zoom as if we were in the Figure 2. Advantages Figure 3. Expectancies 4 PAPERS 183 It would be better for me if the meetings did is that they feel like they are working day and not last so long. Every extended meeting causes night since working from home has extended me to drift away from my current business plan. their working hours. Especially for female em- (Erkin) ployees, this situation has resulted in them being constantly stuck between house chores and their It would be a better day if the meetings that de- work at the business. veloped without a plan were announced earlier, and if everyone could get ready and be prepared Participants also mentioned that working from accordingly. (Özlem) home brings some advantages in terms of com- munication, as they communicate quickly and It will be a better work day for me if I work easily through digital channels and are isolated in the same environment with my colleagues… from traffic problems. However, they empha- (Filiz) sized the necessity of supporting the commu- If only we have correct and understandable nication established in the digital environment communication beforehand, we can agree on the with face-to-face communication. Therefore, main topics before the meeting, and this would although digital channels facilitate communica- be nice. (Gülin) tion, face-to-face communication and meetings are seen as a necessity for the participants. I hope to have a more relaxed and calm time to- morrow as there are no meetings. (Gülin) While working from home, participants expect meetings to be planned and short, to comply It would be a better day if you stick to working with working hours, to protect privacy, to estab- hours (especially lunch break). (Burak) lish channels to solve problems quickly, and the digital to be supported with face-to-face com- Discussion and Conclusion munication. According to the data obtained from this study, The public relations/communication and human the communication established by employees resources functions of organizations have now while working remotely during the pandemic actually an issue (COVID-19) where they can period has some advantages and disadvantag- equally partner in managing employee relations. es. Since they were not face-to-face, the par- The research informs us on the communication ticipants stated that they faced serious prob- challenges of working from home, the expec- lems while communicating, they had difficulty tations of employees, and how to integrate the expressing themselves correctly, and they had human factor into this “isolated” environment. conflicts. Another point reported was that com- Working from home may have benefits such as municating while working remotely transformed not commuting to work, (not losing time in traf- the routines within the organization and caused fic), home comfort and has also other negative some difficulties in sharing and requesting in- impacts such as affecting socialization and being formation. Continual meetings and the uncer- accessible at all times. The work hour concept is tainty of meeting hours cause employees to be forgotten, and private and work life are blurred. in a constant state of anxiety whilst calls outside Women employees have highlighted more chal- of working hours, late meetings, and never-end- lenges in this mode of work life. Participants of ing work have caused the boundaries between the study mention face-to-face communication private and business life to be removed. One of as still the preferred communication over digital the most common complaints of the participants communication. The participants also described 4 PAPERS 184 this way of working as creating a vicious circle es, 191, 975-978. in their lives. 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Processes, relationships, ing internal communication: A stakeholder ap- settings, products and consumers: The case for proach. Corporate Communications: An Interna- qualitative diary research. Qualitative Market tional Journal, 12(2), 177-198. Research: An International Journal, 8(2), 142-156. Robinson, D., Perryman, S., & Hayday, S. (2004). The drivers of employee engagement. Institute for Employment Studies Report, https://www. employment-studies.co.uk/system/ files/re- sources/files/408.pdf Ruck, K., & Welch, M. (2012). Valuing internal communication; management and employ- ee perspectives. Public Relations Review, 38(2), 294-302. Sanders, K., Nguyen, P. T., Bouckenooghe, D., 4 PAPERS 186 Global Capability Framework in Turkey: Findings of the Delphi Study on Public Relations and Communication Profession Capabilities Görpe, Tevhide Serra, University of Sharjah (U.A.E.) Öksuz, Burcu, Izmir Katip Celebi University (Turkey) Introduction www.globalalliancepr.org/capabilitiesframe- works). The research carried out in Turkey is In this study, the results of the first-stage re-supported by the Turkish Public Relations Asso- search on Turkey’s data within the Global Al- ciation (TUHID). liance Global Capability Framework (GCF) project, which has been carried out to determine Method the capabilities required for the public relations and communication profession, are presented. For the research in Turkey, data will be collect- Capabilites are “behavioral repertoires or sets of ed through three methods, namely three-round behaviors that support the attainment of orga- Delphi study, survey and focus groups. Thus far, nizational objectives.” (Gregory, 2008, p. 216). the Delphi study phase has been carried out and Shavelson (2010) defines it as follows. the data obtained as a result of it will be present- ed within the scope of this study. Competence (1) is a physical or intellectual ability, skill or both; (2) is a performance capac- The research aims to look for the most vital ity to do as well as to know; (3) is carried out capabilities in public relations and communica- under standardized conditions; (4) is judged by tion management in Turkey. Through the Delphi some level or standard of performance as ”ade- study, a panel of experts were asked to identify quate,” ”sufficient,” ”proper,” ”suitable” or ”qual- the core capabilities of the field. The objective ified”; (5) can be improved; (6) draws upon an was to come up with agreed core capabilities. underlying complex ability; and (7) needs to be observed in real-life situations (2010, p. 44). First round: The panel members were asked to list and define these capabilities. Global Alliance Global Capability Framework is a project led by Professor Ann Gregory and so Second round: They were asked to rank them far, by different researchers in many countries in terms of importance. such as Argentine, Australia, Canada, Singapore, Final round: They were asked to indicate the South Africa, Spain, Sweden, the UK, USA, UAE top most important ones by ranking them. and Indonesia, public relations and communica- tion capabilities have been researched (https:// The Delphi study was conducted between May 4 PAPERS 187 Figure 1. Global Capability Framework Source: https://www.hud.ac.uk/media/assets/document/research/globalcapabilitiesinpublicrelationsandcommunication-managementgcpr/global-capability-framework-brochure.pdf 2021 and January 2022, and opinions of 14 exTable 1. Sample Profile perts (6 practitioners, 5 academics, 3 employ- ers) were received. Partici- pant Occupation Educa- ID tion Age Gender Results 1 Practitioner MA 18-29 M First round 2 Academic Ph.D 40-59 F At this stage, participating experts were asked 3 Practitioner MA 30-39 F to indicate their public relations and commu- 4 Practitioner MA 40-59 F nication management capabilities, and thus, 30 5 Academic Ph.D 40-59 F capabilities emerged. 14 of these capabilities fall 6 Academic Ph.D 40-59 F under the titles of communication, 9 of them are 7 Practitioner BA 40-59 F under organizational and 7 of them are under 8 Employer MA 60-64 F professional titles. Participants focused more on communication capabilities. 9 Academic Ph.D 40-59 M 10 Employer BA 60-64 F Second round 11 Practitioner Ph.D 30-39 M 12 Practitioner MA 40-59 F In this round, experts were asked to rate the importance of the 30 capabilities identified in 13 Academic Ph.D 40-59 F round 1 on a scale of 1 to 7. 14 Employer BA 40-59 F At this stage, 6 of the most important capabil- ities of the participants were under the title of communication, 6 of them were under the title 4 PAPERS 188 Table 2. Results of First Round Communication Capabilities To align communication strategies with organizational purpose and values 1. To develop communication strategy and make sure it is aligned with the goals of the organization 2. To integrate the communication efforts in a holistic way 3. To develop strategic plans and acts based upon these plans To identify and address communication problems proactively 4. To manage issues, risks and crisis (to predict crises, to develop crisis scenarios, to centre the crisis in the organization and digital crisis management) 5. To have the skills to solve problems, be problem-solution centred and manage conflicts To conduct formative and evaluative research to underpin communication strategies and tactics 6. To be a good researcher, administer quality research and be able to analyse and interpret data To communicate effectively across a full range of platforms and technologies 7. To use conventional and digital communication channels in an effective way (based on needs to develop models) 8. To develop empathy 9. To have the ability to speak well (to have presentation skills, and ability to articulate verbally) 10. To write effectively (text) 11. To have knowledge and skills about visual communication design, visual aesthetics (visual communication such as graphics, infographics, and videos) 12. To be creative, inspirational and have the skill to create (good imagination) 13. To follow technological developments 14. To have the knowledge and competency to manage events (master details of events) 4 PAPERS 189 Organizational Capabilities To facilitate relationships and build trust with internal and external stakeholders and communities 15. To communicate with internal and external stakeholders continuously and develop good relationships. 16. To develop professional and good relationships with media organizations and their members and maintain these relationships (to evaluate the evolving changes in Turkish and world media relations) 17. To maintain relationships with public relations and advertising agencies 18. To manage internal organizational relations in an effective way (to maintain employee satisfaction, increase loyalty and encourage volunteerism) To build and enhance organizational reputation 19. To ensure corporate reputation is gained, to manage the reputation and protect it 20. To build and maintain corporate culture (to understand the mission, vision and values of the organization) 21. To work for sustainable developmental goals To provide contextual intelligence 22. To follow current, national and global developments and ensure that the organizations are compatible with these developments. 23. To follow the developments in the business world and sector and to integrate these developments/ innovations to the business models. Professional Capabilities To provide valued counsel and be a trusted advisor To offer organizational leadership 24. To have the ability to lead the organization 25. To advise the leader (preparing content, managing the rhetoric and digital identity and communicating with employees) 26. To have management skills (team management) To work within an ethical framework on behalf of the organization, in line with professional and societal expectations 27. To be able to define the ethical codes of public relations and act accordingly with these codes in all public relations activities. 28. To analyse and predict accurately the impact of public relations projects and activities 29. To consider public interest in all public relations activities To develop self and others, including continuing professional learning 30. To follow the professional developments 4 PAPERS 190 Table 3. Results of Second Round 13 Capabilities Very Important Extremely Important To develop communication strategy and make sure it is aligned with the goals of the organization 5 5 To ensure corporate reputation is gained, to manage the reputation and protect it 5 5 To manage issues, risks and crisis 3 6 To follow current national and global developments and ensure that the organizations are compatible with these developments 4 5 To use conventional and digital communication channels in an effective way 3 6 To follow the developments in the business world and sector and to integrate these developments/innovations to the business models 4 5 To communicate with internal and external stakeholders continuously and develop good relationships 4 4 To work for sustainable developmental goals 3 5 To build and maintain corporate culture 4 4 To develop strategic plans and acts based upon these plans 5 3 To have management skills 3 5 To follow technological developments 5 3 To integrate the communication efforts in a holistic way 4 3 Table 4. Results of Third Round Capability Rank To develop communication strategy and make sure it is aligned with the goals of the organization 1 To ensure corporate reputation is gained, to manage the reputation and protect it 2 To manage issues, risks and crisis 3 To develop strategic plans and acts based upon these plans 4 To follow current, national and global developments and ensure that the organizations are compatible with these developments 5 To communicate with internal and external stakeholders continuously and develop good relationships 6 To integrate the communication efforts in a holistic way 6 To build and maintain corporate culture 7 To use conventional and digital communication channels in an effective way 8 To work for sustainable developmental goals 9 To follow the developments in the business world and sector and to integrate these developments/innovations to the business models 10 To have management skills 11 To follow technological developments 12 4 PAPERS 191 of organizational and 1 of them was under the crises and risks. According to the data obtained, title of professional capabilities. The 2 capabili- experts place strategy, relationship and manage- ties that the participants deemed most important ment very high in terms of public relations and were ‘To develop a communication strategy and communication. In this respect, it is possible to make sure it is aligned with the goals of the or- interpret that they consider public relations and ganization’ and ‘To ensure corporate reputation communication duties as management rather is gained, to manage the reputation and protect than technical expertise. it’. Participants did not rank the capabilities they Third round listed in the first-round high, such as leading the organization and mentoring the leader, in the In this round, the experts were asked to rank the second and third rounds. Following all kinds of 13 capabilities specified in the 2nd round in the developments in the world and ensuring the ad- order of importance. aptation of the institution and communication The top three public relations communication practices to these changes have been deemed as management capabilities that respondents con- the most important capabilities. sider most important have been listed as ‘to de- velop a communication strategy and make sure it According to the data obtained in this study, pub- is aligned with the goals of the organization’, ‘to lic relations and communication practitioners ensure corporate reputation is gained, to manage need to be capable of developing communication the reputation and protect it’ and ‘to manage is- strategies in line with corporate purposes, mak- sues, risks and crisis’. ing and implementing strategic plans, improving the reputation of the institution, managing risks Discussion and Conclusion and crises, following and adapting to develop- ments all over the world, developing good rela- According to the findings obtained within the tions with stakeholders, managing communica- scope of this study, experts in Turkey highlight tion holistically, using communication channels communicational and organizational capabilities effectively, working for sustainable development in terms of public relations and communica- purposes and having management skills. tion management whilst professional capabilities lagged behind others. More societal capabilities, This study has been carried out as the first stage such as compliance with ethical codes and pub- of a comprehensive study. The study will be car- lic interest, have been considered less important ried out with a survey which will reach a broad- than others. Although in the first round of the er base of public relations professionals, employ- Delphi study, the participants pointed out issues ers and academics in Turkey. Then, three focus such as ethics and public interest on their lists, groups are planned to be conducted. they gave these capabilities up in the second and third rounds, when they compared them to the The findings of the study will be conveyed to others. In this sense, the social effects of public the public relations professional associations in relations are not in the first place for experts. Turkey such as the Corporate Communicators Association and Communication Consultancies When we observe the three most important ca- Association of Turkey. In addition, attempts to pabilities, it is clear that the participants attach share them with the public relations programs’ the most importance to developing communica- chairs and faculty will be made, for example, tion strategies, managing reputation, managing The Deans’ Council of Communication Facul- 4 PAPERS 192 ties and the Evaluation and Accreditation Board for Communication Education (ILEDAK) will be informed of the results. The academia might have an action plan to incorporate these into the public relations programs. The public rela- tions professional associations or more specifi- cally The Turkish Public Relations Association (TUHID) can undertake the role of reaching out to the practitioners and employers with the re- sults of the complete study. References Gregory, A. (2008). Competencies of senior communication practitioners in the UK: An initial study. Public Relations Review, 34(3), 215-223. Shavelson, R. J. (2010). On the measurement of competency. Empirical research in vocational education and training, 2(1), 41-63. https://www.hud.ac.uk/media/assets/document/ research/globalcapabilitiesinpublicrelation- sandcommunicationmanagementgcpr/glob- al-capability-framework-brochure.pdf 4 PAPERS 193 Engaging Teachers through Effective Communication: Restarting the Government Communication in Education Hejlová, Denisa, Charles University (Czech Republic) Ježková, Tereza, Charles University (Czech Republic) Klabíková Rábová, Tereza, Charles University (Czech Republic) Konrádová, Marcela, Charles University (Czech Republic) Koudelková, Petra, Charles University (Czech Republic) Schneiderová, Soňa, Charles University (Czech Republic) Introduction and purpose of the study expected to understand the new rules to their students and pupils, and they were often fighting The pandemic has uncovered and exposed many with lack of digital literacy and the use of mod- issues in communication between the govern- ern communication tools, such as online video ment and its citizens, not only in the health sec- teaching, instant messaging applications, or even tor but also in education. During the pandem- emails. And in some cases, they were also in a ic, schools have been under many government double role of parents who shall have home ed- restrictions, and they’ve had to follow unprec- ucate their children too. The goal of this study is edented rules - such as wearing masks, social to bring new knowledge about the state of gov- distancing, or even closed schools and online ernment communication in education, identify teaching. The governments had to communicate potential communication knots (problems), and new rules and restrictions to various stakehold- draft managerial implications for strategic com- ers in the education sector: to the founders of munication (Holtzhausen and Zerfass, 2015). the schools (usually municipalities, private or religious organisations), to the directors of the The field of government communication has schools and to the teachers, as well to the “re- emerged recently to analyze and understand the cipients” of education: pupils, students, and their nature of the communication of democratic gov- parents. In many cases, this communication did ernments with their citizens (Sanders and Canel, not go smoothly (Shavit and Konrádová, 2021), 2013). Public communication is represented by and soon many problems arose: the stakehold- multifaceted and complicated interactions with ers, including teachers, were confused about various stakeholder groups. Its effectiveness is the government regulations, they did not want necessary for the functioning of a democratic to follow them, the disinformation and various society (Luoma-aho and Canel, 2020). Govern- Covid-related hoaxes spread quickly, and the ment communication in democratic societies is trust towards the government fell even lower. under media control, which is necessary to keep Teachers found themselves often in a difficult it under control (Liu and Horsley 2007, p. 378, position: they were often the ones who were Liu et al., 2010, p. 190, Gelders et al. 2007, p. 4 PAPERS 194 328, Fredriksson and Pallas, 2016, p.149). citizens, economic performance, and sustainable development of all individuals, groups, and insti- Specifics of the Czech situation tutions in society (Soukeník, 2018, s. 9). It cor- responds, among other things, to results-orient- Government communication has been studied ed management, which is based on the implicit as a separate phenomenon since approx. 2010 assumption that if public services are improved, in the Czech Republic (Soukeník, 2018, p. 25). the public will be more satisfied with the overall Until then, it was studied together with politi- performance of government (Pollitt and Bouc- cal communication as a relationship between the kaert, 2011). Such a challenging task needs to media and political representation. Today, gov- be addressed through strategic communication ernment communication is excluded from po- with different stakeholder groups (see also Oh litical communication and concentrates on the and Ki, 2019). communication of a specific institution and is seen rather as its specific form or sub-discipline. Research methodology However, it can be said that there has been no significant change in the theoretical and research This comprehensive study was conducted be- level of government communication in the tween 2020 and 2021 on respondents in the Czech Republic since 2010 (Potůček, 2007; see Czech Republic. It was divided into two parts. also Kasl Kollmanová and Matušková, 2014). For both parts four research questions were stat- ed and both quantitative as qualitative methods Basically, the concept of government communi- were used. cation proceeds in two directions: through its actions (what it does) and through a description Research questions of what it is. In the first case, government com- In this study, which is a part of a larger proj- munication is actually a political tool to accom- ect examining the government communication plish political objectives (to influence, control, of the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth, and provide or withhold information, knowledge, Sports (MoEYS), we have raised the following and resources; cf. Hood, 1986 and Howlett, research questions: 2009). According to Sanders and Canel (2013, p. 4), government communication is the roles, • RQ1. How do the teachers perceive and practices, goals, and achievements of communi- trust the MoEYS and its role in education? cation that take place on the ground in public institutions whose primary objective is the polit- • RQ2. Where do teachers gain information ical exercise of power by direct or indirect con- (concerning education or government mea- sures) from? What information sources do sent of the people. the teachers use? This definition cannot be applied in this article, • RQ3. What opinions do teachers hold about unfortunately. It is still too broad for a specific specific stakeholders in education, such as area of interest - education. Therefore, in this ar- governmental and non-profit organisations? ticle, we understand the primary goal of govern- • RQ4. Are there any communication or oth- ment as a service to the people; the primary con- er barriers or problems in communication cern should be the public good (Křeček, 2013). between the teachers and MoEYS? In such a view, the nature of government com- munication, its quality, and scope also directly We have used qualitative (Creswell, 2007) and or indirectly affect the consent and happiness of quantitative research methods (Bradburn, Sud- 4 PAPERS 195 man and Wansink, 2004; Berger, 2016) in this 2021. It consisted of online opinion research study to ensure methodological triangulation that among teachers in the length of about 28 min- means using two or more methods to study phe- utes. The questionnaire was divided into six the- nomenon (Bekhet, Zauszniewski, 2012). There matic parts. There were 530 respondents from were used “across method” of methodologi- the whole Czech Republic. Respondents were cal triangulation which means combinations of selected to ensure a valid sample. qualitative and quantitative data collection tech- niques (Casey, Murphy, 2009). Both quantita- The goal was to find out: tive and qualitative research was designed by the research team but executed with the support of • the role of MoEYS; the IPSOS Czech Republic research agency. • which communication channels and com- munication tools teachers use; Qualitative research • motivations and barriers associated with Concerning qualitative research, we have con- communication between the Ministry and ducted three focus groups discussions with teachers. teachers (pre-school, primary, secondary, and high school teachers, excluding universities and Research results higher education, mixed gender and age groups) in three regions of the Czech Republic (Prague, When reading the following research findings, Ostrava and Hradec Králové). These regions it is important to remember that the statements were selected because of their diversity and of the studied target group were significantly in- coverage of the main teaching directions in the fluenced by the specific situation caused by the Czech Republic. There were three FGDs with 18 covid-19 pandemic and the related intensity of respondents (N=18; 1 FGDs per 6 teachers) in communication of the MoEYS. October and November 2020. Every FGD lasted 120 minutes and was held online. The qualita- RQ1. How do the teachers perceive and trust tive research helped us to get insight and draft the MoEYS and its role in education? the later quantitative questionnaire. The teachers, as well as other stakeholder groups, The goal was to find out: treat MoEYS with respect and perceive it as the governing body that sets the rules: it issues de- • how teachers communicate with the Mo- crees and regulations, is responsible for the cur- EYS and how they communicate with each riculum framework, and makes recommenda- other; tions the teachers and their supervisors put into • where do they find the necessary informa- practice. Despite this, the quantitative survey has tion; shown that many teachers perceive the MoEYS rather negatively. • what do you think about the MoEYS; • what actors in the education system they If teachers expect anything from the MoEYS, it perceive and how they interact with them. is mainly the support for them (16%), distribu- tion of precise instructions (15 %), or obtaining Quantitative research information in a timely manner (10 %). How- ever, two-fifths of teachers have no expectations The second part of our research, quantitative of the MoEYS whatsoever and are in a passive one, was held from April 16th until August 6th, position towards the Ministry. Teachers do not 4 PAPERS 196 feel that the Ministry is sufficiently interested in the importance of getting information from their their feedback. 68% of teachers think that the colleagues. MoEYS is not interested in teachers’ feedback, and 67% think that it fails to take teachers’ sug- When asked to choose from the resources listed, gestions into account. Yet they believe that the teachers most frequently selected their school main role of the MoEYS should be to support principals and the MoEYS. However, informa- them. 60% of the teachers declared that the Mo- tion that is directed to teachers through the EYS does not fulfill the expectations they have MoEYS is often communicated indirectly, either from its role. Only 13% of them declare the op- through the media or again via the principals. If posite, and a quarter of the teachers are neutral a teacher does not understand the information, in their assessment. he or she then consults colleagues or searches for further information on the internet. When RQ2. Where do teachers gain information we look even deeper, teachers report that they (concerning education or government mea- most often obtain information from the Mo- sures) from? What information sources do EYS’s website (84%) or by e-mail (32%). the teachers use? Teachers find the MoEYS’s website less clear than In the spontaneously mentioned sources of in- stakeholders. However, this is related to the fact formation, teachers most often mentioned school that they visit the website less frequently and management (68%), followed by information therefore find it harder to navigate. Most teach- from the internet (33%). Nearly a quarter stated ers do not need to visit the MoEYS’s website Graph 1: What is MoEYS role in education according to teachers? Source: Own data. 4 PAPERS 197 because they receive all the latest information Ministry’s social media are followed by 14% of directly from the school management, as men- teachers. Teachers are generally more open to so- tioned above. If they do look up information, cial media than other stakeholders in education. it is usually out of their own self-interest, or - However, some do not use or even refuse them in the worst case - their management does not at all. These further claim that they could get share the information flexibly. The information into uncomfortable situations when they would sought usually includes the following: current regulations, distance learning and how to teach have communicated information later than stu- online, or legal issues relating to teaching staff. dents and parents. Teachers who perceive social media in a positive way would like to follow the From school directors, information is mainly ob- MoEYS or a minister to have first-hand informa- tained in person (86%) and by e-mail (76%), tion. Among social media, Facebook is the most and often by telephone (34%). The vast majority popular among teachers (77%), followed by a (93%) of teachers choose personal contact with significant distance by Instagram (16%); other colleagues as a source of information, and slightly social networks are not used much. The lead- fewer (74%) former colleagues. With colleagues ing role of Facebook and Instagram is confirmed and former colleagues, telephone contact plays with questions about the social media used by an important role compared to other sources of information (colleagues 37%, former colleagues the schools - 10 out of 11 schools run their 54%), as well as group conversations and chats Facebook page, and 2 out of 11 schools have an (colleagues 30%, former colleagues 50%). Instagram profile in addition to Facebook. The profiles are usually managed by the vice-princi- pal or one of the teachers. Graph 2: What information sources do the teachers use? Source: Own data. 4 PAPERS 198 In terms of mass media, we know that half of the communicate with pedagogical-psychological teachers get information about education from counselling centres and special education centres the internet in general. 36% of teachers watch by e-mail (68%), 45% of teachers choose the television, the most watched channel being telephone option and 40% choose face-to-face Czech Television (14%). The daily press (19%) communication. and radio (11%) are the least frequently men- tioned mass media. In addition to communicating regularly with their school management and principals, teach- RQ3. What opinions do teachers hold about ers also join various teacher groups - most often specific stakeholders in education, such as Facebook groups - according to their focus and governmental and non-profit organisations? affiliation. They also follow concrete personal- ities whose opinions on education shape them RQ2 provided information about key commu- - opinion leaders are identified among teachers, nication resources for teachers from both their politicians as well as representatives of non-prof- working environment, MoEYS, and about the it organisations. role of mass and social media. However, the edu- cation system is a complex space for other actors RQ4. Are there any communication or other and stakeholders, including other governmental barriers or problems in communication be- organizations and NGOs that play various roles tween the teachers and MoEYS? toward the teachers. In the qualitative research, we monitored top- As suggested above, more than half of the teach- ics and issues in the education system that are ers are currently not satisfied with the MoEYS perceived in a negative way by the teachers and communication in general, and only 13% of re- other stakeholders. Following are some relevant spondents are satisfied. Top-ranked institution to the relationship between teachers and the regarding communication is the National Insti- communication in education: frequent changes tute of Education (20% of teachers are very sat- of ministers; overall non-conceptuality of the isfied). The Czech School Inspectorate outper- education system; feeling of constant control at formed the Ministry by only one percent with the expense of support; late decision making. 14% satisfaction. These results show that the government and state institutions are not rated Teachers receive official MoEYS information in- very positively by teachers in general. directly from the school management. There is no other communication channel from the Mo- Within the non-profit sector two key organisa- EYS toward teachers (this is surprising since, tions can be identified according to the teachers for example, teachers are contacted directly by perspective. EDUin, NGO focusing on system- the National Institute of Education on a regular atic propagation of education, is an information basis). On the other hand, the research showed source for 57% of teachers, followed by Učitel that neither do teachers feel the need to contact naživo (Teacher Live) being soursce for 22% MoEYS in the majority of the cases, with some of respondents. Less frequently represented are exceptions. They, therefore, tend to perceive the the Chamber of Teachers (7%) and Meta (5%). Ministry as a distant, anonymous office. Teachers The websites (66%) are the most frequently vis- rarely contact the MoEYS directly with a query ited channel for non-profit organisations, and (e.g., labor law issues, etc.). Some have had a for teachers’ unions, teachers primarily obtain positive experience with a quick response, but information by e-mail (73%). Teachers mainly some have waited a month for a reply. However, 4 PAPERS 199 all agree that the answers they finally received brought new tools such as video conferences and were of good quality. webinars. As the pandemic situation developed, stakeholder groups set up regular online meet- Teachers feel that the MoEYS asks them little or not at all - especially for their opinions from ings to find out and share information and ex- practice. Based on their experience, they believe periences with each other. Moreover, it appears that only theoreticians prepare decrees and doc- from the qualitative interviews and discussions uments, who are cut off from actual practice. that the studied groups of stakeholders have Teachers claim they are interested in providing bonded over this period of time. The MoEYS, on the MoEYS with their expertise, experience, and the contrary, was perceived by the teacher very opinions. They would probably be most com- critically during the pandemic. MoEYS commu- fortable with the format of questionnaire sur- nication, which they received indirectly through veys. Engaged teachers would also like to use the school principals or from the media and other possibility of roundtables. However, some open- sources, they perceived as chaotic and constantly ly admit that their participation is voluntary and changing (interviewed in October 2020). Teach- in their own time, so they do not actually end up ers were also concerned that they only received seeking out or using these opportunities. information after published in the media, which The covid-19 pandemic has increased commu- they perceived as somewhat diminishing the im- nication between all target groups, including the portance of their role within the education sys- MoEYS. This period tested the functionality and tem. Teachers feel that the pandemic situation effectiveness of existing official communication caught the ministry unprepared in a quick and channels (websites, data mailboxes, e-mails) and flexible manner to respond. Graph 3: Are there any barriers or problems in communication between the teachers and MoEYS? Source: Own data. 4 PAPERS 200 Summary of results formation-gathering tools. It was possible to obtain relevant results for the further develop- Our results show (RQ1) that the teachers have ment of this research, and some of them can be very low expectations from MoEYS and their implemented immediately in communication in contact with this top government institution is education. This is also the aim of this research very distant. 71 % of the respondents have never - to provide new insights into the state of (stra- communicated directly with MoEYS, although tegic) government communication in education, only about half of the teachers think they are to identify potential communication problems well informed about the news and important in- and opportunities, and to suggest managerial formation in education. Most teachers don’t val- implications for strategic communication. It is ue MoEYS as the key leader in education nor as necessary to consider the specific situation of the a trendsetter of innovation in communication. Czech Republic, its education system, and the Teachers expect MoEYS to support them (22 Czech education administration, but many of the %), give them precise directions (15 %), and in- questions and solutions are of a more general form them on time (15 %). However, they don’t nature. meet these expectations – only 38 % of teach- ers state that the MoEYS at least partially meets The project risk was the insufficient anchoring their expectations. Therefore, (RQ2) teachers of the concept of government communication don’t even try to reach the MoEYS to obtain in both theory and practice and the ambigu- information – instead, they reach their bosses ous starting position of the Ministry’s strategic (principals) (68 %), or they search the inter- communication. Current foreign and Czech lit- net in general (33 %). Only 14 % of teachers erature neglects the specific focus of strategic declare they follow social media of MoEYS, and government communication on some of the spe- this number is, in reality, probably even lower cific agendas within the functioning of the state due to the low numbers of MoEYS’s social me- vis-à-vis society, one of which is education. It is dia account followers. (RQ3) Teachers reach for possible to come across case studies of a specific different opinion leaders in education but mostly government campaign or crisis and its commu- follow their principals. For the teachers, it’s es- nication, but these lack a sound methodological sential to have not a vertical communication line framework applicable to other campuses. but a horizontal one – to have the possibility to share or discuss information with their peers or Given that this type of research was conducted colleagues. They also cherish traditional media for the first time within the Czech Republic and formats such as bulletins or information boards could not even be compared to the details of on the wall in their meeting rooms. There are other similar foreign research due to the lack many communication barriers between the Mo- of publicly available data, we expected a certain EYS and the teachers: only 13 % of teachers level of risk in the research design itself. For this think that the government communication tar- reason, we chose its most robust form, which geting teachers from MoEYS are professional, yielded good results. transparent, or friendly to them. More impor- tantly, they also think the communication is not When we found that it would be useful to sup- understandable (86 %) and even clear (83 %). plement the data with further sub-analyses that would better clarify the relationship of the Mo- Discussion and limitations of the research EYS with its stakeholders, we did so. Clearly, many more such additional analyses could be The research was conducted with data and in- conducted, but we believe that in its current 4 PAPERS 201 form, this research represents a well-resourced media profiles or newsletters, etc. baseline map that will serve both to draw specif- ic recommendations and can serve as a baseline Conclusion and practical and social implica- research design for the analysis of other minis- tions tries’ communications. Firstly, the MoEYS must acknowledge the fact A weakness of the research is the absence of re- that one of its key and primary stakeholders, the search on internal communication, as the har- teachers, don’t have a very favourable view of mony of internal and external communication them and don’t perceive their communication as is the basis for successful communication of the understandable, precise, or timely. Therefore, we whole institution. In the future, we would there- must recommend getting back to the basics of fore recommend combining the findings of the the public relations theory, first drafted by Scott internal communication research, which are not Cutlip and known as the 4 Cs in communication public, with the results and data of this research, and then later elaborated on by many communi- as this consistency can also significantly influ- cation scholars and practitioners (Grunig 2002; ence communication with regard to individual Baines and Frank 2011). The MoEYS should stakeholder groups. develop a strategic government communication plan and re-engage with teachers through a new Our research and the Ministry’s activities were communication approach (Sanders and Canel, affected by the covid-19 pandemic, which result- 2013; Holtzhausen and Zerfass, 2015; Falk- ed in an acceleration of some processes, a sus- heimer and Heide, 2018; Fredriksson and Pallas, pension of some planned changes by the MoE, 2016). and attention had to be largely turned to crisis communication. Going forward, it is worthwhile Secondly, the MoEYS needs to establish a system to further focus on a network analysis of stake- for getting feedback and enabling the teachers to holders to reveal the main currents of thought ask further questions, either on their website or and the main constructors of general opinion easily searchable telephone numbers with clear about education in the population. For this, it is competencies. desirable to do another part of media analysis to Thirdly, despite MoEYS having invested large confirm or refute the so-called media ghosting sums in social media and online communication, - whether the topics that the population associ- this form of communication does not reach the ates with education are really the ones that are teachers. It needs to engage teachers in a differ- described in the media. Furthermore, whether it ent communication mode, respect them, and cre- is possible to raise these topics intensively with ate more horizontal communication experiences, the help of the Ministry of Education’s spokes- such as workshops or shared groups, where they person or opinion leaders, or other stakeholders, can participate and engage more actively. The such as communication with school principals. top-down communication, which resembles the Recommendations for further research include army system, is paradoxically avoided and not repeating some, especially quantitative, parts of respected by the teachers, although the educa- the research in the future and creating a range tion system in the Czech Republic is still much of comparable indicators that can be compared based on Habsburg’s idea of a top-down struc- over time or across stakeholder groups. We also ture and “one size fits all” approach. recommend greater involvement of online com- munication analysts to determine communica- To sum up, MoEYS has to implement options tion effectiveness, whether on websites, social for ritual communication (Carey, 2008) to re- 4 PAPERS 202 gain trust and build relations with teachers; only Routledge. then can the Ministry mentor them and be per- Fredriksson, Magnus and Pallas, Josef. 2016. ceived as an innovation leader. This requires a strategic communication plan, scenarios for so- „Characteristics of public sectors and their cial change, and long-term implementation with consequences for strategic communication.“ respect to its democratic boundaries (Holtzhau- International Journal of Strategic Communication, sen and Zerfass, 2015, Sanders and Canel, 2013; Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 149–152. Gelders and Ihlen, 2010). Gelders, Dave & Ihlen, Oyvind. 2010. „Govern- ment communication about potential policies: Literature public relations, propaganda or both?“ Public Relations Review, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 59–62. Baines, Paul, Egan, John and Jefkins, Frank. 2011. Public relations: contemporary issues and Grunig, James E. et al. 2002. Excellent public re-techniques. London: Routledge. lations and effective organizations: a study of communication management in three countries. Mah- Bekhet, A. K., & Zauszniewski, J. A. 2012. 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Howlett, Michael. 2009. „Government Commu- Canel, María J. and Luoma-aho, Vilma. 2018. nication as a Policy Tool: A Framework for Public sector communication: closing gaps between Analysis.” The Canadian Political Science Review, citizens and public organizations. Hoboken, NJ: Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 23-37. Wiley. Kasl Kollmannová, Denisa and Matušková, Anna. Carey, James W. 2008. C ommunication as culture. 2014. „Public affairs in the Czech Republic: Essays on media and society (rev. ed.) . London: an exploratory study of the current situation.” Routledge. Journal of Public Affairs, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 54– Casey D, Murphy K (2009) Issues in using 66. methodological triangulation in research. Nurse Křeček, Jan. 2013. Politická komunikace. Od res Researcher. Vol. 16, No. 4. pp. 40-55. publica po public relations. Praha: Grada. Creswell, John W. 2007. Qualitative inquiry and Liu, Brooke Fisher and Horsley, Suzanne J. 2010. research design: choosing among five approaches. The government and leadership: a reference hand- (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. book. Washington, D. C.: Sage Press. Falkheimer, Jesper and Mats, Heide. 2018. Stra- Oh, Jeyoung and Ki, Eyun-Jung. 2019. „Factors tegic communication: an introduction. London: affecting social presence and word-of-mouth 4 PAPERS 203 in corporate social responsibility communica- tion: tone of voice, message framing, and on- line medium type.” Public Relations Review, Vol. 45, Vol. 2, pp. 319–331. Pollitt, Christopher & Bouckaert, Geert. 2011. Public management reform: a comparative analy- sis – New Public Management, Governance, and the Neo-Weberian State (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Potůček, Martin. 2007. Strategické vládnutí a Česká republika. Praha: Grada. Sanders, Karen and Canel, José M. 2013. Gov- ernment Communication: Cases and challenges. New York: Bloomsbury. Shavit, Anna and Konrádová, Marcela. 2021. „Government Communication in Kafka COVID Time.“ IN Harris P., Bitonti A., Fleisher C.S., Skorkjær Binderkrantz A. (eds). The Pal- grave Encyclopedia of Interest Groups, Lobbying and Public Affairs. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. Soukeník, Štěpán. 2018. Government communica- tion in the Czech Republic: organisation, percep- tion, and new theoretical model. Praha: Univer-zita Karlova. 4 PAPERS 204 The Full-Stack Public Relations: Future- proofing communication management for stakeholder experience delivery and the digital transformation era MacKenzie, Lindsay, McMaster University (Canada) Introduction brand preserves its legitimacy and license to op- erate in the public sphere (van Ruler & Verčič, Big data is the lifeblood of organizations, alter- 2005). If technology-enabled systems for expe- ing operations, culture and performance. Sales, rience delivery can monitor several stakeholders customer and supplier relationships, employee and their perceptions in real time then what be- retention, product features and brand reputation comes of public relations, a strategic process no- are all being transformed by technology enabled toriously plagued with criticisms of poor mea- data. Powerful information systems track and monitor this data in real-time to generate pow- surement and evaluation practices? Experience erful business intelligence dashboards for exec- Management is an emerging strategic discipline utives to track and improve key performance enabled by technology offering brands one sys- indicators. Organizations are waking up to an tem to monitor, analyze and operationalize feed- emerging experience age where stakeholders back from customers, employees and society at expect the products and services brands offer large (Temkin et al., 2020). Organizations with to meet all of their wants and needs (Accen- Experience programs earn more revenue, retain ture, 2021; Castells, 2000; Holtz, 2002; Wade- their workforce and improve their reputations ra, 2016). Companies such as Apple, Amazon, (Temkin et al., 2020). Many other strategic pro- Google use adaptive processes by continuous- cesses such as HR, marketing, sales and digital ly monitoring user data to find patterns from products incorporate experience practices, un- stakeholder behaviors and attitudes and even derpinned by human-centred design (Norman, perceptions (Hax, 2010), which provides the 1986), into their transformations (Wong et al., necessary signals to deliver exceptional expe- 2019) to meet demands of a rapidly changing riences. Enterprise strategies are moving away economy. If indeed, public relations is a strate- from product differentiation and pushing to- gic process of the organization and distinct, then wards competitive advantages crafted through where is the evidence of similar transformation observing experience-level data (Hax, 2010; – monitoring human and computer interactions Temkin et al., 2020). Experiences are effective- in real-time – relevant to measuring the legiti- ly the perceptions that anyone has of a brand macy of the organization in the public sphere? (Keitt, 2021). Within the organization, public A set of full-stack public relations competencies relations monitors several stakeholder groups, would complement a reflective and post reflec- not just employees or customers, to ensure the tive approach, while benefiting from a rigorous 4 PAPERS 205 measurement and evaluation framework to meet care about with the strategies of an organization the expectations of the organization. therefore devising joint commitment, shared values and loyalty. To achieve this, organiza- Literature Review tions monitor stakeholder opinions and expecta- tions, which are reviewed by executives, to “fur- Distinguishing Public Relations in Organiza- ther engage in the critically important process of tions defining the organization’s distinctive features – Rather than examining public relations as a phe- its legitimacy and the future it hopes to build” nomenon, Deetz (2004) argues public relations (Fontán, Alloza and Rey, 2019, p. 112). By del- must have a distinct approach to describe and icately balancing stakeholder expectations, the explain the organization much the same way as organization maintains a social license to oper- marketing, HR and finance. Although there are ate, and public relations is acting in the public contrasting arguments that public relations is a interest (Brunner & Smallwood, 2019) as well phenomenon of managing strategic relationships as “better connected to the present time and bet- with stakeholders (Heath, 2000; Hutton,1999) ter equipped to help organizations adapt” (Ver- or is the “amalgam of communication processes” hoeven et al. (2018). The broader concern for (van Ruler, 2018, p. 379), the reflective views and opinions held by the public pragmat- approach ically operationalizes the reflective approach (Holmström, 2004; Van Ruler & Dejan, 2005) of public relations, maintaining differentiation determines public relations is distinct because through a strategy that monitors legitimacy in of “special concern for broader societal issues society. and approaches any problem with a concern for implications of organizational behavior towards Indeed, when stakeholders interact with orga- and in the public sphere” (van Ruler and Verčič, nizations they have expectations, which are 2005, p. 189). In a digital society marked by in- formed from perceptions that give way to atti- ternet-connected devices (Amodu et al., 2019) tudes, opinions and behaviors (Balmer & Grey- and social media networks (Wigley & Fontenot, ser, 2006). How an organization is perceived in 2010; Grunig, J., 2009; Sedereviciute & Val- the public sphere will greatly affect its reputation entini, 2011), organizations are reluctantly los- (Fombrun, 1996). According to Walker (2010) ing control of carefully curated messages to an “reputation is based on the aggregate perception increasingly critical public. Johansen and Val- of both internal and external stakeholders” (p. entini (2013) argue a post-reflective approach 369) and though not an objective measure, it is to public relations encourages organizations socially constructed where patterns can be ob-to bring their own values when responding to served within population segments. Conversely, discourse thereby using their influence to shape image signifies the way an organization wants to societal values as well. Most importantly, re- be perceived by its stakeholders (Walker, 2010). flective and post-reflective approaches to public The greater gap between reputation and image relations are multidimensional and position the alerts the organization to a potential risk in loss strategic process for adaptation within complex of legitimacy and compels it to undertake ini- and rapidly changing organizational environ- tiatives that engage stakeholders (Merkelsen, ments (Brockhaus & Zerfass, 2021). 2013; Plowman & Chiu, 2007). Doorley and Garcia (2015) explain that “what an organiza- For Fontán, Alloza and Rey (2019), rediscov- tion stands for and how well it lives up to that ering organizational purpose is a worthy exer- standard will significantly affect its reputation” cise to synchronize relevant topics stakeholders (p. 36). Specifically, two viewpoints emerge in 4 PAPERS 206 public relations literature to deal with percep- tives must be monitored, measured and eval- tion and its impact on reputation and image. uated. Despite repeated efforts by engaged Attributed to the relational approach, one per- practitioners, membership organizations and ac- spective is perception should be treated inde- ademics, public relations struggles to effectively pendently of relationship evaluation (Grunig, J. justify its value proposition (Macnamara, 2015). & Huang, 2000; Grunig J. 2018, 1993; Hon & Much of the difficulty comes from confusion Grunig, 1999) and the other views perception and disagreement on measurement frameworks. as a necessary ingredient to evaluating relation- Huang and Zhang (2013b) found two distinct ships as stakeholders voice their expectations clusters of studies measuring and evaluating the “at the point those needs manifest” (Ledingham, relationship dimension in public relations. The Bruning and Wilson, 1999, p. 180). Certainly, first applied the PR Relationship Measurement perception cannot be separated from evaluating Scale (Hon and Grunig, 1999) as a dependent relationships, since perception is a sensory input variable (DV), while the second cluster applied in order to make sense of the world around us the Bruning and Ledingham (1999) relationship (Reid, 1938). In a cascading effect, perceptions scale as an independent variable (IV) (Huang & give way to attitudes and attitudes produce be- Zhang, 2013). For clarity, an independent vari- haviors, which ultimately shape relationship dy- able is used to stimulate an effect on the object namics (Fazio, 1986). Knowing the perceptions, of a study while the dependent variable remains attitudes and behaviors of stakeholders reshapes unchanged in the experiment. Ultimately, au- the nature of interactions between an organiza- thors argued relationship scales in PR “contin- tion and its stakeholders, therefore the processes ue to be elusive” (Huang & Zhang, 2013, p. 87) of public relations as well (Thiessen & Ingen- and used inconsistent methodology. Similarly, hoff, 2011). Validated by CEOs, The Excellence Watson (2012) compiled a historical perspective Study (Grunig, Grunig & Dozier, 2006) and on measurement and evaluation in public rela- CEOs views on Reputation Management (Mur- tions and argued methodologies lacked rigorous ray & White, 2005) indicate that developing a application. good reputation and positive relationships con- tribute to the value that public relations offers Traditional media coverage and public opinion the organization. Public relations holds a dis- research represents much of public relations tinct strategic position to monitor reputation and measurement and evaluation during the 21st uses a number of tactics to facilitate favourable century (Watson, 2012), which began in re- dynamics between stakeholders and organiza- sponse to monitoring media relations activities. tions as well as society at large (Verhoeven et Eventually AVEs (advertising value equivalen- al., 2018; Tench et al, 2017). Concerningly, even cy) became a popular measure to monetize pub- though public relations is most effective when licity, however, the Barcelona Principles reject- it listens to stakeholders and reports back to ed their use as exaggerated values (International leadership, CEOs feel “they do not have a good Association for Measurement and Evaluation of enough radar for emerging issues” (Murray & Communication (AMEC), 2019). Even the Ex- White, 2005, p. 4). cellence study, praised for its breadth of insights coming from CEOs, used a compensating varia- Measurement Woes for Public Relations tion approach to justify the importance of public relations to organizations (Grunig, L., Grunig, If public relations is a managerial function and J., Dozier, 2006). Critics of this approach (Mac- is distinct due to the manner it can explain and namara, 2015; Watson, & Zerfass, 2011) ex- describe the organization then specific objec- plained the value estimated for PR by CEOs was 4 PAPERS 207 not financial and as such the compensating vari- ample of communicativeness “public relations ation approach – an evaluation of how much to can be given the responsibility of correcting that pay for a non-monetary benefit – was not a pre- impression through proactive communication cise measure. As social media and digital media initiatives” (Doorley & Gordie, 2015, p. 21) . become more popular, public relations struggles to demonstrate value through these channels as Ultimately, public relations must establish con- well. This seems odd because robust data and an- sistent methodological processes, but pushing alytics is the joy of internet-connected networks. this dialogue forward stirs up historical debates Examining how social media and emerging dig- on the essence of public relations. Perhaps view- ital media have been used by public relations, ing public relations as either communication or Wright and Hinson (2012) found 54 percent as relationship management is the most prob- of practitioners measured what stakeholders lematic dialogue. It curtails innovation because were saying on these channels, but only 26 per of the circular arguments that ensue. According cent of practitioners used that data to observe to Verhoeven, Tench, Zerfass, Mereno, Verčič changing behaviors, opinions and perceptions. (2012), the inability of public relations “to prove Macnamara (2015) attempted to break the mea- the impact of communication activities on orga- surement and evaluation deadlock built up over nizational goals” is a “major barrier to further the last two decades in public relations research professionalization and growth” (p. 36). Despite when he came up with the MAIE framework. He social networks and internet connectivity, public proposes four stages – measurement, analysis, relations continues to take a narrow and limited insights and evaluation – to “produce insights view of monitoring, measuring and evaluating that inform future organizational strategy, ideal- its performance. ly for the mutual benefit of the organization and stakeholders” (Macnamara, 2015, p. 13). These Stakeholder Monitoring Technology for Pub- recommendations are unique because MAIE an- lic Relations alyzes public relations from an organizational level and a societal level, when historically pub- There are a small handful of tools in the market- lic relations focused on program and department place developed specifically for measuring and levels. In addition, Macnamara (2015) suggests evaluating public relations and companies pro- including qualitative data and feedback tech- mote them as communication-technology stacks niques and is consistent with Watson’s (2012) with dashboards to visually impress senior ex- hope that social media will usher in a new op- ecutive leaders. For instance, Edelman (2021) portunity to attest to the value of dialogue with offers a product for “deep audience insights [to] stakeholders. If public relations has the distinc- quantify reputation and trust” (para. 2) with ac- tion of negotiating the organization’s legitimacy tionable insights that target, measure and shape with society, then measuring reputational value behavior by monitoring where messages are is another means by which to validate strategic picked up by stakeholder groups. Qualtrics is importance. Doorley and Gordie (2015) provide another technology provider that has a brand a basic template for a comprehensive reputation experience platform, combining deep social-lis- management program consisting of internal and tening insights with a survey function to mon- external stakeholder audits to assess the gap in itor perceptions of reputation (McCorkindale, perception between employees, senior leaders DiStaso & Carroll, 2013; Reputation Manage- and external stakeholders. Furthermore, an ac- ment: Your Ultimate Guide, 2022;). Meltwater countability formula monitors reputation factors is a social monitoring tool designed to analyze against particular departments such as in the ex- social media and traditional media trends for 4 PAPERS 208 conversations on issues and topics, aggregating put data and analytics to correlate stakeholder results into a summary report to condense cur- perceptions and behaviors in real-time and are rent opinions and sentiments from stakeholder found in emails, letters, surveys, complaints, re- groups (Meltwater Reviews & Product Details, ports, traditional media and social media (Hepp, 2022). 2019). Perspectives from within public relations research propose the Internet of Things (IoT) Corporate listening (Macnamara, 2020) through (Amodu et al, 2008), agile methodology (van technology enabled software is another area Ruler, 2016) and design-thinking (Hayes, 2018; public relations lags behind (Paine & Hart, Neumann-Strunweg, 2013) can be incorporated 2020; Tench & Moreno, 2015; Verhoeven et into PR’s practice. But with PR lagging behind al., 2012) and is increasingly viewed as an area in technology adoption as well as measurement where brand experiences can be monitored and evaluation practices, researchers (Falk-across all stakeholder groups. According to the heimer et al., 2017; Macnamara, 2021) specu- 2021 Edelman Future of Corporate Communi- late what if any leadership role PR will serve cation report, public relations “is crucial in un- in the future. Innovation owed to technology derstanding and interpreting risk and delivering is transforming every major division and de- an integrated corporate brand experience that partment of organizations because it optimizes maximizes trust and delivers engagement re- performance. Public relations is not immune. turns” (p. 13) by listening to senior leaders, em- Macnamara (2021) points to fractures in society ployees and society. However, only 30 percent – such as threats to democracy, the pandemic, of PR practitioners are using communications and inequality – to pressure public relations to technology to tie their core activities back to an advance. organization’s revenue and instead 44 percent are using technology for rudimentary measures Organizing for the Experience Age of media impressions (Edleman, 2021). Two separate studies (Baskin et al., 2010; Edelman, Broadly examining the landscape of organiza- 2021) find that employers do not want to invest tional transformation in the 21st century, Cas- in measurement and evaluation tools for public tells (2000), Holtz (2002), and Hax (2010) high- relations practitioners though reasons are some- light how social and digital ecosystems alter what unclear. But a possible rationale is the crit- stakeholder interactions with brands, shifting icism that PR practitioners are unable to demon- business strategies from product differentiation strate their performance as contributing towards to service experience. This ecosystem democra- organizational objectives, which has been previ- tizes the power employees, vendors, sharehold- ously stated in this literature review. ers and citizens have to affect political, social and cultural change, impacting organizations Furthermore, corporate listening was not situ- (Castells, 2000). Customers, employees and so- ated within the boundaries of public relations, ciety are at the apex of organizational strategy instead Macnamara (2021) found a number of and operational goals. According to Hax (2010) technology platforms and methodologies “such Delta Model “performance measurements and as customer journey mapping, behavioral in- quantifiable indicators are essential for the de- sights and the use of artificial intelligence (AI) velopment, execution, and monitoring of the tools, including algorithms, natural language [organization’s] desired strategy” (p. 130). processing (NLP), and machine learning” (p. Therefore, organizations that are leading in their 82) situated in customer service and marketing market have a sustained focus on meeting the departments. Specific software technologies in- expectations of stakeholders to create consistent 4 PAPERS 209 positive experiences. Organizations are ramp- cision-making cadences of internal stakehold- ing up processes to improve human to comput- ers” (Qualtrics, 2020, para. 4). According to er connectivity, a signal of the experience age Temkin et al., (2020), researchers credited with (Castells, 2002; Wadhera, 2016), aiming to meet developing experience management software, the expectations and communication needs of the technology helps “CEOs break down silos employees, customers and the public sphere. of data, hived off in different departments, to Marked by interconnected mobile devices, the create a holistic picture of performance, culture experience age is about “creating, sharing and and engagement (para. 3) and predicting behav- participating in technology-mediated environ- iors “before issues turn into trends” (para. 4). In ments” (Hu Au & Lee, 2017). The human expe- summary, Experience Management (XM) is a rience cycle begins with organizations focusing technology and a strategic discipline that nur- on the behaviors of stakeholders that are driving tures a culture of empathy for the human expe- action, then exploring the attitudes leading to rience to meet the expectations of stakeholders. these behaviors, which are found in predictive Creating positive experiences with organization data analytics capable of unearthing the percep- involves powerful operating systems capable of tions (Temkin et al., 2020). Simply stated, an experience is defined as any attitude or percep- synthesizing large amounts of data and requires tion that a stakeholder has through their interac- practitioners who are using credible methodolo- tions with an organization manifesting in behav- gy for measuring and evaluating perception. iors (Temkin et al., 2020). When an experience Against this background, characteristics are is positive or negative it will impact future be- needed for public relations to prepare, under- haviors of a stakeholder and by extension the stand and optimize for the expectations of expe- organization’s reputation as well. Utilizing the rience delivery and the ethos of the Experience concept of perception, unsupervised algorithms can mimic patterns created cognitively in hu- Age being adopted by organizations. This qual- mans to predict future behaviors (Cosley, 2022). itative research study investigated the following Essentially, human perception is being decod- three research questions: ed by technology, an analysis only performed • RQ1: How is “experience” defined by orga- through time-consuming scientific observation nizational leaders and experience manage- previously. ment subject matter experts and thus how The Discipline of Experience Delivery does it compare with existing dimensions of public relations? Experience management is a discipline that uses • RQ2: What stakeholder groups are identi- x-data (experience data) and o-data (operational fied in the continuous monitoring process data) to measure and improve the four core expe- for the discipline of experience management riences in the human experience cycle. Experi- and how does it compare with diverse pub- ence Management monitors in real-time “every interaction people experience with a company lics identified in public relations literature? in order to spot opportunities for improvement” • RQ3: Where does the discipline of experi- (What Is Experience Management, n.d.). Oper- ence management, and by extension expe- ating systems collect and store personal stake- rience delivery, facilitate multidimensional holder profiles, analyze data and action work- characteristics of public relations through flows with “customized alerts and dashboards technology-enabled processes, as noted by that are synchronized to the operational and de- the existing models and theories cited. 4 PAPERS 210 Methodology ing five world-renowned thought leaders (n=5). Represented industry categories included finance This is an exploratory, qualitative research study (n=1), insurance (n=1), utilities (n=1), con- to examine the discipline of experience manage- sumer goods (n=5), telecommunications (n=2), ment and the strategic process of public relations market research (n=3) and technology (n=6). within experience-delivery practices. The sample size consisted of 20 in-depth interviews: 10 se- Overall, interview participants were familiar nior leaders who had authority in operational with the Experience Age to varying degrees. The and strategic decisions at Canadian organiza- spectrum of understanding, according to defi- tions classified as large-scale enterprises (500 or nitions positioned within the literature review more employees) as well as 10 subject matter (Castells, 2000; Hax, 2010; Temkin et al., 2020; experts in the experience management disci- Wadhera, 2016), ranged from organization-cen- pline. Participants were gathered using LinkedIn tric to experience-centric mindsets. Experience messages and snowball recruitment. Interviews management practitioners demonstrated a much ranged from 40 minutes to 60 minutes in length. clearer framework for experience delivery and could explain that experience was essentially a Qualitative synthesis focused on words, descrip- perception that anyone had of an organization. In tions, concepts, perceptions and sentiments ex- practice, the use of experience operating systems pressed by participants. Narrative analysis re- vealed mindsets and perspectives of interview connected organizational priorities to unmet participants, while thematic analysis revealed stakeholder expectations and improved work- similarities and differences that could be grouped flow processes to boost internal culture as well together for deeper interpretations. as external reputation management. Meanwhile, senior leaders described experience through an Results and Conclusions outdated view of business strategy that drew on concern for the competitive landscape or prod- Two categories emerged from the in-depth in- uct differentiation. At the other end of this spec- terviews to segment 20 participants (n=20) trum, experience-centric leaders could distill into senior leaders and experience management corporate strategy back to the most important practitioners. The first group was composed of stakeholders, but inevitably defined experience ten (n=10) senior leaders. The second group through expectations the organization had of it- consisted of ten (n=10) thought-leaders and self. According to all interview participants, ex- practitioners of experience management, includ- perience management offered a tangible link to Table 1 Leadership (C-suite) Experience Management Practitioners Chief Executive Officer (6) Experts (4) Chief Marketing Officer (1) Educator (1) Chief Communications Officer (2) Data-scientists (2) Chief Technology Officer (1) Product manager (1) User-Experience (UX/UI) researcher (1) Strategist (1) 4 PAPERS 211 new sources of growth and profitability. CEOs in public relations amounts to “unrealized ambit in particular, described a cyclical orientation of claims” found in literature (p. 81). employees, customers and society. For instance, when employees are engaged, they empathize Characteristics of Full-Stack Public Relations with customer needs and shed light on broader societal issues likely to upset an organization’s To identify the owners of experience, interview reputation. participants were asked to name roles, depart- ments or individuals who best embodied this Specifically naming public relations as the stra- ability. Responses varied among interview par- tegic process responsible for monitoring stake- ticipants. Of the 20 participants seven (n=7) holders perceptions was noticeably absent from respondents felt everyone had to own the stake- the conversation even though observations made holder because of the singular priority estab- by leadership and experience management prac- lished by the organization to focus on the cus- titioners agreed with PR literature citing the tomer and employee. Zero respondents (n=0) reflective approach (Holmström, 2004; Van felt technology or IT was responsible for expe- Ruler & Dejan, 2005), post-reflective approach rience. Four (n=4) respondents indicated ex- (Johansen & Valentini, 2013) and reputation perience owners embodied an entirely new and management (Walker, 2010; Doorley & Gar- innovative role for organizations. Three (n=3) cia, 2015). Findings suggest that theoretical respondents felt marketing and communications research in public relations is not resonating held experience with a caveat that HR might in a manner that demonstrates practical impli- hold responsibilities as well. Six (n=6) respon- cations for organizational leadership or prac- dents indicated that product or program man- titioners. The multidimensional approaches to agers who work on digital experience products public relations cited in this literature review such as websites or apps should be responsible were described in organizational life, but inter- for experience. Those who advocated for mar- view participants did not indicate it was solely keting and communications with a slight nod to responsible for, owned or managed relationships HR highlighted the interconnected identities of with stakeholders. Instead, all interview partic- stakeholders. For instance, employees could be ipants agreed that public relations contribut- activists but customers as well. Suppliers could ed value through communication, a dimension be customers and therefore, experience should summarized as message delivery and reception be framed through brand and reputation. for mutual meaning creation (van Ruler, 2016). The organization-public relationship paradigm For public relations to maintain distinctiveness, (Heath, 2000; Hutton,1999) within public re- new characteristics must be incorporated to situ- lations is an overreach based on organizational ate PR into a rapidly transforming organization- structures described by interview participants. al ecosystem. Core competencies for full-stack When prompted, senior leaders cited media re- public relations are observations borne out of lations and social media as tactical expressions this research. They are not offered to contradict of public relations and six (n=6) interview par- evidence-based approaches found in literature. ticipants raised journalistic media as the primary Instead, they’re intended to enhance the discus- receiver of message delivery. This research pa- sion of distinctiveness within organizational life per agrees with findings originally presented by for the Experience Age. For instance, software Macnamara (2021) that communication activ- developers who are labelled full-stack can focus ities were found to be largely tactical, while the on visual elements (the front-end) and devel- authority of relationship management residing opment issues behind the scenes (server side), 4 PAPERS 212 making this function more desirable to the or- interdependent parts – but not to be confused ganization. In the same way, public relations with a relationship, communication is “an agile can continue to reconcile its expertise with a management process in which the focus is on cross-functional integration more suited to the feeding the arenas in which meanings are pre- monitoring and delivery of the experience for all sented, negotiated, constructed, or reconstructed stakeholders. Proposed with this definition are for strategy building and strategy implementa- explanations of five full-stack public relations tion” (p. 379). This overlaps in sentiment with competencies. the Hax (2010) Delta Model theory. Sidelined in literature (Hutton, 1999; van Ruler, 2016), Dot-Connector communication remains a recognizable char- Experience management practitioners identi- acteristic of public relations (van Ruler, 2016; fied that public relations was a useful steward Macnamara, 2021) and was explicitly men-of communication, the action of meaning cre- tioned by senior leaders and experience manage- ation with stakeholders. Both C-suite executives ment practitioners during in-depth interviews. and experience management practitioners de- According to Castells (2002), an Experience scribed that tone and voice in communication Age theorist and sociologist, communication de- was a unique competency as well. There are cisively shapes culture “because culture is medi- three types of meaning creation that emerged ated and enacted through communication” (p. through participant interviews: communication 16), which is rapidly and fundamentally being as the creation of a message; communication as a transformed due to new technological systems. conduit to message delivery; and communication In one sense, this research might be disheart- as synthesis for message clarity. Communication ening to academics and practitioners who view creation was described by interview participants public relations as a mediating process wholly as drafting of key messages at a tactical level responsible for relationships between organiza-within a cross-functional environment or at a tions and their stakeholders. senior strategic level. Communication delivery As part of this function, public relations moni- meant messages were directed to one or more tors message clarity, ensuring that the purpose, receivers such as employees, customers, share- mission, values and strategy are well commu- holders and social media users. Communication nicated to employees, investors and other un- for message clarity meant messages found new named stakeholders. Public relations as a stra- comprehension when discussed in consultation tegic process is uniquely equipped to socialize with leadership, and facilitated alignment with the corporate strategy among internal and ex- stakeholders for the strategic priorities and goals ternal audiences. The ongoing engagement of of the organization. Outcomes desired by the or- employees, customers, leadership and society “is ganization were understanding and acceptance of strategic priorities within stakeholder groups. At presented and promoted by communication, but a program or service level, public relations crafts also rebuilt by it in a continuous and reflective messages for teams to use when interacting with way” (van Ruler, 2020, p. 378). Hax (2010) stakeholders through communication channels argues “a strategy that is not well communicated such as newsletters, emails, social media, call is meaningless, and it will never become an ef- centres, text messages, chat bots etc. Communi- fective reality” (p. 93). cation as meaning creation is a powerful mech- anism for public relations. Defined by van Ruler (2018) as an organism of sorts – a whole with 4 PAPERS 213 Empathizer of Human Experiences Problem-Solver Among the experience management practi- Experience management ecosystems hinge on a tioners interviewed, emotions and needs-iden- framework drawing organizational life into the tification from stakeholders were critical to this orbit of a stakeholder’s perception. Design-think- growing field. Interview participants said they ing frameworks were brought up by 14 (n=14) felt that translating data, analytics and journeys interview participants, who expressed the impor- into descriptions that evoked empathy or could tance of delivering positive and memorable ex- be understood on a human and emotional level periences to stakeholders. These touchpoints can was extremely important to the entire experi- be internal to the organization or external, but ence-delivery ecosystem. In particular, organiza- all of them affect the stakeholder in some way. tions are increasingly looking for senior leaders Creating a visual of these touchpoints is called who can understand emotion, perception and the a journey map. One experience management ex- impact they have on customers and employees. A pert who is sought after for their journey-map challenge was issued by experience management consulting explained that communication as an experts to public relations to improve the calibre activity should be included in journey-mapping of messages to drill into human connection and processes. As an example, they shared a situation emotion, and remove jargon like key messages where the entire company’s product-to-chan- from the practice. The flexible and co-collab- nel-to-customer-delivery chain was examined orative essence with which van Ruler (2016) and an entirely new journey map was created defines communication highlights the need for a to put the customer at the centre of the experi- more human approach. Public relations is com- ence. What they found was that the company’s pelled by the Experience Age to align its message communication materials did not reflect the ex- delivery and message clarity processes with the perience promised to the customer, and, if left perceptions, emotions and attitudes of stake- uncorrected, could have resulted in safety issues. As a recommendation, the experience manage- holders. ment expert built communication messages into Influencer the journey map and fixed the problem before it became a reputational issue for the company. There are many different structures in place at organizations, some still undetermined, to prior- Ethical Data Translator itize stakeholders by monitoring and continuous- Analytics were important vehicles to clarify de- ly delivering on unmet needs through experience cision-making because of behavioural patterns management. Macnamara (2021) mirrors the found by monitoring transaction, operation and findings of this paper, but on a larger scale, and perception data. However, interview participants argues that “achieving a strategic leadership role described organizational environments that and influence requires a high level of capabilities sweeped up large sums of data, but didn’t always and credibility” (p. 84). Delivery and clarity of have a purpose for all of that information, which the mission is crucial as experience-centric, they in many cases was personal to each stakeholder. need skilled leaders to describe the change, cap- One experience management researcher indicat- ture the challenges and communicate effectively ed that a new executive from among marketers with stakeholders. To a certain degree, structure or communicators – a first among equals – will is irrelevant therefore, influence can occur at any emerge for organizations to develop a mission level and public relations facilitate this process. of analytics, instructing organizations to discern 4 PAPERS 214 the data that is important to collect from stake- (Buhmann, Macnamara & Zerfass, 2019; Mac- holders as well as how to use it. This philosophy namara, 2021; Watson & Zerfass, 2011; Wright supports perspectives concerned for stakehold- and Hinson, 2012), interview participants could ers and their privacy as organizations are push- not immediately point to public relations as pre- ing towards personalization of experiences as senting important measurement and evaluation a way to improve loyalty and engagement with metrics on the voice of stakeholders for the ben- brands. Experience management practitioners efit of the organization or society (Macnamara, interviewed expressed concerns that collecting 2015). Excellent public relations for the experi- mass amounts of data in the name of personal- ence age monitors the dynamic between the pub- ization was misguided, causing reputation risks lic’s view, an organization’s actions and broader to brands. The use of analytics requires a gover- societal issues that could impact a brand’s license nance model for ethical decision-making, com- to operate. Determining ethical data usage keeps munication and personalization in the experi- these factors at the forefront of an organization’s ence ecosystem. These managerial functions are leadership agenda. uniquely suited to public relations when acting in the public interest and serving as the organi- Meaning Creation Model of PR for Experi- zation’s ethical advisor (Bowen, 2008). The best ence Delivery measurement and evaluation frameworks de- scribed during participant interviews could tri- Communication, not relationship management, angulate relational, transactional and operation- is the dominant identifier for public relations al data. Experience management practitioners among interview participants. Specifically, this highlighted the architecture of experience deliv- paper demonstrates a multidimensional ap- ery as being baked into the digital ecosystem. proach to public relations such as reflective or post-reflective is a more neutral position to in- For instance, customers, employees and society terpret the dynamic that exists between organi- make choices along their journey of interaction zations and stakeholders in the experience age. with organizations. Call centres, online websites, Depicting a framework of public relations for the and surveys have listening and feedback mecha- experience age, the meaning creation model of nisms at regular intervals of the interactions to PR incorporates revisions to traditional commu- collect and analyze perception or emotional cues nications plans as evidenced by Niemann-Stru- from stakeholders. Identifying patterns in this weg (2014), but added experience management data revealed stakeholder behaviors that could methodology and the practice of journey-map- be influenced or modified by the organization ping to better incorporate the human-centered and gave way to process adaptations for the or- philosophy of discovering unmet needs. In Fig- ganization as well. Many pointed to outcomes ure 1 below, there are numerous iterations of such as profitability, employee retention and re- communication plans produced by public rela- duced process waste and technical debt through tions for the organization in service to maintain- experience management practices. Interview ing connection with stakeholder groups, which participants with backgrounds in marketing is why this model is visually represented with and communications pointed to departmental a bicycle chain to represent perpetual motion. and programmatic measurements of public rela- The second and smaller circle outlines different tions. Metrics such as share-of-voice, power-of- types of affinity stakeholders can have towards voice, media mentions, social media monitoring, an organization by virtue of the communication earned media evaluations or AVEs were high- activities that are utilized. Forrester Research vi- lighted. Consistent with findings from literature sualized a similar model by outlining steps of 4 PAPERS 215 Figure 1: Public Relations Meaning Creation Model for Experience Delivery Note: The model outlines the continuous movement of journey mapping in the experience delivery ecosystem and its creation of different stakeholder communities with varying levels of affinity to the organization. Any offshoots from the communication and meaning creation process are the result of communication plans when organized through a design-thinking framework. The offshoots can be understood as various tactics such as media releases, e-newsletter, advisory boards, emails, text messaging, Twitter chats etc. journey mapping steps to show stakeholder com- Practical and Social Implications munities as outcomes of that process. However, communication activities were not identified Emerging systems of experience management as vehicles to assist with growing affinity with monitor the perceptions and attitudes that peo- stakeholders towards brands in the experience ple have with organizations and deliver da- delivery process. Hax (2010) argues “a strategy ta-informed analytics designed to continuously improve the experience. To safe-guard distinc- that is not well communicated is meaningless, tiveness for the Experience Age, public relations and it will never become an effective reality” (p. must incorporate adaptive, full-stack compe- 93). Public relations has a vital responsibility to tencies. Innovation beyond the confines of dis- test “strategic decisions by presenting and nego- ciplinary theories found in public relations can tiating these in a continuous loop” with stake- produce adaptation alongside the organization, holders (van Ruler, 2018, p. 380). presently affected by technological influences. This shifted orientation toward the stakehold- The process of meaning creation for public rela- er is an opportunity to reconstruct public rela- tions in the experience age is iterative and begins tions for experience delivery. If not, public re- with empathy as learnings from communication lations may be relegated to a tactical function plans are adapted based on on-going interactions rather than a strategic process. The findings are with stakeholders. instructive for professionals performing PR ac- tivities and researchers studying them, as well as institutions offering academic study in public 4 PAPERS 216 relations. A limited sample size and diversity of Prioritizing public interest in public rela- interview subjects by profession are limitations tions: Public interest relations. Public Rela- that should be acknowledged. 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Pub- 4 PAPERS 220 New challenges for the countries in external communications due to fake news blossoming Novoselova, Olga, Corvinus University of Budapest (Hungary) Ildikó Kemény, Corvinus University of Budapest (Hungary) Introduction Although the unprecedented scale of fake news has brought more scholarly attention in recent By conveying biased and false information, fake years, most studies mainly focus on public policy news can destroy folk’s faith and beliefs in prod- and political communication perspectives (Jang ucts, authorities, experts and the government, & Kim, 2018; Vargo et al., 2017). Relatively and others, damaging the country brand. A re-little research has investigated fake news in the cent study analyzing data from 126,000 stories on Twitter has unveiled that fake news stories context of brand management and communica- spread faster than real ones and can elicit feel- tion, and there is no research in the context of ings of fear, disgust, and surprise (Vosoughi et al., the country brand. 2018). Since fake news intends to deceive read- However, the threat of fake news targeted at ers and, at the same time, create more traffic, it brands is unlikely to dissipate in the near future, ultimately leads to someone profiting. Websites especially when considering the importance that effectively “buy” their targets using Facebook content marketing which, in turn, adduces thou- brand image and brand reputation have overall sands of dollars of revenue for the publisher. At brand equity; it is evident that brand managers the same time, accurate fake news detection is need strategies to mitigate the threat of fake still challenging nowadays due to the dynamic news. To comprehend the way of crisis strat- nature of social media and the complexity and egies of China in the frame of fake news, one diversity of online communication data. should identify the consequences and conditions which are mostly damaged during the fake news Several studies have posited that world news not attacks. only considerably enhances public knowledge about foreign countries but also can significantly This study will shed light on the volume of the affect people’s perceptions of nations and, con- impact of fake news on country brand and its sequently country brand formation (Albritton & weak points, which suffer most of all due to neg- Manheim, 1985; Perry, 1987). In fact, due to ative disinformation pressure. Since this is the the lack of knowledge about other countries, it is first study trying to depict the post-fake news ef- obvious to presume that the media significantly fect on country brand equity, the main question influence the thoughts and ideas people apply in will be to clarify if any negative consequences the process of building certain judgments toward exist and, if it does, to what degree based on various countries. country brand equity measures. 4 PAPERS 221 Literature review scientists elucidate these effects by contending that ordinary people do not base their judgments Referring to the literature in the field of mar- on the whole picture of the relevant knowledge keting, an image is “a set of beliefs/convictions, stored in their memories when facing complex ideas and impressions that a person has on an political issues or events. Instead, they accept a object” (Kotler, 1991). Papadopoulus (1993) shortcut strategy, evolving the process of assess- adheres to the point of view that the image of an ing based on the pieces of information most eas- object arises from perceptions that people hold. ily retrieved from memory (Krosnick and Bran- Being different from individual to individual, the image that each possesses towards a particular non, 1993). object will also be, in turn, diverse. Based on Therefore, it could be deduced that the results statements provided by Kunczik (1997, p. 41), obtained in these studies pinpointed that the me- “the image of a nation is formed by a highly dia significantly impact the standards by which complex communication process involving di- people eliminate foreign nations. Though, the verse information sources. [...] Those who create data also unveils that there are bounds to this the most powerful images are international TV effect. When members of the audience read sto- and radio, newspapers and magazines, cultural ries providing a direct link between an issue exchange programs, commercials, books, and and a nation that possessed a specific evaluative news services. Add to this education traveling, i.e., the degree of personal experience related to implication, they tended to adopt this frame of certain foreign cultures that also has an import- reference in their own thinking. In three out of ant role in building an image”. four cases, frames that provided this sort of link shaped how people formed judgments (Brewer The recent rise in the incidence of fake news can et al., 2003) be attributed, in this vein, to technological de- velopments and how individuals search for and These findings delineate the process of coun- consume information. However, some research try image formation, which could be negatively applied content analytical methods of analyses attacked by false information (i.e., information identified that foreign nations are often depict- that is not true) widely spread in social media ed in a more negative light, whereas their na- nowadays in the form of ‘fake news’ that would tion is evaluated more positively (Blain et al., feature prominently in the brand management 1993; Wanta et al., 2004). The results of a study landscape. Fake news is a type of false informa- by Domke et al. (1999) reveal news coverage to tion that mimics news media content in form but be a potent stimulus that not only shapes re- not in organizational process or intent (Lazer et cipients’ cognitions about the issues or objects al., 2018; Mills et al., 2020). Fake news may be covered but also builds cognitions about the in- revealed in many forms, including false stories, volved races or ethnic groups perceptibly. Few pictures, reviews, or polls (Berthon and Pitt, researchers (Brewer et al., 2003; Mercille, 2005; 2018). Conceptualizations of fake news overlap Wanta et al., 2004) shed light on the impact of with those of both misinformation, which is de- foreign nation depictions which affect the per- fined as the sharing of false or misleading infor- ception of those nations in terms of agenda-set- mation, and disinformation, which is determined ting, framing, priming, or other image-formation as the creation and sharing of false or misleading effects. According to their findings, news cov- information with the intent of engaging in de- erage encompasses an instantaneous influence ception (Lazer et al., 2018; Tandoc et al., 2018; on recipients’ evaluations of other nations. The Wardle, 2017). 4 PAPERS 222 Based on results, it was found that false news come to a more detailed insight of country im- reached more people than the truth on Twitter age, which can be divided into the categories from 2006 to 2017. The top 1% of false news of perceived and projected images. Thus, how cascades diffused to between 1000 and 100,000 a country is perceived and projected by other people, whereas the truth rarely diffused to more countries can result in changes in their mutual than 1000 people (Vosoughi et al., 2018). False- relationships and strategic responses. hood also diffused faster than the truth. The de- gree of novelty and the emotional reactions of Originating from various sources, projected recipients may be responsible for the differences images are those ideas and impressions creat- observed. Other researchers show that fake news ed about a destination and available for people is emotionally persuasive, and it triggers more consideration (Bramwell & Rawding, 1996; emotional consumer responses than truthful news Kokosalakis & al., 2006). At the same time, per- stories (Ekman, 1992) and more high-arousal ceived images of nations can be determined as emotions than candid new stories (Vosoughi the pictures of other nations in the minds of et al., 2018). At the same time, repeated expo- people from the perspective of social psycholo- sure to false information will lead to perceived gy. Boulding (1956, p. 423) identifies perceived truthfulness of that information, even when the images as the ‘total cognitive, affective, and eval- credibility of the source is questionable. In effect, uative structure of the behavior unit or its in- news consumers will trust reputable news or- ternal view of itself and the universe’ Hu and ganizations (CNN, NBC, FOX, etc.) more than Ritchie (1993) argue that the perceived image unknown ones. Still, repeated exposure to fake can be viewed as a phenomenon affected by pre- news decreases this effect (Roggeveen and Jo- vious familiarity and knowledge, perception of har, 2002). Shin et al. (2018) analyzed tweets the image at the destination, and the subsequent representing rumors which are one type of fake existing preference of that information. More- news determined that rumor has a tendency to over, the perceived image is formed by infor- reverberate and resurface many times after the mation received through indirect sources and initial publication. In contrast, factual informa- experiences at the destination; it represents the tion does not come up again and again. image that a tourist creates in reality (Govers & Go, 2005). It could be concluded that any fake news shared by consumers can have damaging consequences However, images arising from an individual’s by negatively impacting the brand. The concern cognitive systems will not become visible until is becoming even more significant in light of the they are communicated. Mass media acts as a fact that any news, genuine or fake, can spread critical player in formulating and disseminating like wildfire on online social media and go viral the images of nations (Kunczik, 1997). Images very quickly (Bessi, 2017; Popat et al., 2017). A of objects are embedded in the minds of indi- recent study by Marwick (2018) utilizes a soci- viduals, limited by external and internal factors. otechnical model of media effects to explain that Media, as the virtual channel for people to get people share fake news guided by their pre-ex- information on international issues, contribute isting beliefs, media affordances, and the struc- heavily to national image projection. They rely turing of messages. more on media discourse for global issues rather than direct experiences or the search for origi- To follow the existing studies where the con- nal statements that are primarily available on the flation of different kinds of media and country internet (Chitty, 2007; Choi, 2006). Therefore, image and their contribution occurs, one can the mass media continue to ‘occupy the most 4 PAPERS 223 significant place for most people when they ac- Research hypothesis cess the world beyond their immediate environ- ment, but information and misinformation can Although, there is no deep direct exploration transform the world politically, militarily, and of the relationship between news or fake news economically, as addressed by Taylor (1997, p. and country brand equity dimensions, plenty of 3). In this vein, perceived and projected imag- studies on spreading online information reveal es share a blurry relationship (Stepchenkova & the relationship between social media and brand Zhan, 2013). equity (Bruhn et al., 2012; Vries & Carlson, 2014; Schiviniski & Dabrowski, 2014; Kapoor Turning to the availability of existing models in- & al.,2013; Christodoulides et al., 2012). Some tended to capture news effects on the country studies have shown this relationship through image and continuing on the theme of identify- electronic word of mouth (Wolny & Mueller, ing the level of its impact, several models have 2013; Yasin & Zahari, 2011; Murtiasih et al., been developed, mainly including framing and 2013). priming approaches (Brewer & al., 2003). But all of them mainly concentrated on specific pos- According to not extensive studies devoted to itive or negative characteristics without identi- social media’s positive effect on brand aware- fying the area of country brand damage. At the ness, the news from specific news brands ex- same time, there is no integrative model linking tensively shared on social media exposes con- the news or fake news and country brand di- sumers to the news brands, which contributes to brand awareness (Hutter et al., 2013). As mensions. Previous research concerning media consumers are exposed to information about impact on audience tended to focus either on the the brand, they develop brand awareness, sim- perceptions of country image from a consum- plifying their brand choices, and making them er’s perspective (Li & al., 2020; Luna-Cortez, more inclined to choose the brand to which they 2018) or on the images projected from various were repeatedly exposed (Yoo, Donthu, & Lee, media channels (Wacker A. & Groth A., 2019; 2000). Brand awareness, in this way, is seen to Bernkopf D. & Nixon L., 2019 ). However, no be the simple familiarity (recall or recognition) effort has been made to examine projected by of a brand name relative to its product category fake news and perceived images of a country McDowell’s (2006,b). In the light of the evidence brand simultaneously and specifically in fake provided in the literature, the following research news propagation and its actual perceptions by hypothesis is proposed: the readers. H1: Fake news will have a direct and nega- The present study attempts to fill a niche by in- tive influence on country brand awareness vestigating the country brand perception by a consumer, the perceived image of country brand Abundant literature in the field of electronic after reading fake news, and its impact on coun- word of mouth supports the fact that it has a try brand equity dimensions. In other words, if significant impact on brand awareness, brand projected images by fake news are evaluated as association, loyalty and perceived quality (Mur- a real influence on changes in country perceived tiasih & al., 2013; Severi & al., 2014). Christ-image and how it is, in turn, related to brand eq- odoulides (2009) posits that social media pro- uity: awareness, associations, quality, and loyalty. vide consumers the platform to express their opinions regarding their interests and, in some instances, even to disagree with the views ex- 4 PAPERS 224 pressed openly. This relates to research where H4: Fake news will have a direct and nega- consumers are regarded to be co-creators of the tive influence on country brand loyalty. brand (Christodoulides, 2009), producing mar- ket perceptions outside the control of the or- Methodology ganization’s management, and hence influencing brand associations in the minds of consumers The main aim of this study is to develop and test (Schivinski and Dabrowski, 2015). Brand asso- a framework that incorporates fake news and ciations, in this context, refer to anything linked (country) brand equity dimensions and assess in memory about the brand, including thoughts, the level of counterfeit news effects on country evaluation in one complex model. feelings, perceptions, images, experiences, be- liefs, attitudes, and everything that reflects the This study applies fake news as “… all kinds of brand characteristics (Kotler & Keller, 2012). false stories or news that are mainly published Regarding this, a second hypothesis contends: and distributed on the Internet, in order to pur- posely mislead, befool or lure readers for finan- H2: Fake news will have a direct and nega- cial, political or other gain.” (Zhang & Ghorbani, tive influence on country brand association 2020, p.4) Perceived quality is distinguished as “the custom- China was selected to be the country of evalua- er’s perception of the overall quality or superior- tion of the deviations in consumers’ perceptions ity of a product or service concerning its intend- of brand equity because, according to data, views ed purpose, relative to alternatives” (Zeithaml, of China have grown more negative in recent 1988, p.3). Consumers identify promotional years across many advanced economies (Silver news as an extrinsic cue to judge the quality of et al. 2020). products (Rao and Monroe, 1989). Researchers also reported positive relations between per- This study applies perceived and projected ap- ceived promotional news and perceived quali- proach to analyze the contribution of fake news ty (Kirmani and Wright, 1989; Villarejo-Ramos to country image from a methodological point of and Sánchez-Franco, 2005). Based on this ap- view. It attempts to fill a niche by investigating proach, the following hypothesis in the context the country brand perception by consumers be- of fake news is proposed: fore reading disinformation, the perceived image of a country brand after reading fake news, and H3: Fake news will have a direct and nega- its impact on country brand equity dimensions. tive influence on country brand quality In other words, if projected images by fake news are evaluated as an actual influence on chang- Finally, the likelihood that readers will remain es in country perceived image and how it is, in loyal to the news distinguishes brand loyalty turn, relates to country awareness, associations, (Lim et al., 2015). When companies offer social quality, and loyalty (Boo, Busser, & Baloglu, media content and frequently update that con-2009). At the same time, this paper evaluates tent, consumers’ brand loyalty is positively af- any deviations from the concept of CBE and its fected (Erdoğmuş & Çiçek, 2012). In addition, dimensions, focusing mainly on a product cate- emotional engagement predicts brand loyal- gory such as traveling and education in Univer- ty—an effect mediated by affective commitment sities of a certain country rather than specific (Sashi, 2012). In other words, when users are brands. CBE theory has become a valid and valu- emotionally involved in the content, they will able framework for examining consumers’ brand have stronger brand loyalty. evaluation, preferences, and purchase intentions 4 PAPERS 225 (Christodoulides and de Chernatony, 2012). and its product. After reading fake news, partic- ipants were asked to indicate their attitude to- For exploring the collective evidence of fake ward the truthfulness of the information (e.g., news impact on country brand equity, quantita- “Please rate your overall attitude toward news”) tive research was chosen. The respondents were on three items anchored with a 7-point scale 290 students of different programs from Russian (Ahluwalia and Gurhan-Canli 2000; Simonin universities around the country. Data were col- and Ruth 1998). Finally, participants proceeded lected using an online questionnaire, which was to the fourth section, where the relation of their supposed to include areas referring to country perceived image after reading fake news was as- brand as well as the product of country brand: sessed based on the same scale provided by Boo, the dimensions of country brand equity of Chi- Busser, & Baloglu (2009) but in another order nese universities; China country brand equity. with the help of the 7-point scale. The variables of the model were measured us- ing multi-item scales (seven-point Likert scales), Results which allow us to obtain evaluations of psycho- logical variables that cannot be quantified direct- A total of 290 respondents took part in the ly (Churchill and Iacobucci, 2002). online survey who are the students of Russian Universitates from cities of various geographi- The scales were adapted from previous studies cal locations around the country with various to ensure content validity: the scale for mea- proximity to China. Most of the respondents are suring country brand loyalty was developed ac- females (226 participants) and just 64 males, of cording to Boo et al. (2009) and Konecnik & whom 91.2 % have never visited China and only Gartner (2007), whereas perceived association 8,8 % have already traveled to China. - Yoo & Donthu, 2001. Country brand aware- ness and perceived country brand quality were The following paired-sample t-test examined measured through scales based on the works of whether a specific deviation in country brand Boo, Busser, & Baloglu (2009) and Konecnik & equity perception occurs after reading fake news Gartner (2007). And all of them were adapted bearing negative collocation. Tables I presents to the specific field: travel as China brand equity the results of the paired-sample t-test. and Chinese higher education services. Table 1 reveals that according to mean data not A survey was conducted to determine the per- all dimensions of brand equity referring to China ceptions about the country brand of China. The as a travel destination and Chinese universities questionnaire incorporates four sections. In the significantly decrease after reading fake news. first section, respondents were asked to provide personal knowledge about the country, their ex- Thus, based on the significance provided in Ta- perience, gender, and age. In the second part, the ble 1, both China and Chinese universities en- perceived image of the respondent was evaluat- compass a considerable decline in the percep- ed based on concepts of cognitive and affective tion of their good name in the brand awareness country image and country brand equity dimen- dimension; in perceived quality, respondents sions; country awareness, associations, quality, show a reduction in personal safety and quality and loyalty, which were assessed with the help of knowledge provided. It seems that perceived of a 7-point scale. In the third section, respon- association possesses fewer inclinations, whereas dents were given fake news messages bearing perceived loyalty depicts significant mitigation negative connotations about China, its people, based on all presented scales of this dimension. It is interesting to note that some scales of per- 4 PAPERS 226 Table 1. Results of paired sample T-test based on answers of Russian respondents Country brand equity dimensions Mean Std. Deviation Sig before 4,84 China has a good name and reputation 1,199 0,000 after 4,28 before 5,16 au) The universities of China have a good name and reputation 1,302 0,000 after 4,26 When I am thinking of an international holiday, China comes before 2,61 sities (B to my mind immediately 1,259 0,086 after 2,73 ver When I am thinking of my international education, the univer- before 2,47 sity of China comes to my mind immediately 1,285 0,101 after 2,34 ac)/ uni before 2,97 I have seen a lot of advertising promoting China holidays 1,356 0,364 try (B after 2,90 un before 2,72 s co I have seen a lot of advertising promoting universities in China 1,276 0,169 es after 2,61 ren before 3,11 The universities of China are very famous 1,353 0,130 wa after 3,23 nd a before 4,37 Characteristics of China come to my mind quickly 1,441 0,935 Bra after 4,38 before 4,25 c) / High-quality accommodation 1,274 0,519 after 4,30 before 3,88 try (PQ u) High levels of cleanliness 1,129 0,436 un after 3,83 before 4,12 High level of personal safety 1,205 0,006 sities (PQ after 3,93 uality co ver before 5,10 High-quality infrastructure 1,108 0,791 ved q uni after 5,08 cei before 4,75 Per High-quality knowledge provided 1,354 0,000 after 4,37 - before 2,54 China fits my personality 1,252 0,190 after 2,44 Ac) / uni before 4,56 My friends would think highly of me if I visited China 1,191 0,000 after 4,10 try (P before 2,85 un au) The image of China is consistent with my self-image 1,220 0,010 after 2,66 n co I can recognize Universities in this China among other compet- before 2,88 atio sities (P 1,267 0,027 ver ing brands. after 2,71 ssoci Some characteristics of the most popular University of China before 2,28 1,337 0,335 ved a come to my mind quickly. after 2,36 cei I can quickly recall the symbol or logo of any university in before 1,90 Per China 1,122 0,000 after 2,18 4 PAPERS 227 Table 1. Results of paired sample T-test based on answers of Russian respondents (continued) si-before 2,51 China would be my preferred choice for a vacation 1,233 0,000 ver after 2,91 before 2,45 China would be my preferred choice for a study 1,005 0,015 after 2,30 Lc) / uni before 4,28 I would advise other people to visit China 1,337 0,004 try (P Lu) after 4,51 un before 3,42 ties (P I would advise other people to study at the University of China 1,200 0,071 lty co after 3,29 ya before 4,96 I intend to visit China in the future 1,147 0,000 ved lo after 4,50 cei before 2,20 Per I intend to study at the University of China in the future 1,011 0,132 after 2,29 ceived association and loyalty are proved to be The impact of gender and the city was estimated significant. However, the indicator increased by the application of the ANOVA test based on (marked read in the Table 1) that means that the DELTA values. To calculate the DELTAs, the fol- wish to go for traveling or study to this country lowing equation was applied: the mean of data has been enhanced. reflecting the perception before reading fake news and the mean of data obtained after read- Since not all scales per dimension elicit con- ing fake news were deployed. siderable differences, it is hard to prove or re- ject the hypothesis. Therefore, a further step in DELTA = Mean (dimension X before reading) – identifying the actual exposure of fake news on Mean (dimension X after reading) country brand equity is the computation of the However, no considerable difference based on average score per each dimension of country gender (F value: 1,558 – 0,000; p value: 0,755 – brand equity, and the results of Table 2 come 0,213), as well as, city (F value: 1,990 – 0,579; from a paired sample t-test in which the means p-value: 0,885 – 0,117) per each dimension were compared. were identified. Therefore, the results obtained confirm that fake To find out the similarities among the examined news has direct and negative influence on China segments before reading fake news and after that, country brand equity in the way of brand aware- DELTA values of the country brand equity per ness (H1) both in accepting China as a travel dimensions as a clustering method were applied destination and a place to study. Additionally, with Ward’s method of coupling and calculation the empirical evidence obtained confirms the of the Euclidean distance among the monitored most substantial effect of fake news on the per- objects. Identified clusters were subsequently ceived association of the country as a travel des- presented in Table 3. tination (H2). Contrary to the prior hypothesis, Three clusters were identified to analyze respon- fake news does not appear to possess significant dents’ behavior based on similarities in behav- exposure to brand loyalty (H4) and perceived ior. The first cluster, which was called “Mixed quality (H3). perceivers,” with the majority of participants 4 PAPERS 228 Table 2. The average dimension unveil the results based on answers of Russian respondents Country brand equity dimensions Mean Std. Deviation t Sig. (2-tailed) 3,6983 H1 Brand awareness country 0,76985 2,765 0,006 3,5733 3,3629 H1 Brand awareness university 0,83526 5,132 0,000 3,1112 4,3388 H3 Perceived quality 0,77723 1,190 0,235 4,2845 3,3138 H2 Perceived association country 0,80322 5,215 0,000 3,0678 2,3540 H2 Perceived association university 0,91675 -1,153 0,250 2,4161 3,9184 H4 Perceived loyalty country 0,86468 -1,041 0,299 3,9713 2,6885 H4 Perceived loyalty university 0,76176 1,362 0,174 2,6276 (146), encompasses the opinions which haven’t perceptions decreased significantly. changed much or a bit both to the negative side in the most dimensions and to the positive side What is worth saying is that these clusters are in perceived loyalty and quality to China as trav- significantly different based only on the city or- el and perceived quality to Chinese Universities. igin. Therefore, these results could rely on the In other words, respondents got a higher inter- theory, which states that the distances from the est in studying and travel to China after reading country could influence the effects of the news. fake news. The second cluster called “Positive perceivers” (42 participants) includes opinions Implication, Limitations, and further re- being transformed significantly from negative search into positive ones in all country brand equity dimensions. These findings unveil the phenom- A key point being developed from the outset is enon that fake news bearing negative connota- an extensive and robust body of literature within tions, in fact, evoked the interest in the mind of news framing and country brand fields. How- students towards China as a country to travel ever, the research attempting to conflate them to or study, which hadn’t been expressed before is scarce and primarily conceptual—and the re- reading them. However, based on T-test results, search integrating fake news impact on country this positive effect is not significant, but such a brand equity involving its product and tourism phenomenon is observed. components is virtually nonexistent. Therefore, the level of fake news impact on country brand And finally, the third cluster, “Negative perceiv- equity has never been supported empirically be- ers,” involves 97 participants with considerably fore. Yet, in practice, most countries are taking changing opinions to the negative ones. That steps to coordinate their images across various means that after reading fake news, consumers’ contexts. 4 PAPERS 229 Table 3. Clusters Mixed perceivers Positive perceivers Negative perceivers Mean 0,1455 -0,5 0,46 Brand awareness country N 146 42 97 St.dev 0,56 0,65 0,78 Mean 0,299 -0,43 0,57 Brand awareness university N 146 42 97 St.dev 0,66 0,65 0,78 Mean -0,17 -0,05 0,48 Perceived quality N 146 42 97 St.dev 0,53 0,65 0,95 Mean -0,28 0,05 1,6 Perceived quality university N 146 42 97 St.dev 0,915 0.88 1,18 Mean 0,24 -0,19 0,54 Perceived association country N 146 42 97 St.dev 0,61 0,97 0,75 Mean 0,14 -1,15 0,23 Perceived association university N 146 42 97 St.dev 0,63 0,97 0,69 Mean -0,15 -0,05 0,19 Perceived loyalty country N 146 42 97 St.dev 0,79 0,84 0,83 Mean 0,18 -0,5 0,26 Perceived loyalty university N 146 42 97 St.dev 0,54 0,69 0,73 Before place marketers are able successfully to particular, according to the results, the percep- develop and implement crisis management pro- tion of brand awareness decreased after reading grams to support the attacked country brand, fake news. In turn, the reduction is seen in China they need to comprehend whether tourism and as a place for travel and study. Thus, it is to say, product images are damaged in the minds of tar- the perceptions about the country determine the get consumers after reading fake news, and if consumers’ evaluation of the universities’ brand so, in what way. This study aimed to contrib- awareness, which in turn will affect their beliefs ute knowledge about the effect of fake news on about the brand image. country brand by developing a practical model that encompasses the damage to both the prod- Finally, fake news negatively influenced the uct and tourism sides of country image. perceived association of the country as a travel destination. Therefore, consumers’ intentions to Thus, the empirical evidence obtained supports visit, study or recommend the country in the fu- the existence of a hierarchy of fake news effects ture will decrease after reading fake news due to on the dimensions of country brand equity. In thoughts, feelings, and familiarity with negative 4 PAPERS 230 changes, which are the base of country brand the COVID-19 period, which was marked as a awareness and association. Thus, consumers’ period of intensive fake news spreading. There- perceptions about the country (in terms of cul- fore, our approach of testing fake news impact ture and heritage, tourism, science, technology, on China brand equity suggests that the results or socio-political issues) will significantly affect may be stable and applicable to other environ- their perceptions of the brand awareness of its ments. On the other hand, different sample and universities. However, no direct negative effect target country combinations may produce dif- of fake news on the brand association of the ferent results. country’s universities was found. Another limitation is that a short-term effect was In addition, the study provides evidence of the evaluated in this study. Respondents had approx- influence of fake news on brand loyalty and per- imately 20 news, after which the dimensions for ceived quality, however, it is not evident. The country brand equity were measured. However, findings suggest that one’s views of damaging the results of long-term effects may vary signifi- disinformation will deteriorate some dimensions cantly because the effect could be constant and of country brand equity but not all of them si- prolonged. multaneously. Finally, the sample only involves Russian students The results contribute to the theoretical founda- who are close to China geographically. This is a tions and practical analysis of place image. For limitation of the study; the results obtained from China, the model dynamics raise important is- the respondents of the farther countries could sues. Its country brand strengths are perceived show some more characteristics and volume of quality and brand loyalty towards the country as fake news influence. a place for travel and study, which are not affect- ed by negative fake news on a short-term base. References While this study is the first to empirically exam- Ahluwalia, R., Gurhan-Canli, Z. (2000). “The Ef- ine the effect of fake news on the dimensions of fects of Extensions on the Family Brand Name: country brand equity, it also has limitations that An Accessibility-Diagnosticity Perspective.” may constrain the generalizability of the findings Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (3): 371-81. and point to possible future research areas. Doi: 10.1086/317591 Albritton, R. B., & Manheim, J. B. (1985). 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As stated there, “[a]tomized employees were asked As a general theoretical framework for this pa- to work from home, and the very definition of per, the stakeholder theory based “Internal com- the workplace seems to have been redefined”. munication matrix” from Welch and Jackson Internal social media and enterprise social net- (2007) will be used. A main component of this works play an important role during this pro- theory is that it differentiates between internal cess, because a “rapid expansion of ESN use line management communication, internal team and its significant role in the ‘new normal’ have peer communication, internal project peer com- combined to create a substantial change to the munication and internal corporate communica- context of work” (Dickinson 2020). tion—four dimensions which are also crucial for the use of internal social media within compa- To analyse current changes linked to these de- nies since all these levels should be part of it (see velopments, a long-term perspective might be figure 1). helpful to distinguish Covid-19 related devel- opments from other, even more fundamental Especially the two mentioned peer levels were effects. Therefore, this paper will use a general heavily affected by the Covid-19 pandemic in stakeholder approach related to internal com- the sense that suddenly, ‘working from home’ munication combined with the “Working from (WFH) became the ‘new normal’. By forcing home” (WFH) concept as well as existing In- (project) teams into the virtual world, the pan- ternal Social Media studies. These perspectives demic reconfigurated internal communication to will be applied to analyse data from a long-term a great extent, with both advantages and disad- interview study concerning the use of internal vantages, as described in the next chapter. While social media within up to 500 German compa- the sudden transition to virtual communication nies 2013-2022. was at first a shock for many teams, rapid adap- 4 PAPERS 236 tion processes could be observed in companies reduce well-being and can lead to burnout and across the world (Standaert et al., 2022). a decrease in engagement (Ter Hoeven et al., 2016). However, it was only the pandemic that led to the widespread use of videoconferencing tools (e.g. EY & Wuppertal Institute, 2020). The widespread use during the pandemic also showed that virtual meetings cannot replace face-to-face meetings—for example, because group processes are slower if they take place in the virtual world or because informal communication is neglected (Blanchard, 2021). According to Ipsen et al. (2021), most knowl- edge workers in Europe had a rather positive experience with WFH during lockdown. How- ever, the authors identified uncertainties at work Figure 1: Internal communication matrix (Welch & (which normally can be dealt with through in-Jackson, 2007, p. 186). tensive peer dialogue) and inadequate tools among the most negative factors. Based on this, the vast majority apparently wishes to continue Virtually Working from Home working flexibly on a remote basis, at least to some extent (Kunze et al. 2020). Nevertheless, Studies conducted long before COVID-19 made learning and habituation effects, as well as the it clear: On the one hand, the use of digital realisation that virtual meetings often save time communication technology at work increases and costs, have permanently changed communi- efficiency and accessibility; on the other hand, cation practices in many companies (Standaert constant interruptions and a lack of planning et al., 2022). Figure 2: Usage of video conferences per country (Weidenbach, 2022, based on data published by EACD & EUPRERA, 2021); n = 2.382 PR experts. 4 PAPERS 237 Internal social media Internal social media can play a major role in the implementation of “working from home” within the internal communication matrix, as scholars have pointed out. They can be under- stood as communication platforms that enable knowledge sharing and communication across hierarchical levels (Madsen, 2021). Ideally, they are designed to facilitate direct communication and collaboration through appropriate platforms (Sievert, 2014), with the aim of enabling em- ployees to work together in more efficient and innovative ways (Bughin, Chui & Harryson, 2016). Therefore, respondents say that the most important tools currently are those including features that improve directly the way how or- ganisations work (fig. 3). It is expected that the development from a “cul- ture of presence” to a “culture of flexibility” will succeed in parallel (Stranzl et al. 2021). Looking at Internal Social Media and follow- ing Huck-Sandhu (2015), social media applica- tions open up new possibilities for collaboration, Figure 3: Perceived advantages of social tools for organi-participation and—above all—dialogic commu- zations (Bughin et al., 2016, p. 3); n = 1,916. nication in organisations. However, according to some studies, a majority does not see “col- laboration in projects as a goal”. Also, just for communications, human resources and gener- some “project and teamwork do not seem to be al management) via address lists and editorial a central task of the intranet” (Kiesenbauer et references. While this study is, like many com- al., 2021). The main focus seems to be more pany studies, not really representative, it does, on communication and employee engagement however, entail a good selection of companies (Sievert & Scholz, 2017). in the country, roughly corresponding to official statistics. Above all, it is highly comparable in Methodology terms of developments over time since there is a very similar composition of distributors and The survey studies were conducted in 2013, participants across all four surveys (see Sievert 2016, 2019 and 2022, in each case in January, & Pütz 2013; 2016; Sievert et al. 2019; Sievert with 579, 555, 352 and 421 respondents re- & Osterbrink 2019). spectively. The online questionnaire, which was validated by an extended qualitative pre-study This year, a total of 401 people from German before the two firsts waves, was distributed to companies took part in the online-based sur- company representatives (mainly in the areas of vey. Between 258 and 263 respondents also an- swered the demographic questions. Once again, the majority of respondents (55.1 percent) are 4 PAPERS 238 currently employed in companies with more workplaces with WFH and office elements than 250 employees. The top 3 business sectors are the preferred model of the future represented in the sample are, as in previous years, “information and communication” is most Of course, this study has important limitations prevalent with 27.4 percent, followed once again and desiderata: First of all, the sample is not rep- by “manufacturing” and this time “financial and resentative, although, as stated above, it is highly insurance services” with 11.0 and 9.1 percent comparable between the four survey waves. Also, respectively it is limited to German companies. Therefore, a really systematic comparison across coun- As in the previous studies, a large part of the tries is needed. Finally, the construct validity of respondents indicated one to five years of com- the items in the questionnaire was tested only pany affiliation (30.2 percent). The respondents in qualitative interviews, but not by statistical are again mainly between 20-29 and 50-59 means. years old (21.8 and 35.1 percent), the other age groups (except for the 14–19-year-olds, Selected results who were not in the focus) are represented this time with 10.3 to 19.5 percent. As in the past, 4.1 Hypothesis 1: The importance of internal management and external communication dom- social media in companies has grown tre- inate with shares between 17.2 and 29.9 per- mendously during the Covid-19 pandemic. cent. Internal communication is less frequent Against the background of the developments of this time with 8.8 percent, while sales/distribu- a significant push towards digitisation in Ger- tion, production and research/development have many cited at the beginning, the authors of the somewhat higher values (10.3 to 12.3 percent). study had expected a very significant increase in In contrast to the previous studies, the gender the importance of internal (as well as external) distribution is somewhat more male-dominated social media compared to the values of the last (60.5 percent male and 39.5 percent female). survey—similar to what had already happened Based on the state of research outlined above, with external communication between 2013 and the following hypotheses have been tested: 2016. However, the results clearly show that this is not the case (see Fig. 4). • Hypothesis 1: The importance of internal social media in companies has grown tre- The share of companies in which social media mendously during the Covid-19 pandemic. is of “high” or “very high” importance in inter- nal communication at the same hierarchical lev- • Hypothesis 2: Participation of employees el increased by only 4.5 percentage points from has become the most important success 34.6 to 39.1 percent within three years. Between factor for internal social media during the 2016 and 2019, on the other hand, the increase Covid-19 pandemic was 14.2 percentage points, and between 2013 • Hypothesis 3: Deterioration of personal re- and 2016 it was still 8.2 percentage points. A lationships is currently seen as the biggest similar development with somewhat lower over- risk linked to internal social media. all values is also evident for the importance of interactive social tools for internal communica- • Hypothesis 4: The older employees, the tion between hierarchy levels: At the beginning more negative colleagues are experienced of this year, they had a high or very high val- during virtual and hybrid meetings ue at 36.5 percent of the companies surveyed. • Hypothesis 5: Flexible working hours and And even with external communication via so- 4 PAPERS 239 Figure 4: Very high and high importance of social media in German companies. Question: “What role does social media play in your company’s day-to-day work to date?” Own survey (n = 579 (2013), n = 555 (2016), n =352 (2019); n = 394-401 (2022); all figures in percent; total top box of the top two values of a scale of five). Fig. 5: Expected changes through the use of internal social media. Question: “Leadership using social media offers opportunities for more dialogue and knowledge sharing. Which of the following changes would you expect for your company and to what extent?” Own survey (n = 579 (2013), n = 555 (2016), n = 271 (2022); 2019 not covered by the study; all figures in percent; total top box of the top two values of a five-point scale). cial media such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, 4.2 Hypothesis 2: Participation of employ- Twitter & Co., there are still significantly higher ees has become the most important success overall values than internally. Meanwhile, the in- factor for internal social media during the crease over the pandemic years from 2019 to Covid-19 pandemic 2022 is even only 3.4 percentage points among the respondents. Hypothesis 1 therefore has to The results are shown in Fig. 5. The respondents be rejected. increasingly confirm the potential of internal so- cial media to involve employees. While the figure was 36.0 percent in 2013, it has increased by 12.4 percentage points between 2016 and 2022 to 53.1 percent. However, the data also show 4 PAPERS 240 that transparency and willingness to engage in 4.4 Hypothesis 4: The older employees, the dialogue (from 64.6 to 57.8 percent) as well as more negative colleagues are experienced to accept criticism (from 32.2 to 18.5 percent) during virtual and hybrid meetings are expected to a lesser degree, but the former continues to occupy the top position. For this The study also asked how colleagues are per- reason, hypothesis 2 cannot be confirmed de- ceived in the context of virtual or hybrid meet- spite strong development in the direction out- ings. The results indicate a neutral or even skep- lined. tical view of virtual or hybrid meetings (see Fig. 7). The negative attribution “distracted” is not 4.3 Hypothesis 3: Deterioration of personal only the most frequently mentioned in relative relationships is currently seen as the biggest terms with 52.3 percent, but it is also the abso- risk linked to internal social media. lute majority. Remarkably, the positive percep- tion “more focused” (38.8 percent) is stated just The hypothesis regarding the risks that respon- a little more often than the negative perception dents expect when using internal social media “more inattentive” (35.4 percent). can be confirmed. 66.3 percent fear that person- al relationships will suffer if such tools are used Certain age-related specifics can also be ob- for change communication. Other critical points served: The older the respondents are, for ex- are perceived to be time-consuming search pro- ample, the more often they perceive colleagues cesses (42.1 percent) and the need for extensive as more focused; the younger they are, the more training (36.8 percent) (see Fig. 6)—but these motivated colleagues seem to be perceived. rank behind the perception assumed in the hy- However, the above mentioned hypothesis must pothesis. The perception of internal social media be rejected: there is no critical view of the old- as confusing and detrimental to communication er generations concerning the online behaviour was only stated by a clear minority of 24.1 per- of colleagues; if anything, younger groups occa- cent. sionally have somewhat higher values here, but there is no clear connection between age and how colleagues are perceived during virtual and hybrid meetings. Figure 6: Disadvantages of internal social media. Question: “In your view, what are the risks of using internal social media for change communication?”; n=261 (2022); multiple answers possible; all figures in percent. 4 PAPERS 241 4.5 Hypothesis 5: Flexible working hours flexible workplace with flexible working hours and workplaces with WFH and office ele- was only preferred by 2 or 3.2 percent nine and ments are the preferred model of the future six years ago, compared to 27.1 percent at the beginning of 2022. However, WFH has even What is interesting to observe regarding hypoth- been reduced as preferred solution from 5.0 per- esis 5 is the development of the preferred work cent in 2013 (with fixed working hours) to 1.9 place over the given time frame, especially when percent in 2022 (with flexible hours). Overall, compared to the own experiences with internal mixed forms are currently most preferred (40.6 social media (see Fig. 8). In 2013 and 2016, percent). the office workplace with flexible working hours (41 and 37.4 percent) was by far the most pre- The findings concerning WFH can be under- ferred solution among employees surveyed con- stood from a stakeholder perspective: Since cerning internal social media. In both years, a spontaneous peer communication is getting Fig. 7: Perception of colleagues during virtual and hybrid meetings. Specific question: “How do you usually experience your colleagues during virtual and hybrid meetings compared to “real” meetings? (Multiple answers possible.) Own survey n = 261, but 5 recipients did not answer the age questions (2022); all figures in percent. Fig. 8: Preferences for work location and working hours. Specific question: “How, when and where should your company’s employees work in the future? Own survey n = 556 (2013), n = 266 (2022), 2019 not covered by the study; all figures in percent. 4 PAPERS 242 quite difficult in a mainly WFH based model, In this case, the data showed that some of the this is rejected even more often than 9 years ago. popular assumptions regarding the digitization Also, mixed forms are now preferred. However, of businesses have to be revised. also these mixed forms are only possible using an appropriate technology as well as on the con- References dition of an adapted meeting and company cul- ture. Nevertheless, the final hypothesis discussed Blanchard, A. L. (2021). The effects of here can be clearly confirmed. COVID-19 on virtual working within online groups. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, Conclusion 24(2), 290-296. Bughin, J., Chui, M., Harryson, M. (2016). The results of the 2022 study show that the ex- How social tools can reshape the organ- pected big push towards digitization cannot be isation. 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But this depends on whether the increased cation Monitor 2021. https://www.communi- use of digital technology is also followed by a cationmonitor.eu/2021/05/21/ecm-europe- cultural change within organisations. an-communication-monitor-2021/ The practical implications of this study should Ernst & Young (EY) & Wuppertal Institute thus be quite evident: Only if internal social (2020). COVID-19: Umweltpolitik und media communication takes into account the Digitalisierung. [Interim Report COVID-19: En- specific stakeholder dimension of international vironmental Policy and Digitalisation.] Berlin: communication, it can be successful. Moreover, Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, only if internal social media communication is nukleare Sicherheit und Verbraucherschutz. successful, the digital side of a flexible workplace Huck-Sandhu, S. (2015). Interne Kommunikation with flexible working hours can be realised ap- im Wandel [Internal communication in transiti- propriately—and organisations might be able to on.] Wiesbaden: Springer. rediscover and further develop communication with internal stakeholders. Ipsen, C., van Veldhoven, M., Kirchner, K., & Hansen, J. P. (2021). Six Key Advantages and In other words: Organisations need to address Disadvantages of Working from Home in Eu- specific cultural change dimensions to foster a rope during COVID-19. International Journal “real” new normal. Only then the real advantag- of Environmental Research and Public Health, es of a really “new” workplace can be “rebooted”. 18(4), 1826. Finally, this study has demonstrated that the dis- Kiesenbauer, J., Oertel, T., Wolf, F. (2021). Int- cussion of how the pandemic has affected (inter- ranet-Studie 2021: Status quo und Erfolgsfakto- nal) communication needs to be evidence-based. ren des Intranets. 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In: Ter Hoeven, C. L., van Zoonen, W., & Fonner, K. Hirsch, L. (ed.): Jahrbuch Hirschtec (pp. 92-L. (2016). The practical paradox of technolo- 95). Hamburg: Hirschtec. gy. The influence of communication technolo- Sievert, H. & Pütz, H. (2013). Soziale Medien gy use on employee burnout and engagement. im Unternehmen der Zukunft. Erste Ergeb- Communication Monographs, 83(2), 239-263. nisse einer aktuellen Trendstudie [Social me- Weidenbach, B. (2022, 20. Juli). Zustimmung dia in the company of the future. First results zur Aussage: Ich habe im letzten Jahr häufig of a current trend study.] In: Arns, T., Bentele, Videokonferenzen für die Stakeholder-Kom- 4 PAPERS 244 munikation genutzt. [Agreement with the statement: I often used video conferences for the stakeholder communication in the previ- ous year.] Statista. (Based on data from EACD & EUPRERA, 2021). https://de.statista.com/ statistik/daten/studie/1242152/umfrage/vid- eokonferenzen-in-der-unternehmenskommu- nikation-nach-laendern/ Welch, M. and Jackson, P.R. (2007). “Rethink- ing internal communication: a stakeholder ap- proach”, Corporate Communications: An Interna- tional Journal, 12(2,) 177-198. 4 PAPERS 245 Employee satisfaction with internal communication in private companies during the first lockdown Vidaković, Ivona, student, Edward Bernays University College, Zagreb, Croatia, ivona.vidakovic@stud.bernays.hr Dabo, Krešimir, PhD, Edward Bernays University College, Zagreb, kresimir.dabo@bernays.hr, ORCID iD https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9260-7384 Gluvačević, Dejan, PhD, Edward Bernays University College, Zagreb, dejan.gluvacevic@bernays.hr, ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4960-648X Abstract nication and communication channels in their companies with an emphasis on organizational Internal public relations, ie internal communica- culture and relationships with employees during tion, includes communication within the organi- the first lockdown Croatia. zation that can flow from superiors to employ- ees, from employees to superiors and between The results of the research indicated the re- employees. Quality internal communication in spondents satisfaction with the communication times of crisis is the key to the survival of com- processes in their organizations during the first panies in the future, so many Croatian compa- lockdown, and that the corona crisis did not nies in March, April and May 2020 found them- significantly affect the change of employees’ at- selves in an uncertain situation in which they titudes towards employers, but the results also had to adapt internal communication and orga- showed that there is room for improvement in nizational culture to new circumstances. Why is internal communication management1. employee satisfaction with internal communica- tion important? The reason is very simple, sat- Introduction isfied and motivated employees and successful communication with internal stakeholders will In 2020, the COVID-19 crisis hit the whole create satisfied customers and successfully com- world, and it is still unfathomable what and how munication with external stakeholders. For the many consequences it will leave behind. Its ef- purposes of this thesis, an anonymous survey fects are clearly visible in the daily operations of questionnaire was proven on a sample of 84 re- most companies. In the most challenging period spondents. The questionnaire sought to examine during March, April and May 2020, companies respondents’ satisfaction with internal commu- had to show how they cope with the crisis and 1 1 The paper was created as part of the research for the master thesis of the student Ivona Vidaković at the Public Relation Management study, Edward Bernays University College, Zagreb. 4 PAPERS 246 how prepared they are for it in all aspects of The subject of this research is the internal com-their operations and management. munication of Croatian companies during the COVID-19 crisis and the first lockdown, with a One of these areas is internal public relations, special emphasis on organizational culture and more precisely - internal communication. Inter- the relationship with employees, as well as em- nal communication, as part of public relations, ployee satisfaction with internal communication is a relatively young field in practice that most during the first lockdown. The period of the companies did not pay much attention to until first lockdown in the Republic of Croatia covers the first lockdown. At that time, under the pres- March, April and May 2020. sure of the overall situation, companies had to adapt internal communication to the new condi- The role of internal communication in com- tions, considering that for most employees, work panies was moved from the office to their homes. Along with the concept of internal communication, Business communication is realized in two key there is also the concept of organizational cul- categories - within the organization (internal ture, and these two concepts are interconnected communication) and outside the organization and complement each other. Consistency with (external communication). Internal public re- organizational values and the overall organiza- lations refer to communication between em- tional culture is an important factor in the sur- ployees and superiors, communication between vival of a company in times of crisis. Employees, superiors and employees, and mutual commu- as the main resource of every company, repre- nication between employees that flows horizon- sent the most sensitive part that needs to be giv- tally. Cultivating internal communication in the en a lot of attention considering all the negative company is an important prerequisite for the aspects that the crisis brings to every company. further development of the company and its ex- If internal communication is ineffective, wrong ternal operations. The following is a description and of poor quality, it is quite clear that the fu- of the development of internal communication ture of the company itself is extremely uncer- through history and its conceptual definition. tain: “However, internal communication - if it Also, the relevance of internal communication in is not good - becomes a dangerous threat to the the company’s business will be highlighted and organization that can tear it apart into its com- the organizational placement of internal com- munication in companies will be shown, as well ponent parts. Good and/or bad communication as the presentation of certain models and chan- significantly affects organizational efficiency. nels of internal communication. Therefore, it deserves more effort and attention. It’s about a skill that can and should be constant- In the United States of America, the term em- ly improved,” he points out (Novak-Ištok, 2006: ployee communication is most often used, while 38). Therefore, it is very important to set up in Croatia it is common to use the term - internal an appropriate communication plan and inter- communication or internal communication. In nal communication channels that, in accordance addition to the mentioned name, there are many with the organizational culture of the company, other equivalent names such as internal (corpo- will strengthen the employees’ trust in the com- rate) communication, internal public relations, pany in which they are employed and help in the communication with associates, communication fight against the crisis, but also enable external with employees, information for associates, busi- communication with end users and customers to ness communication, corporate communication be efficient. and organizational communication. Internal 4 PAPERS 247 communication, as Tench and Yeomans (2009: employee satisfaction and motivation, but also 358) point out, is a “specialization within the to the success of the company. Brkić (2003 ac- broader field of public relations”. cording to Tomić, 2016: 798) believes that in- ternal communication programs motivate em- Internal communication is generally understood ployees to do their jobs better and accordingly as communication with employees. Stauss and adds six key programs for employee relations: Hoffmann (2000: 132 according to Tench, Yeo- security, participation, consideration, respect, mans, 2009: 359) defined internal communica- recognition and opportunities. Quality internal tion as “the planned use of communication ac- communications “influence the improvement tions to systematically influence the knowledge, of productivity, reduction of absenteeism, in- attitudes and behaviors of current employees”. creased level of innovation, reduced number of At the level of knowledge, theorists believe that strikes, higher quality of products and services, an employee must be informed and must know better reputation and reduced business costs” the organization’s strategy and organization- (Clampitt, Downs, 1993 according to Sušanj al changes. On the other hand, at the level of Šulentić, 2014: 61). Good internal communi-attitudes, the employee must be identified with cation, as Bolfek, Milković and Lukavac (2017: the organization and must understand manage- 23) point out, is a necessary condition for the ment’s decisions. Ultimately, by achieving the development of successful external communica- stated goals, employee behavior will be self-re- tion, given that internal communication affects sponsible, and internal communication will be the efficiency, satisfaction and motivation of high-quality, explains Tomić (2016: 794). M. employees, but also the value of the company Welch and P. R. Jackson (2007: 183) believe itself. Accordingly, companies that have success- that internal communication is the strategic ful and high-quality communication with their management of relationships and interactions employees have more satisfied and productive between stakeholders at all levels within the or- employees, but also a better reputation, greater ganization. Tomić (2016: 793) points out that customer loyalty, and achieve significantly better internal communication is “a term used to de- financial results. Robbins and Judge (2009 ac- scribe a system of organizational management of cording to Jurković, 2012: 391) clearly set four communication where employees are considered functions of communication within the organi- the most important target public”. For Milas zation - controlling, motivating, emotional ex- (2011: 114), internal communication “includes pression and informing. Internal organizational all communication and information procedures communication enables managers and executives between members of organizations”. The author to have a standard level of control over the mem- Tkalac Verčić (2015: 285) emphasizes that in- bers of the organization. Also, internal commu- ternal organizational communication is the cre- nication stimulates employees and encourages ator of the communication system between the managers to give feedback information about the employer and the employee, and it has the role quality of subordinates’ work, but also enables of maintaining that same system. For Duraković the expression of employees’ feelings in social (2019: 67), internal communication is commu- interaction in the context of formal or informal nication between people who make up a compa- internal communication in the company. Final- ny, but also between departments of a company ly, the function of informing implies the trans- and between the leadership and membership of mission of data and information that are nec- that company. essary for business decision-making. “None of the four functions of communication is more or Open and two-way communication is the key to less important. In order for the organization to 4 PAPERS 248 operate successfully, it needs to maintain control stakeholders. The strategic purpose of internal over its employees, stimulate their work, enable communication, as emphasized by Tench and them to express their feelings and facilitate de- Yeomans (2009; 362), can be understood as cision-making,” explains Jurković (2012: 391). concern for building two-way and inclusive re- lations with internal publics with the aim of im- M. Welch and P. R. Jackson (2007: 188) point proving the effectiveness of the organization and out that the goals of internal communication as such is crucial in the context of responding to are determined by the words commitment, be- problems and crises, promoting brand value and longing, awareness and understanding. Internal managing relations with external interest-influ- communication contributes to internal relation- ential publics. ships characterized by employee commitment, promotes a positive sense of belonging to the Authors company, but also develops the employee’s awareness of changes in the environment and In the field of internal communication research consequently develops an understanding of the so far, significant results have been shown. For company’s goals as a response to these chang- example, Čorić and Musa (2015: 154-157) es. Broom (2010 according to Bolfek, Milković, conducted a survey on satisfaction with inter- Lukavac, 2017: 18) summarizes the purpose of nal communication in a public institution on internal communication in three key points - ac- a sample of 97 respondents. The results of the culturation of employees, informing employees, research showed that the respondents express listening to employees. From the moment a new the lowest level of satisfaction with the feedback person is hired, it is crucial that they are famil- they receive about their personal success with an iar with the organizational culture and its most emphasis on the issues of their personal needs, important values. It is also extremely important evaluation of employees and their work perfor- that employees are informed about organiza- mance by their superiors, and their superiors’ tional developments, events and news, but also understanding of work-related problems. Also, that they are given the opportunity to express the authors determined that all the correlation their concerns, difficulties and suggestions for coefficients between the dimensions of satisfac- improvement. Novak-Ištok (2006: 38) vividly tion with internal communication and overall describes the role and purpose of internal com- satisfaction with internal communication are munication in companies: “Internal communica- extremely important, high and positive, while tion is often compared to a network or mesh the key dimensions of satisfaction with internal that holds (or should hold) organizational units communication were examined - data on per- together. However, internal communication - if sonal success, communication with superiors, it is not good - becomes a dangerous threat to horizontal communication, organizational inte- the organization, which can break it down into gration , corporate information, communication its component parts. Good and/or bad commu- climate and media quality. Bolfek, Milković and nication significantly affects organizational ef- Lukavac (2017: 21-23) investigated the impact ficiency. Therefore, it deserves more effort and of internal communication on employee satis- attention. It’s about a skill that can and should faction with their workplace on a sample of 68 be constantly improved.” employees of a trading company. The authors es- tablished a link between internal communication The initial need for internal communication and job satisfaction, and accordingly conclude: arose parallel to the need for companies to stra- “Effectiveness in communication with colleagues tegically communicate with all their external and business partners and professional business 4 PAPERS 249 behavior has become an important skill in busi- (2012: 395-396) investigated the state of or- ness. Today, internal communication is consid- ganizational communication on the example of ered one of the most important tools in running a private economic entity in which 41 employ- an organization, because its effectiveness spills ees filled out the questionnaire, and the focus over into the effectiveness of communication of the research was on the frequency of com- with external stakeholders. The fact that today munication, the method of communication and more and more attention is paid to internal satisfaction with communication that is realized communication is not at all surprising when you in the observed economic entity. The research take into account its importance in the business showed that communication from the top to the of every company. Internal communication is a base is daily and frequent. It is interesting that prerequisite for effective and good teamwork, the research points out that employees exclu- and if it is negative, it can be its biggest obstacle.” sively use traditional channels of communication (Bolfek, Milković, Lukavac, 2017: 24). such as face-to-face conversations and phone conversations, and the reason given by the au- Sušanj Šulentić (2014: 65-75) investigated the thor is the smaller number of employees in the connection of the internal communication cli- business unit, that is, the size of the observed mate with job satisfaction and employee loyalty business unit. None of the company’s employees on a sample of 786 respondents employed in participate in video conferences, and only a few a company that underwent strategic organiza- employees use e-mail as a channel of internal tional changes immediately before the research, communication. However, in the near future, the and determined that the communication climate company should consider new communication is the key factor for job satisfaction : employee channels due to simpler and more effective com- information about corporate activities, satisfac- munication that can be better for its business tion with co-workers, perceived importance of and thus can strengthen its competitive position the workplace in the organization, perceived job on the market, according to the author. A per- stability and perceived sense of injustice. Also, centage of 90% of respondents showed satisfac- the author’s research confirmed the assumption tion with internal communication, and the au- that a high-quality communication climate is ex- thor concludes that in smaller and hierarchical tremely important for employee satisfaction and organizations the director communicates regu- loyalty in challenging moments of communicat- larly and personally with employees. ing bad news and strategic shifts. In order for in- ternal communication to be effective, Duraković Internal communication and organizational (2019: 68) states that it must be timely, cred- culture ible, concise, comprehensible, transparent and unambiguous, and employees must have a good Organizational culture is the culture of the com- understanding of the organization’s strategy pany and includes the vision, mission and va- and goals, so accordingly the author relates the lues that the organization cherishes towards its functional significance of internal communica- employees, as well as external stakeholders. The tion to practical effects. According to the author, concepts of internal communication and organi- internal communication must achieve certain zational culture are interrelated and inseparable, practical results so that the organization can be and as such they complement and complement maintained and renewed. The dynamic character each other. After the definition of the organiza- of internal communication is manifested in the tional culture, a theoretical presentation of the realization of communication through concrete importance of the vision, mission and values of activities in a certain time and space. Jurković the organization in the context of the company’s 4 PAPERS 250 operations follows. tionality, type of activity, types of organizational structure, ownership, size of the organization , The gathering of people in a certain space for a type of tasks, goals, environmental technology certain time results in the creation of a cultural and leadership style, characteristics of the orga- phenomenon. Culture is an important element nization and administrative processes within it. of every form of organization, including com- panies. As such, it forms the basis of communi- The three layers of organizational culture are cation itself. One of the most important func- values, behaviors and habits, as well as symbols tions of internal communication is, as previously and language. It is possible to manage the cul- stated several times, the promotion of organi- ture in the organization through a clearly de- zational culture. Organizational culture is „the fined vision, mission and statement of the or- implicit, invisible, intrinsic and informal con- ganization’s values. Behaviors and habits refer sciousness of the organization that directs the to the existence of formal policies and informal behavior of individuals and is shaped by their customs in the organization, and symbols and behavior” (Scholz, 1987: 80). Cingula (1992: language represent the most visible level of or- 498 according to Žugaj, Bojanić-Glavica, Brčić, ganizational culture. Certain authors believe that 2004: 18) points out that „organizational cul- organizational culture is manifested on a visible ture is expressed through the behavior of em- and invisible level. The visible part of organiza- ployees, and through the history and tradition of tional culture consists of symbols, language, rit- the company, the long-standing value of brands, uals, customs, way of dressing, technology, and corporate identity, a mix of rational and intuitive the other invisible part of organizational culture company management techniques, long-term re- consists of organizational values (Schein, Edgar, lationship with consumers, quality, and product 1985 according to Duraković, 2019: 81). service and maintenance”. Bahtijarević-Šiber et al. (1991: 202) state that organizational culture It is extremely important to nurture the orga- is „a relatively permanent and specific system of nizational culture and focus on improving or forms of behavior, values, beliefs, norms and cu- maintaining the quality of relations with em- stoms that determines organizational behavior, ployees in times of crisis in order for the overall opinion and directs all the activities of indivi- business of the company to survive, but in order duals and groups that make them up”. Organi- to ultimately preserve relations with all external zational culture, as pointed out by Brčić (2002: stakeholders, which affects the very market posi- 1049), „is a set of open and secret rules, values tion of the company: and principles, which are permanent and guide behavior in the organization, it provides me- “It is a well-known claim that employees are aning to the members of the organization”. Sika- the ‘most valuable resource’, which companies vica and Novak (1999: 596) see organizational often emphasize when creating their own mis- culture as „a system of values, understanding, sion. However, in many cases this remains just a belief, ethics, lifestyles, personality and character dead letter on paper, especially in extraordinary of the company”. situations of a business crisis when exclusive attention is directed to the market (customers, Sikavica and Novak (1999; 593-594) believe consumers, clients, business partners), while that organizational culture is influenced by var- simply ignoring employees, without realizing ious elements such as organizational history, that they are the ones the key to success. In the qualification structure, spatial location, features same way, it is necessary to invest in resourc- and personality of the management, but also na- es and use them adequately, which is not only 4 PAPERS 251 true for material, but even more so for human also external. Changes in the external environ- capital. Furthermore, it is important not only to ment that affect the organization, Crandall, Par- speak to employees, but to talk with them, to nell, Spillan (2014: 54), divide into political-le- respect their opinion, attitudes, view of the sit- gal factors, economic factors, social factors and uation, remarks, suggestions and praise, bearing technological factors. in mind that the company achieves a competi- tive advantage based on their quality. Quality is Jugo points out (2017: 60-63) that changes in exactly what competing companies cannot copy, the political environment refer to changes in le- unlike technology, product or service range.” gal regulations, government policies and changes (Brčić, Malbašić, Đukes, 2013:291) An organi- in international politics. Furthermore, he attri- zational culture that nurtures a relationship with butes the growth or decline of GDP, potential employees is essential for internal communica- inflation and increased interest rates and chang- tion, and these two concepts are interwoven and es in other economic indicators to econom- connected. Quality organizational culture con- ic factors. Social factors include social values, tributes to quality internal communication, and trends, religious worldviews and trends such as quality internal communication creates a quality the trend of healthy living and sustainable devel- organizational culture that enables resistance to opment. He considers scientific innovations and change. technology as technological factors that can be an opportunity, but also a potential threat for Corona crisis and internal communication the organization. Also, Jugo (2017: 59) points out that crisis situations can be divided based In a turbulent and uncertain situation, with ever on the difference between their causes, which faster and more radical changes, the COVID-19 are “known-unknown” and “unknown-known”. crisis encouraged companies to adapt their cur- “Known-unknown” includes accidents that may rent communication to the new situation. Adap- occur due to the influence of the organization tation of internal communication and organiza- and its activities, while “unknown-known” refers tional culture and investment in relations with to events that cannot be predicted, such as em- employees is of crucial importance for finding ployee behavior or unpredictable circumstances. new and original solutions in order to meet the demands of the market, but also to ensure the Jugo points out (2017: 60-63) that changes in advantage of the organization over the competi- the political environment refer to changes in le- tion in a crisis. gal regulations, government policies and changes in international politics. Furthermore, he attri- Every company goes through changes in its exis- butes the growth or decline of GDP, potential tence. These changes, as a series of factors, affect inflation and increased interest rates and chang- the company, especially the employees, and can es in other economic indicators to econom- potentially create a crisis. A crisis is “an anom- ic factors. Social factors include social values, alous event that can negatively affect an organi-trends, religious worldviews and trends such as zation and that requires its effective communi- the trend of healthy living and sustainable devel- cation in order to reduce the damage associated opment. He considers scientific innovations and with the event to the greatest extent possible” technology as technological factors that can be (Jugo, 2017: 23). The source of changes and an opportunity, but also a potential threat for crises can be internal, such as changes in the the organization. Also, Jugo (2017: 59) points way of working, management structure, quality out that crisis situations can be divided based of communication, working conditions, etc., but on the difference between their causes, which 4 PAPERS 252 are “known-unknown” and “unknown-known”. Osmanagić-Bedenik (2010: 109) defines crisis “Known-unknown” includes accidents that may management as an activity aimed at “planning occur due to the influence of the organization and implementing certain measures to ensure and its activities, while “unknown-known” refers the primary goals of the company”. Quality crisis to events that cannot be predicted, such as em- management, or crisis management, is the key ployee behavior or unpredictable circumstances. to the survival of an organization in a crisis and after it. It seeks to reduce or completely pre-Otto Lerbinger (1997 according to Jugo, 2017: vent the crisis and its consequences, thus fully 58-59) categorized eight types of crisis situa- protecting the organization, its operations and tions according to two key causes - management stakeholders: “In its essence, crisis management irregularities and environmental forces. In eight enables the organization to formulate a system- types of crisis situations, Lerbinger includes atic response to crisis situations. This answer is natural crises (weather disasters and diseases), the basis that enables the organization to contin- technological crises (breakdown of equipment or ue its daily operations while managing the crisis technology), confrontational crises (boycott of at the same time,” Jugo (2017: 26) believes. products and services of a certain company due to unethical operations), malevolence, distorted The authors Kalyal and Saha (2008 according to management values, fraud (lying to employees ), Belak, Ušljebrka, 2014: 92) closely associate the irregularities in the work of the administration term organizational culture with the term orga- (disrespect for the law and unethicality) and nizational commitment, which is influenced by economic and business crises. two important factors, namely communication during change and trust in management, which According to W. T. Coombs and S. J. Holladay we closely associate with the management of in- (2002), the types of crises can be as follows: cri- ternal communication and organizational culture ses in which the organization is a victim (min- in companies during the COVID-19 pandemic in imum organizational responsibility), crises due March, April and May 2020. Encouraging and to an accident (low organizational responsibili- timely internal communication during change ty), crises that could have been prevented (high affects the reduction of skepticism and negativ- organizational responsibility). The authors in- ity among employees: “During organizational clude natural disasters (tornado, earthquake, change, it is necessary for management to com- fire, epidemic, etc.), rumors (inaccurate infor- municate with employees in order to gain their mation about the organization), violence in the commitment. If employees are timely and accu- workplace and an external factor that can cause rately informed about the course and outcomes a certain type of damage to the organization for of the organizational change, they will be less some reason to crises in which the organization skeptical about it. If there is no effective commu- is a victim. Organizations have a low level of nication strategy, rumors can seriously harm the responsibility in crises due to an accident caused change process, because it will increase uncer- by a technical error (equipment failure, damage tainty and develop a negative attitude towards it, to products due to equipment failure, claims by thus undermining organizational commitment” stakeholders about the company’s inappropriate (Belak, Ušljebrka, 2014: 92). Kalyal and Saha way of doing business). The crises that could (2008 according to Belak, Ušljebrka, 2014: have been prevented include accidents caused by 92) believe that the purpose of communication human error, damage to products due to human during a certain change is “a vision, to minimize error, and violations of the law by management the fear of insecurity, to overcome resistance and and those responsible. cynicism towards change and to gain the com- 4 PAPERS 253 mitment of employees”. On the other hand, Belak mon need to instill hope that the future will be and Ušljebrka (2014:92) conclude that due to better. By the level of adaptation, Hurley means the absence of open formal communication from the minimum time to gain trust in other persons superiors to employees during certain changes, who carry a key characteristic that determines employees are influenced by various information and conditions the time of trust creation in cer- and misinformation, which can affect previously tain persons. Furthermore, the factor of relative acquired trust in superiors and thus create an power stems from the hierarchical position of a extremely negative attitude towards change and person in an organization or company, because organizational culture. When employees develop a person at a higher hierarchical level represents trust in management, they will accept the deci- greater authority and thus creates a greater level sions made by managers and executives because of trust among others. Connecting organization- they believe that management puts their needs al members based on shared values, belonging and wants first while empathizing with employ- to a certain group or based on traits creates a ees. When this trust reaches an extremely high higher level of trust. A person who can under- level, as a result, employees will be ready to give stand the interests of others, satisfy them, fo-themselves more and more to the organization cus on them before his own interests, and take and efforts to face organizational change and its risks for the benefit of others, is certainly a per- potential consequences, which can be negative son who will easily win the trust and loyalty of as well as positive. Kalyal and Saha believe that his employees. A trustworthy manager must be “trust reduces resistance and enhances commit- competent, consistent and have integrity, and his ment to change, which paves the way for suc- future endeavors must be predictable to all em- cessful implementation of change” (2008 ac- ployees. And finally, lack of communication re- cording to Belak, Ušljebrka, 2014: 92). sults in mistrust, so it is necessary to encourage open and honest communication. Employee trust in the company’s crisis manage- ment is achieved, among other things, through The impact of the corona crisis on internal quality and effective communication and is one communication of the key factors in the company’s fight against the crisis, while “motivational, perceptual and Crisis situations mark a specific period in the experiential barriers in communication in the company’s operations in which communication crisis manager-employee relationship (in both with target audiences, internal and external, is directions) represent the greatest danger and at absolutely adapted to the circumstances. “In or- the same time lead to organizational ineffective- der for an organization to be created, function ness, which is primarily reflected in the failure and survive, (internal) communication is nec- to achieve basic business goals” (Brčić, Malbašić, essary, which is rightly compared to the blood Đukes, 2013: 287-288). Also, Hurley (2006 ac- flow in the body. She - communication is a (pre) cording to Brčić, Malbašić, Đukes, 2013: 289) condition that cannot be done without. In order lists and explains ten factors that form the basis for work processes to take place, it is necessary for building trust between employees and superi- to communicate. Every human action is at the ors in specific situations such as a crisis, namely: same time a communication - even the negative risk tolerance, level of adaptation, relative pow- one, which we often call non-standard or crisis”, er, security, similarity, satisfaction of interests, says Novak-Ištok (2006: 38). Milas notes: “In-benevolent concern, ability, integrity and pre- ternal communication is especially important in dictability, level of communication. People differ times of organizational changes in the corpora- in their risk appetite, and they all have a com- tion. The goals in the communication of changes 4 PAPERS 254 are to encourage new patterns of behavior and tus of the crisis and its potential development, to prevent activities or behaviors that can com- as well as expectations in the future in terms of plicate the process of changes in the company” resolving it. Likewise, Jugo (2017:168) believes (2011: 115). During crisis periods, vertical in- that due to the possibility of uncertainty regard- ternal communication with an emphasis on the ing job loss, employees should be informed and two-way relationship between crisis manage- focused on daily duties. According to Theaker ment and employees is of key importance. Man- (2007: 194 according to Jugo, 2017: 168), it agers must timely and accurately inform their is also necessary to think about the fact that employees about the causes of the crisis, potential employees are not a passive and homogeneous consequences and the crisis management process group, but consist of different interest groups, because “only with such an approach will crisis each of which has its own needs for information. managers be able to develop a relationship with employees based on mutual trust, which will For Fearn-Banks (2011: 48 according to Jugo, certainly result in increased employee engage- 2017: 168), the best channels for transferring ment and their involvement in finding business information during a crisis in an organization are solutions crisis” (Brčić, Malbašić, Đukes, 2013: meetings, e-mails, intranet and bulletin boards, 288). However, employees also have a very im- as well as a well-laid crisis communication plan. portant role in communication because by ac- Jugo (2017: 168) especially emphasizes two key tively listening and making suggestions, but also channels of internal communication during the by pointing out irregularities in the actions and crisis - the Internet and the intranet. Regard- suggestions of crisis managers, and in conclusion ing the Internet, he points out that “although it Brčić, Malbašić and Đukes (2013: 288) point is a form of one-way communication, it is an out: “The link between all the above-mentioned important tool for solving communication prob- activities is communication, which is necessary lems during a crisis because its main feature is for the exchange of information and knowledge, speed and availability, which are key to success- overcoming conflicts, distribution of tasks, em- ful communication during a crisis” (2017: 168). powerment, or simply put - mutual understand- Regarding the intranet, he states that “it is also ing. It is precisely high-quality internal commu- one of the excellent channels for solving commu- nication that contributes to building trust in the nication problems, and the additional possibility organization - both in horizontal organizational that this channel provides is the formation of communication (among employees of the same internal discussion groups that can be an effec- hierarchical level), and even more so in vertical tive two-way channel of communication, which organizational communication (among employ- will have a therapeutic effect and enable the ees of different hierarchical levels).” organization’s employees to connect with each other, especially if the organization is large and The internal public, as Jugo (2017: 167) points the employees are not located in the same place” out, includes all classifications of employees - (Jugo, 2017: 168-169). Milas (2011: 115) workers, interns, management, volunteers and states that the key channels of internal commu- occasional associates. Crandall, Parnell, Spillan nication during changes are personal communi- (2014: 199) lists two basic functions related cation (face to face), an internal magazine for to communication with internal stakeholders in employees, intranet and e-mail. Recommended times of crisis. Management and control func- channels for improving internal communication tion of communication involving management according to Novak-Ištok (2006: 39) are reg- and owners - crisis management. Another func- ular written notices and instructions, employee tion is to inform other employees about the sta- meetings, departmental meetings, short regular 4 PAPERS 255 management meetings (briefings) and control the crisis and fed them bad information, which of informal communication. For Tench and Yeo- leads to the feeling that they are treated exactly mans (2009: 374), the six main channels for like mushrooms”. This comparison indicates the internal communication are: importance of internal communication even in situations where the information for employees • Internal magazine – conveying manage- is not positive and promising. The importance ment messages and business news. of quality communication in the corona crisis • Intranet – transfer of corporate documents, is also indicated by the fact that quality internal but also has an interactive form. communication builds quality, good and posi- • Bulletin boards – a traditional medium tive relationships within the organization, which found in corridors and areas for employees, consequently raise the quality of the atmosphere most often used to announce events and in which work processes take place, which leads can be updated as needed. to a higher quality of work itself and communi- cation with clients, users, customers and other • Newsletter – a weekly publication that is key stakeholders in challenging times such as the distributed via e-mail, and the format can COVID-19 pandemic. “In order for the compa- be adapted to current issues. ny to be successful in its operations and serving • Conference with management – a face-to- the target markets with the aim of not only sur- face medium, the director can address all vival, but also further growth and development, employees, but employees can also partici- the contribution of both management and other pate in the form of workshops. employees is important. This is precisely why crisis situations are viewed as ‘common prob- • Briefing groups – a face-to-face medium lems’ of managers and employees, but they are for the transfer of management information not only problems, but also opportunities for from different levels of the organization, positive changes,” according to Brčić, Malbašić can be held as a team and are usually two- and Đukes (2013: 282-283). way. Research questions, hypotheses and method- Fearn-Banks (2011: 48 according to Jugo, ology 2017: 169) emphasizes that during a crisis, it is important to provide employees with quality For the purposes of this work, a quantitative re- information that will ensure that they contin- search was conducted using the survey question- ue to work normally and that the organization naire method. The research was conducted on continues to operate normally, and if necessary, a convenient sample of 84 respondents via the educate them and direct them to perform a spe- Google Docs platform. The target group was all cific task. They also point out the importance employed respondents in the Republic of Croatia of open communication with employees about between the ages of 18 and 60. The focus of the the temporary or permanent loss of their jobs if research was to gather an equal number of re- the crisis implies this, along with an explanation spondents from different types of companies in of the possibilities in the future depending on relation to their size. The type of economic ac- the outcomes of the crisis. A common problem tivity of the company in which the respondents that occurs with employees is the “mushroom” were employed provided a profile of the compa- problem. Jugo (2017: 169) explains that this is ny in which the respondents were employed. The a situation “in which employees complain that survey questionnaire consisted of twenty-two the management left them in the dark during questions, and was available for completion from 4 PAPERS 256 August 2 to September 1, 2021. Each company ployees) and medium-sized companies (50-249 is a special system that differs from other compa- employee). Large companies with more than nies in many features of its structure and way of 250 employees have also been added. In some functioning. Companies can be divided accord- questions, a Likert scale was set on which re- ing to various criteria, and some of these criteria spondents expressed their own attitude. Also, are the following: company activity, company for some questions, respondents had the option size, key resource of the company, ownership of multiple choice of answers and a completely and legal form of the company. For the purposes open and descriptive answer. The main goal of of this research, three key categories were dis- the research was to examine the attitudes of em- tinguished: ownership, size and activity of the ployees of privately owned Croatian companies company. The division of companies according (micro, small, medium and large) about internal to ownership is important for determining the communication during the first lockdown in the way of managing the company, therefore, only Republic of Croatia. The subject of research in privately owned companies were analyzed in the this thesis was the internal communication of paper. The type of economic activity that the Croatian companies during the COVID-19 crisis company engages in significantly determines the and the first lockdown, with a special emphasis other features of its economic - technical struc- on organizational culture and the relationship ture and operations, as well as the ability to adapt with employees. The period of the first lock- to new trends in the management of the compa- down in the Republic of Croatia covers March, ny’s internal communication. Therefore, respon- April and May 2020. dents from companies of the following economic activities were included in the research: produc- The specific objectives of the research work are: tion company, service company, catering compa- ny, tourist company, agricultural company, fish- • C1: Define the concepts of crisis, crisis ing company, trade company, mining company, communication in the context of organiza- industrial company, transport company, utility tional culture and internal communication. company, construction company and others. The • C2: Investigate how employees experienced size of the company, depending on the author, is based on different criteria such as the num- the COVID-19 crisis in the work context of ber of employees, the value of invested capital, the company where they are employed. the size of the annual income, the value of to- • C3: Investigate employees’ attitudes about tal assets, etc. According to the Accounting Act the organizational culture of the company (Zakon.hr, 2020), companies are classified into they are employed in during the first lock- micro, small, medium and large depending on down. the amount of total assets, income and average • C4: Investigate employee satisfaction with number of employees. According to the Law, mi- the quality of internal communication in cro enterprises employ an average of 10 workers the company where they are employed per year, macro enterprises 50 workers, medium during the first lockdown. enterprises 250 workers, and large enterprises more than 250 employees. For the purposes of For the purposes of the work, the following re- the research, the size of the company was con- search questions were asked: sidered exclusively according to the number of employees based on the following division pre- • IP1: How is internal communication formed sented by Karić (2005: 5): micro companies in a crisis and how does the crisis affect the (0-9 employees), small companies (10-49 em- corporate culture? 4 PAPERS 257 • IP2: How did employees experience the Table 1 shows the age structure of the respon- COVID-19 crisis in their work environ- dents. The largest number of respondents, 74.4% ment? of them, are between 20 and 35 years old. The • IP3: How did employees perceive the or- smallest percentage of respondents, 8.4%, is in ganizational culture of the company where the age range of 46 to 57. Also, a very small they were employed during the first lock-percentage of respondents aged 36 (1.2%), 40 down? (1.2%) and 43 (1.2%) participated in the re- • IP4: How did employees perceive the in- search. 2.5% of 44-year-old respondents, 3.7% of ternal communication of the company in 45-year-old respondents, and 7.4% of 37-year- which they were employed during the first old respondents participated in the survey. lockdown? Chart 2 shows that only 20.7% of respondents • IP5: How did employees perceive the com- are employed in large companies with 250 or pany in which they were employed during more employees. Furthermore, 23.2% of respon- the first lockdown? dents are employed in medium-sized enterprises, For the purpose of the work, the following hy- which usually have from 50 to 249 employees, potheses were set: and 24.4% of respondents are employed in mi- cro-enterprises with a maximum of 9 employees. • H1: In the period of the first lockdown, the 31.7% of respondents who answered this ques- attitude of employees about the organiza- tion are employed in small companies (from 10 tion in which they are employed changed. to 49 employees). • H2: During the first lockdown, the attitude of employees about internal communica- tion and the organizational culture of the organization in which they are employed changed. • H3: The corona crisis influenced the cre- ation of a negative attitude about the orga- nization among employees. • H4: Because of the corona crisis, employees felt bad in their work environment Chart 1. Distribution of respondents by gender (N=84) Presentation of research results The results of the conducted survey are present- ed in the continuation of the work using graphs and tables. 84 respondents employed in private companies in the Republic of Croatia took part in the survey. For each graph and for each ta- ble, the number of respondents who answered that question is indicated. Of the total number of respondents, 54.8% are male and 45.2% are Chart 2. Distribution of respondents according to the female. size of the company where they are employed (N=82) 4 PAPERS 258 Table 1. Age structure of respondents (N=81) Age Percentage of respondents (%) Age Percentage of respondents (%) 20 2,5% 37 7,4% 24 9,9% 40 1,2% 25 5,3% 43 1,2% 26 4,9% 43 1,2% 27 7,4% 44 2,5% 28 6,2% 45 3,7% 29 8,6% 46 1,2% 30 9,9% 48 1,2% 31 3,7% 51 1,2% 32 4,9% 52 1,2% 33 3,7% 53 1,2% 34 2,5% 56 1,2% 35 4,9% 57 1,2% 36 1,2% Table 2. Distribution of respondents according to the economic activity of the company in which they are employed (N=84) Type of company Percentage of respondents (%) Trading company 21,4% Production company 19,0% Service company 13,1% IT company 13,2% Construction company 9,5% Chart 3. Distribution of respondents according to the Agricultural enterprise 7,1% business model during the first lockdown in the Republic Tourist company 4,8% of Croatia (N=84) Industrial company 2,4% Catering company 2,4% in a manufacturing company. 13.1% of respon- Transport company 1,2% dents are employed in service companies, and Education 1,2% 13.2% of respondents independently stated that Physiotherapy center 1,2% they are employed in IT companies. Further- Polyclinic 3,5% more, 9.5% of respondents are employed in a construction company, 7.1% in an agricultural Table 2 is showing the distribution of respon- company and 4.8% in a tourist company. The dents according to the economic activity of the smallest number of respondents are employed in company where they are employed. It can be industrial (2.4%), catering (2.4%) and transport seen that 21.4% of respondents are employed in companies (1.2%). Other data that the respon- a trading company, and a slightly smaller num- dents provided independently are listed in the ber of respondents, 19% of them, are employed table. 4 PAPERS 259 Chart 4. “During the first lockdown in the Republic of Croatia, did you feel any of the above?” (N=84) Table 3. “I was afraid to go to the workplace in order Table 4. “I felt anxiety when absent from work” not to infect myself and my family” (N=72) (N=66) Degree of agreement/ Percentage of respondents Degree of agreement/ Percentage of respondents disagreement (%) disagreement (%) I completely disagree 16,7% I completely disagree 39,3% I disagree 5,6% I disagree 16,7% I neither agree nor agree 9,7% I neither agree nor agree 25,8% I agree 9,7% I agree 1,5% I completely agree 58,3% I completely agree 16,7% According to the responses of respondents, the anxiety (28.6%), fear (25%), anger (22.6%), largest number of companies (35.7%) preferred depression (16.7%) and helplessness (28.6%). the remote work model (work from home) ). Some respondents stated that they felt happi- during the first lockdown in the Republic of Cro- ness (8.3%) and satisfaction (9.5%). A slightly atia. Then, 25% of respondents stated that they smaller number of respondents, representing a worked in shifts. 19.0% of respondents went to percentage of 3.6%, state that they do not know the workplace during the first lockdown, and what they felt during the first lockdown in the 10.8% of respondents stated that their company Republic of Croatia, and the smallest percentage preferred a hybrid work model (a combination of respondents, 1.2%, declare that they felt free- of working from home and going to the work- dom during that period. place). Finally, 9.5% of respondents indicated that their company preferred working in teams Table 3 shows the extent to which the respon- during the COVID-19 pandemic. dents agree with the stated statement, and the respondents were asked to answer the stated one Respondents mostly encountered negative feel- according to the work model preferred by their ings during the first lockdown in the Republic company. A total of 72 respondents answered of Croatia. More than half of all respondents this question. More than half of all respondents (54.8%) felt stress during the first lockdown. who answered this question and who went to Also, to a greater extent, the respondents in- work in any way, 58.3% to be exact, said that dicated that in addition to stress, they also felt they fully agreed with the statement. On the oth- 4 PAPERS 260 er hand, 16.7% of respondents completely dis- declared that they neither agree nor agree with agree with the statement that they were afraid to the statement that they felt anxiety when absent go to the workplace in order not to infect them- from work, and only 1.5% of respondents state selves and their family. An almost equal percent- that they mostly agree with the statement. age of respondents, 9.4%, stated that they neither agree nor agree with the stated statement, and Table 5 shows that 34.5% of the respondents ful- mostly agree with the stated statement. 5.6% of ly agree with the statement that they feared they respondents who answered this question mostly would lose their jobs because of the crisis, and disagree with the statement. 14.3% of them did not fear that they might lose their jobs because of the crisis. Other data are On the other hand, 39.3% of respondents who shown in the table. Furthermore, table 6 shows worked from home according to any model and the evaluations of the adaptation of the compa- who answered (N=66) to this question state ny where the respondents were employed during that they did not feel anxiety at all when being the lockdown period in the Republic of Croatia. away from work, while 16.7% of them declare 9.5% of respondents gave their company a very that in fully agrees with the statement that they bad rating, and 4.8% of respondents considered felt anxiety when absent from work. Also, 16.7% the adaptation to be mostly bad. 29.8% of re- of respondents think that they mostly disagree spondents rated it good and 20.2% rated it very with the statement. While 25.8% of respondents good. In the end, 35.7% of respondents estimat- Chart 5. Communication channels of respondents with superiors during the first lockdown in the Republic of Croatia (N=83) Table 5. “I was afraid that I would lose my job because Table 6. Evaluation of the company’s adaptation during of the crisis.” (N=84) the lockdown period on a scale from 1 to 5 (N=84) Degree of agreement/dis- Percentage of respondents Evaluation Percentage of respondents agreement (%) (%) I completely disagree 14,3% Extremely bad 9,5% I disagree 1,2% Mostly bad 4,8% I neither agree nor agree 16,7% Good 29,8% I agree 33,3% Very good 20,2% I completely agree 34,5% Excellent 35,7% 4 PAPERS 261 Table 7 . Respondents’ satisfaction with upward commu-platform, Google Meet, Skype, e-mail, messag- nication with superiors during the first lockdown in the ing applications (WhatsApp, Messenger, Viber, Republic of Croatia (N=83) etc.), intranet, informative newsletter, bulletin board, face-to-face meetings and the possibility Level of satisfaction Percentage of respondents (%) independent answer. A total of 83 respondents I am completely answered the question about internal communi- dissatisfied 13,3% cation channels between employees and superi- I am mostly ors. By far the largest percentage of respondents, dissatisfied 2,4% 81.9% of those who answered this question, used I am neither e-mail as one of the channels for communication dissatisfied 24,1% with their superiors during the first lockdown nor satisfied in the Republic of Croatia. This is followed by I am mostly satisfied 22,9% messaging apps, 48.2% of respondents stated I am completely satisfied 37,3% that they used different messaging apps such as Viber, Messenger, WhatsApp. In addition to the ed that their company adapted well to the lock- above, respondents also used the Teams platform down period. (28.9%), Intranet (20.5%), Skype (16.9%), Zoom platform (8.4%), Google Meet (6%). When asked about which communication chan- Face-to-face meetings were practiced during the nels they use for internal communication with first lockdown by 7.2% of the respondents, and their superiors, respondents had the option of 1.2% of the respondents mentioned the bulletin multiple selection of answers between differ- board as a channel of communication between ent communication channels. They also had the the respondents and their superiors. The mobile same option when choosing the channel of com- phone was also one of the respondents’ commu- munication with colleagues and when choos- nication channels with their superiors, cited by ing the channel through which their superiors 1.2% of the respondents. Also, it is necessary to transmitted information to the respondents and highlight the fact that traditional communication their colleagues during the first lockdown in the channels (face-to-face meetings, mobile phone) Republic of Croatia. Respondents were offered were used most often by employees of micro the following channels: Teams platform, Zoom enterprises in all communication models during Chart 6. Communication channels of respondents with colleagues during the first lockdown in the Republic of Croatia (N=84) 4 PAPERS 262 the lockdown period. A total of 84 respondents answered the question about which communication channels the re- A percentage of 37.3% of the respondents be- spondents used to communicate with colleagues lieve that they are completely satisfied with the in their company during the first lockdown. As communication with their superiors during in the previous case, the most represented chan- the first lockdown in the Republic of Croatia, nel is e-mail (73.8%), followed immediately by while 13.3% of the respondents are complete- messaging applications (46.4%). Furthermore, ly dissatisfied with the communication they had with their superiors during March, April and the Teams platform (27.4%), intranet (17.9%), May 2020. The smallest percentage of respon- Skype (14.3%), mobile phone (13.2%) and dents, 2.4% of them, believe that they are mostly Zoom platform (9.5%) are the most frequent dissatisfied with the same communication, and channels of communication between respon- 22.9% of respondents state that they are mostly dents and of their colleagues during March, April satisfied with internal communication with their and May 2020. In addition to the above, respon- superiors. dents also include face-to-face meetings (9.5%), informative newsletters (2.4%) and bulletin boards (1.2%) as internal communication chan- Table 8. Respondents’ satisfaction with lateral commu-nels between employees. Respondents (10.7%) nication with colleagues during the first lockdown in the independently mentioned social networks as a Republic of Croatia (N = 84) relevant channel in employee communication. Level of satisfaction Percentage of respondents (%) 35.7% of respondents were completely satisfied I am completely dissati- with communication with colleagues during sfied 13,1% the first lockdown. 27.4% of respondents were I am mostly dissatisfied 1,2% mostly satisfied, and 22.6% were neither dissat- I am neither dissatisfied isfied nor satisfied. A very small percentage, only nor satisfied 22,6% 1.2% of respondents, are mostly dissatisfied with I am mostly satisfied 27,4% communication with their colleagues during the I am completely satisfied 35,7% first lockdown, and 13.3% are completely dissat- Chart 7. Channels of communication between superiors and employees in companies where respondents were employed during the first lockdown in the Republic of Croatia (N=83) 4 PAPERS 263 isfied with the same communication. Table 9. Respondents’ satisfaction with downward communication of superiors with employees during the first When we talk about the communication chan-lockdown in the Republic of Croatia (N=82) nels through which superiors transmitted infor- mation to employees during the first lockdown Level of satisfaction Percentage of respondents (%) in the Republic of Croatia, again the largest num- I am completely ber of respondents, along with other channels, dissatisfied 12,2% mention e-mail (79.5%), messaging applications I am mostly dissatisfied 2,4% (44.6%) and the Teams platform (27.7%) and I am neither dissatisfied Skype (19.3%). A significant shift was shown nor satisfied 25,6% in the use of the intranet (26.5%) and informa- I am mostly satisfied 26,9% tive newsletter (20.5%) in downward internal I am completely satisfied 32,9% communication as opposed to upward and lat- eral internal communication. A slightly smaller 32.9% of respondents were completely satisfied percentage used the Zoom platform (8.4%) and with the transfer of information from superi- Google Meet (6%) as communication channels ors to employees during the first lockdown in through which superiors transmit information to their employees in relation to upward commu- the Republic of Croatia. 26.9% are mostly sat- nication with superiors and lateral communica- isfied, and 2.4% are mostly dissatisfied. A total tion with colleagues. Also, face-to-face meetings of 25.6% of respondents are neither dissatisfied (6%) were represented in this model of com- nor satisfied with such communication. 12.2% of munication. Again, a small number of respon- the respondents declare themselves completely dents mentioned the bulletin board (1.2%) and dissatisfied, which is slightly less than in the pre- social networks (1.2%). Also as before, the mo- viously mentioned two forms of internal com- bile phone (8.4%) respondents independently munication. mentioned as a communication tool with which their superiors transmitted key information. 83 Respondents were asked to answer which com- respondents answered this question. munication channels from the lockdown period they would keep even today in the internal com- munication of the company where they are em- Chart 8. Presentation of communication channels from the lockdown period that respondents would keep in the company even today (N=84) 4 PAPERS 264 ployed. Respondents had the option of choosing pensation for the costs of working from home multiple answers, and a total of 84 respondents and its organization. What is convincingly the answered this question. In first place, the largest largest number of respondents mentioned online percentage of respondents mentioned the Teams informal socializing with coffee or beer. They platform (29.8%), followed by e-mail (20.2%) also mention online socializing with various and informative newsletter (20.2%), Skype games and competitions, as well as psychologi- (15.5%), intranet (13, 1%), the Zoom platform cal support from experts. On the other hand, to (10.7%), messaging applications (10.7%) and a lesser extent, they also report dissatisfaction Google Meet (6%). A very small percentage of with the measures that their company has taken, respondents mentioned, among other things, mo- or more precisely, that it has not taken. Below bile phones (1.2%) and social networks (1.2%). are a few responses from respondents: Also, 3.6% of the respondents independently stated that they would not keep a single channel, “Informal online socializing, joint online exercise, and it is interesting that 9.6% of the respondents board games, psychological help, extra allowance independently stated that they used the same for working from home for necessary equipment” channels before the corona and believe that it is necessary to introduce some new channels. All “Psychological support, online socializing, means 84 respondents answered this question. of protection against infection in the workplace (masks, gloves, etc.)” An extremely large percentage of respondents, 83.4%, declared that their company kept certain “Given that this is a delivery service that worked communication channels from the lockdown pe-during the lockdown, the company provided addi- riod. While 16.6% of them stated that they did tional compensation for those who become infected not keep a single channel of internal commu- and their families” nication that they used in the period of March, April and May 2020. “Virtual socializing with coffee, online psychological help, social online games, online exercise” Respondents were also asked an open-ended question about what measures their company “Terms for working from home” had taken to make the lockdown period easier “Psychological help, those employees who had at- for employees. Respondents could answer this question openly and with a qualitative - descrip- tive type of answer. A total of 81 respondents answered this question. To a large extent, the re- spondents stated that the company helped them organize work from home, and those who had to go to work pointed out that the company ful- ly took care to provide all necessary measures to protect employees from potential infection (masks, gloves, disinfectants and other). Some respondents stated that they had reduced work- ing hours due to the corona crisis. While a very Chart 9. “Have you kept any communication channels from the lockdown period?” (N=84) small number of them pointed out that they re- ceived additional follow-up benefits if a member of the employee’s family fell ill, as well as com- 4 PAPERS 265 Chart 10. What are the characteristics of organizational culture in your company? (N=83) risk family members did not have to come to work” “Nothing special” “Informal online socializing with coffee or beer, “Nothing but masks and gloves” informal online competitions in certain games, conversation with a psychologist” “It did not take any measures” “Work from home, regular meetings of the entire “None in particular except those prescribed by the company as a kind of morale boost” government” “Virtual socializing with coffee or beer, games, “Absolutely nothing” psychological help, exercise, competitions (e.g. in running, whoever runs the most km gets a day “Nothing” off )” “No measures, only basic” “Ensured distance in the premises, work from home, disinfection. means and disinfectant. space, “We worked as usual” testing” “No measures, except for masks and disinfectant” “Given that this is a polyclinic that worked in an Graph 10 shows the representation of certain extremely difficult health situation for the Repub-features of organizational culture in the respon- lic of Croatia, but also for the world, we needed dents’ companies. The most represented charac- psychological support, so our superiors made it teristic in companies, according to respondents, possible for us” is teamwork (79.5%), followed by informality in “Twice organized some virtual get-togethers with communication (67.5%), flexibility (47%), un- games... and that’s it. They didn’t really try, and conventional way of dressing (28.9%), gender they canceled our transportation! They can be equality (22 .9%) and care for the environment ashamed!” (21.7%). In a slightly smaller percentage of 19.8%, employee well-being is represented - care for the physical and mental health of employees. The least represented features of the organiza- 4 PAPERS 266 Table 10. “How would you rate the change in organiza-Table 11. Has the company remained consistent with its tional culture during the lockdown in your company?” organizational values during lockdown? (N=84) (N=84) Evaluation Percentage of respondents (%) Evaluation Percentage of respondents (%) It didn’t stay entirely She hasn’t changed a bit 28,6% consistent 9,5% For the most part, she For the most part, it didn’t hasn’t changed 11,9% stay consistent 8,4% Neither has she changed, It is neither nor has it nor has she changed 46,4% remained consistent 32,1% She has mostly changed 7,1% For the most part, it She has changed a lot 6% remained consistent 14,3% It remained completely consistent 35,7% tional culture in the respondents’ companies are pet friendly (9.6%) and family friendly (15.7%) policies. A small percentage of respondents, its values at all, and 8.4% state that their com- 4.8%, independently declared that their company pany has mostly not remained consistent. For does not have relevant features of organizational 14.3% of the respondents, their company mostly culture. remained consistent with its organizational val- ues during the lockdown period, while the per- A very small percentage of respondents, 6%, be- centage of respondents of 32.1% believes that lieve that the organizational culture of their com- the company in which they are employed neither pany has changed significantly during the lock- did nor remained consistent with its organiza- down. On the other hand, a significantly higher tional values during the corona crisis. percentage of 28.6% of respondents believe that the organizational culture of the company where Discussion they are employed has not changed even a little The period of the first lockdown had multiple during the extraordinary circumstances exempli- consequences on the operations of host com- fied by the corona crisis in March, April and May panies in Croatia, but at the same time it also 2020. Almost half of the respondents, 46.4% of opened numerous opportunities. Each aspect of them, believe that the organizational culture nei- the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic can be ther changed nor changed significantly during investigated separately, but high-quality inter- the lockdown. For 11.9% of respondents, the or- nal communication and the satisfaction of re- ganizational culture has mostly not changed, and spondents, as well as the organizational culture for 7.1% of respondents, the culture has mostly that is nurtured during every crisis, even in this changed during that challenging period. case of the corona crisis, is a prerequisite for the continued survival and success of the company’s When we talk about the consistency of the compa- operations. ny’s organizational values, 35.7% of respondents believe that their company remained completely When talking about a possible change in the consistent with its organizational values during attitude of respondents about the organization the first lockdown in the Republic of Croatia. On during the lockdown, the research showed that the other hand, 9.5% of respondents believe that a very small percentage of respondents (6%) their company has not remained consistent with believe that the organizational culture of their 4 PAPERS 267 company has changed significantly during the ducted by Jurković (2012), this is one of the key lockdown. On the other hand, 28.6% of re- characteristics of companies with fewer employ- spondents believe that the organizational cul- ees. The data of 9.6% of the respondents who ture of the company where they are employed independently stated that it is necessary to intro- has not changed a bit during the extraordinary duce completely new communication channels circumstances exemplified by the corona crisis in the company, because they used most of the in March, April and May 2020. Almost half of mentioned channels even before the pandemic, the respondents, 46.4% of them, believe that and they think that such an approach is extreme- the organizational culture neither changed nor ly bad, and these are IT companies, turned out to changed significantly during the lockdown. If it is be extremely interesting. who are very likely, due taken into account that respondents’ satisfaction to the nature of the business, well acquainted with communication with superiors is complete- with certain communication channels and their ly (37.3%) and mostly satisfied (22.9%), and positive and negative sides. A large percentage that more than 50% of respondents are satisfied of respondents would retain online communica- with upward communication and communica- tion channels (Teams platform, Zoom platform, tion with employees, it can it can be concluded e-mail, Skype, informative newsletter, etc.) from that the first hypothesis was confirmed in this the lockdown period, and it can be assumed context, which reads: During the period of the that the reason for this is speed and efficiency first lockdown, the attitude of employees about in communication through such channels and the organization in which they are employed saving time. In this question, respondents were changed. The conclusion is that the change in offered the option of choosing some of the tra- attitude is not drastic, so we cannot talk about ditional communication channels such as face- a significant change, but some minor deviations to-face meetings and bulletin boards, so it is of from the earlier attitude. extremely relevant importance that not a single respondent mentioned face-to-face meetings and When we talk about internal communication in bulletin boards as channels of internal commu- the respondents’ companies, the analysis of the nication that they would retain in the further data showed that the respondents were mostly business of the company, although a certain or completely satisfied with the upward, down- number of respondents used, among other chan- ward and lateral communication model in the nels, traditional communication channels during companies where they were employed during the first lockdown in the Republic of Croatia, the corona crisis in March, April and June last which certainly had a leading position even be- year. Also, there are those who feel that they are fore the COVID-19 pandemic. In this context, it neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. It is important can be said that during the first lockdown, the to note that online channels of communication attitude of employees about the internal com- were used to an extremely large extent, replacing munication of the company in which they are the traditional way of internal communication employed changed. As for the organizational (e.g. bulletin boards and face-to-face meetings) culture, almost half of the respondents (46.4%) with which employees in numerous companies assessed that it had neither changed nor signifi- were well acquainted before the new situation cantly changed during the lockdown. Also, a sig- and which they certainly had primate. We should nificant percentage of respondents believe that it certainly not ignore the fact that companies with has mostly not changed (11.9%) or that it has a smaller number of employees continued to use not changed at all (28.6%). A small percent- traditional communication channels during the age of the respondents stated that it has most- lockdown period. According to research con- ly or significantly changed. A close match was 4 PAPERS 268 shown between the percentage of respondents tential issues - job loss. In this context, hypothe- who believe that their company has completely sis H2 is fully accepted, which reads: During the remained consistent with organizational values corona crisis, employees felt bad in their work (35.7%) and between the percentage of respon- environment. dents (32.1%) who believe that their company neither has nor has remained consistent with Conclusion organizational values during lockdown. In this context, it is not possible to accurately assess In the last two years, life for the whole world has whether the attitude of employees about the or- completely changed. The global COVID-19 cri- ganizational culture of the company where they sis has affected the health, economic and social are employed changed during the first lockdown. aspects of our lives. Quality internal communica- In conclusion, the H2 hypothesis cannot be tion of a company in crisis is an important pre- completely refuted or completely rejected, and requisite for effective external communication in this case the H2 hypothesis is only partially with all its external interested and influential accepted: During the first lockdown, the attitude publics such as customers, investors, suppliers, of employees about internal communication and media, local community, public administration, the organizational culture of the company where etc. The time of the first lockdown in Croatia they are employed changed. posed a great challenge in front of Croatian companies that had to completely change inter- Further research and analysis of all data revealed nal communication, including the strategy and that the corona crisis did not affect the creation internal communication tools themselves, and of a negative attitude about the company among adapt their organizational culture to the new employees. An extremely large percentage of re- situation. Satisfaction with internal commu- spondents are satisfied with the company’s adap- nication and organizational culture during the tation to the lockdown period, and also by ana- coronavirus pandemic is of crucial importance lyzing the qualitative responses, it is concluded for employees, their development and potential, that to a large extent the employees are satis- and as such is the key to successfully creating fied with the measures taken by their company an organization’s competitive advantage in these to facilitate their work period in the period of challenging times. March, April and May 2020. Therefore, in com- pletely rejects the hypothesis H3: The corona As expected, the very beginning of the lockdown crisis has influenced the creation of a negative in the Republic of Croatia caused negative feel- attitude about the organization among employ- ings among respondents, including stress, anx- ees. On the other hand, it can be concluded that iety, helplessness, fear, anger, depression, and due to the corona crisis, employees felt bad in uncertainty regarding infection at the workplace their work environment due to the uncertainty and potential dismissal caused by the COVID-19 of the situation in which they and their com- pandemic. The corona crisis brought companies pany found themselves. In recent times, life has and their managers to a situation where they changed for the whole world, and these changes had to demonstrate in a very short time how are sometimes very radical and unpredictable, so to manage the company and internal communi- it is difficult to accept and cope with them. Un- cation in a crisis. Some employees worked en- certain times caused stress, anxiety, anger, fear, tirely from home, and some worked in teams depression, helplessness and fear of potential in- and shifts. Also, it was determined that, depend- fection at the workplace for the vast majority of ing on the nature of the economic activity the respondents, as well as intimidation due to exis- company is engaged in, certain companies prac- 4 PAPERS 269 ticed a hybrid model of work (a combination the change in organizational culture during the of working from home and going to the work- lockdown period and the respondents’ satisfac- place) and exclusively going to the workplace. tion with internal communication. The results One of the focuses of internal communication also showed that there is room for improvement research during March, April and May 2020 in the management of internal communication, was to focus on respondents’ satisfaction with especially in the segment of strengthening orga- upward, downward and lateral communication nizational culture and relations with employees. in companies and to examine the representation of certain channels. It was established that the Without investment in employees, internal com- vast majority of companies in that period, ex- munication and organizational culture on a cept for those companies that, due to the na- long-term level, employee dissatisfaction and de- ture of their work, used certain channels even parture may occur. Internal communication and before the situation caused by the COVID-19 organizational culture are two interrelated and virus, turned to newer communication channels dependent concepts - a quality organizational such as the Teams platform, the Zoom platform, culture creates quality internal communication, messaging applications (WhatsApp , Viber, Mes- but also quality internal communication cre- senger, etc.), Google Meet, informative newslet- ates a good and healthy organizational culture, ter, intranet. It is interesting how e-mail turned as proven by numerous previous studies. Em- out to be a channel that employees would keep ployees or internal users are just as important from the lockdown period, although it is not in as external users or customers, because without itself a novelty in internal communication if we a satisfied internal employee there is no satisfied compare it with the appearance of the Teams external user. Given the importance of this fact, platform and similar channels. The use of new, it is necessary to continuously research your in- online communication channels during the crisis certainly accelerated the digitization of certain ternal users, invest in them and monitor the re- companies, but also pointed out to both employ- sults of investments, especially in times of crisis ees and managers the efficiency, economy and when it is extremely important to preserve and time saving of using such channels. Also, it was raise the motivation of employees so that the shown that in companies with a smaller num- company survives in all its aspects. The research ber of employees, the use of traditional chan- showed that the company’s measures that tried nels of internal communication is still practiced. to preserve and raise the motivation and satisfac- It turned out that the surveyed employees were tion of employees, for example online informal extremely satisfied with upward, downward and gatherings with coffee or beer, online exercises lateral communication, considering that a very and competitions, help with the organization of small percentage declared that they were com- working from home and concern for the psycho- pletely dissatisfied and mostly dissatisfied with logical health of employees in times of crisis, to internal communication in the company. Also, it a large extent contributed to creating a positive was shown that an extremely small percentage of attitude of employees about the company where respondents rated the company’s adaptation to they are employed. The characteristics of the or- the lockdown period as extremely bad and most- ganizational culture are the guiding line of the ly bad. It was also determined that the corona company in times of crisis, and every compa- crisis did not greatly and significantly influence ny should easily refer to the values and features the change in the attitude of employees towards that make up the organizational culture and be employers, except when we look at the change guided by them in further solving problems and in attitude in the context of the assessment of crisis situations. 4 PAPERS 270 In order to get a better insight into this topic, Burlington: Elsevier. it is necessary to conduct qualitative research using the method of in-depth interviews with Bubić, A. (2020) . 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Live streaming commerce has become an upris- ing trend with the utilization of live streaming E-commerce and the Uprising of Live for commercial purposes (Wongkitrungrueng et Streaming Commerce in Hong Kong al., 2021; Cai & Wohn, 2019; Hamilton et al., 2014), commonly seen selling apparel, fashion, The pandemic has forced people to stay at home beauty, food, consumer electronics, furnishing, and consumers at home, e-commerce is devel- home décor, and automobiles (Mckinsey Digital, oping rapidly, and a rising number of tradi- 2021). tional retailers are expanding into e-commerce. According to Osome’s Hong Kong Ecommerce Compared with traditional online shopping, live Trends and Statistics, in 2021, there are more streaming commerce provides product demon- than 4.5 million online shoppers in Hong Kong, stration, information, and excitement to consum- and the e-commerce penetration rate is expected ers, leading to the popularity of live-streaming to hit 72.6 percent in 2022. Consumers are in- commerce (Wongkitrungrueng et al., 2021). In creasingly utilising digital platforms to purchase China’s market, live streaming commerce rapidly goods, value an excellent digital experience, and evolved and took less than five years to build up spend more with companies that provide this as an innovative sales channel with an estimated experience (KPMG, 2020). As some tradition- 10 percent penetration, reaching up to $170 bil- al businesses are shifting to the online platform, lion in 2020 (Mckinsey Digital, 2021). During businesses are exploring utilising interactive live the Covid-19 pandemic, digital platforms have streaming to boost sales in the e-commerce plat- become essential for businesses to engage with form. Online retailers in Hong Kong, such as consumers. In China’s market, the sales growth HKTVmall, ViuTV channel, and Big Big chan- of live streaming commerce has been intensified, nel, have also started to embrace live streaming expected to reach $432 billion by 2022. While in e-commerce. 4 PAPERS 274 Current Study merce with live streaming, adopting live stream- ing commerce to boost customer engagement This research adopts the theory of consump- and revenue. (Cai et al., 2018). Live streaming tion value, which applies to predicting consum- commerce is commonly taking place in four er behaviours to study further the effect of live main types of channels, including live streaming streaming on online consumption intention. In platforms (e.g., Liveme), e-commerce sites or addition, this research explores the uses and grat- marketing places (e.g., Taobo.com), mobile apps ifications theory (Rubin, 1994), aiming to study (e.g., Talkshoplive), and social networking sites people’s motivations in watching live streaming (e.g., Facebook Live) (Wongkitrungrueng et al., commerce and purchasing online from anoth- 2021). er perspective and extending beyond the theo- ry of consumption value. Moreover, with most Earlier studies have discussed both the utilitarian of the earlier research has either focused on a and hedonic value of live streaming commerce. generalised view of live streaming commerce or Babin et al. (1994) defined utilitarian value as considering fashion and cosmetics as the specif- the functional instrumental and practical val- ic context, this research focuses on a particular ue that a consumer receives based on rational category, grocery, and daily necessities, rather consumption behaviours; hedonic value is more than providing a generalised view commonly subjective and personal, reflecting the potential discussed in previous literature. entertainment and emotional worth of shop- ping. Previous studies show that live streaming There are two focus research questions are stud- e-commerce perceives both utilitarian and he- ied in this research. Firstly, this research tried donic value, contributing to people’s trust in a to identify the motivations of people using live brand, purchase intention, and engagement with streaming commerce and find out why peo- ple engage in live streaming commerce from a the brand. consumer’s perspective. Secondly, this research Product uncertainty is a demotivating factor in determines how these motivations relate to online markets that adversely affect consum- consumers’ online purchase intention. Three ers’ purchase intention. When shopping online, consumption values (functional, epistemic, and the identity of the sellers is not revealed, which conditional values) and three gratifications (so- leads to a decrease in the sellers’ trustworthiness. cial interaction, enjoyment, and passing time) Moreover, consumers cannot thoroughly evalu- are put into the research model to study wheth- ate the products; the information provided is of- er they are motivations for people to watch live ten ambiguous and inadequate, and faked prod- streaming commerce and their relationship with uct descriptions, and displays may also occur on online purchase intention. the e-commerce platform. Especially in fashion Literature Review and cosmetics, people are often insecure about whether the products suit them. All of these Live Streaming Commerce could lead to a decrease in trust from the con- sumers to both the sellers and the products (Lu Live streaming commerce, a subset of e-com- & Chen 2021). Hence, live streaming commerce merce, is a recent phenomenon in online shop- perceives utilitarian values such as supplying de- ping, originated in China and continues to tailed information on the products and helping develop worldwide. Leading e-commerce plat- to identify sellers’ trustworthiness, which mit- forms worldwide, such as Amazon and Taobao, igate the product uncertainty in e-commerce have comprehensively integrated their e-com- (Wongkitrungrueng & Assarut, 2020; Clement 4 PAPERS 275 Addo et al., 2021; Lu & Chen 2021). sumers’ purchase motivation online. Purchase Intention Nevertheless, emotion and social value are exclud- ed from this research. Despite it being predicted Purchase intention is a component of consum- that the enjoyment perceived by live streaming er cognitive behaviour, referring to consum- commerce could drive people’s consumption and ers’ preference to buy the products or services engagement, this research would further explore (Younus et al., 2015; Ling et al., 2010). Various the gratifications of live streaming commerce current research has examined moderators, such separately by the uses and gratifications theory, as technology affordance, trust in sellers, and ce- which supplies a more comprehensive view of lebrity endorsement, that moderate the utilitar- the emotional hold by consumers and is more ian Value and hedonic value of live streaming, appropriate in studying live streaming commerce affecting consumers’ online purchase intention. as a form of media than merely a sales tool. Social Earlier research has found out that live stream- value, which is measured on a profile of choice ing significantly increases the sales volume in imagery, is mostly used in predicting consum- China’s leading online marketplace (Taobao. ers’ behaviours on goods and services that are com and Yizhibo.com), especially for experience highly visible and related to social classes. With goods, including clothes and services (Chen et the targeted research categories being groceries al., 2019; M. Zhang et al. 2019). and household goods, which are necessities, the Compared with ordinary e-commerce, live social value of prominent and symbolic products streaming commerce shortened the psycholog- is excluded from this research, as social values ical distance between sellers and consumers, are more symbolic and more suitable to highly as sellers could provide synchronous interac- visible goods and services. Therefore, it is more tion with many consumers through real-time suitable to provide a higher emphasis on the in- video (Wongkitrungrueng et al., 2021). These teraction between the host and the audience, and could ease sellers’ communication and relation- among audiences, which are not strongly related ship-building with consumers compared with to any social classes or cultural factors. e-commerce, hence increasing consumers’ on- line purchase intention. The functional value is defined as “the perceived utility acquired from an alternative’s capacity for The Theory of Consumption Value functional, utilitarian, or physical performance.” (Sheth et al., 1991) One of the significant func- The theory of consumption value put forward tions of live streaming commerce is to resolve by Sheth et al. (1991) to explain the reasons for the product uncertainty brought about by tra- the choice made by consumers, why the consum- ditional e-commerce. Earlier research has been ers choose to buy or not buy a product, and over carried out in studying the relationship between another. The approach identified five consump- utilitarian motivations, in both technologies-re- tion values: functional value, conditional value, lated and product-related perspectives, and con- social value, emotion value, and epistemic value, sumers’ purchase intentions and engagement. and proposed that consumer choice is a func- However, earlier studies either focused on a tion of the five independent consumption values generalized view of live streaming commerce that influence consumer choice. In this research, or considered fashion and cosmetics as the spe- the functional value, the epistemic value, and the cific context. In the context of live streaming conditional value of live streaming commerce commerce selling groceries, we could see live will be evaluated on their relationship with con- streaming commerce’s hosts follow the steps 4 PAPERS 276 Table 1. Summary of related studies in live streaming commerce Dependent Scholar Topic Theorical perspective Independent variables variable Grassroots internet celebrity Information trans- Chen et al. live streaming” activating Human-computer mission, interactivity, Purchase (2017) IT-mediated lifestyle market- ing services at e-commerce interaction communication visibility, Intention websites presence Utilitarian and hedonic Consumer motivation Cai et al. (2018) motivations for live streaming theories, Utilitarian and hedonic Purchase shopping Technology Accep- motivations Intention tance Model (TAM) What drives people to pur- Consump- Interactivity, social tion inten- Li et al. (2018) chase virtual gifts in live streaming? the mediating role Flow theory presence, curiosity, social tion of virtu- of flow media dependence al gifts in live streaming Factors influencing product Perceived popularity Wang et al. purchase intention in taobao Elaboration likelihood (source attractiveness), Purchase (2018) live (ELM) model hedonic and utilitarian, Intention streaming shopping interactivity (argument quality) Live streaming commerce: uses Enjoyment of interaction, Cai and Wohn and gratifications approach Uses and gratifications Substitutability of per- Purchase (2019) to understanding consumers’ theory sonal examination, Need Intention motivations for community, Trend setting The influence of e-commerce Value Transmission, Chen et al. live streaming on lifestyle fit Mean-ends chain Vicarious Experience Purchase (2019) uncertainty of lifestyle (MECL) and online purchase intention theory Learning, Product Pre- Intention of experience products sentation The investigation of hedonic consumption, impulsive con- Stimulus–organism– Attractiveness of broad- Xu et al. (2019) sumption and social sharing response caster, para-social Purchase in e-commerce live-streaming paradigm interaction, information Intention videos quality The effects of match-ups on Utilitarian attitude and Park and Lin the consumer attitudes toward Celebrity endorse- hedonic attitude, celeb- Purchase (2020) internet celebrities and their ment and matchup live streaming contents in the hypothesis rities attractiveness and Intention context of product trustworthiness How live streaming influences Sun et al. purchase intentions in social Purchase (2020) commerce: An IT affordance IT affordance Visibility, metavoicing, guidance shopping Intention perspective Wongkitrun- The role of live streaming in grueng and building consumer trust and Value theory, trust Utilitarian, hedonic and Customer Assarut (2020) engagement with social com- symbolic values engagement merce sellers 4 PAPERS 277 Table 1. Summary of related studies in live streaming commerce (continued) Live streaming strategy, Zhang et al. The impact of live video Construal level theory psychological distance Purchase (2020) streaming on online purchase (CLT) and psychologi- intention cal distance and perceived uncer- Intention tainty Customer engagement Clement Addo and purchase intention in Customer engagement Purchase et al. (2021) live-streaming digital market- Trust, and loyalty (Likes, visits, chats, expo- Intention ing platforms sure time) Live streaming commerce and Lu and Chen consumers’ purchase intention: Signalling theory, Physical characteristic, Purchase (2021) An uncertainty uncertainty reduction perspec- theory, trust value similarity Intention tive such as product display, cooking demonstration, An alternative acquires the conditional value of and product tasting. Thus, it is proposed that: an option due to the specific situation or set of circumstances facing the choice maker (Sheth H1a: Live streaming commerce perceived functional et al., 1991). Conditional benefits, such as of- value. fers and discounts that individuals could obtain when watching or engaging in live streaming, H1b: The perceived functional value is positively reenhance people’s purchase intention online and lated to consumer purchase intention online. engagement in social media. From previous re- Epistemic value is acquired from “an alterna- search, it has been proven that price promotion tive’s capacity to arouse curiosity, provide nov- and the promotion time pressure have a direct elty, and satisfy a desire for knowledge.” (Sheth positive impact on consumers’ impulse buying et al., 1991) Previous studies find out that in behaviours, as consumers are sensitive to price scenarios like tourism and e-Learning services, discounts, and the reduction of commodity pric- es could stimulate their desire to purchase more their epistemic value positively correlates with (Huang and Suo, 2017). It is commonly seen people’s usage intention (Ray et al., 2021). In that sellers adopt strategies like providing limit- the case of live streaming commerce for grocery, ed time-offer during the live streaming, such as sellers are seen sharing non-product related and offering discount promo-code, and Game-Prize, novel content such as trendy tips, current diet that is employing games, such as word guessing, trends, and nutritional advice that fits the cur- fortune wheel, and drawing straw, in exchange rent market trend to arouse people’s interest for rewards such as gift, vouchers, and discount, and curiosity in both the live streaming and the to boost people’s engagement and purchase in- products selling. Hence, it could be hypothesized tention online (Wongkitrungrueng et al., 2021). that: Thus, based on the findings by previous studies, the third set of hypotheses comes as below: H2a: Live streaming commerce perceived epistemic value. H3a: Live streaming commerce perceived conditional value. H2b: The perceived epistemic value is positively related to consumer purchase intention online. H3b: The perceived conditional value is positively 4 PAPERS 278 related to consumer purchase intention online. ence on purchase intention, it is predicted that: The Uses and Gratifications Theory H4a: Live streaming commerce perceived social in- teraction gratification. The uses and gratifications theory (U&G) has been widely used to understand media consump- H4b: The social interaction gratification is positively tion, and has been now used to provide insights related to consumer purchase intention online. into the uses of new communication technolo- gy (Rubin, 1994; Chen & Leung, 2015). Thus, According to the U&G theory, enjoyment is a the U&G theory is also adopted in this research major determinant, which refers to the fun and to study the possible motivations behind peo- hedonic pleasure that people gain from the me- ple consuming live streaming commerce, as not dia. In the context of live streaming commerce. only a sales tool or service but also as a kind of Previous research shows that the hedonic values media, an emerging communication media for perceived by live streaming (e.g., enjoyment and sellers and buyers in the online shopping market. favourability) could significantly drive people’s In addition, earlier studies used the U&G theo- consumption and engagement. Studies drawn retical perspective to point out that social and from the uses and gratifications theory have psychological factors may drive people to shop proved that enjoyment could cause people’s pur- online or participate in social commerce. While chase intention and engagement in live stream- social interaction, enjoyment and boredom alle- ing commerce. These led to the prediction be- viation were gratifications associated with social low: commerce and live-streaming commerce (Yang and Li, 2014; Cai and Wohn, 2019). H5a: Live streaming commerce perceived enjoyment gratification. Social interaction occurs when people interact and connect with others. Live streaming com- H5b: The enjoyment gratification is positively related merce enables real-time interaction between the to consumer purchase intention online. hosts and the audiences and among audiences. In the U&G theory, people seek relaxation and According to previous studies on social com- escape from boredom, and media are presumed merce, social media such as Facebook and Ins- to function for people to pass the time (Ruggie- tagram is commonly utilized in performing live ro, 2000). Passing time refers to having nothing streaming commerce due to their reachability better to do than just kill time, which was posi- and convenience. Part et al. (2009) found that tively related to social media usage supported in social networking sites like Facebook and You- earlier research (Yang and Li, 2014). During the Tube are used for socializing and seeking gratifi- pandemic, the time people stay at home increased cation. Live-streaming commerce, especially via due to the measures to control the spread of the social media, support interaction to assist online virus, and according to Digital 2022 for Hong transactions and enhance the online shopping Kong, more than 90 percent of people spend experience (Liang and Turban, 2011; Marsden, their time watching online videos. Thus, passing 2010; Shen and Eder, 2011; Wongkitrungru- time gratification is expected to be a motive to eng and Assarut, 2020). Previous research has watch live streaming commerce and to have a discussed the antecedents of social media per- positive effect on online purchase intention; the forming live streaming on consumer behaviours, following assumptions are made: likewise to live streaming commerce, since social interactivity is expected to have a positive influ- H6a: Live streaming commerce perceived passing 4 PAPERS 279 time gratification. HKTVmall is studied as the targeted platform in this research. H6b: The passing time gratification is positively related to consumer purchase intention online. An online questionnaire was developed with ref- erence to earlier studies and consisted of four sections: a screening question on whether the re- spondent has watched or participated in the HK- TVmall live streaming; their consumption values and their willingness to purchase online from live streaming commerce; uses and gratifications; participants social media usage; and respondent’s personal information. A five-point Likert scale from “Strong Disagree” (1) to “Strongly Agree” (5) was adopted for the measurement of the items on consumption values and gratifications. Furthermore, participants’ monthly spending (Figure1. Proposed research framework) on online shopping, frequency of watching live streaming, social media and live streaming chan- nels usage, and choice of payment and delivery Research Methodology methods were asked to understand their online shopping habits and watching live streaming. Measure of Constructs Data Collection and the Sample According to KPMG’s study in 2020, the pan- demic has accelerated the online purchase of es- An online quantitative survey using the snow- sential goods, and consumers significantly spent ball-sampling technique was adopted for the less on luxury and non-essential products and study and conducted from Nov 5 to Nov 19, relocated the spending to day-to-day necessities, 2021. Only the respondents who had watched such as groceries and personal hygiene prod- live streaming in HKTVmall before were ap- ucts. To investigate the relationship between live propriate for this research. After removing the streaming commerce strategy and purchase in- responses from participants who had never tention online, we examine the consumption val- watched the live streaming commerce of HKT- ues and gratifications of live streaming based on Vmall, 149 questionnaires out of the total of 257 HKTVmall, a leading e-commerce platform that questionnaires collected were valid for analysis. has been steadily developing live streaming com- The qualitative data were analysed using IBM merce in Hong Kong, with more than eight hun- SPSS. dred thousand users in 2021 and HK$3 billion of revenue generated in 2021. Its live-streaming The demographics of respondents are shown in commerce has been performing on two major Table 2. Of the 149 respondents, 50.3% were platforms: Facebook and mobile apps, which females, 47.7% were males, and the dominant integrate live-streaming features with the mo- respondent’s age group is middle age between bile e-commerce platform. Moreover, according 25 to 54 (70.8%). According to the traffic anal- to HKTVmall’s report, groceries (53.8%) and ysis of HKTVmall, which 47% are female and houseware (6.6%), are contributing to a massive 53% are male, and 71.4% are aged between 25 percentage of its gross merchandise value. Thus, to 54. The distribution of gender and the age 4 PAPERS 280 Table 2: Demographics of respondents Demographic Description Frequency Percent Gender Male 71 47.7 Female 75 50.3 Not to disclose 3 2 Age Under 18 2 1.3 18-24 24 16.1 25-34 21 14.1 35-44 36 24.2 45-54 48 32.2 55-64 13 8.7 65+ 5 3.4 Monthly spending on Less than 500 HKD 44 29.5 online shopping 500 - 1500 HKD 43 28.9 1500 - 2500 HKD 38 25.5 2500 - 3500 HKD 15 10.1 3500 - 4500 HKD 3 2 More than 4500 HKD 6 4 group of respondents aligned with the report- live streaming commerce, the mean with stan- ed demographic of HKTVmall on groceries and dard deviation is calculated and shown in Table household goods selling. 3. Results Consumption Values Factor Analysis and Reliability Testing Among all factors, respondents indicate agree- Factor analysis and reliability testing were con- ment on all the consumption values (function ducted to ensure that all research constructs value, epistemic value, conditional value) as their were reliable (Henson & Roberts, 2006). The motivation to watch live streaming commerce, factor analysis was performed for the first re- all with a mean value above 3. While the con- search question to determine the motivations for ditional value, representing the occasional and watching live streaming commerce. A varimax conditional benefits offered by live streaming rotation was adapted to enhance the interpreta- commerce, is with the highest mean of 3.66. On tion of factors. The results are shown in Table the contrary, functional value, representing the 3. The KMO and Bartlett’s Test shown in Table informativeness and usefulness of live stream- 4 confirmed the reliability of the data, with the ing commerce, is with the lowest mean of 3.54. Kaiser value scored at .906. The significant val- Thus H1a, H2a, and H3a are supported. ue is zero which indicates that the variable is relevant. Uses and Gratifications Statistics According to the results shown in Table 3, among the gratifications, only enjoyment, which refers To evaluate the factors affecting the watching of to the entertaining and hedonic feelings gained, 4 PAPERS 281 Table 3: Factory analysis of motivations for live streaming commerce Functional value (Mean= 3.54, SD= 0.68) Mean SD Live streaming commerce provides more informa- tion and details on the product 1 3.62 .74 Live streaming commerce gives you a better sense of the actual quality of the product .767 1 3.56 .8 Live streaming could ease the uncertainty of shop- ping online and make me feel more secure .638 .764 1 3.42 .878 Live streaming commerce are convenient to use .619 .583 .511 1 3.58 .689 I am more willing to buy the products, when more product details are provided in the live streaming .68 .67 .716 .566 1 3.53 .882 Epistemic value (Mean= 3.65, SD= 0.68) Live streaming commerce provides novel and inter- esting information 1 3.59 .814 Live streaming commerce allows me to know more about what is trendy in the market .69 1 3.66 .795 I am willing to watch the live streaming if it provides me with different novel/trendy information .665 .603 3.78 .743 I am more willing to buy the product if the live streaming provided me with extra novel/trendy information .654 .571 .721 1 3.56 .825 Conditional value (Mean= 3.66, SD= 0.96) I would watch the live streaming of the products that provide me with promo code or discount 1 3.88 .944 I would participate in game or quiz in the live streaming of the products that provide me with promo code or discount .72 1 3.42 1.169 I am more willing to buy the product if there is a promotion provided in the live streaming 0724 .773 1 3.72 1.019 Instead of other similar products, I would purchase the products if they on the live streaming with dis- count/promotion .664 .759 .897 1 3.61 1.131 Social Interaction (Mean=2.37, SD= 1.08) I watched a live streaming commerce as I enjoy chatting during the live streaming 1 2.37 1.117 I watched a live streaming commerce as I like inter- acting with the hosts .945 1 2.36 1.103 I watched a live streaming commerce as I can inter- act with other people online .899 .909 1 2.38 1.106 4 PAPERS 282 Table 3: Factory analysis of motivations for live streaming commerce (continued) Enjoyment (Mean= 3.35, SD= 0.83) Watching live streaming commerce makes me feel happy 1 3.4 .853 Watching live streaming commerce relaxes me .92 1 3.32 .887 I watched a live streaming commerce as it is inter- esting .806 .857 1 3.33 .881 Passing time (Mean=2.71, SD= 0.11) I watched live streaming commerce when I have nothing better to do 1 2.66 1.173 I watched live streaming commerce because it gives me something to do to occupy my time .851 1 2.71 1.147 I watched live streaming commerce because it passes the time when I am bored .885 .905 1 2.77 1.159 Table 4: KMO and Bartlett’s Test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .906 Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity 3668.268 df 231 Sig. 0 is scored with a mean above 3 at 3.35. However, relation shown in Table 5, all the key variables both social interaction and passing time scored significantly correlate to consumers’ purchase a mean below 3, and the factor of social interac- intention online. tion reflects participating in live streaming shop- ping as a channel to socialize and communicate Consumption Values is with the lowest mean of 2.37. Therefore, in With bivariate correlation analysis, all consump- regards to the gratifications, only enjoyment is tion values are proven to have a significant cor- proven to motivate participants to watch the relation with purchase intention online. Among live streaming commerce, and H5a is supported. all the consumption values, the functional value While social interaction and passing time are not is shown to have the strongest correlation with the motivation to watch live streaming, H4a and purchase intention online (coefficient = .556, p H6a are rejected. ≤ .001). In contrast, conditional value has the weakest correlation with online purchase inten- Bivariate Correlation tion (coefficient = .516, p ≤ .001). However, all The critical variables were put into bivariate the consumption values result in a coefficient higher than .5. Thus it is shown that all the con- correlation with the frequency to purchase after sumption values strongly correlate with online watching the live streaming as a dependent vari- purchase intention. able for the second research question. According to the results generated from the bivariate cor- 4 PAPERS 283 Table 5: Inter-correlations among Key Variables FV EV CV SI EM PT PI Functional Value 1 Epistemic Value .794*** 1 Conditional Value .718*** .807*** 1 Social Interaction .367*** .257*** .173** 1 Enjoyment .749*** .753*** .773*** .372*** 1 Passing Time 0.151 0.099 -0.009 .662*** .316*** 1 Purchase Intention .556*** .521*** .516*** .422*** .650*** .293*** 1 N = 149. * p ≤ .05. ** p ≤ .01. *** p ≤ .001. Table 6: Linear Regression Models on Purchase Intention (Mean=2.36 SD= .939) Standardized coefficients Functional Value .096 Epistemic Value .003 Conditional Value .055 Social Interaction .209* Enjoyment .457*** Passing Time -.004 Gender -.206** Age .011 Adjusted R2 .48*** N = 149. * p ≤ .05. ** p ≤ .01. *** p ≤ .001. Uses and Gratifications tion is put forward to see whether there is an effect on motivations. Among the demographic Enjoyment is the most substantial variable (coef- factors, gender is strongly related to purchasing ficient = .650, p ≤ .001), not only among all the after watching the live streaming commerce, and gratifications but also among all key variables. On the contrary, passing time is shown to have males are inclined to buy after watching the live the weakest correlation with purchase intention streaming commerce. online among all key variables (coefficient = Consumption Values .293, p ≤ .001). Despite a significant correlation between the Regression Analysis consumption values and online purchase inten- The main motivations are put into a regression tion, all the consumptions values do not display analysis as independent variables and set partici- a significant effect on online purchase intention pants’ purchase frequency after watching the live in the regression model, as shown in Table 6. streaming as dependent variables. The results are Thus H1b, H2b, and H3b are rejected in the re- shown in Table 6. Also, demographic informa- gression model. 4 PAPERS 284 Uses and Gratifications streaming commerce. Within the gratifications, the regression analysis Social interaction is rejected to be a motivation shown in Table 6 supported the results of so- for people to watch live streaming commerce. cial interaction and enjoyment that both grati- One explanation for social interaction being re- fications are positively and significantly related jected as the motivation is generational diver- to purchase intention. Enjoyment has the most sity. Mathwick, Malhotra, and Rigdon (2001) potent positive effect on purchasing intention stated the generation differences in using the in- (coefficient = .457, p ≤ .001). Thus H4b and ternet, that people of different ages can view so- H5b are supported in regression results. Still, the cial interaction differently in the context of live gratification of passing time does not significant- streaming commerce. ly affect purchase intention under the regression model. Thus H6b is rejected in the regression Regarding passing time being rejected as a mo- analysis. tivation for people to watch live streaming com- merce, it could be explained by the lifestyle peo- Discussion ple perceive in Hong Kong. Hong Kong is well Motivations for Watching Live Streaming known for its fast-paced lifestyle and long work- Commerce ing hours. Despite live streaming often lasting for an hour or more, only a few numbers of cus- The three consumption values (functional, tomers would stay for the whole period, and the epistemic, and conditional) and the enjoyment number of viewers seems to decline with time gratification are seen as the motivations for (Wongkitrungrueng et al., 2020). This implies respondents to watch the live streaming com- that live streaming could easily lead to boredom merce. Respondents show high agreement on if it lasts long. Also, especially after the pandem- live streaming commerce process function val- ic, Hong Kong people focus more on health, thus ue, epistemic value and conditional value. This taking desirable physical activities during their indicates that the utilitarian value (revealing spare time (Wang et al., 2021). product authenticity, information seeking, and convenience), trendsetting value, and condition Factors Driving Online Purchase Intention benefits (offers, discounts, and games with priz- es) are solid motives for people to watch live The results of the regression models showed that streaming commerce (Cai and Wohn, 2019; the two gratifications, enjoyment and social in- Wongkitrungrueng and Assarut, 2020). teraction, are significantly and positively relat- ed to purchase intention. Enjoyment is proven Enjoyment is a gratification supported to moti- strongly and significantly related to online pur- vate people to watch live streaming commerce. chase intention, and it is suggested that the rea- The result of this study aligned with previous son for enjoyment being significantly associated research, that consumers intend to have hedon- with buying intent is the enjoyment gained from ic value, fun, and enjoyment when participating the live streaming commerce with the partici- in live streaming commerce (Cai and Wohn, pation of celebrities. From earlier studies, it has 2019; Wongkitrungrueng and Assarut, 2020). been proven that enjoyment is strongly and pos- The characteristics of live streaming commerce, itively related to consumer purchase intention in which support real-time interaction with the the scenario with celebrity, which could arouse hosts and among the audiences, allow people people interest and feeling, and the attractive- to gain hedonic feelings while watching in live ness of the celebrity is also positively associat- 4 PAPERS 285 ed with consumers’ choice to buy (Park & Lin people in Hong Kong. With a dominant percent- 2020; Cai and Wohn, 2019; Cai el al., 2018). age of goods sold in HKTVmall being necessary In live streaming commerce, celebrities or KOLs (grocery, household, mother, and baby prod- are recruited to host live streaming, especially ucts), people tend to shop offline in Hong Kong. when the live streaming commerce occurs at Although home and commercial building deliv- Facebook. Therefore, leveraging tactics with re- ery is still the most preferred payment method, nowned people could lead to a strong and posi- picking up at the O2O HKTVmall stores is also tive relationship between the enjoyment gained seen as a favourable option, with a mean score of via live streaming and online purchase intention. 3.22. Meaning that a proportion of people still While enjoyment is proven to have an effect on tend to go to a physical store for purchasing. It is both intention to watch live streaming com- possible that respondents only want to gain the merce and purchase online, it could imply that information via watching the live streaming and enjoyment works not only as of the motivation then buying offline, thus the purchase intention for people to consume live streaming commerce response generated could be randomized, not re- but also as a reward that urges people to pur- sulting in a significant cause and effect shown. chase online. Another explanation is that perceived consump- tion values affect purchase intention under spe- In regards to social interaction, although is not cific conditions, but not all conditions. Wongk- seen as a motivation for participants to watch itrungrueng et al. (2020) suggested that sellers the live streaming commerce, it is proven that it adopted a different and wide-ranging approach has a significant and positive impact on online in live streaming commerce, while the differenc- purchase intention. Social interaction is a vital es in practice could lead to further consumption factor affecting consumers’ purchase intention, tendencies. Also, due to the diversity in genera- as proven by the previous study on social com- tion in the research, participants react differently merce, a new e-commerce paradigm that con- to diverse content. Therefore, the effect of con- sumers rely on the online recommendations of sumption values on consumers’ online purchase friends and acquaintances via social media and intention may differ under different scenarios. live streaming commerce (Yang and Li, 2014; Cai and Wohn, 2019). In the context of live Conclusion and Future Research streaming commerce, characterized by its re- al-time interactivity, especially via social media This research makes serval contributions to the platforms, and has been proven by earlier re- extant literature on live streaming commerce. search that social interaction positively influenc- This study extends the investigation of motiva- es purchase intention (Cai and Wohn, 2019). tions for people to watch live streaming by in- Hence, the results in this study supported that cluding the theory of consumption value, which the social interactivity of live streaming com- has not yet been explored previously. Earlier merce is positively related to consumers’ online research has applied different theories to exam- purchase intention. ine the antecedents of online purchase inten- tion in live streaming commerce, including IT Despite all the consumption values being proven affordance (Sun et al.), celebrity endorsement to be the motivation for people to watch live and match-up hypothesis (Park and Lin, 2020), streaming commerce, none of them has a signifi- consumer motivation theory (Cai et al., 2018), cant effect on consumers’ online purchase inten- flow theory (Li et al., 2018), and signalling ap- tion from the regression model. This could be proach (Lu and Chen, 2021). This study adopts due to the grocery purchasing habit perceived by the theory of consumption values, which applies 4 PAPERS 286 to pre dict consumption behaviours, to study Consumer Research, 20(4), 644. https://doi. further the effect of the live streaming imposed org/10.1086/209376 on consumption intention, where the results Bagozzi, R. P. (1975). Marketing as exchange. find out that consumption values, including the Journal of Marketing, 39(4), 32. https://doi. function value, epistemic value, and conditional value, are motivations for people to watch live org/10.2307/1250593 streaming commerce, with the conditional value Cai, J., & Wohn, D. Y. (2019). Live Streaming being the most decisive factor. Commerce: Uses and gratifications approach to understanding consumers’ motivations. 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Journal of Business Research, 5 EXTENDED ABSTRACT 289 2022 EXTENDED ABSTRACT 5 EXTENDED ABSTRACT 290 From Situational Appraisals to Collective Action: An examination on Asian Americans’ Engagement in Collective Action during the COVID-19 Pandemic Tao, Weiting, University of Miami (USA) Chen, Zifei Fay, University of San Francisco (USA) Sun, Ruoyu, University of Miami (USA) He, Mu, University of Miami (USA) Introduction and Purpose of the Study during political campaigns, the use of social media on Asian Americans’ well-being, mental The COVID-19 pandemic is not only a global health issues among Asian Americans, and so on health crisis but has also uncovered many under- (e.g., Lee & Waters, 2021; Yang et al., 2020). lying societal issues of disparity, inequity, and in- Apart from addressing the immediate impact justice. In the United States, along with the vast during the pandemic, scholars have also noted spread of COVID-19 is the uptick of hate inci- that the uptick of hate incidents against Asian dents, discrimination, and racist attacks against Americans has its historical roots. The portrayal Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPI). of Asians as the “Yellow Peril” and “perpetual According to Stop AAPI Hate, a total of 10,370 foreigners,” along with the pervasive “model mi- hate incidents were reported from March 19, nority” myth, has resulted in Asian Americans’ 2020 to September 30, 2021 in the United voices on their experiences of discrimination be- States. These hate incidents took place in var- ing delegitimized and silenced. This has further ious forms that ranged from individual acts of led to limited empirical research evidence on verbal harassment, shunning, physical assaults, the impact of racial discrimination among Asian to civil rights violations such as workplace dis- Americans, especially when it comes to activism crimination and refusal of service. This study, and collective action (Lee & Waters, 2021). The in this regard, sets out to examine the factors knowledge on collective action—the action that and mechanisms that drive Asian Americans’ aims at changing the status of a disadvantaged engagement in collective action in combating group—could be especially instrumental as com- anti-Asian discrimination and racism during the munity members, activists, and scholars continue COVID-19 pandemic. exploring viable measures to combat anti-Asian discrimination and racism at individual, institu- Literature review tional, and societal levels. Scholars from various fields have conducted Drawing on insights from the Situational Theory studies that examined the anti-Asian rhetoric of Problem Solving (STOPS) (Kim & Grunig, 5 EXTENDED ABSTRACT 291 2011), societal risk reduction motivation model this study suggested a multi-facet approach that (SRRM) (Cho & Kuang, 2014), and collective encompasses consideration at perceptual, cogni- action (Van Zomeren et al., 2008), this study tive, and emotive levels in gauging Asian Ameri- proposes a model that comprises perceptual, cans’ online and offline collective action. By pro- cognitive, emotive, and motivational factors that viding an integrated framework that delineates could drive Asian Americans’ online and offline the process from situational appraisals to collec- collective action in combating anti-Asian dis- tive action, this study helps shed insights on the crimination and racism. role public relations could play in advocating for social change and creating a more humane and Methodology just world. An online survey was conducted in August Keywords: Racial Discrimination, Collective Action, 2021 among 505 Asian Americans residing in Asian Americans, Situational Theory of Problem the U.S. at the time of the study. Participants Solving (STOPS), COVID-19 were recruited via Dynata survey panel, repre- senting diverse ethnic backgrounds among the References Asian American communities spanning across 41 states in the U.S. Cho, H., & Kuang, K. (2014). The societal risk reduction motivation model. The SAGE hand- Results and Conclusions book of risk communication, 117-132. Results revealed the perceptual, cognitive, emo- Kim, J. N., & Grunig, J. E. (2011). Problem solv- tive, and motivational factors that drove Asian ing and communicative action: A situational Americans’ online and offline collective action. theory of problem solving . Journal of Commu- nication, 61(1), 120-149. Perceptual factors including Asian Americans’ involvement recognition, their perceptions of Lee, S., & Waters, S. F. (2021). Asians and Asian self-efficacy, group efficacy, and governmental Americans’ experiences of racial discrimina- efficacy fostered situational motivation to com- tion during the COVID-19 pandemic: Impacts bat anti-Asian discrimination and racism. The on health outcomes and the buffering role of emotive factor of discrimination-inflicted arous- social support. Stigma and Health, 6(1), 70–78. al also generated Asian Americans’ situational Van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. motivation. Asian Americans’ motivational state, (2008). Toward an integrative social identi- in turn, facilitated their online and offline collec- ty model of collective action: a quantitative tive action in combating discrimination and rac- research synthesis of three socio-psychologi- ism. Given that this study particularly pertains cal perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 134(4), to the context of anti-Asian discrimination and 504-513. racism during COVID-19, future research could further test our model among other marginal- Yang, C., Tsai, J., & Pan, S. (2020). Discrimi-ized communities and in different sociocultural nation and well-being among Asians/Asian contexts to enhance its theoretical and practical Americans during covid-19: The role of so- utility. cial media. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 23(12), 865-870. 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