Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 39, 1992, s. 47 - 60 
FDC: 149.6 Cervus elaphus L.: 156.2 (497.12) 
RED DEER MANAGEMET (CERVUS ELAPHUS L.) IN REPUBLIC 
SLOVENIA: THE PROBLEMS, RECENT TRENDS AND PERSPEC-
TIVES 
Miha ADAMIČ* 
Abstract 
The past strategy of red deer population management on the recent territory of Slov-
enia is discussed in the article. The present distribution and density of this game spe-
cies in Slovenia are a consequence of optimal suitability of habitats in managed 
forests, absence of great predators and late - red deer friendly - hunting legislation. 
The previous rigid system of solving of local environmental problems (connected with 
increased densities of red deer) started to fail, when extensive decline of forests 
broke out and when - together with it • a necessity appeared for faster regeneration 
of forests. Problems of this kind reduce to a great degree the life possibilities of red 
deer. Because of that, the previous rigid system of protection should to be replaced 
by more flexible bio-political strategy of red deer population management. 
Key words: red deer, population management, bio-political strategy, Slovenia 
UPRAVLJANJE POPULACIJ JELENJADI (CERVUS ELAPHUS L.) V 
REPUBLIKI SLOVENIJI: PROBLEMI IN PERSPEKTIVE 
Izvleček 
Prispevek kritično obravnava dosedanjo strategijo upravljanja populacij jelenjadi na 
današnjem območju Slovenije. Današnja razširjenost in gostota te divjadi v Sloveniji 
sta posledici optimalne primernosti habitatov v gospodarjenih gozdovih, odsotnosti 
velikih plenilcev ter dosedanje, jelenjadi naklonjene lovske zakonodaje. Dosedanji 
togi sistem reševanja lokalnih problemov v okolju, povezanih z povečanimi gostotami 
jelenjadi, je pričel odpovedovati ob pojavu obsežnejšega propadanja gozdov ter 
potrebi po njihovi hitrejši obnovi. Zaradi tovrstnih problemov, ki v precejšni meri 
ožijo življenjske možnosti jelenjadi, bo potrebno klasični sistem varstva nadomestiti z 
elastičnejšo biopolitično strategijo upravljanja populacij jelenjadi. 
Ključne besede: jelenjad, upravljanje populacij, biopolitična strategija, Slovenija 
Dr. M. A., Ass. Prof. o{ Wildlife Ecology, Inštitut za gozdno in lesno gospodarstvo, Večna pot 2, 61000 Ljubljana 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 39 
CONTENTS 
1 
2 
3 
4 
INTRODUCTION AND SHORT HISTORY OF RED DEER 
MANAGEMENT ON RECENT TERRITORY OF REPUBLIC 
SLOVENJA 
THE BASES OF RED DEER MANAGEMENT AFTER THE 
YEAR OF 1970 
AN UNCLEAR VISION OF THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 
OF RED DEER POPULATIONS IN SLOVENJA 
LITERATURE 
48 
49 
52 
57 
58 
Adamič M: Red deer management (Cervus elaphus L.) ... 
1 INTRODUCTION AND SHORT HISTORY OF RED DEER 
MANAGEMENT ON RECENT TERRITORY OF REPUBLIC 
SLOVENIA 
By the variety of its natura! conditions, Slovenia is one of the leading countries in 
Europe. The changing landscape, wide spread forests and the geographical position 
at the meeting Alpine, Mediterranean, Pannonian and Dinaric regions, create natura! 
conditions with characteristical diversity of fauna and • within it • the wildlife variety 
as well. 
Today's ranges and densities of wildlife in Slovenia is a resultant of the natura! 
conditions, the past legislation, the unequal levels of socio-economic development in 
different regions and the traditional relations of human population towards wildlife 
and towards animals in general. The recent quantity and distribution of wildlife differ. 
significantly from its density and distribution in past. If the changes are studied more 
thoroughly it is quite evident, that the events within wildlife populations in Slovenia 
were to. a great degree similar to the events in the major part of Europe and North 
America (Mueler-Using 1960, Strandgaard 1965, Kraft 1964, Formozov 1971, Adamič 
1974, 1976, Schroeder 1977, Gruell 1986, Myrberget 1990, etc.). The changes are 
clearly scen in the increasing number and in spreading of the great herbivores and -
on the other hand · in the regression or even vanishing of the species, dwelling in 
large old-growth forests and of the species, living in the mosaic-like envirnnment of 
the old farming countryside. 
JELENJAD V SLOVENIJI 
RAZŠ!RJENOS T 
~ stanje 1955 
WA· širjenje do t9ao 
Figure 1: Former (1955) and recent (1980) distribution of red deer in Republic of 
Slovenia 
49 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 39 
The changes are norrnally presented as harvest of individual wildlife species in a 
longer period of tirne. In the last years, they reached such an extent (Table 1), that it 
is irnpossible for thern to be a rnere result of direct human influence on wildlife 
populations, or in other words - to be a result of hunting only. 
Table 1: A cornparison of harvest for sorne species of wildlife in recent Slovenia in 
the years 1900 - 1904 and 1980 - 1984. The data for an area of lO0Oha, 
(10krn2), are shown in the table (Adamič, 1986). 
Species 1900 - 1904 1980 - 1984 
average/ index the average index 
lO00ha 
Roe deer 3,9 100 14,9 382 
Red deer 0,02 100 1,5 7500 
Charnois 0,3 100 1,0 330 
Boar 0,9 
Field hare 9,1 100 5,2 57 
Field partridge 5,2 100 0,6 11 
Fox 1,5 100 3,8 250 
Such differences in density, and with it also in harvest, can only be explained by 
changes in "carrying capacity" of habitats, which are the consequence of changes in 
the environrnent. With the notion of "carrying capacity" (Dasrnann 1964, Bailey 
1984), the upper leve! of population growth with consideration to the environrnental 
capacity is defined. The carrying capacities of habitats of great herbivores are 
deterrnined first of ali by the quantity and quality of the available food and by the 
protective conditions. The carrying capacity is therefore not a constant, but changes 
all the tirne. As the human changes the environrnent, he influences its carrying 
capacity in the sense of space and tirne, short-terrn or long-terrn; due to the human 
influence, the carrying capacity could be increased or decreased. An increased 
carrying capacity of habitats is not enough to induce progressive growth of wildlife 
populations; the major environrnental resistances, which influence the populations' 
growth negatively, have to be suppressed or at least rnoderated as well. The rnain -
so called - environrnental resistance are the great predators (wolf!) and the way and 
intensity of hunting. The grounds for progressive growth of populations of red deer 
and sorne other great herbivores in the 20th century in Slovenia, could therefore be 
found in the cornbined influence of higher carrying capacities of habitats and 
rnoderated environrnental resistances (Adamič 1974, 1976, 1986, 1990). 
50 
Adamič M: Red deer management (Cervus elaphus L.) ... 
The autochthone red deer population in Slovenia was considerably large - beside the 
written sources (Schollmayer 1889, Fabjan 1956, Župančič 1957, Simonič 1958, 1972 
and some others), also the preserved antlers of the deer shot in the areas of Kočevje 
and Notranjski Snežnik give evidence about that. But in the period of anarchy after 
the revolutionary year of 1948, the whole population was almost eompletely 
exterminated. 
In the end of 19th century began the restocking of Slovene territory with red deer, 
caught in various parts of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy - yet these animals' vigour 
did not match the vigour of the local Slovene deer. According to the 
abovementioned authors, the Austro-Hungarian red deer were brought to the 
following game reserves: 
Kokra (1888) and Jelendol (1891 - 1894) in Gorenjska, 
the game reserve of Haasberg Castle by Planina and the reserve Leskova 
dolina in the forests of Snežnik (1899). When the wildlife reserve Leskova 
dolina was opened, the not numerous autochthone deer, that persisted in the 
forests of Snežnik, joined the released animals. 
In the end of 19th century, red deer were also kept in the game reserves Lukanja on 
Pohorje, on Uršlja gora and by the Bogenšperk Castle in Zasavje. 
1880 90 1900 10 13 20 30 40 .46 50 60 70 80 90 
Figure 2: Dynamics of red deer harvest on the recent territory of Slovenia in the 
period 1875 - 1990 (N/l000ha) 
Up to the year of 1900, very few deer were shot on the recent territory of Slovenia, 
but afterwards the harvest began to increase gradually. Already before the first world 
war, and even more noticeably after it, the red deer began to spread lts range. 
51 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 39 
The second world war influenced the forming red deer populations badly. Because of 
that, with a Decree about the big game hunt inhibition, the red deer hunt was 
forbidden completely for 2 years (from January 1st 1946 till December 31st 1947). 
From statistical data of the Hunting Association of Slovenia it is evident, that after 
1950, the red deer populations began to grow again - mainly as a consequence of the 
to red deer friendly hunting legislation of that period and of the concrete protective 
measures in the breeding grounds of Kočevje, Notranjska, Pohorje and Karavanke, 
which had ali been formed in purpose of systematic protection and management of 
red deer. 
The density and harvest of red deer were increasing significantly fast after 1970. 
After Hlavaty (1980), the red deer harvest in the period 1969 - 1979 was increasing 
at an average annual rate of 11.5%, and within this period, from 1974 1979 even at 
the average rate of 14.2%. 
Simultaneously with the growing red deer populations, that were evidently not 
mastered by harvest (Figure 3), the problems of negative impact of red deer and 
other herbivores to natural regeneration of forests began to appear (Gašperšič 1974, 
Perko 1977, 1980, 1981). For Slovenia, such problems are very worrying, because 70 -
75% of the Slovene forests should be regenerated naturally (Mlinšek, 1982). 
2 THE BASES OF RED DEER MANAGEMENT AFTER THE 
YEAR OF 1970 
As a great consumer, red deer is an important ecological factor, with a considerable 
influence upon the producer - vegetation. The characteristical generalistic feeding 
strategy of (Hofmann 1978, Bubenik 1984), enables the red deer populations to 
spread from central parts of their former habitats and to settle in new ones 
successfully. According to the Statistical Evidence of the Hunting Association of 
Slovenia, the harvest of red deer in the period 1977 - 1986 was 29.422 animals. If 
also the 2716 animals, that died naturally or were Iost for some other reasons (the 
registered loss!) are added to this numbers, we come to a total of 32.138 eliminated 
animals. The average annual nonhunting Iosses for this period (see Table 2) reach 
8.4% of ali dead animals, and vary between 3.5% and 15.2% per year. These results 
show, that harvest is the major cause of mortality of red deer in the absence of big 
predators (wolf!). 
The man - hunter is the major cause of recent mortality and the regulatory factor of 
red deer population dynamics. Very similar conclusions could also be derived from 
the data about harvest in the state game reserve Jelen (see Figure 4). 
It is rather difficult to define the causes of red deer nonhunting mortality for the 
whole territory of Slovenia, yet this can be done for smaller areas • locally. From the 
data about red deer losses in the area of Jelen in the period 1981 - 1986 (6 years -
Berce 1987: 24) it can be seen, that 62.2% of the deer (181 animals) were killed by 
52 
Adamič M: Red deer management (Cervus elaphus L.) ... 
great predators - wolf and lynx. Only 34.8% of loss can be regarded as a 
consequence of unfavourable winter conditions and other reasons (Figure 5). 
Thousands 
* 7.5 * * * 
* 6.5 * * * 
5.5 
* * 4.5 * 
3.5 • • • • 
• • • 
2.5 • • 
• • 1.5 • -*- estimated stock --B- harvest • • 
O. 5 ,----·-r· ·--,---,-----, 
1969 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 1980 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 1988 
Figure 3: The increasing harvest and estimated red deer densities in Slovenia after 
1969. 
Table 2: The harvest and the registered red deer losses in Slovenia for the period of 
1977 - 1986 (from Statistical Evidence of LZS) 
The year Harvest 
1977 2601 
1978 2800 
1979 2817 
1980 3098 
1981 2723 
1982 2601 
1983 3046 
1984 3237 
1985 3472 
1986 3027 
Tota! 29422 
Avarage annual losses (%) 
Nonhunting Together 
mortality 
267 
187 
208 
311 
417 
136 
191 
338 
126 
535 
2716 
x = 8.4 ± 3.7% 
53 
2868 
2987 
3025 
3409 
3140 
2737 
3237 
3575 
3598 
3562 
32138 
% of losses 
9,3 
6,3 
6,9 
9,1 
13,3 
5,0 
5,9 
9,5 
3,5 
15,2 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 39 
Although the winter climatic conditions and the general suitability of red deer win-
tering areas in Kočevje are more favourable than those in the area of Jelen (the 
above-sea altitude, exposition, tree variability and forest cover, etc), the data from 
the state game reserve Medved (Kočevje) show, that the most important reason of 
red deer mortality there are winter Iosses. It is not easy to judge about the causes of 
such a difference, yet most probably the main reason is a different density of red 
deer populations in the mentioned two areas. The density differences could be 
clearly scen from the results of systematic red deer observation, which was carried 
out within the investigation of the summer habitats selection in the summers of 1980 
and 1981. 
N 
600 
550 m other caus. of dealh ml harvest 
500 
450 
400 
350 
300 
250 
200 
150 
100 
50 
o 
1974 75 75 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 
Figure 4: The harvest and the registered red deer losses in the area of Jelen in the 
period 1974 - 1990 (from the Annual review of red deer management and 
harvest, Notranjsko LGO 1976 - 1990) 
According to our instructions, the hunters from the areas of Jelen and Medved, 
carried out the systematic observation of red deer populations (Table 3). 
From Table 3, the characteristical difference in number of deer, observed per one 
observation day, can be scen. On the basis of the trends of some measurable 
environmental parameters and parameters connectcd to red deer populations it can 
be induced, that deer density in the area of "Jelen" has decreased after 1976 
(Adamič, Kotar 1983, Berce 1987). On the other hand, the falling trends of equal, 
identically measured parameters in Kočevje (Adamič, 1982), point to the increasing 
densitics of deer in the area of "Medved". Relatively high winter losses, which - in 
spite of the optimal suitability of the winter habitats - occur in Kočevje every a bit 
more severe winter, are most probably connected with high deer population density 
and with unselective hunting. The too short hunting season and the ways of hunting, 
reduce the opportunities for coordination of harvest - . its extent and the suitah le age 
54 
Adamič M: Red deer management (Cervus elaphus L.) ... 
and sex structure of culled animals. Because of the irresponsible shooting of mllk 
hinds, the orphaned youngs only have Iittle chances to survive in severe winter 
conditions. The leve! of winter losses can so be significantly increased by 
unreasonable harvest. In future it could be expected for these undesired effects to 
grow together with the increasing harvest, in case the present, too short hunting 
season is not prolonged. 
Table 3: The results of systematical red deer observation, carried out in the game 
reserves "Medved" in Kočevsko and "Jelen" in Notranjska (April - October 
1980 and 1981). 
Game The number of Tota! number of The number of deer 
reserve observation · days observed deer per observation day 
x ± SD 
"MEDVED" 205 833 4,3 ± 4,0 
"JELEN" 136 378 2,8 ± 1,9 
In the period of growing red deer populations in the sixties and seventies, the deer 
spread over large areas of Slovenia ( see Figure 1 ). Besi de the too low harvest in 
central areas, the causes for this should also be seeked in the former politics of the 
Slovenc Hunting Organization and in the towards deer friendly hunting legislation of 
that period, which had not (yet) taken into consideration the signs of decreasing 
bioecological stability of Slovenc forests (Gašperšič 1987). Beside the air pollution, 
cuttings and weather rigours, also the herbivore animals contributed locally to the 
bioecological instability of forests. 
70 ~~---_-::::::::::::.=;-------------------. 
EE'J 0THER8• 
•• 
•• 
40 
30 
20 
10 
•OTHERS: wlnter mortality • unknown 
Figure 5: Causes of red deer nonhunting mortality in the Game reserve Jelen • 
Snežnik in the period 1981 - 1986 (source: Berce 1987) 
55 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 39 
The management system (zonation) for red deer, which was prepared after the 
resolution in the Parliament of SR Slovenia about the hunting legislation in 1985, 
was directed to fast salvation of local consequences of high densities of red deer 
populations. The main characteristic of this management system was divison of the 
Slovene territory to regions, suitable for red deer management and to regions, 
unsuitable for it (in other words - the regions where no deer populations should 
exist). But as the management system was prepared without necessary professional 
basis and without agreement of the hunting organizations from the "no deer" regions, 
it could not contribute much to the proper red deer population management in 
Slovenia. Furthermore, the zonation also provoked unwanted side effects. With the 
bureaucratic regulation of spatial frames and intensity of protection and manage-
ment, the red deer is being pushed in a kind of "Indian reserves", which will in 
future - due to some further spatial activities - become even more split and 
narrowed, or the already mentioned activities will - for their own purpose - lessen 
the suitability of these habitats for wildlife and their carrying capacity as well. 
The non-professional basis of the management system (zonation) is well evident in 
the provision, that the average spring density of deer in central areas should not 
exceed 2 animals per lO0ha of forest. In the area of Kočevje, the harvest of red deer 
in 1985 in three game reserves, with joint area of 57.406ha of forest, was 1154 
animals - that is 2 deer per lO0ha. That is exactly as much, as the target number of 
red deer in this area should be. There is no doubt, that the density of population, 
which in spite of consideration of the age and sex structure stili allows so great a 
harvest, is significantly higher, as the official estimations are. 
We estimate, that red deer densities in central areas will stili for a long tirne exceed 
the planned 2 animals per lO0ha of forest surface. Yet an important question arises, 
whether it is more reasonable to maintain lower red deer densities on larger areas or 
to limit the red deer areas and maintain higher local population densities there. 
Long-term, the first option is certainly better. Maintenance of lower population 
densities causes less unwanted side effects, especially those of overbrowsing and 
bark-stripping of forest trees. There are less troubles by the execution of harvest, the 
costs of feeding are smaller and it is easier to harmonize the various spatial interests. 
On the other hand, the second solution - the greater density - even accelerates ali 
the mentioned problems. 
High densities of red deer and other ungulates in multifunctional forests are not 
desired nor reasonable. Already Kraus (1985) had stressed, that even moderate red 
deer densities of 1.5 animals per lO0ha, cause decline of plant diversity. Yet, the 
deer influence becomes much more evident by the densities greater than 3 animals 
per lO0ha. According to the same author, the first to decline are the biomass and 
the diversity of broad-leaved trees, dwarf shrubs and forbs. As the forbs have no 
tirne to finish flowering and to seed, they gradually vanish. At the same tirne, the 
cover and biomass of grasses increase. Higher red deer densities therefore lead to 
gradual worsening of food conditions and decreasment of environmental carrying 
capacity. Schauer (1976), Perko (1977, 1978), Edgerton (1987), Hanley, Hanley 
(1987) and some other authors also remind us of the regression processes in plant 
56 
Adamič M: Red deer management (Cervus elaphus L.) ... 
communities, caused by too great densities of red deer and other herbivores. And 
Perko (1986) as well reports, that in the forests of Snežnik, the biomass of herbs and 
shrubs and the quantity of tree shoots increased simultaneously with the increased 
red deer harvest in the period 1976 - 1986. 
And there is one even more important reason for the choice of lower red deer 
density. The changing goals of rural economy and the growing problems of forest 
decline will in future cause additional pressure for further lowering of densities of 
deer populations also in the zonated areas. Mayer (1985) warns, that the densities of 
high herbivores, which are stili tolerable in healthy, stabile forest, are resolutely too 
big for the pollution affected forests. In such forests • by opinion of the same author 
- it is of a vita! importance to ensure the rejuvenation of all tree species, especially 
the broad-leaved trees, which are less affected by the imissions as the conifers are. 
Perko and colleagues (cit. Jež 1987) announce, that the share of fir within the forest 
growing stock will decrease - due to the fir dieback frorn 51 % to only 13% in the 
period of 1985 - 2030. The absence of fir will have to be compensated with an 
increased share of broad-leaved trees (which are hardly browsed by cervids) and by 
additional spruce planting. 
If the actual degree of air pollution of Slovenc forests is taken into consideration 
(Šolar 1987), it is most likely, that there will be more demands for further Iowering 
of densities of red deer and other ungulates in the future. 
3 AN UNCLEAR VISION OF THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 
OF RED DEER POPULATIONS IN SLOVENIA 
The changing, defensive politics of hunting organizations, the already announced 
changes of hunting legislation and the growing pressures because of forest decline 
make it difficult to foretell, what the future red deer population dynamics in Slovenia 
will look like. Increased harvest in central parts will most probably obstruct further 
spreading of red deer to the border areas. Yet, the rnajority of questions remain 
unanswered. On the unsufficient professional basis built managernent system 
(zonation), which spatially frarnes the managernent and hunting of red deer on only 
one half of the recent territory of this species, is not a very firm guarantee for a 
long-terrn red deer populations' rnanagement. For a reasonable management of red 
deer and some other "problematic" game species, it would be necessary for the 
biopolitical strategy to be introduced by decision-making. 
Biopolitics (Peek et ali 1982) is a spatially defined comprornise of biological 
charaeteristics of a species, environmental conditions and human intentions of 
individuals and organizations to use the environment (within the statutory frarnes, of 
course ). After thorough fulfillment of this dynarnic strategy, the rigid frames of the 
present rnanagement systern (zonation) will no longer be necessary. 
The future of red deer in Slovenia depends on the success of incorporation of the 
biopolitical strategy of this species' management into the concept of the modem, 
57 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 39 
multifunctional forest management. If we are determined to eontrol the complicated 
relations between red deer and its habitats, and to follow the trends with suitable 
measures, a very sensitive system of control mechanisms should be built, which 
would enable us to supervise the events and to decide about the system and intensity 
of interventions into red deer populations and their habitats. 
For ali this, much more knowledge is necessary as we today have, much more 
tolerance and understanding of the happenings around us. 
4 LITERATURE 
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ADAMIČ, M. 1986. The land use changes in Slovenija and their influence on range 
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populations with the emphasisis on the red deer (Cervus elaphus L.)./ 
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FORMOZOV, A.N. 1971. Wood-skirts of the sparse steppe woodlands as a faetor of 
game wildlife in european Soviet Union. Trans. 10th Congress IUGB: 119-
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HLAVATY, M. 1980. Odstrel in stalež divjadi v Sloveniji-1964-1980. Prikazi in 
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System der Aesungstypen. Wildbiologisehe Informationen fuer den Jaeger 1: 
9-18. Enke Verlag, Stuttgart 1978. 
JEŽ, P. 1987. Možnosti povečanja prehranske zmogljivosti za jelenjad v Snežniškem 
masivu s sečnjo jelke v zimskem času. Diplomska naloga. VTOZD za 
gozdarstvo Biotehniška fakulteta: 1-48. Ljubljana 1987. 
KRAFT, A. 1964. Management of moose in a Norwegian forests. Papers of the 
Norwegian State Game Res.Inst. 2/16: 1-60. Orkanger 1984. 
KRAUS, P. 1985. Vegetationsbeeinflussung, Schaelsehadensintensitaet, und 
Wildbretgewichte als Indikatoren der relativen Rotwilddichte. Proc. 17th 
Congress IUGB: 967-978. Brussels 1985. 
MAYER, H. 1985. Wild-Wald Wechselbeziehung als Indikator fuer den 
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