507 Documenta Praehistorica XLIII (2016) An experimental case of wood-working use-wear on quartzite artefacts Ji-Ying Liu1, Hong Chen1,2 1 Institute of Cultural Heritage and Museology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, CN 2 Department of Cultural Heritage and Museology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, CN 317092107@qq.com Introduction Based on experimental observations, use-wear ana- lysis refers to the study of wear traces on the edge or surface of artefacts caused by use (e.g., Fullagar, Matherson 2013; Odell 2004). It has been widely ac- cepted that use-wear analysis is an important way to identify, classify and compare wear traces, which allow functional interpretations and reconstructions of human behaviour (e.g., Redman 1973; Marreiros et al. 2015). Low- and high-power magnifications are two meth- ods that contribute to recognising use wear and func- tional interpretation (e.g., Odell 1977; Keeley 1980). Low-power magnification primarily follows Seme- nov’s (1964) methodology of using a stereoscopic microscopy. This low-power approach, focusing main- ly on microfractures and abrasion, such as edge da- mage, rounding, and diagnostic fractures, has an ad- vantage over the observation and analysis of a large number of artefacts. Quartzite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock contain- ing more than 75% quartz. It can form sharp edges, and is suitable for tools due to its hardness, rigidity, and medium-grained texture. Use-wear analysis on quartzite artefacts began in the late 1970s (e.g., Toll 1978; Christian 1978), but developed slowly, since quartzite is difficult to observe and analyse under the microscope. In recent years, with methodologi- cal and technological developments, quartzite has become one of the most popular materials to study among use-wear researchers. Some replicative expe- ABSTRACT – Use-wear analysis has become an essential method for the functional study of lithic artefacts from prehistoric archaeological assemblages. On the basis of earlier research, this arti- cle discusses experiments and analyses of use-wear on quartzite artefacts caused by wood-work- ing. The raw materials of the artefacts were collected from the Wulanmulun Site, Inner Mongolia. The woodworking techniques include scraping, drilling, and chopping. Scarring sizes are mostly medium and small. Scarring terminations are mainly feathered; stepped terminations are caused by scraping and chopping wood. Scarring mainly appears as run-together distributions. Medium and heavy rounding is found on the edges of the artefacts. IZVLE∞EK – Analiza sledov uporabe je postala klju≠na metoda za prepoznavanje funkcij kamnitih orodij iz prazgodovinskih artefaktnih zbirov. Na osnovi starej∏ih raziskav v ≠lanki razpravljamo o eksperimentih in analizah uporabe artefaktov iz kvarcita, ki so bili uporabljeni pri obdelavi lesa. Su- rovino za tak∏na orodja so v prazgodovini nabirali na najdi∏≠u Wulanmulun na obmo≠ju Notranje Mongolije. Tehnike obdelave lesa vklju≠ujejo strganje, vrtanje in sekanje. Po∏kodbe na orodjih so ve- ≠inoma srednje do majhne. Brazgotinaste po∏kodbe so v obliki peresa; stopni≠aste po∏kodbe je pov- zro≠ilo strganje in sekanje lesa. Brazgotinaste po∏kodbe se pojavljajo v glavnem porazdeljene v sku- pine. Na orodjih smo prepoznali tudi srednje do mo≠no zarobljenje roba delovne povr∏ine. KEY WORDS – quartzite artefacts; wood-working; replicative experiment; use-wear analysis DOI> 10.4312\dp.43.27 Ji-Ying Liu, Hong Chen 508 riments have been conducted by Chinese research- ers, but these are still far from enough to support the archaeological interpretation. In many Paleolithic sites in China, quartzite was an important raw material widely used by early hu- mans. The Wulanmulun site, located in Inner Mon- golia, is a typical Paleolithic site where quartzite was the main raw material among the archaeological ob- jects. Since its first excavation in 2010, large quan- tities of quartzite artefacts have been unearthed (e.g., Hou et al. 2012; Wang et al. 2012). According to the evidence of use wear and hafting wear fea- tures observed on some quartzite tools from former functional studies (e.g., Chen et al. 2014), some tools from this site were used for woodworking. However, previous studies of use-wear often focused on flints and obsidian (e.g., Wang 1992; Li 1992; Hou 1992; Shen, Chen 2001; Chen 2008; Fang 2009). We hope this experimental study may con- tribute a partial set of reference standards for con- structing use-wear patterns on quartzite tools and aid interpretations of archaeological assemblages on the basis of the low-power technique. Experimental programme The aim of this experimental study is to summarise the identifiable use-wear features and patterns under various working techniques and use intensity, and subsequently to enrich the comparative reference collection that can be used in functional interpreta- tions of archaeological assemblages. Experimental design Five flakes and one core, both unretouched and with usable edges, were selected for the replicative expe- riment; some of them have sharp working edges. All of the experimental specimens, produced by hard- hammer percussion technique, were made from quartzite nodules collected from Locality 10 at the Wulanmulun site. The nodules are in three colours: tawny, henna, and black; tawny and henna quartzite consists of much larger grains than black pieces. In order to make the results of the experiment more precise, we collected the supposed contact materials from the Wulanmulun site and local areas. Conside- ring the probable tasks carried out on both fresh and dry wood by prehistoric humans, three working techniques were determined: scraping, drilling, and chopping. All of the specimens were observed with the low-po- wer technique with an Olympus SZX16 stereoscopic microscope at magnifications ranging from 8.75× to 143.75×. Typical use-wear patterns were photo- graphed using a Nikon EOS 600D digital camera, and the photos were processed by image processing soft- ware. Analytical items The use of a stone tool usually results in two major types of microscopic wear: microfractures and abra- sion. Microfracture mainly refers to scarring, includ- ing: (1) scarring size; scars can be defined as large (visible at less than 10×), medium (10–20×), small (20–40×), and tiny (above 40×); (2) scarring termi- nation (Fig. 1), classified as feather, hinge, step and snap; and (3) scarring distribution (Fig. 2), which is divided into continuous, uneven, scattered and over- lapped. Abrasion includes rounding, polish and stri- ation, while polish can be observed only at high ma- gnification. The three degrees of rounding are heavy, medium and light. Striations, the orientation of which is closely associated with the working technique, can usually be observed under low magnifications. Experimental process During the preparation stage, all of the basic infor- mation of each specimen was recorded accurately before use, including raw material colours, morpho- logical characteristics and edge shapes. In order to record areas with use-wear, every specimen was Working Contact Employed Employed Max Max Max motion material Specimen Type edge shape edge length length width thickness \mm \mm \mm \mm Scrape Fresh poplar 12EKAC6>81.1 Flake Convex edge 13.9 27.4 21.2 3.5 Scrape Fresh poplar C15>1.2 Flake Straight edge 24 25.4 21.9 4.8 Drill Fresh poplar AC5>19.1 Flake Tip – 25.8 16.7 8 Drill Fresh poplar BC7>5.2 Flake Tip – 41.5 30.3 9.9 Chop Dry willow 12EKBC7-1 Core Convex edge 15.1 63.7 54.6 37.5 Chop Dry willow BC7>9.1 Flake Straight edge 19 54.8 66.3 19.5 Tab. 1. Basic information on the experimental specimens. An experimental case of wood-working use-wear on quartzite artefacts 509 sketched and photographed, using the 8-polar coor- dinate grid defined by George H. Odell (1977). To make it easier to detect change in working edges after use, we painted some white pigment on the working edges of the specimens before use, and then observed and photographed them under a mi- croscope. As a controlled experiment, each specimen must be used by one particular experimenter in the same working location, with the same working technique, applying the same amount of force. On the basis of some previous experiments we carried out (e.g., Chen 2008; Chen et al. 2015), the total operating time of each specimen was limited to about 15 min- utes. Furthermore, to ensure that the experimenters could apply speed and force to relatively the same degree, they had to stop every 3 minutes and record the required information. The experiment was stop- ped when the specimen became badly damaged. During the experiment, the working technique of the experimenters on every specimen was recorded in detail, including length, frequency, and time con- sumed and number of movements of each action (Fang 2009). Action length refers to the distance we worked on the contact material each time. Action frequency is equal to the number of movements in a given time (generally counted in minutes), which reflects the continuity and intensity of each tech- nique. Time consumption means the total time of each experiment. Movement number refers to the total number of times each working action was taken during the experiment. Experimental results Three working techniques were involved in this ex- perimental programme: scraping, drilling and chop- ping; two specimens were used to perform each tech- nique. The result of the experiments is described below. Wood-scraping experiment and its use-wear features Specimen 12EKAC6:81.1 was used to scrape fresh poplar branch for 15 minutes; action frequency was limited to 511 times per minute. Medium rounding was observed along its edge ridge. Some half-moon- shaped notches and several stepped scars appeared along both sides of the working edge. Also, small feather scars were scattered continuously on its dor- sal side, and medium feather scars with small feath- er scars nested inside clustered on its ventral side (Fig. 4). Specimen C15:1.2 was used for the same task; action frequency was 351 times per minute. Medium round- ing can also be observed on its edge ridge. The scars distributed along both sides of the working edge are mainly small feather and step scars. Feather scars appeared more on the ventral than on the dorsal side. It can be seen that scars cross irregularly from the dorsal to the ventral side, appearing in a half- moon shape seen from the dorsal side. Fig. 1. Scarring termination (after Ho Ho Commit- tee 1979). Fig. 2. Scarring distribution. Fig. 3. 8-polar coordinate grid (modified from Odell 1977). Ji-Ying Liu, Hong Chen 510 No visible modification was found on the two specimens during the experimental pro- cess. Use-wear resulting from scraping the fresh poplar branch consisted mainly of small and medium feather scars, with a few stepped scars. The feather scars were mainly distributed continu- ously on both sides of the working edge. Scars crossing the edge ridge are apparent, appearing in a half-moon shape from the top of the edge. Medium rounding ap- peared on both specimens af- ter use. Wood-drilling experiment and its use-wear features Specimen AC5:19.1 was used to drill a fresh poplar branch in a clockwise rotation for 15 minutes; action frequency was 52 times per minute. The tip and the right working edge became dull, and heavy rounding appeared after use. Small feather scars were observed on the tip, while medium feath- er scars in continuous distribution were observed on both sides of the right edge. The right edge became denticulate, and small feather scars were distributed on the other working edge. Specimen BC7:5.2 was used to drill a fresh poplar branch with bidirectional rotation. The experiment lasted only 3 minutes due to the severe damage caused to the specimens. Ac- tion frequency was 59 times per minute. Small feather scars and a large crack where several small feather scars were distributed were observ- ed along the edge ridge. Small feather scars were scattered irregularly on the left side of the tip. The two specimens were used efficiently to drill the wood. The use-wear on the working edge consists mainly of con- tinuously distributed small- medium feather scars. Heavy rounding was observed on the tip, being more mark- ed on the wood drilled with bidirectional rotation. Wood-chopping experiment and its use-wear features Specimen BC7:9.1 was used to chop dry willow for 13 minutes; action frequency was approx. 96 per minute. Medium rounding appeared on both the working edge’s dorsal side and its ridge. Small and medium scars on the dorsal side mainly appeared as feather termination, with a few stepped termina- Fig. 4. Use-wear on specimen 12EKAC6:81.1 for scraping wood. a, c No traces. b Half-moon- shaped notches continuously distributed on the dor- sal side, with a few small feather scars. d Heavy rounding and a notch appeared on the ventral side of the working edge. Fig. 5. Use-wear on specimen AC5:19.1 for drilling wood. a No traces. b Heavy rounding appeared on the tip, and medium feather scars were di- stributed on the working edge. An experimental case of wood-working use-wear on quartzite artefacts 511 tions. Several small scars were nested in medium scars. Small feather scars and the starting point of crossed scars were distributed irregularly on the ventral edge. Specimen 12EKBC7-1 was used for the same task for over 15 minutes. Action frequency was 73 times per minute. Individual small scars crossing from the dor- sal to ventral side were observed on the edge ridge. Small scars were scattered continuously along the dorsal edge, most having feather terminations and a few stepped terminations. Medium scars were di- stributed continuously on the ventral side (Fig. 6). The chopping efficiency of these two specimens is relatively high. Use-wear caused by chopping is vis- ible to the naked eye, and is most evident in heavy rounding and medium-to-small scars in a continuous distribution. Most scars appear to be feather and stepped terminations, with a few scars crossing the two sides. Discussion and summary Theoretically and experimen- tally, the mechanical damage to the raw materials of lithic artefacts differed, because the composition and grains are different. Flint, obsidian and quartzite are common raw materials at prehistoric sites, so it is necessary to compare the similarities and differ- ences between use-wear fea- tures and patterns from wood- working on raw materials ba- sed on experimental studies. Use-wear features caused by wood-working on quar- tzite artefacts The experimental results show that micro-wear was caused by wood-working ac- tivities. Some preliminary con- clusions about use-wear fea- tures and patterns caused by wood-working can be indicat- ed. The distribution of micro-frac- ture damage on the working locations may somehow be affected by various working techniques. With the same technique, dif- ferent specimens display similar sizes, terminations and distribution of scars. However, use-wear fea- tures may vary due to occasional factors during ex- periments. It is a distinct feature that working edges became dull after scraping wood. Most of the scars are distributed continuously; most have feather ter- minations, with a few step and rolled-over termina- tions. On the other hand, the specimens’ edges be- came smoother after chopping wood; continuously scattered medium and small scars can be observed. Compared with wood scraping, step and rolled-over shaped terminations were observed much more on the working edge. After drilling wood, the tips of the specimens cracked, and only feather scars appeared. The rounding which appeared on the quartzite ar- tefacts after wood-working is obvious, and is main- Fig. 6. Use-wear on specimen 12EKBC7-1 for chopping wood. a, d No traces. b Small scars unevenly distributed on the dorsal side, with mainly feather and step terminations. c Small feather scars continuously distri- buted on the working edge, with a few step scars. e Medium scars, most with step and feather terminations. f Feather scars crossing the edge ridge scattered irregularly on the ventral side. Ji-Ying Liu, Hong Chen 512 ly medium or heavy. It was also shown that the lo- cation and degree of rounding depend on the var- ious working techniques. Rounding caused by wood- scraping appeared only on the edge ridge, while rounding results from chopping wood appeared mainly on the bulging part of the working edge. Rounding caused by drilling is heavier, especially with bidirectional rotation. Comparison of wood-working wear traces on various raw materials In recent years, experimental studies of wood-work- ing use-wear on flint and obsidian have been ex- plored by archaeologists. Thus, based on those first- hand data, we can summarise the identifiable use- wear features and patterns result from wood-work- ing on various materials. Using flint burins for carving, scraping and drilling wood, You-Ping Wang’s research (1992) showed that polish, striations, and scars appeared on the tool edge margin. The polish is bright and smooth; the burins have a banding distribution along the flat edge, but these are distributed intermittently along the uneven edge. Striations are wide and shal- low; scars are relatively deep, mostly with step termi- nations. Wei-Dong Li (1992) suggests that the use-wear fea- tures on flint points after carving and drilling wood- en materials are: (1) Apparent and bright polish; (2) Striations, thin striations parallel to the edge caused by wood-carving, and rather small striations caused by wood-drilling; (3) A few scars and small cracks after carving, while wear traces caused by drilling consist mainly of small step scars and some large shallow scarring. By means of low magnification, Chen Shen and Chun Chen (2001) suggest that micro-fractures on the flint tools after working on materials of medium hard- ness (such as dry and fresh wood) consist mainly of large and medium rolled-over shaped scars. Using 20 flint artefacts to scrape, shave, chop, saw, cut, carve, and drill dry and fresh wood, Fu-You Chen et alii (2008) demonstrate that wood-working mainly results in light rounding, while striations are caused only by chopping wood. The edge damage consists mainly of large and small scars with snap and feath- er terminations. Apparent rolled-over shaped scars appeared along the working edge of several speci- mens. Qi Fang (2009) conducted wood-working ex- periments with obsidian artefacts, which showed that use-wear on the working edge consists mainly of step and feather scars, mainly with continuous or overlapped distribution, while striation is rare. To sum up, apparent use-wear appeared on all of the three materials after wood-working; the similarities and differences are (Tab. 2): ❶ Rounding on quartzite and obsidian is heavier; ❷ A few striations are observed on flint and obsidi- an, but not on quartzite; ❸ Most scars have feather terminations; in a few step scars, the termination, distribution and size of scars observed on the flint specimens are more complex; ❹ Scars crossing the edge ridge are observed both on quartzite and flint specimens. On the basis of the experiments, it can be observed that the use-wear appearing on the artefacts might be due to various factors. This replicative experiment on quartzite artefacts provide us reference data for identifying use-wear features caused by wood-work- ing. The results of this experiment are important for understanding and identifying wear traces on vari- ous materials. However, due to the limited knowl- edge of the physical composition and relevant ana- lysis of our experimental specimens, we cannot reach a precise conclusion. The use-wear of archaeological artefacts is more complex, and more experiments and further studies are necessary. Tab. 2. Comparison of use-wear results from wood-working on three main raw materials. Comparing items Quartzite Flint Obsidian Microfracture Size Medium and small Large, medium and small Small Distribution Continuous More continuous, less Continuous few uneven and scattered and overlapped Termination Feather and step Feather, snap, hinge, Snap and feather and few step Other Crossing the ridge Crossing the ridge \ Abrasion Rounding Medium and heavy Heavy to light Medium and heavy Striation \ Few Rare Polish \ Little \ An experimental case of wood-working use-wear on quartzite artefacts 513 We would express our sincere appreciation to Professor Hou from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mr. Zemeng Yang from the Ordos Antiquity & Archaeology Institution, Mr. Ziming Zhen from the Ordos Museum for sup- porting us during the experiment, and to Huihu Lian, Jun Wang, Yang Liu, Shuang Li, and Yue Lu et alii for help- ing us complete the experiment. We wish to extend our personal thanks to Ran Chen and Xia Yang for help. This paper was supported by the National Social Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 15CKG003), Provincial Science Foundation of Zhejiang (Grant No. LY16D020001) and Zhijiang Junior Social Science Scholars Program of Zhejiang Province. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS References ∴ Chen F. Y., Cao M. M., Guang Y. and Lv J. Y. 2008. Re- port of wood-working experiment and use-wear analysis. In X. Gao., S. Chen (eds.), Archaeological study of lithic use-wear experiments. Science Press. Beijing: 41–60. (in Chinese) Chen H., Hou Y., Yang Z., Zhen Z., Lian H. and Liu Y. 2014. A preliminary study on human behavior and lithic function at the Wulanmulun site, Inner Mongolia, China. Quaternary International 347: 133–138. Chen H., Wang J., Huiru L., Mengxia F., Hou Y.-M. and Yue H. 2015. An experimental case of bone-working use-wear on quartzite artifacts. Quaternary International. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint. 2015.08.086 Christian J. Z. 1978. A function analysis of “projectile points” from Yellowjacket, Colorado. Plains Anthropolo- gist 23(79): 31–45. Fang Q. 2009. Analysis of Micro-wears on Obsidian Arti- facts in Eastern Jilin Province. Unpublished PhD thesis. Jilin University. Changchun. (in Chinese) Fullagar R., Matherson M. 2013. Traceology: A summary. In C. Smith (ed.), Encyclopedia of global archaeology. Springer. New York: 73–85. Hou Y.-M. 1992. Experimental studies of microwear ana- lysis on stone artifacts. Acta Anthropological Sinica 11(3): 202–213. Hou Y.-M. and 15 co-authors. 2012. The first trial excava- tion and significance of Wulanmulun site in 2010 at Or- dos, Inner Mongolia in North China. Quaternary Scien- ces 32(2): 178–187. Ho Ho Committee 1979. The Ho Ho classification and no- menclature committee report. In B. Hayden (ed.), Lithic Use-wear Analysis. Academic Press. New York. Keeley L. 1980. Experimental Determination of Stone Tool Uses. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago. Li W. D. 1992. Experimental studies of flint points. In De- partment of archaeology, Peking University (ed.), Archa- eological Studies. Cultural Relics Press. Beijing. (in Chi- nese) Marreiros J., Gibaja Bao J. and Bicho N. 2015. Macro and micro evidences from the past: the state of the art of ar- chaeological use-wear studies. In J. M. Marreiros, J. F. Gi- baja Bao and N. Ferreira Bicho (eds.), Use-wear and resi- due analysis in archaeology. Springer. Cham. Odell G. H. 1977a. Stone tools and Mobility in the Illinois Valley: From Hunter-Gatherer Camps to Agricultural Vil- lages. International Monographs in Prehistory. Michigan. 1977b. The Application of Micro-wear Analysis to the Lithic Component of an Entire Prehistoric Settlement: Methods, Problems and Functional Reconstructions. Unpublished PhD thesis. Department of Anthropology. Harvard University. Ann Arbor. 2004. Lithic analysis. Manuals in Archaeological Me- thod, Theory, and Technique. Springer Science & Busi- ness Media. New York. Redman C. 1973. Multistage Fieldwork and Analytical Techniques. American Antiquity 38(1): 61–79. Semenov S. A. 1964. Prehistoric Technology: An Experi- ment Study of the Oldest Tools and Artifacts from Tra- ces of Manufacture and Wear (translated by Thompson M. W.). Cory, Adams & Mackay. London. Shen C., Chen C. 2001. Explore and practice of use-wear analysis (low-power technique): and use-analysis of lith- ic artefacts from the Xiaochangliang Site. Archaeology 7: 62–73. (in Chinese) Toll H. W. 1978. Quartzite qua lithic material in archaeo- logy: Qualities and quandaries with special reference to use-wear. Plains Anthropologist 23(79): 47–67. Ji-Ying Liu, Hong Chen 514 Wang Y. P. 1992. An experimental study of burins. In De- partment of archaeology, Peking University (ed.), Archa- eological Studies. Cultural Relics Press. Beijing. (in Chi- nese) Wang Z. H., Hou Y.-M., Yang Z. M., Zhen Z.-M., Liu Y., Bao L., Yang J.-G., Bai L.-Y. and Zhang L.-M. 2012. The excava- tion of Wulanmulun Middle Paleolithic site at Ordos, Inner Mongolia in North China. Archaeology 7: 3–13. (in Chinese)