161Arheološki vestnik 74, 2023, 161–188; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AV.74.04; CC BY-SA
The material remains from the Early Iron Age 
cemeteries and settlements in the Middle Danube 
River valley reflect the life of the communities 
near the river (Fig. 1). Graves provide the most 
abundant information. We can associate grave 
inventories with the remains of buried individuals 
and treat them as an expression of their identity 
and their role in the life of the community to 
which they once belonged. The material expression 
of specific Iron Age communities in the Danube 
region points to the local production of objects as 
well as intensive communication within the local 
and broader regional networks.
Local products, such as ceramic vessels, tools 
used in the funerary rituals, and animals sacrificed 
for the funerary feast and the last farewell, are 
reflections of everyday life in mortuary practices. 
Additionally, specific costume accessories that 
belonged to the deceased women were compo-
nents of a wider regional production sphere. They 
Two Graves from Batina:
An indication of the economic role and social status
of women near the Danube in the Early Iron Age
Grobova iz Batine kot primera ekonomske vloge
in družbenega statusa žensk ob Donavi
v starejši železni dobi
Daria LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, Carola METZNER-NEBELSICK, Petra RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ,
Antonela BARBIR, Julia Katarina FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
Izvleček
Večina ženskih grobov iz starejše železne dobe v srednjem Podonavju – na grobiščih Batina, Dalj, Vukovar, Sotin in 
Doroslovo v severovzhodnem delu Hrvaške in na severozahodu Srbije – je imela žaro, set keramičnih posod ter kdaj 
pa kdaj tudi dele noše in nakita, kot so okrasje za lase, obeski in fibule. Prispevek vključuje interdisciplinarne analize, 
obravnava kronologijo grobov 101 in 105 z grobišča v Batini ter interpretira vlogo žensk v tam živečih skupnostih v 
starejši železni dobi.
Ključne besede: srednje Podonavje; starejša železna doba; ženski grobovi; pogrebni običaji; fibule; keramika; vijčki
Abstract
The majority of the Early Iron Age cremation graves of women near the Middle Danube in northeast Croatia and 
northwest Serbia, in the cemeteries of Batina, Dalj, Vukovar, Sotin and Doroslovo, contained an urn, a set of ceramic 
vessels, and sometimes costume accessories and additional jewellery items, such as hair bands, pendants, or fibulae. 
The present paper uses interdisciplinary analysis and interpretation to examine the chronology of graves 101 and 105 
from the cemetery of Batina and the role of the women in the community that lived on the site in the Early Iron Age.
Keywords: Middle Danube region; Early Iron Age; female graves; mortuary practice; fibulae; pottery; spindle-whorls
162 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
are possible indications of trade, barter, or even 
exogamy.
In this paper, two graves, 101 and 105 from 
Batina, with different funerary assemblages but 
the same type of fibulae, will serve as examples 
to illustrate the status of the buried women in the 
community that lived in the area in the Early Iron 
Age as well as the then current burial customs.
BATINA – LATE BRONZE/EARLY IRON 
AGE SETTLEMENT AND CEMETERY
Batina is a multi-layered site on the steep 
north-eastern edge of the Bansko Brdo plateau. 
The site had been inhabited since the Neolithic 
due to its geostrategic position on a ford of the 
Danube River. The particular importance of the 
site during the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages 
is indicated by an extensive settlement on the 
extreme north-eastern point of the Bansko Brdo. 
Its cemetery was laid out along the only path 
leading to the settlement (Fig. 2). Most of the 
deceased were buried in flat cremation graves; 
however, the cremated remains of a few obviously 
prominent members of the community were buried 
in funerary chambers under earth mounds (i.e., 
tumuli). Rescue excavations have been conducted 
at Batina for decades, and systematic excavations 
of the settlement were undertaken from 1970 to 
1972 by the Museum of Slavonia (Muzej Slavonije) 
led by Danica Pinterović together with the Smith-
sonian Institute in Washington D.C., represented 
by Stephan Foltiny, and Ksenija Vinski-Gasparini 
from the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb 
(Arheološki muzej u Zagrebu) (Pinterović 1971, 
55–58). The cemetery has been continuously 
explored since 2010 by Archaeological Museum 
Osijek (Arheološki muzej Osijek) and the Museum 
of Slavonia (Muzej Slavonije) together with the 
Institute of Archaeology (Institut za arheologiju) 
in Zagreb and the HAZU Archaeology Depart-
ment (Odsjek za arheologiju HAZU) (Bojčić et al. 
2011; 2018). According to the current excavation 
results, the cemetery was in use during the Late 
Bronze and the Early Iron Ages from the 11th 
to the end of the 7th century BC. After a break, 
burials resumed in the Roman period during the 
2nd to 3rd century AD (Dizdar et al. 2019, 95–97; 
Dizdar et al. 2021, 19–24). This dating range is 
reflected by the so-called old finds from graves, 
which were uncovered by unsystematic amateur 
excavation activities in the first decade of the 20th 
century without attention paid to their context and 
find associations (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 28–32).
GRAVES 101 AND 105 FROM BATINA
Graves 101 and 105 are located in the eastern 
part of the Late Bronze/Early Iron Age cemetery at 
the Sredno site in Batina, near tumulus 2 (Fig. 3).
Grave 101 (Pl. 1) was found in trench 18 (Fig. 
3). The grave pit was rectangular with rounded 
corners, measuring 1.20 × 0.90 m, with vertical 
sides and a relative depth of 0.66 m. Its fill was 
dark brown and contained pottery sherds and 
cremated human bones. A pottery urn (Pl. 1: 9) 
with cremated bones and ashes, probably from the 
pyre, stood in the western part of the grave pit. 
It also contained a burnt bronze ringlet (Pl. 1: 2), 
two ceramic spindle-whorls (Pl. 1: 4–5), and an 
iron knife (Pl. 1: 3). This urn was covered with an 
overturned bowl (Pl. 1: 8). Ashes with cremated 
bones and burnt fragments of a bronze fibula (Pl. 
1: 1) were found east of the vessel, in the central 
part of the grave. A kantharos (Pl. 1: 7) was found 
north of the urn, and a bowl stood east of the ash 
deposit (Pl. 1: 6).
Grave 105 (Pl. 2) was located in trench 19 (Fig. 3). 
The grave pit was rectangular with rounded corners, 
measuring 1.28 × 0.83 m, with vertical sides and a 
relative depth of 0.28 m. The grave’s fill was dark 
brown. A pottery urn (Pl. 2: 8) with cremated 
bones and ashes, probably from the pyre, stood in 
the eastern part of the grave pit. It also contained 
twenty spindle-whorls (Pl. 2: 9–28), a burnt iron 
knife (Pl. 2: 6), burnt iron rings (Pl. 2: 3–4), a 
bronze fibula (Pl. 2: 1), and a stone pendant (Pl. 2: 
2). The urn was covered with an overturned bowl 
(Pl. 2: 7). A kantharos (Pl. 2: 5) was located just to 
the southwest of the urn and animal bones were 
found in the southwestern part of the grave pit.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Urns
The closest parallels to the urn from Grave 
101 (Pl. 1: 9) were found in Doroslovo Grave 64 
and 114 (Trajković 2008, 84–85, 235, Grave 64: 1; 
121–122, 269–270, Grave 114: 1).
There are no closer parallels to the urn from 
Grave 105. The urn from this grave has a unique 
height and elongated body shape; it was decorated 
with carved relief cordon decor (Pl. 2: 8). A similar 
163Two Graves from Batina: An indication of the economic role and social status of women ...
Fig. 1: Cemeteries from the Late Bronze / Early Iron Age in Middle Danube Region.
Sl. 1: Grobišča iz pozne bronaste in starejše železne dobe v srednjem Podonavju.
Fig. 2: Batina. A map of the site with marked settlement area and cemetery.
Sl. 2:  Batina. Načrt najdišča z označenima območjema naselbine in grobišča.
(after / po: Dizdar et al. 2021, 8–9)
urn with a more pronounced belly and decorated 
with four vertical ribs was found in Grave 68 in 
Doroslovo (Trajković 2008, 238, Grave 68: 1). An-
other similarly shaped urn lay in Doroslovo, Grave 
111 (Trajković 2008, 117–118, 266, Grave 111: 1).
A distant parallel without a decorated shoulder 
is among the old finds from Batina (Metzner-
Nebelsick 2002, Pl. 2: 1). Moreover, large double-
conical vessels with four symmetrically arranged 
handles on the lower part of the body have a wider 
distribution within the Carpathian Basin (Metzner-
Nebelsick 2002, 114–118; 115: Fig. 42; 505–506).
Bowls
The bowl that served as a lid in Grave 101 (Pl. 
1: 8) has a parallel in Grave 111 in Doroslovo 
(Trajković 2008, 117–118, 266, Grave 111: 3). Bowls 
with a rounded body and inverted rim, which are 
164 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
decorated with one facet, are a common feature 
of the grave inventories in the Danube region 
(Hoffiller 1938, Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, Pl. 16: 9; 
34: 11–12; Trajković 2008, Grave 1: 6; Grave 7: 9).
A bowl, very similar in shape to the bowl with 
a lid from Grave 105 (Pl. 2: 7), was found in 
Batina with a rim decorated with horizontal facets 
(Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, Pl. 24: 10).
Kantharos
The kantharos from Grave 101 (Pl. 1: 7) has 
the characteristic shape of kantharoi from the 
contemporary graves in Batina, Doroslovo, and 
Sotin. The fluted shoulder of the kantharos from 
Grave 101 is decorated with distinct groups of 
vertical channels. The kantharoi of this form and 
decoration style are characteristic of ceramic ho-
rizons IIIb and IV (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 125, 
174–175, Figs. 75: 9; 76: 5) and are known from 
the old diggings in Batina (Metzner-Nebelsick 
2002, 613–614, Pl. 22: 5; 616, Pl. 26: 2; 620, Pl. 30: 
12; 639–640, Pl. 35: 1). Moreover, Grave 23/1911 
from the Panišić vineyard at the Dalj cemetery, 
which is dated to horizon IIIb, also contained a 
fluted kantharos decorated with groups of verti-
cal channels (Hoffiller 1938, Pl. 13: 11; Metzner-
Nebelsick 2002, 667, Pl. 68: 1).
In the Doroslovo cemetery, kantharoi decorated 
with groups of vertical flutes alternating with 
undecorated parts but with small differences in 
the shape of the kantharoi were also discovered 
(Trajković 2008, 52, 210, Grave 31: 5; 70, 222, 
Grave 46: 3; 118, 266, Grave 111:5). This decor 
also appears on kantharoi and shallow bowls in 
Fig. 3: Batina. A map of trenches 18 and 19 in cemetery with marked positions of graves 101 and 105.
Sl. 3: Batina. Načrt sond 18 in 19 na grobišču z označeno lego grobov 101 in 105.
165Two Graves from Batina: An indication of the economic role and social status of women ...
Dalj, Vukovar, and Vinkovci (Metzner-Nebelsick 
2002, Figs. 67; 70: 4 I/3). The kantharos from 
Grave 105 in Batina (Pl. 2: 5) has a similar shape 
to one from Grave 101. The only difference is that 
the decoration on the kantharos from Grave 105 
consists of continuous vertical channelling with 
no interruptions except right under the handles. 
Such examples are rare in the Middle Danube 
region. It is worth noting that no chronological 
difference has been observed among the kantharoi 
described above.
Fibulae
Double-looped fibulae with indented bows, 
which are characteristic of the North Pannonian 
and Alpine regions (Fig. 4), were found in Batina 
graves 101 (Pl. 1: 1) and 105 (Pl. 2: 1). Other fibulae 
of this type had been found during earlier diggings 
in Batina (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, Pl. 8: 1) and 
in Grave 58 in Doroslovo (Trajković 2008, 81, 232, 
Grave 58: 4). Recently, another example has been 
discovered in Grave 164 in Sotin (Ložnjak Dizdar 
et al. 2019, 20). Thus, five fibulae of this type have 
been found in this small segment of the Middle 
1 – Batina (HR), grave context / grobna najdba (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, Pl. 19: 7); grave / grob 101 (Pl. / t. 1: 1); 
grave / grob 105 (Pl. / t. 2: 1); 2 – Doroslovo (SRB), grave / grob 58 (Trajković 2008, 232: 4); 3 – Sotin (HR), grave / 
grob 164 (Ložnjak Dizdar et al. 2019, 20); 4 – Frög (A), tumulus 235, grave / grob 1 (Tomedi 2002, 563; Pl. 90:1); 5 – 
Bischofshofen (A), grave / grob 67 (Lippert, Stadler 2009, 16, Pl. 22: 3) with twisted bow / s tordiranim lokom; grave 
/ grob 261 A (Lippert, Stadler 2009, 53, Pl. 66: 6) with twisted bow / s tordiranim lokom; 6 – Uttendorf (A), grave / 
grob 56 (Moosleitner 1981, Fig. 2: 6; Metzner-Nebelsick 2007, 714 Fig. 2: 4) with a twisted bow / s tordiranim lokom; 
7 – Loretto (A), grave / grob (unpublished, information / neobjavljeno, informacija L. D. Nebelsick); 8 – Hohenau (A), 
grave find / grobna najdba (Hörler 1953, Pl. 98); 9 – Maiersch (A), grave / grob 61 (Berg 1954, Pl. 20) with twisted bow 
and triangular foot / s tordiranim lokom in trikotno nogo; 10 – Sopron-Warischberg (H), fortified settlement / utrjeno 
naselje (Patek 1981, 8 Fig. 4: 8) with twisted bow and triangular foot / s tordiranim lokom in trikotno nogo; 11 – Oslip 
(A), settlement / naselbina (Burgenländisches Landesmuseum Eisenstadt, unpublished, information / neobjavljeno, in-
formacija K. Kaus); 12 – Maria Enzersdorf (A), hillsite settlement / višinsko naselje (Kyrle, 1912, 225); 13 – Großmugl 
(A), settlement / naselje (Lauermann 1990, Fig. 24); 14 – Bad Deutsch Altenburg (A), chance find / naključna najdba, 
(Mahr 1914, 158, No. 12752)
Fig. 4: Distribution of double-looped fibulae with an indented bow.
Sl. 4: Razprostranjenost dvozankastih fibul s sedlasto uvitim lokom.
(after / po: Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, Fig. 190)
166 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
Danube Region. Outside this cluster, such fibulae 
were particularly common in the Kalenderberg 
group in Lower Austria and Burgenland (Romsauer 
1992; Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 422: Fig. 190; 538). 
In addition, they are known from the Hallstatt 
cemeteries in Bischofshofen with specimens from 
two graves (Lippert, Stadler 2009, 16, Pl. 22:3; 53, 
Pl. 66: 5) and Uttendorf in the state of Salzburg 
(Moosleitner 1981, Fig. 2:6) and Frög in Carinthia 
(Tomedi 2002, 563; Pl. 90: 1). All contextualised 
fibula of this type been discovered in women’s 
graves, so it can be seen as a dress accessory with 
a distinctly female connotation. The context of 
the fibula example from Uttendorf, Grave 56 is 
particularly interesting (Moosleitner 1981, Fig. 
2: 6; Metzner-Nebelsick 2007, 714: Fig. 2). It was 
found together with five additional fibulae: two 
horse-shaped fibulae (another specifically female 
fibula type (Metzner-Nebelsick 2007)), a boat-
shape fibula with a decorated bow, a fragmented 
bow fibula and a semi-lunular fibula. What makes 
the Uttendorf cremation grave such an interest-
ing comparison to Batina Grave 105 is that the 
entombed woman was identified as a spinner and 
weaver. A double-conical spindle-whorl in this 
grave was accompanied by seven miniature loom 
weights. Five of them were decorated with target 
(“Kreisaugen”) décor. Although the grave pits in 
the Alpine cemetery of Uttendorf are small and 
thus modest in comparison to eastern Hallstatt 
burial chambers, the high status of the woman 
in Grave 56 is evident. Her elaborate dress acces-
sories include one of the most abundant fibulae 
assemblages in a grave of the early Hallstatt period. 
In addition, the loom weights in this grave belong 
to the few that were found in Hallstatt Period 
funerary contexts (Teržan 1996, 513–517). The 
decoration of the loom weights and the fact that 
they were carved from stone emphasise the excep-
tional character of this grave good. These grave 
goods were accompanied by a bear tooth amulet, 
which constitutes additional symbolic value. The 
ensemble not only reflects a woman of high status 
but very probably also her role as a performer of 
rituals within her community.
Regarding the date of this fibula type, they belong 
to the developed Early and the beginning of the 
Late Hallstatt period. One example comes from 
the child Grave 61 in Maiersch in Lower Austria, 
where it was found on the upper part of the body 
in this Ha D1 burial (Berg 1962, 30–31, Pl. 20: 1). 
The find from Grave 58 in Doroslovo dates to the 
same period. The fibula is associated with horizon 
IV pottery types, according to Metzner-Nebelsick. 
A small iron bow fibula in this grave confirms the 
dating to the transition from the Early to the Late 
Hallstatt period (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 422, 
Fig. 190). The fibula from Grave 105 in Batina 
with an hourglass-shaped foot is older, as are the 
examples from central Austria. It dates to the 7th 
century BC (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 411–415, 
Fig. 184; Heilmann 2016, 17, Fig. 7A). The fibu-
lae from the inner Alpine cemetery of Uttendorf 
and Bischofshofen, Grave 261A (Lippert, Stadler 
2009, Pl. 66: 6)1 date to the Ha C2 period. In the 
Bischofshofen grave, the fibula is accompanied 
by two bronze rings with overlapping ends, a 
tweezer, and another fibula with a double-looped 
bow. Interestingly, the bow of this second fibula is 
attached to the pin by two rivets (Lippert, Stadler 
2009, Pl. 66: 5). This mode of construction is not 
characteristic of a particular type of bow fibula 
and has a wide distribution with a concentration 
in the western and central Balkans and Romania 
(map: Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 421 Fig. 189). It is 
also attested in Batina and in Dalj Busija from the 
grave vineyard Poštić 1911/23 (Metzner-Nebelsick 
2002, 419–421, Fig. 188–189; Pls. 32: 9; 39: 15; 101: 
10). The accompanying finds of Grave 67 from 
Bischofshofen (Lippert, Stadler 2009, 16, Pl. 22: 
3) do not allow a more precise dating. The fibulae 
from Uttendorf are the most western examples of 
this specific construction known thus far. This 
may indicate that this inner Alpine community 
had close contact with the Middle Danube region. 
The fibula from Frög, tumulus 235, Grave 1 was 
associated with bronze wire, while the additional 
finds from this grave, excavated in 1890 by an 
amateur, were not recorded (Tomedi 2002, 563; 
Pl. 90: 1). Thus far, double-looped fibulae with 
indented bows from settlement contexts are only 
known from the distribution cluster in eastern 
Austria and northwest Hungary.
Due to the new finds from Batina and the 
comparison from the Salzburg area, the double-
looped fibula with an indented bow can now be 
described as a type with quite a long lifespan. 
This is so if one only considers the specific form 
of the indented and mostly twisted bow as being 
definitive. As is the case with many other fibula 
types, the form of the foot proves to be a trait that 
is more chronologically sensitive.
1  The sex of the deceased could not be determined 
(Renhart in Lippert, Stadler 2009/1, 307).
167Two Graves from Batina: An indication of the economic role and social status of women ...
Ringlet
Ringlets of bronze wire have often been found 
in graves in Dalj, Sotin, and Batina (Pl. 1: 2). The 
territory of the southern part of the Middle Danube 
region is the meeting point of two types of hair 
jewellery made of bronze wire. The southern 
Pannonian type is documented in graves of the 
Urnfield culture, and the Lower Danube type is 
found in graves associated with the Bosut group 
(Vasić 1996, 16–17, Fig. 1). The bronze-wire ring-
let appeared at the end of the Late Bronze Age, 
in graves from Batina and Sotin, where they can 
be dated to the end of the Late Bronze Age and 
the beginning of the Iron Age. One of the latest 
assemblages with a hair ornament of this type is 
Grave 141 in Doroslovo, which contains a double-
-looped bow fibula with a foot in the shape of a 
Boeotian shield (Trajković 2008, 307–308, Grave 
141, 17–25). This grave is dated to the first quarter 
of the 6th century BC after R. Vasić (2008, 348) or 
to the 7th and 6th centuries BC according to the 
work of Heilmann (2016, 16, Fig. 5). These ringlets 
may be considered to be a local type of Early Iron 
Age hair jewellery native to the southern part of 
the Middle Danube region.
Bracelets or anklets
The remains of iron rings, probably bracelets 
or anklets of similar diameter as the specimens 
from Grave 105 in Batina (Pl. 2: 3–4), were also 
discovered in graves 26, 58, and 135 in Doroslovo 
(Trajković 2008, Grave 26: 10; Grave 58: 11, Grave 
135: 10). Similar finds of smaller diameter were 
found in Grave 28 in Doroslovo (Trajković 2008, 
Grave 28: 11–12). Anklets of the same diameter were 
discovered in Grave 5b and inhumation graves 6, 
8, 17 in Vajuga Pesak, dated to the 8th century BC 
(Popović, Vukmanović 1998, 20–21, 26, Figs. 13; 
21; Pls. 6: 13–15, 17–18; 7: 22–23, 27; 19: 10–13). 
One hypothesis, based on the assumed diameter 
size and the square section of these rings, is that 
this ring jewellery was also worn as anklets.
Pendant
Stone artefacts are not uncommon in graves in 
the Danube region. These are most often grinding 
stones (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 398–402), but there 
are small stones as well (Trajković 2008, Grave 11: 
5–7). An object of worked stone, which could have 
been worn as a pendant, was discovered in Grave 
99 in Doroslovo (Trajković 2008, Grave 99: 6). A 
stone pendant was found together with cremated 
bones in Grave 69 in Sotin. Another example was 
recorded in Grave 34 in Nova Tabla in Prekmurje 
(Guštin et al. 2017, 446, Cat. No. 1047). There is 
also a stone pendant in the collection of Early 
Iron Age grave finds from Dalj, although without 
recorded associated finds (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 
Pl. 49: 11). The stone object from Grave 105 in 
Batina (Pl. 2: 2) is not perforated, but its shape 
and groove may indicate that it might have been 
a pendant.
Knives
The metal objects found in the urns in Grave 101 
and Grave 105 included iron knives with curved 
blades and tangs (Pls. 1: 3; 2: 6). Numerous paral-
lels for similar iron knives were documented in 
the Doroslovo cemetery, where they are also most 
frequent in female graves dated to pottery horizons 
IIIa–b and IV (Trajković 2008, 48, 200, Grave 21: 
9; 52; 206, Grave 27: 8; 70; 222, Grave 46: 9). Three 
variants of knives were identified: elongated knives 
with a tang; knives with a curved blade; and knives 
with an angular, curved blade. They do not have 
a precise chronological identification within the 
Hallstatt period (Vasić 2008, 343, 349). Iron knives 
appear in both female and male graves according to 
archaeological analysis in south-eastern Pannonia 
(Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 409).
Ceramic spindle-whorls
Ceramic spindle whorls are frequently found in 
the graves in Batina. Most often, the finds con-
sisted of a single spindle-whorl, but some graves 
contained several (e.g., Grave 36, Bojčić et al. 2018, 
166–167, Pl. 1: 1). Grave 105 (Pl. 2: 9–28) is an 
outstanding find context. The urn from this grave 
contained as many as 20 biconical spindle-whorls 
of different sizes and weights (Hršak et al. 2017, 
41–42, Figs. 2–3).
The biconical spindle-whorls from Grave 101 
(Pl. 1: 4–5) have parallels in Batina, Dalj and Erdut 
(Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 599, 667, 687; Pl. 5: 11; 
65: 5; 106: 7). A biconical spindle-whorl of a very 
similar size has was found among the cremated 
remains of a female and child in Grave 1 in Sotin 
(Ložnjak Dizdar 2019, 97, Pl. 2: 3).
Two small biconical spindle-whorls were found 
in graves 110 and 138 in Doroslovo (Trajković 
2008, 117; Grave 110: 7–8; Grave 138: 20). The 
shape of the spindle-whorls from Grave 101 and 
Grave 105 in Batina belong to the spindle-whorl 
type that was commonly in use in the area of 
the Dalj group. Examples are known from Dalj, 
Erdut, and Batina (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 667, 
168 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
599, 687; Pl. 65: 5 106: 7; 5: 11; Hršak et al. 2017, 
41–42, Figs. 2–3; Bojčić et al. 2018, 166–167, Pl. 
1: 1). The graves in the Doroslovo cemetery most 
often include one or two spindle-whorls; biconical 
spindle-whorls were the most numerous (Vasić 2008, 
342; Trajković 2008, Grave 6: 5–10). Spindle-whorls 
can be considered to be a characteristic gendered 
object appearing mostly in the graves of women 
during all the phases at the Dalj group cemeteries, 
including Batina and Sotin. In Doroslovo, there were 
also spindle-whorls in male graves, as established 
by anthropological analyses (Trajković 2008, 229, 
Grave 52: 6–7; 249–250, Grave 90: 12; 252–253, 
Grave 92: 11–12; 310, Grave 144: 4; 318, Grave 
149: 6–7; Živanović 2008, Pl. 3). Although it is not 
possible to discuss this in detail here, it is likely 
that they either represent a gift to the deceased 
man by a woman or reflect changing activities in 
men’s lives. Undecorated biconical spindle-whorls 
appear during the Kalakača horizon (Bosut IVa) 
in the settlement of Gradina na Bosutu (Medović, 
Medović 2011, 282, Fig. 258: 1, 4) in Syrmia.
Spindle whorls are attested as grave goods in 
south-eastern Pannonia, the eastern Alpine region 
(Grömer 2016, 83–84, Fig. 39), and in Donja Dolina 
in northern Bosnia. They are not a frequent grave 
good in the Glasinac territory and the area of the 
Basarabi culture, nor do they occur in graves of 
the Füzesabony-Mezőscát group in neighbouring 
Hungary. This clear cultural difference was pointed 
out by Metzner-Nebelsick (2002, 201). The small 
size and weight of the spindle whorls found in 
Grave 101 in Batina may reflect the production of 
fine woollen yarn that was common in the Hallstatt 
period (Grömer 2016, 87).
Grave 105 included a large spindle-whorl weighing 
from 55 to 4 g (Tab. 1). This grave has the largest set 
of spindle-whorls in Batina. These two sets belong 
to the group of light spindle-whorl sets weighing 
up to 25 g, which have the best performance with 
thin threads of yarn up to 0.7 mm thick (Grömer 
2016, 86–87, Fig. 41). Woollen textiles are usually 
thinner and are made of a single yarn (1–2 mm 
thick). Textiles became thinner and finer from the 
Late Bronze Age onwards, especially in the Early 
Iron Age (Belanová Štolcová, Grömer 2010, 12).
Similar but smaller spindle-whorl sets were found 
in graves in Doroslovo, where 28 graves contained 
spindle-whorls in numbers ranging from 1 to 10 
(Trajković 2008, Grave 6: 5–10). The most numerous 
are single spindle-whorls (in 12 graves), then two 
(in 8 graves), three (in 4 graves), five (in 1 grave), 
and six spindle-whorls (in 2 graves). Grave 138 has 
the largest set of spindle-whorls: 10 specimens with 
diameters ranging from 2.2 to 5 cm (Trajković 2008, 
151–152, 301–302, Grave 138: 11–20).
The largest assemblage of spindle-whorls forms 
a grave of the eastern Hallstatt culture and comes 
from a cremation burial in the tumulus necropolis 
of Frög in Carinthia. Tumulus BDA 193 contained 
most likely a double burial indicated by male and 
female grave goods. The surviving burnt items with 
a female connotation included three fragmented 
fibulae, several rings, amber pieces and 33 spindle-
-whirls of different sizes and shapes, most of them 
decorated (Ebner-Baur 2020, 155, Fig. 106; 361–364, 
Figs. 156–159). They were placed in one spot next 
to a broken clay spacer with a waterfowl’s head 
(Ebner-Baur 2020, 342 Fig. 154–155).
One question raised by the deposition of textile 
production tools in graves is whether a certain tool 
Pl
. /
 T
. 2
:
W
ei
gh
t /
 T
ež
a
(g
)
D
ia
m
et
er
 / 
Pr
em
er
(c
m
)
H
ei
gh
t /
 V
iš
in
a
(c
m
)
D
ia
m
et
er
 o
f t
he
 h
ol
e 
/ 
Pr
em
er
 lu
kn
je
(c
m
)
9 55 4.7 3.6 1.5
10 19 3.1 2.5 0.9
11 17 3.2 2.8 1.0
12 14 2.9 2.2 0.8
13 14 2.9 2.3 0.7
14 13 2.9 2.2 0.8
15 13 2.9 2.1 0.8
16 12 2.8 2.2 0.7
17 12 2.6 2.1 0.8
18 11 2.7 2.1 0.7
19 8 2.5 2.0 0.8
20 7 2.2 1.6 0.6
21 6 2.2 1.7 0.6
22 5 2.2 1.8 0.6
23 5 2.0 1.6 0.5
24 5 2.0 1.5 0.5
25 4 2.0 1.4 0.6
26 4 1.9 1.5 0.5
27 4 1.9 1.5 0.6
28 4 1.9 1.6 0.5
Tab. 1: Batina. Measures and weight of the spindle whorls 
found in Grave 105.
Tab. 1: Batina. Mere in teža vijčkov iz groba 105.
169Two Graves from Batina: An indication of the economic role and social status of women ...
had been used by the deceased (or their community) 
prior to the funeral or if it was produced specifically 
for use as a funerary gift (Forte, Lemorini 2017, 166). 
It is also important to note the possible distinc-
tion between the intended function of an object 
and its actual function. For example, an object 
might have been produced in the shape of a whorl 
with spinning as its intended function, but it may 
have been actually used as a bead or pendant, a 
funerary offering or for any other unidentified 
purpose (Crewe 1998, 61). Scholars have addressed 
this question (Crewe 1998; Forte, Lemorini 2017; 
Forte et al. 2019; Żebrowska 2020) by compar-
ing use-wear traces and residues of wear and use 
noted on various archaeological collections with 
results obtained from an experimental approach 
of weaving and spinning with copies of original 
loom-weights and whorls, respectively. The low-
whirl drop-spindle technique, which is considered 
to be the predominant one used during prehistory 
in the northern Mediterranean (Gleba 2008, 100) 
and in Central Europe (Grömer 2016, 79), tends 
to leave specific use-wear traces along the edges 
of the perforation and on the surfaces within the 
hole itself (Forte et al. 2019, 4/8). Usually, these 
traces are seen as flattening, rounding, or even 
smoothing or polishing of the edge or surface, 
as well as spall detachments surrounding the 
perforation (Forte et al. 2019, 4/8). The rounding 
and smoothing of the protruding surface and the 
edges of the whorl perforation could be a result of 
a repetitive and continual rubbing of the yarn be-
ing spun and wound onto the spindle (Żebrowska 
2020, 132). Indentations close to the hole edge are 
likely to be the result of chipping of the baked clay 
material as a result of the repeated insertion of the 
spindle shaft through the whorl perforation (Forte, 
Lemorini 2017, 167), as well as wedging in some 
other material between the spindle shaft and whorl, 
to keep the whorl secure (Crewe 1998, 61).
Most of the spindle whorls from graves 101 and 
105 have some of the mentioned use-wear traces 
visible around the edges of the perforations. The 
two spindle whorls from Grave 101 (Fig. 5) both 
have visible rounding and smoothing of the edge 
and the surface around the perforation, as well as 
several visible spall detachments. Similarly, almost 
all spindle whorls from Grave 105 show smooth-
ing or levelling around the perforation edges, as 
well as irregular indentations as a result of spall 
detachments. These traces suggest that these spin-
dle whorls were not specifically produced with the 
sole function of a funerary gift. Moreover, they 
were probably used as spinning tools, at least for 
a short time, either by the deceased and placed in 
the grave as their belongings or by the community 
as a parting gift.
Sets were most often found in the graves of 
specialists; their different weights and shapes af-
fected the quality of yarns for different types of 
textiles (Gleba 2009, 72).
However, it should not be ruled out that the 
women whose graves contained spindle-whorls had 
other textile-making skills as well, judging from 
other finds related to weaving and textile sewing 
skills, such as from grave A014 in Statzendorf, 
which contained a small box with a sewing kit 
(Grömer 2016, 276–277, Fig. 149). The frequent 
finds of spindle whorls in graves indicate that 
many community members probably spun and 
that it was an important everyday activity for the 
economy of the community.
The analysis of the grave goods deposited with 
the women buried in graves 101 and 105 (the 
combination of a knife and sets of spindle-whorls) 
reveals a frequently encountered custom in the 
eastern Hallstatt world, in flat cemeteries as well 
as in tumuli (Ložnjak Dizdar 2015, 35, 39–40, 
Map 2). The observed combination appears in 
graves with a large number of ceramic vessels 
(e.g., Slatina: Ložnjak Dizdar 2015), Nova Tabla 
Grave 70 (Guštin et al. 2017, 492–495) and in 
the graves of women equipped with a number of 
costume accessories (Trajković 2008, Grave 128: 
Fig. 5: Batina, Grave 101. Two spindle whorls. Blue dots 
represent the surface that has been smoothed or rounded, 
probably by repeated rubbing of yarn on the spindle while 
spinning. Red arrows indicate places where there are visible 
spall detachments, possibly results of wedging the spindle 
shaft or some other material between it and the whorl for 
securing it in place.
Sl. 5: Batina, Grob 101. Keramična vijčka. Modre pike kažejo 
zglajeno ali zaobljeno površino, verjetno obrabljeno zaradi 
večkratnega predenja. Rdeče puščice označujejo vdolbinice, 
ki so morda nastale ob zagozditvi preslice v vijček.
170 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
11–18). Ensembles of this type correspond with 
the custom of the south-eastern Hallstatt culture, 
which is further evidence that the area between 
the Drava and Sava rivers is a part of the Hallstatt 
world, albeit in a peripheral position. Loom weights 
are a frequent find in graves, mostly in richly 
furnished graves of prominent female members 
of society (Teržan 2004, 222). The presence of 
spindle-whorls, or perhaps judging from the finds 
of several spindle-whorls (2–3 examples), even 
of complete spindle sets, probably indicates the 
special skills and perhaps the social status of the 
buried women, who may have been experienced 
spinners in life; otherwise, this may have been a 
parting gift from the community.
Both graves (i.e., 101 and 105) can be dated to 
the middle to the second half of the 7th century 
BC, i.e., to ceramic horizons IIIb and IV based on 
the typology of ceramic vessels and fibulae from 
grave assemblages.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
OF CREMATED REMAINS FROM
GRAVES 101 AND 105
The human cremated remains from the graves were 
analysed using standardised techniques to gather 
information about the macroscopic appearance of 
the bone (colour, weight and completeness of the 
bone), the demographic profile of the individual 
(age and sex determination), and the presence of 
pathological conditions (Schmidt, Symes 2015).
Sex and Age
Grave 101 contained the skeletal remains of a 
single individual. The individual was estimated to 
be an older adult (35+ years) and possibly female.
The bone deposits in Grave 105 comprised a 
single individual. The individual was estimated 
to be an adult and possibly female.
Weight
In both graves, all bone fragments were weighed 
according to their category and the obtained values 
were converted into percentages. Bones from all 
the parts of the skeleton were present, including 
very small hand and foot bones. The majority of 
the bone pieces could only be identified within 
broad anatomical categories, such as a long bone, 
axial skeleton, or skull bones (Tab. 2–3).
The total amount of human bones in Grave 101 
amounted to 1173.5 g (Tab. 2). The long bones 
were the most prevalent remains. Two groups 
of bones were under-represented: hand and foot 
bones and the axial skeleton. Most of the bones 
were found in the urn. A smaller amount of bones, 
mainly parts of the skull and several pieces of long 
arm/leg bones, were found in the central part of the 
grave, commingled with ash.
The 1664.4 g of bones were recovered from 
Grave 105 (Tab. 3). Again, the most prevalent 
remains were the long bones. Three categories are 
under-represented in this grave: skull bones, axial 
remains and hand/foot bones.
Anatomical region /
Anatomski predel
Weight /
Teža (g) %
Total / Skupaj 1173.5 100.0
Cranial bones / Lobanjske kosti 182.0 15.5
Teeth / Zobje 3.3 0.3
Long bones / Dolge kosti 457.6 38.9
Axial bones / Aksialne kosti 3.2 0.3
Hand and foot bones / 
Kosti rok in nog 20.9 1.8
Unidentified bone fragments /
Neopredeljivi kostni delci 506.5 43.2
Tab. 2: Batina. Human remains from Grave 101.
Tab. 2: Batina. Človeški ostanki iz groba 101.
Anatomical region /
Anatomski predel
Weight /
Teža (g) %
Total / Skupaj 1664.4 100.0
Cranial bones / Lobanjske kosti 55.3 3.3
Teeth / Zobje 5.3 0.3
Long bones / Dolge kosti 660.6 39.7
Axial bones / Aksialne kosti 8.9 0.5
Hand and foot bones /
Kosti rok in nog 6.1 0.4
Unidentified bone fragments /
Neopredeljivi kostni delci 929.1 55.8
Tab. 3: Batina. Human remains from Grave 105.
Tab. 3: Batina. Človeški ostanki iz groba 105.
171Two Graves from Batina: An indication of the economic role and social status of women ...
According to the literature, the weight of both 
graves was in the adult female range. McKinley 
(1993) estimates that the weights of British fe-
males for two samples can vary from 1227.4 g to 
2216.0 g, with an average of 1615.8 g. The weight 
of female remains from contemporary cremations 
of Portuguese individuals lies between 1280.9 g 
and 3237.4 g, with an average of 2226.7 g (Gon-
çalves 2011). The average weight for Norwegian 
Bronze Age female burials was 455,6 g, with a 
range from 30 to 1950 g, while that for the Danish 
material was 700 g, ranging from 5 to 1913 g. In 
both samples, the weights were rather light when 
compared to the data from modern crematoria. 
However, according to the authors, the amount 
of bones found in graves is only a small part of a 
completely cremated skeleton, and there is no real 
reason for this disparity (Holck 20083).
In both graves, the long bones were the most 
prevalent remains. The percentages for all categories 
of bone remains were below the expected values 
for each skeletal category in an inhumation burial. 
According to the literature, the weights of the 
cranial, axial, and limb bones have the expected 
values of 20%, 25% and 55%, respectively (Silva, 
Crubézy, Cunha 2009, 638). Two groups of bones 
were under-represented in both graves: hand/foot 
bones and the axial skeleton. One possible explana-
tion is that the small bones of the hand and foot 
are usually on the edges of pyres and, therefore 
less accessible for gathering. The explanation for 
the lack of axial fragments lies in their nature since 
they have a higher content of trabecular bone, 
which can be destroyed because of taphonomic 
factors. The third under-represented category in 
Grave 105 was the skull bones. According to the 
published values, we would expect that around 20% 
of the skull bones would be preserved. To reach 
an explanation, we need to compare our values to 
those of the whole community buried in Batina. 
At present, we cannot exclude the possibility that 
there was a deliberate selection of a certain part 
of the skeleton for burial.
Colour
All the human bones collected in both graves 
had been exposed to heat. The predominant 
colour was grey/white in Grave 101 and white in 
Grave 105. The grey (incomplete oxidation) and 
white (complete oxidation) colours observed in 
all skeletal categories suggest that the majority of 
the remains of both individuals were exposed to 
high temperatures (>600–800°C) for some time.
ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF 
ANIMAL REMAINS FROM GRAVE 105
Material and methods
This study includes the animal remains collected 
from Grave 105. For the anatomical and taxonomical 
determination, we used a comparative collection 
of the Institute for Quaternary Palaeontology and 
Geology of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and 
Arts (HAZU). Traces of manipulation (burning and 
cut marks) were observed with a hand magnifier 
(×10). Acid from the soil caused heavy breakage 
and erosion of the surface of the faunal assemblage. 
For that reason, it was impossible to determine the 
sex of the animal, and it is difficult to determine 
the relative age of the animal. Where accurate 
taxonomical identification was not possible, bone 
fragments were categorised as animals of small, 
medium, or large size.
Results
The mammalian taxa identified in Grave 105 only 
included domestic animals: cattle (Bos taurus), pig 
(Sus sp.), sheep or goat (Ovis / Capra), and a category 
of animals of small to medium size (possibly sheep 
or goat, pig or a calf ) (Tab. 4). In total, 430.1 g of 
bones were collected, of which 309.6 g belong to 
cattle. Cattle were the predominant taxon by the 
weight of collected bones, but also by the number 
of anatomical parts recovered (mandible, pelvis, 
lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and phalanx III). The 
pelvic girdle in this is highly fragmented because 
of taphonomic processes (i.e., high soil acidity). 
Nevertheless, part of the pelvic fragments can be 
refitted. The cattle remains from this grave belong 
to an adult animal and are probably part of the 
same individual. The dominant cattle are followed 
by animals of small to medium size, with 55.8 g 
of collected bones (ribs, vertebrae, and humerus). 
The pig remains consist of one tibia (13.3 g) and 
one instance from sheep or goat of one phalanx 
I (0.8 g). The weight of indeterminate bones is 
50.6 g. The collected bones are unburnt but heav-
ily eroded and highly fragmented. Cut marks were 
mostly observed on the cattle pelvis (Fig. 6), but 
one was recorded on the cattle mandible as well.
Interpretation
Distinguishing between the remains of sacrifices 
and feasts is rather complicated because these two 
events can be combined; animals may be sacrificed 
and then consumed by the mourners (Russel 
2011; Hamilakis, Konsolaki 2004). In addition, 
172 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
animal sacrifice and the post-ritual distribution 
of animal parts may be essential to assign ritual 
efficacy and strengthen a community (Insoll 2010). 
Societies usually have a strict and narrow selec-
tion of preferred animal species in ritual sites 
(Horwitz 1999). With two domestic species (Bos 
taurus, Sus sp.) and an ovicaprid category (Ovis / 
Capra), Grave 105 fits into the above-mentioned 
strict social norms. Moreover, Russel (2011) states 
that although the remains of sacrifices and feasts 
appear in burial contexts in a wider variety of 
communities, they are largely limited to domestic 
animals. The fact that feasting remains come pri-
marily from domestic animals perhaps indicates 
that they originated from a sacrifice (Russel 2011). 
Taking into consideration which bone elements of 
which species are placed in the grave, it can be 
assumed that cattle were probably used primarily 
in the funeral feast. According to Russel (2011), 
meaty animal parts showing signs of consumption 
are likely to be the remains of the funeral feast, 
while partial, non-meaty animal remains and in-
tact animals may come from sacrificed animals. 
The cattle’s pelvic girdle has obvious traces of 
consumption (multiple cut marks on the pelvis) 
and, along with valuable meaty parts, it fits bet-
ter into the “remains of a funeral feast” category 
(Fig. 6). Other taxa in graves are represented by 
one or a few anatomical, mostly non-meaty, parts. 
The tibia fragments of a pig can indicate a food 
offering but are generally considered as a lower-
-quality cut (Binford 1978); therefore, they may be 
interpreted as a symbolic offering. In contrast, bone 
fragments such as phalanges are typical non-meaty 
parts and show no traces of human manipulation. 
Phalanges could represent non-food offerings that 
Fig. 6: Batina, Grave 105. Traces of multiple cut marks on the cow pelvis.
Sl. 6: Batina, Grob 105. Sledovi vrezov na goveji medenici.
Taxon / Takson anatomical element / anatomski del
weight /
teža (g) interpretation / interpretacija
Bos sp.
pelvis 166.3
sacrifice or remains of funeral feast /
žrtvovanje ali ostanki pogrebne pojedine
sacrum 59.8
lumbar vertebrae 39.7
mandible 41.2
distal phalanx 2.6
Sus sp.
tibia 13.3
food offering / jedilna daritev
humerus 38.9
Ovis/Capra proximal phalanx 0.8 non-food offering / nejedilna daritev
animal of small to medium size /
srednje velike in majhne živali
costa 10.5
food offering / jedilna daritev
vertebrae 6.4
Indet. – 50.6 –
Tab. 4: Batina. Animal remains from grave 105.
Tab. 4: Batina. Živalski ostanki iz groba 105.
173Two Graves from Batina: An indication of the economic role and social status of women ...
were thought to have protective power and could 
have been used as tokens or talismans (Kyselý et al. 
2020). Pauli (1975) proposed that teeth, claws, and 
single animal bones from Hallstatt graves served as 
amulets, often associated with children and women 
as those most likely to need extra protection (Frie 
2020, after Pauli 1975). Frie (2020) raised questions 
about whether these items belonged to the dead or 
were restricted to the mortuary sphere and whether 
these items served to protect the living from the 
dead or to protect the dead individual (Frie 2020). 
Three different domestic taxa whose presence had 
three different possible explanations were placed in 
a female grave. The fact that animals were impor-
tant companions in Iron Age communities is well 
known, but their significance in mortuary rites 
remains obscured by complex rituals.
INTERPRETATION
OF THE BATINA GRAVES
This concluding exemplary interpretation of 
the archaeological record of the Batina cemetery 
regarding these two graves will be done on the 
basis of multi-layered analyses (Härke 1993; Rebay-
-Salisbury 2016, 59–100). With the description of 
their context, the objects in them, and the biological 
remains, we will attempt to obtain detailed insights 
into the Early Iron Age funerary rituals.
Mortuary practices
The burial ceremony that led to the creation of 
Grave 101 was probably performed in the follow-
ing way. An adult person, probably a woman aged 
35+, was burned on the pyre. The remains of the 
pyre were first put in some organic container of a 
documented shape in the prepared grave pit. The 
urn was placed in the grave containing selected 
cremated remains of the dead and broken parts 
of her costume, which were partly exposed to the 
fire. Next to the urn, the mourners added parts 
of a ceramic set (kantharos and bowl) with food 
and drink as departing gifts. They placed the kan-
tharos, probably filled with liquid, near the urn; 
then they added a bowl on the other side of the 
pile with the remains of the pyre. Then the grave 
pit was then covered.
The burial ceremony that created Grave 105 
was probably performed in a more modest way. 
An adult person, probably a woman, was burned 
on the pyre with her spinning tools. The rest of 
the pyre (i.e., the cremated remains of the dead 
along with remains of her costume and sets of 
spindle-whorls) was deposited in the urn and then 
covered with the bowl. The covered urn was laid 
in the grave. The kantharos was placed near the 
urn, and segments of an animal body as a meat 
offering were put west of the urn.
Potential burial rites can be reconstructed from 
the identified contexts of the funerary complex 
and the traces of grave goods (Sofaer 2015, 137; 
Fülöp, Váczi 2016; Nebelsick 2016, 22–28). Bidding 
farewell to the dead is a complex emotional event; 
in the Danube Basin in the Early Iron Age, this 
event followed some rules, which can be identified 
in the cemeteries with many investigated graves 
(Trajković 2008, 19). The transformation of the 
body by burning took place in the first part of the 
burial rite (Nebelsick 2016, 22–28, Fig. 1/1: 1); it 
was followed by the construction of the grave with 
the remains of the dead and the grave inventory, 
which certainly required earlier preparation of food 
and drinks as farewell gifts and their transport to 
the grave. The urn, the cremated remains of the 
dead, and the vessels were deposited according 
to a predefined plan, as indicated by the size of 
the burial pit. Graves with fewer vessels had a 
smaller burial pit, while graves with more vessels 
had a larger burial pit. The burial pits of graves 
101 and 105 in Batina were dug taking the size 
of the urns and the other grave goods into ac-
count. The procedures and construction of such 
burials played an important role in the process 
of mourning and the handling of emotions of the 
community that bid farewell to the dead (Sofaer, 
Stig Sørensen 2013; Sofaer 2015, 145; Nebelsick 
2016, 31). The preserved traces of objects in 
the graves allow us to reconstruct a part of that 
complex process and to interpret the meaning it 
had for the community.
Costume and personal items
The composition of the grave, which was set up 
at the end of the ritual and before the filling of the 
pit, meant the end of one cycle and the beginning 
of another (van Gennep 1909; Sofaer 2015, 147; 
Rebay-Salisbury 2016, 15). Traces of the previous 
life, burnt on the pyre and/or destroyed by break-
ing, were laid in the urn together with the bodily 
remains. They can be interpreted as personal items 
of the buried women. Considering their sizes, the 
fibulae probably belonged to the adult women 
buried in separate urns. Fibulae are not frequent 
grave goods in the graves of the Dalj group. Based 
on their typological characteristics, most fibulae 
174 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
Fig. 7: Doroslovo, Grave 138. 1–11, 14–23 ceramic; 12 iron; 13 bronze. Not to scale.
Sl. 7: Doroslovo, Grob 138. 1–11, 14–23 keramika; 12 železo; 13 bron. Ni v merilu.
(after / po: Trajković 2008, 301–302)
175Two Graves from Batina: An indication of the economic role and social status of women ...
Fig. 8: Doroslovo, Grave 58. 1–3, 17 ceramic; 4–5, 9–13 bronze; 6–7 amber; 14 bronze and iron, 8, 15–16, 18 iron. Not to scale.
Sl. 8: Doroslovo, Grob 58. 1–3, 17 keramika; 4–5, 9–13 bron; 6–7 jantar; 14 bron in železo, 8, 15–16, 18 železo. Ni v merilu.
(after / po: Trajković 2008, 232–233)
176 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
belong to types worn within the eastern Hallstatt 
sphere (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 413–426, Figs. 
184, 190), while there are fewer finds of fibulae 
that can be associated with the Balkans sphere 
(Vinski, Vinski-Gasparini 1962, Figs. 108–112; Pls. 
II: 47; V: 62–63; VII: 75–80; VIII: 55, 58, 60–61; 
Heilmann 2016, 12–16, Figs. 3, 5; Gavranović 2007, 
163–165, Fig. 8). Fibulae that can be associated 
with the Danube sphere are more rare finds in the 
graves related to the burial rite of the Dalj group, 
as in the case of Grave 75 from Vukovar Lijeva 
Bara (Vinski-Gasparini 1973, 163, Pl. 124: 5–7). 
They are common grave goods in the inhumation 
graves recorded on the edge of the Dalj group, at 
the furthest western extent of their distribution 
(Balen-Letunić 2004, 17, 19–20, Pl. 5: 6–7; Vasić 
1999, 59, Pl. 65). The individuals buried in inhu-
mation graves may represent immigrants from 
the Basarabi cultural complex (Metzner-Nebelsick 
2004). The distribution of double-looped fibulae 
with indented bows (Fig. 4) indicates that the area 
around Batina represents the eastern border of the 
distribution of this fibula variant, which is usually 
associated with the north-western Pannonian and 
the eastern and central Alpine regions.
A petite spindle-whorl found among the cre-
mated bones in Grave 101 in Batina is smaller 
than the ones usually found in the graves of the 
Dalj group in Doroslovo (Trajković 2008, Grave 6: 
5–10) and Batina (Bojčić et al. 2018, 166–167, Pl. 
1: 1). It could point to the production of very fine 
yarn for specialised weaving. It is also possible that 
spindle-whorls could have been personal costume 
accessories of an adult, functioning as beads on an 
organic belt. If the spindle-whorls from both graves 
had served their basic purpose in the production 
of fine wool yarn, it is likely that the women from 
graves 101 and 105 were skilled in spinning and 
the production of textiles.
Different items related to textile production are 
common grave goods in the graves of the eastern 
Hallstatt sphere (Teržan 1996; Metzner-Nebelsick 
2002, 201; Ložnjak Dizdar 2015, 39–40, Map 2) and 
are associated with the social status of the female 
members of the community (Teržan 1996, 529; 2004, 
222; Eibner 2000/2001; Grömer 2016, 262–265).
The rich Grave 138 from Doroslovo (Fig. 7) 
is a close parallel to Grave 105 from Batina. It 
contained not only a pottery set but also tools 
(i.e., a similar set of spindle-whorls) for textile 
production (Trajković 2008, 301–302, Grave 138: 
11–20). Moreover, wealthy grave goods accompa-
nying spinning equipment in these graves prove 
that these women had skills that guaranteed them 
a certain status within their community.
Another close parallel to Batina Grave 105 is 
Grave 58 from Doroslovo, which has a similar as-
semblage (Fig. 8) (Trajković 2008, 232–233, Grave 
58). The grave contained an urn covered with a 
bowl, a large cup with a handle reaching above 
the rim, the same fibula type as in graves 101 and 
105 in Batina, and an iron bracelet, 2 knives, and 
1 spindle-whorl. The assemblage from Doroslovo 
Grave 58 also included bronze and iron rings, a 
bronze pin, and amber beads.
Farewell gifts
The custom of putting ceramic sets into graves 
was common in the Middle Danube Basin or the 
eastern Hallstatt sphere at the end of the Late 
Bronze Age and especially during the initial phases 
of the Early Iron Age (Nebelsick 1994, 312–315, 
357, Fig. 4; 1997, 32; Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 
179–180, Figs. 79–80; Nebelsick 2016, 22–31).
The vessel set combining a bowl and a kantha-
ros containing a liquid was a more modest one, 
pointing to the custom of providing farewell gifts 
for the voyage to the afterlife, which was com-
mon practice in the cemeteries of the Dalj group 
(Vinski-Gasparini 1983, 609; Metzner-Nebelsick 
2002, 179–180, Figs. 79–80; Trajković 2008, 19). 
This custom was practised in the Early Iron Age, 
specifically during the IIIa–V ceramic horizons. 
However, no precise information can be given 
about the actual contents of the kantharos before 
performing residue analyses. A combination of a 
grave assemblage consisting of an urn with a lid 
and grave goods in the form of a kantharos and/or 
a bowl, and sometimes animal bones that are the 
remains of meat offerings, was recorded in the 
Batina cemeteries for graves other than Grave 
105, e.g., Grave 38 (Dizdar et al. 2021, 152–154). 
It is also known from Erdut (Minichreiter 1985, 
26–27, Pl. XVI), Sotin (Ložnjak Dizdar, Hutinec 
2014, 9–11, Fig. 3), and Doroslovo (Trajković 
2008, 33; 188, Grave 8; 50–51, 203–204; Grave 
26; 53, 207, Grave 28; 80–81, 232, Grave 58). The 
presence of this funerary vessel combination is 
not related to the sex of the deceased, according 
to anthropological analyses.
Unburned pieces of meat were a common 
grave good in the eastern Carpathian Basin and 
along the Danube ever since the Late Bronze Age 
(Ložnjak Dizdar, Rajić Šikanjić 2016, 117, Fig. 5). 
These unburned pieces of meat were deposited in 
graves in Doroslovo, where bones of cattle (Bos 
177Two Graves from Batina: An indication of the economic role and social status of women ...
Taurus) were found in almost all the graves, while 
parts of pigs were found in only a few burials 
(Blažić 2008, 360–361, Tab. 1). Cattle portions 
were also deposited in graves in the cemeteries 
of Füzesabony, Sirok, and Dormánd in the Tisza 
Basin (Metzner-Nebelsick 1998, Figs. 7, 10). Parts 
of cattle were also found in various forms in 
barrows of the northeast Alpine Hallstatt region 
(Nové Košariská, Bad Fischau-Malleiten, Hochholz, 
Bratčice, Langenlebarn). Bones with less meat or 
without meat, like astragali, were more frequent. 
It cannot be excluded that the remains of different 
animals found in the same place and prepared in 
the same way were the remains of a specific dish 
(Kmet’ová 2017, 72–73, Tab. 2).
The quantity and composition of farewell gifts 
probably reflect the economic potential of the 
community or of the close relatives responsible 
for sending the dead on their way to the afterlife. 
This means that farewell gifts also give indirect 
evidence of the status of the dead and their close 
relatives in the community.
CONCLUSION
Graves 101 and 105 in Batina belonged to adult 
women. Their costumes included a fibula belong-
ing to a type associated with the north-western 
Pannonian area of Lower Austria and the area of 
western Hungary. Moreover, Grave 101 contained 
a bronze ringlet like the aforementioned female 
graves from Batina and Doroslovo; these ringlets 
were a very frequent grave good in the women’s 
graves of the Dalj group (Ložnjak Dizdar, Rajić 
Šikanjić 2016, 117–120, Fig. 6: 4). Based on the 
costume and personal items, it can be concluded 
that these women carried little bags of organic 
material such as cloth that were unusual in their 
community and that they were skilled in producing 
fine yarns. The individual buried in Grave 105 was 
a spinning specialist. Both urn types from these 
graves are similar to the canonical vessel type used 
as urns in the cemeteries of the Dalj group. The 
addition of other ceramic vessels in the grave is an 
indication of an extended burial ritual. The high 
frequency of graves with smaller sets of ceramic 
vessels as containers for provisions for the afterlife 
or as farewell gifts may indicate more egalitarian 
communities in this part of the Danube Basin dur-
ing the Early Iron Age. These more modest graves 
with fewer grave goods in Batina may indicate that 
a large part of the community consisted of people 
with a similar or the same social standing, with 
the exception of those individuals buried in the 
richer graves under the tumuli. Tumulus graves 
in the Dalj group only occur in Batina, making it 
likely that this site was one of the centres of the 
eastern Hallstatt world (Metzner-Nebelsick 1997; 
Hršak et al. 2013; Dizdar et al. 2021).
The woman from Grave 105 in Batina was a 
distinguished member of her community, judging 
from her unique urn, her personal items: a fibula, 
and sets of spindle-whorls dating from the middle 
and second half of the 7th century BC. The tools 
in her grave indicate her valuable skills in textile 
production. Many depictions of women in the 
Early Iron Age show activities related to textile 
production, in particular spinning and weaving 
(Eibner 1986, 39–40; Eibner 2000/2001; Rebay-
-Salisbury 2016, 151–152, Fig. 7.2, Pls. 4–5). Textile 
production was very important for the household 
economy. Women who were skilled spinners and 
weavers possessed an important role in society, as 
attested in the wider European context by grave 
inventories, figurative scenes on vessels such as 
the famous vessel from Sopron, tumulus 27, the 
tintinnabulum (bell-shaped pendant) from Bolo-
gna, Tomba degli ori, or the wooden throne from 
Verruchio, Tomba del trono, Rocca Malatestiana, 
dated to the 7th century BC (Eibner 2000/2001, 
108–109, Figs. 2–4; 2014, 47–48, Pl. 5: 33; Teržan 
2004; Gleba 2009, 69). Textile symbolism is a central 
element in Early Iron Age burials in wider areas 
of central Europe, according to the archaeological 
record. Textile elements and images of spinning 
and weaving in burials refer to the high standing 
of women in Early Iron Age societies; it may also 
be connected with a ritual sphere (Eibner 1986; 
Nebelsick 1997, 127; Huth, Kondziella 2017). Spe-
cific fibula types as dress accessories indicate that 
the community in Batina was included in a wider 
communication network within the Pannonian plain 
and beyond, reaching as far as the inner Alpine 
area to the west. The fibulae from both graves 101 
and 105 identify more prominent female members 
of the community of Batina during the Iron Age 
who owned and wore more exclusive jewellery of 
eastern Hallstatt fashion. The funerary rite (i.e., the 
burial practice and related objects in these graves) 
represents female community members that did 
not stand out because of being given unusually 
numerous symposial grave goods. Instead, they 
were exceptional because of items used for textile 
production and specific jewellery that may rather 
reflect their skills and personal identity within the 
178 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
community that bid them farewell and prepared 
and selected their grave goods. Rebay-Salisbury 
hypothetically relates the presence of tools for 
textile production in graves to the seasonal nature 
of burials and activities taking place in the com-
munity in winter, which may also have affected 
the choice of grave goods (Rebay-Salisbury 2016, 
70–71, Fig. 4.5).
Graves 101 and 105 in Batina illustrate the 
important role of women in Early Iron Age com-
Abbrevations: l. = lenght; w. = weight; h. = height.
GRAVE 101 (Pl. 1)
1. Bronze double-looped fibula with indented bow, the foot 
and one loop are is not preserved. Preserved l.: 8.3 cm.
2. Fragments of a burnt bronze ringlet. Preserved l.: 
1.0–1.3 cm.
3. Small iron knife with a sharp curved blade and a tang. 
L.: 11.2 cm.
4-5. Two biconical spindle-whorls of dark grey clay with 
a polished finish. W.: 3.0 g.
6. Bowl with spherical biconical body and inverted rim. 
The bottom is flat. The outer surface is dark brown and 
occasionally dark grey to black, with a polished finish. 
The inner surface is dark brown with a partly polished 
finish. H.: 7.8 cm.
7. Kantharos with biconical body and two strap handles, 
thicker along the edges, reaching slightly above the rim 
of the vessel. The bottom is flat. On the shoulder, there 
is a metope decoration with groups of vertical grooves 
alternating with undecorated portions. Outer and inner 
surfaces are black with a markedly polished finish and 
are graphite-coated. H.: 13.2 cm.
8. Bowl with a spherical body and inverted rim. The bot-
tom is flat and pronounced. The outer surface is dark 
brown and occasionally dark grey and black, with a 
partly polished finish. The inner surface is dark brown 
with a partly polished finish. H.: 9.2 cm.
9. Vessel with biconical body and conical neck. The rim is 
missing. The bottom is flat. On the shoulder, there is a 
shallow horizontal groove. The outer surface is black 
with a polished finish. The inner surface is dark brown 
and occasionally black, with a polished finish. H.: 32 cm.
GRAVE 105 (Pl. 2)
1. Fragments of a double-looped fibula with a twisted in-
dented bow and hammered foot with a sundial shape. 
H.: 4.5cm; W.: 0.2 cm.
2. Oval pendant of a grey-white stone. One side, diagonally 
arranged, carried three small holes, possibly the remains 
of perforations. L.: 4.7 cm.
3. Fragments of an iron ring, probably a bracelet or anklet. 
Preserved l.: 9.0 cm.
4. Fragments of an iron ring, probably a bracelet or anklet. 
Preserved l.: 9.5 cm.
5. Kantharos with biconical body, with two strap handles 
that reach slightly above the rim of the vessel. On the 
shoulder, there is a decoration consisting of a series 
of vertical grooves. Only the space below the handles 
is undecorated. The outer and inner surfaces are dark 
brown to black with a polished finish. H.: 13.5 cm.
6. Fragments of an iron knife with a slightly curved blade. 
Preserved l.: 7.5 and 4.0 cm.
7. Bowl with a biconical body and inverted rim and a flat 
bottom. In the widest part of the bowl, there is a tongue-
shaped, horizontally punctured lug. The outer surface 
is dark brown with a polished finish; the inner surface 
is black with a polished finish. H.: 8.4 cm.
8. Vessel with biconical body and tall conical neck ending 
in a funnel-shaped everted rim. On the shoulder, there 
is a horizontal rib with short oblique incisions. On two 
opposite sides below the rib, there are short vertical 
relief ribs with oblique incisions. The lower part of the 
body carries four symmetrically arranged downturned 
tongue-shaped handles. The outer surface is ochre to 
dark brown and black with a polished finish. The inner 
surface is ochre to light brown with a polished finish. 
H.: 61.6 cm.
9–28. Twenty biconical spindle-whorls with brown, grey-
brown to dark grey colour, with a polished finish. One 
spindle-whorl is larger (Pl. 2: 9), while others belong 
to two sets of different sizes and colours. See Tab. 1.
CATALOGUE OF GRAVE GOODS
munities in the Danube region. The archaeological 
evidence for spinning equipment (spindle-whorls) 
indicates the high esteem their skills in textile 
production possessed in their community. The 
different sizes and weights of these spindle whorls 
(Tab. 1) are evidence for the refined production 
of yarn and, consequently, textiles in this region. 
The fibulae worn by those women represent not 
only their individual taste but also their contacts 
with more distant communities.
179Two Graves from Batina: An indication of the economic role and social status of women ...
Acknowledgements
This paper is the result of many years of research in-
volving archaeological excavations, records and numerous 
analyses. The paper was partly created within the research 
project of the Croatian Science Foundation (IP-06-2016-
1749): Iron Age Female Identities in the Southern Carpathian 
Basin (FEMINE) at the Institute of Archaeology in Zagreb. 
It could not have been written without the help and effort 
of many people. We want to thank Archaeological Museum 
Osijek and colleagues Tomislav Hršak and Domagoj Dujmić, 
who conduct the excavation on Batina. For the supervi-
sion of the zooarchaeological analysis of animal bones, we 
thank Dr Siniša Radović, a senior research associate at the 
Institute for Quaternary Palaeontology and Geology of the 
Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts. The recording of 
the layout of the graves in situ was designed by Arheoplan 
Ltd, and the objects were drawn by Matilda Marijanović 
Lešić, Aleksandar Kapuran and Martina Rončević. The 
photos of the traces of cutting on animal bones were made 
by Damir Doračić. We extend our warmest thanks to eve-
ryone. Our thanks also go to two anonymous reviewers for 
their very constructive advice and Prof. L. D. Nebelsick 
for the final proofreading.
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182 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
Materialni ostanki grobišč in naselij iz starejše 
železne dobe v srednjem Podonavju zrcalijo življe-
nje tedanjih skupnosti, naseljenih ob Donavi (sl. 
1). Največ podatkov prispevajo grobovi. Grobne 
pridatke je mogoče povezati z osteološkimi ostanki 
pokopanih oseb in jih preučevati z vidika njihovih 
identitet, prav tako njihovo vlogo v življenju skup- 
nosti, ki so ji pripadali. Materialne sledi odsevajo 
lokalno proizvodnjo predmetov ter komunikacije 
znotraj lokalnih in širših regionalnih mrež.
Lokalni izdelki, kot so lončenina in pripomočki, 
uporabljeni v pogrebnih običajih, ter žrtvovane 
živali za pogrebne pojedine in poslednje slovo 
od preminulega so odraz vsakdanjega življenja v 
pogrebnih praksah. Značilni deli noše pokojnikov 
so bili del širše regionalne produkcijske sfere in so 
možni indici trgovine, menjave ali celo eksogamije.
V prispevku analizirana grobova 101 in 105 iz 
Batine, ki imata sicer različni grobni ansambel 
najdb, vendar isti tip fibule, sta ilustrativen primer 
statusa pokopanih ženskih oseb ter pogrebnega 
običaja v skupnostih, živečih na tem območju v 
starejši železni dobi.
BATINA – NASELJE IN GROBIŠČE
IZ POZNE BRONASTE IN
STAREJŠE ŽELEZNE DOBE
Batina je večslojno najdišče na severovzhodnem 
obrobju Banskega Brda v Baranji. Območje z 
geostrateško lego ob prehodu prek reke Donave je 
bilo naseljeno od neolitika. Naselbinski ostanki na 
skrajni severovzhodni točki planote Banskega Brda 
kažejo na pomembnost najdišča v pozni bronasti 
in starejši železni dobi. Sočasno grobišče se je raz-
prostiralo vzdolž poti proti naselju. Večina tedanjih 
prebivalcev je bila pokopana v planih grobovih, 
le sežgane ostanke očitno nekoliko uglednejših 
pripadnikov skupnosti so pokopali v kamrah pod 
zemljenimi gomilami – tumuli.
V Batini so zaščitna izkopavanja potekala de-
setletja. Sistematična izkopavanja naselja pa je v 
letih od 1970 do 1972 opravil Muzej Slavonije pod 
vodstvom Danice Pinterović skupaj s Stephanom 
Foltinyjem, predstavnikom Smithsonian Institute 
Washington D. C., ter v sodelovanju s Ksenijo 
Vinski-Gasparini iz Arheološkega muzeja v Zagre-
bu (Pinterović 1971, 55–58). Grobišče so od leta 
2010 sistematično raziskovali Arheološki muzej 
Osijek, Muzej Slavonije, Institut za arheologiju in 
Odsjek za arheologiju HAZU (Bojčić et al. 2011; 
2018). Po dosedanjih rezultatih teh izkopavanj je 
bilo grobišče v uporabi v pozni bronasti in starejši 
železni dobi, od 11. do konca 7. st. pr. Kr. Po daljši 
prekinitvi so na tem mestu ponovno pokopavali 
v rimskem času, v 2. in 3. st. po Kr. (Dizdar et al. 
2019, 95–97; Dizdar et al. 2021, 19–24).
GROBOVA 101 IN 105 IZ BATINE
Grobova 101 in 105 sta bila odkrita v vzhodnem 
delu grobišča iz pozne bronaste in starejše žele-
zne dobe na Srednem v Batini, ležala sta v bližini 
tumula 2 (sl. 3).
Grob 101 (t. 1) je bil odkrit v sondi 18 (sl. 3). 
Grobna jama je bila velika 1,20 × 0,90 m in glo-
boka okoli 0,66 m. Imela je pravokotno obliko z 
zaobljenimi ogli in navpične stene. Zapolnjena je 
bila s temnorjavo zemljo, ki je vsebovala odlomke 
keramike in sežgane človeške kosti. Keramična žara 
(t. 1: 9) s sežganimi kostmi in pepelom, verjetno 
z grmade, je stala v zahodnem delu grobne jame. 
V njej so bili najdeni še sežgan bronast obroč (t. 
1: 2), dva vijčka (t. 1: 4, 5) in železen nož (t. 1: 3). 
Na žaro je bila poveznjena skleda (t. 1: 8). Pepel s 
sežganimi kostmi in deli sežgane bronaste fibule 
(t. 1: 1) so bili najdeni vzhodno od posode v osre-
dnjem delu groba. Kantaros (t. 1: 7) je stal severno 
od žare, skleda (t. 1: 6) pa vzhodno od žganine.
V grobu 101 so bili ostanki kosti odrasle osebe, 
stare okoli 35 let. Verjetno gre za žensko. Teža 
žganih človeških kosti je znašala 1173,5 g (tab. 2). 
Najštevilnejše ohranjene so dolge kosti, slabše so 
zastopane kosti rok in nog ter hrbtenice. Večina 
kosti je bila najdena v žari. Manjša količina kosti, 
večinoma delov lobanje ter nekaj delov dolgih 
kosti, je bila pomešana s pepelom v osrednjem 
delu groba.
Grobova iz Batine kot primera ekonomske vloge
in družbenega statusa žensk ob Donavi
v starejši železni dobi
Povzetek
183Grobova iz Batine kot primera ekonomske vloge in družbenega statusa žensk ob Donavi v starejši železni dobi
Grob 105 (t. 2) je bil odkrit v sondi 19 (sl. 3). 
Grobna jama je bila velika 1,28 × 0,83 m in glo-
boka okoli 0,28 m. Imela je pravokotno obliko z 
zaobljenimi ogli in navpične stene. Zapolnjena je 
bila s temnorjavo zemljo. Keramična žara (t. 2: 8) 
s sežganimi kostmi in pepelom, verjetno z grmade, 
je bila položena v vzhodni del groba. Vsebovala je 
20 vijčkov (t. 2: 9–28), sežgan železni nož (t. 2: 6), 
sežgane železne obroče (t. 2: 3–4), bronasto fibulo 
(t. 2: 1) in kamnit obesek (t. 2: 2). Na žaro je bila 
poveznjena skleda (t. 2: 7). Kantaros (t. 2: 5) je 
bil položen jugozahodno od žare, živalske kosti so 
bile najdene v jugozahodnem delu grobne jame.
V grobu 105 so bili kostni ostanki odrasle osebe, 
verjetno ženske, njihova teža je bila 1664,4 g (tab. 
3). Večina ohranjenih ostankov pripada dolgim 
kostem. Slabše so zastopane kosti lobanje, hrbte-
nice in kosti rok/nog.
V grobu 105 identificirane živalske kosti pripadajo 
domačim živalim: govedu (Bos taurus), svinji (Sus 
sp.), ovci ali kozi (Ovis/Capra) ter živalim male ali 
srednje velikosti (mogoče ovce ali koze, svinje ali 
teleta) (tab. 4). Skupna teža odkritih živalskih kosti 
je bila 430,1 g, od tega pripada govedu 309,6 g.
Oba groba – 101 in 105 – je po tipologiji ke-
ramičnih posod in fibul iz grobnih setov mogoče 
datirati v drugo polovico 7. st. pr. Kr. oziroma v 
keramični horizont IIIb in IV.
Interpretacija teh grobov izhaja iz arheološke, 
antropološke in arheozoološke analize (Härke 
1993: Rebay-Salisbury 2016, 59–100). Opis njunih 
kontekstov, pridatkov in bioloških ostankov pa daje 
detajlni uvid v pogrebne običaje starejše železne 
dobe na tem območju.
POGREBNI OBIČAJI
Pogrebni običaj v primeru groba 101 se je 
verjetno odvil na naslednji način. Odrasla oseba, 
stara okoli 35 let, verjetno ženskega spola, je bila 
sežgana na grmadi. Ostanke grmade so zbrali v 
organsko posodo (zaboj) in jo postavili v zanjo 
pripravljeno grobno jamo. V grob položena žara 
pa je vsebovala izbrane sežgane posmrtne ostan-
ke pokojnice in zlomljene dele noše, ki so bili 
delno izpostavljeni ognju. Poleg žare so žalujoči 
pripadniki skupnosti kot poslovilni dar v grob 
položili keramični set (kantaros in skledo) s hrano 
in pijačo. Zraven žare postavljen kantaros je bil 
verjetno napolnjen s tekočino, na drugo stran 
kupčka ostankov z grmade so dodali skledo. 
Zatem so grobno jamo zasuli.
Pogrebni običaj v primeru groba 105 je bil 
skromnejši. Odrasla oseba, verjetno ženska, je bila 
sežgana na grmadi skupaj s priborom za predenje. 
Ostanke grmade – sežgane posmrtne ostanke 
pokojnice z ostanki njene noše in setom vijčkov 
– so položili v žaro in jo pokrili s skledo. Pokrito 
žaro so položili v jamo. Kantaros je bil postavljen 
zraven žare, deli žrtvovane živali so bili položeni 
zahodno od žare.
Iz grobnih kontekstov in sledov na grobnih 
pridatkih je mogoče rekonstruirati potencialne 
pogrebne običaje (Sofaer 2015, 137; Fülöp, Váczi 
2016; Nebelsick 2016, 22–28). Slovo od premi-
nulih je bil kompleksen emotivni dogodek: da so 
v Podonavju v starejši železni dobi sledili nekim 
pravilom, je mogoče ugotavljati na grobiščih, kjer 
je bilo odkritih več grobov (Trajković 2008, 19). 
Transformacija s sežiganjem trupla je bila prvi del 
pogrebnega običaja (Nebelsick 2016, 22–28, sl. 1/1: 
1); po sežigu je sledil pokop posmrtnih ostankov 
pokojnika in grobnih pridatkov, kar je predhodno 
zahtevalo pripravo hrane in pijače kot pogrebnih 
darov ter njihov prenos do groba. Žara in posode 
so bile položene v grob po predhodno izdelanem 
načrtu, kar kaže velikost grobne jame. Jame grobov 
z manj številnimi posodami so bile manjše, tiste s 
številnejšimi posodami pa večje. Velikost grobnih 
jam 101 in 105 iz Batine je bila prilagojena veli-
kosti žare in drugih grobnih pridatkov. Pogrebni 
ceremonial je imel pomembno vlogo v procesu 
žalovanja in soočanja z emocijami skupnosti, ki se 
je poslavljala od preminulega člana (Sofaer, Stig 
Sørensen 2013; Sofaer 2015, 145; Nebelsick 2016, 31). 
Ohranjene sledi na predmetih v grobu omogočajo 
prepoznavanje dela tega kompleksnega procesa in 
interpretacijo pomena, ki ga je imel za skupnost.
NOŠA IN OSEBNI PREDMETI
Na koncu pogrebnega rituala zasut grob je 
označeval konec enega cikla in začetek drugega (v. 
Gennep 1909; Sofaer 2015, 147; Rebay-Salisbury 
2016, 15). Skupaj s posmrtnimi ostanki so bili v 
žaro položeni sežgani in/ali razlomljeni predmeti 
iz življenja preminulega. V primeru grobov 101 in 
105 jih lahko interpretiramo kot osebne predmete 
odraslih žena, za kar bi govorila velikost fibul, ki sta 
jima pripadali. V grobovih daljske skupine fibule 
niso pogost predmet. Večina fibul s tega območja 
pripada tipom, ki so se nosili v vzhodnohalštatskem 
krogu (Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 413–426, sl. 184; 
190), le nekaj jih je mogoče povezati z balkanskim 
184 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
kulturnim krogom (Vinski, Vinski-Gasparini 1962, 
sl. 108–112; t. II: 47; V: 62–63; VII: 75–80; VIII: 
55, 58, 60–61; Heilmann 2016, 12–16, sl. 3, 5; 
Gavranović 2007, 163–165, sl. 8). S Podonavjem 
povezane fibule so precej redke v grobovih dalj-
ske skupine, npr. v grobu 75 iz Vukovarja Lijeve 
Bare (Vinski-Gasparini 1973, 163, t. 124: 5–7). 
Pogosteje so pridane v skeletne grobove, znane z 
obrobja skupine Dalj, in pomikajo mejo njihove 
pojavnosti proti zahodu (Balen-Letunić 2004, 17, 
19–20, t. 5: 6–7; Vasić 1999, 59, t. 65). Morda so 
bile osebe, pokopane v skeletnih grobovih, imigranti 
iz kulturnega kompleksa Basarabi (Metzner-Ne-
belsick 2004). Vzhodna meja razprostranjenosti 
dvozankastih fibul s sedlasto uvitim lokom (sl. 
4), ki so bile razširjene v severozahodni Panoniji 
ter vzhodnem in osrednjem alpskem prostoru, se 
nakazuje na območju okoli Batine.
Med žganimi kostmi najdena vijčka v grobu 101 
sta manjša od običajne velikosti tovrstnih najdb v 
grobovih daljske skupine v Doroslovu (Trajković 
2008, grob 6: 5–10) in Batini (Bojčić et al. 2018, 
166–167, t. 1: 1). Morda nakazujeta izdelovanje zelo 
finega prediva za specializirano tkanje. Lahko bi 
bila tudi del osebne noše in sta morda služila kot 
jagoda na pasu iz organske snovi. Če so vijčki iz 
obravnavanih grobov služili svojemu osnovnemu 
namenu izdelave finega volnenega prediva, je mo-
žno, da sta bili ženski, pokopani v grobovih 101 
in 105, vešči predenja in izdelave tekstila.
Različni pripomočki za izdelavo tekstila so obi-
čajni pridatki v grobovih vzhodnega halštatskega 
kroga (Teržan 1996; Metzner-Nebelsick 2002, 201; 
Ložnjak Dizdar 2015, 39–40, karta 2) in se pove-
zujejo z družbenim statusom pripadnic skupnosti 
(Teržan 1996, 529; 2004, 222; Eibner 2000/2001; 
Grömer 2016, 262–265).
Po sestavi pridatkov je grobu 105 iz Batine po-
doben bogati grob 138 iz Doroslova (sl. 7). Tudi 
ta je vseboval set keramičnih posod in vijčkov za 
izdelavo tekstila (Trajković 2008, 301–302, grob 
138: 11–20). Bogati grobni pridatki, povezani s 
pripomočki za predenje, pričajo, da so te ženske 
posedovale veščine, ki so jim zagotavljale določen 
status v njihovih skupnostih.
Drugo bližnjo primerjavo za grob 105 iz Batine 
predstavlja grob 58 iz Doroslova (sl. 8) s podob-
nim inventarjem (Trajković 2008, 232–233), ki je 
vseboval s skledo pokrito žaro, skodelo s presega-
jočim ročajem in isti tip fibule kot grobova 101 in 
105 v Batini, poleg tega pa še železno narokvico, 
dva noža in vijček ter bronaste in železne obroče, 
bronasto iglo in jantarne jagode.
POSLOVILNI DAROVI
Ob koncu pozne bronaste dobe in še zlasti v 
začetni fazi starejše železne dobe je bilo v srednjem 
Podonavju in vzhodnem halštatskem krogu v navadi 
prilaganje keramičnih setov v grobove (Nebelsick 
1994, 312–315, 357, sl. 4; 1997, 32; Metzner-Ne-
belsick 2002, 179–180, sl. 79–80; Nebelsick 2016, 
22–31).
Set posod v kombinaciji sklede in kantarosa je 
eden skromnejših. Povezuje se z običajem prina-
šanja poslovilnih darov za pot v onstranstvo, kar 
je bila navada v daljski skupini v starejši železni 
dobi oziroma v času keramičnih horizontov IIIa–V 
(Vinski-Gasparini 1983, 609; Metzner-Nebelsick 
2002, 179–180, sl. 79–80; Trajković 2008, 19). V 
kantarosih naj bi bila shranjena tekočina, vendar 
pred opravljenimi analizami organskih ostankov s 
sten posod ni mogoče opredeliti njihove dejanske 
vsebine. Kombinacija žare s pokrovom in pridatki v 
obliki kantarosa in/ali sklede ter ponekod živalskih 
kosti kot ostankov mesnega obroka je prisotna ne 
le v grobu 105, temveč tudi v drugih grobovih v 
Batini, npr. v grobu 38 (Dizdar et al. 2021, 152–154). 
Prav tako je znana iz Erduta (Minichreiter 1985, 
26–27, t. XVI), Sotina (Ložnjak Dizdar, Hutinec 
2014, 9–11, sl. 3) in Doroslova (Trajković 2008, 33; 
188, grob 8; 50–51, 203–204; grob 26; 53, 207, grob 
28; 80–81, 232, grob 58). Ta kombinacija posod 
v pogrebnem ritualu po rezultatih antropoloških 
analiz ni povezana z določenim spolom pokojnika.
Nežgani ostanki mesa so običajen grobni prida-
tek v vzhodnem delu Karpatske kotline in vzdolž 
Donave od pozne bronaste dobe. Pridani so bili v 
grobove v Doroslovu, med njimi so povsod zasto-
pane kosti goveda (Bos Taurus) in le v nekaterih 
grobovih tudi deli svinje (Blažić 2008, 360–361, 
tab. 1). Deli goveda so bili pridani v grobove na 
grobiščih Füzesabony, Sirok in Dormánd v Potisju 
(Metzner-Nebelsick 1998, sl. 7; 10), prav tako so bili 
najdeni v grobnih kamrah severovzhodno alpske 
halštatske regije (Nové Košariská, Bad Fischau-
-Malleiten, Hochholz, Bratčice, Langenlebarn). 
Pogosteje so pridane kosti manj mesnatih ali brez-
mesnih delov. Ni mogoče izključiti, da so ostanki 
različnih živali, najdeni skupaj in pripravljeni na 
isti način, ostanki specifične jedi (Kmet’ová 2017, 
72–73, tab. 2).
Količina in sestava poslovilnih darov verjetno 
zrcali ekonomske zmožnosti skupnosti ali bližnjih 
svojcev, zadolženih za slovo od preminulega. To bi 
pomenilo, da so poslovilni darovi indirektni dokaz 
statusa mrtvih pa tudi njihovih svojcev v skupnosti.
185Grobova iz Batine kot primera ekonomske vloge in družbenega statusa žensk ob Donavi v starejši železni dobi
ZAKLJUČEK
V grobovih 101 in 105 v Batini sta bili pokopani 
odrasli ženski. Njuna noša je vključevala fibulo, ki 
pripada tipu, povezanemu s severozahodno Panonijo 
oziroma območjem današnje Spodnje Avstrije in 
zahodne Madžarske. V grobu 101 je bil še bronast 
obroč, kakršni so pogosti v ženskih grobovih skupine 
Dalj (Ložnjak Dizdar, Rajić Šikanjić 2016, 117–120, 
sl. 6: 4). Po neobičajni noši in osebnih predmetih 
lahko sklepamo, da sta obravnavani ženski imeli 
majhni mošnji iz organske snovi in da sta bili 
vešči izdelovanja finega prediva, posebno tista, 
ki je bila pokopana v grobu 105. Žari z njunimi 
posmrtnimi ostanki sta podobni in predstavljata 
kanonski tip posod, uporabljenih za žare v grobovih 
skupine Dalj. Preostale pridane keramične posode 
odsevajo pogrebni ritual. Številčnejši grobovi z 
manjšimi keramičnimi seti s hrano in pijačo kažejo 
na bolj egalitarno družbo v tem delu Podonavja v 
starejši železni dobi. Da so tudi skupnost v Batini 
sestavljali večinoma ljudje podobnega ali enakega 
družbenega položaja, nakazujejo mnogoštevilni 
grobovi s skromnimi pridatki. Izjema so posa-
mezniki, pokopani v bogatih grobovih v gomilah. 
Taki grobovi se v skupini Dalj pojavljajo samo v 
Batini in nakazujejo, da je bilo to najdišče eden 
izmed pomembnih centrov vzhodnohalštatskega 
sveta (Metzner-Nebelsick 1997; Hršak et al. 2013; 
Dizdar et al. 2021).
Ženska, pokopana v grobu 105 v Batini, je bila 
pomembna pripadnica svoje skupnosti, sodeč po 
žari in osebnih predmetih – fibuli in setu vijčkov 
–, ki datirajo v sredino in drugo polovico 7. st. pr. 
Kr. Pridani pribor kaže na njene dragocene veščine 
v izdelavi tekstila. Ženske v starejši železni dobi 
so pogosto prikazane v povezavi s to dejavnostjo, 
predvsem s predenjem in tkanjem (Eibner 1986, 
39–40; Eibner 2000/2001; Rebay-Salisbury 2016, 
151–152, sl. 7.2, t. 4–5). Izdelava tekstila pa je 
bila pomembna za hišno gospodarstvo. Vešče 
predilke in tkalke so imele v družbi pomembno 
vlogo, kar nakazujejo grobni inventarji v širšem 
evropskem kontekstu in figuralne upodobitve, kot 
so na posodi iz Soprona, tumulus 27, tintinna-
bulum (zvončast obesek) iz Bologne, Tomba degli 
ori, ali na lesenem tronu iz Verruchia, Tomba del 
trono, Rocca Malatestiana, iz 7. st. pr. Kr. (Eibner 
2000/2001, 108–109, sl. 2–4; 2014, 47–48, t. 5: 33; 
Teržan 2004; Gleba 2009, 69). Simbolika tekstila 
je po arheoloških virih osrednji element v gro-
bovih starejše železne dobe na širšem prostoru 
srednje Evrope in odseva visok družbeni status 
tedanjih žensk, povezana pa je tudi z ritualno 
sfero (Eibner 1986; Nebelsick 1997, 127; Huth, 
Kondziella 2017).
Značilni tipi fibul v batinski noši kažejo, da 
je bila ta skupnost vključena v širšo komunika-
cijsko mrežo, ki je segala od panonske ravnice 
do notranjosti Alp na zahodu. Fibuli iz grobov 
101 in 105 v Batini razkrivata ugledni pripadnici 
železnodobne skupnosti z ekskluzivnim nakitom 
vzhodnohalštatske mode, medtem ko pogrebni 
ritual ne kaže razlik v primerjavi z večino, saj jima 
ni bil pridan bogat keramični set s številnejšimi 
posodami. Njuno posebnost kažeta pridan pribor 
za izdelavo tekstila in specifičen nakit – odsevata 
verjetno njune veščine in osebno identiteto v 
skupnosti, ki je pripravila in izbrala grobne pri-
datke ob njuni smrti. Rebay-Salisbury hipotetično 
povezuje prisotnost pribora za izdelavo tekstila v 
grobovih z označevanjem letnega časa pokopa in 
dejavnostjo pozimi, kar bi prav tako lahko vplivalo 
na izbor grobnih pridatkov (Rebay-Salisbury 2016, 
70–71, sl. 4.5).
Grobova 101 in 105 v Batini ilustrirata pomembno 
žensko vlogo v skupnostih starejše železne dobe 
v Podonavju, povezano s tekstilno dejavnostjo. 
Različne velikosti in teža vijčkov (tab. 1) so dokaz 
prefinjene izdelave preje in tekstila v tej regiji. Fi-
bule, ki so jih nosile ženske, pa ne pričajo samo o 
njihovem osebnem okusu, temveč tudi o njihovih 
stikih z zelo oddaljenimi skupnostmi.
Prevod: Sneža Tecco Hvala
186 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
Pl. 1: Batina, Grave 101. 1–2 bronze, 3 iron, 4–9 ceramic, yellow – cremated bones, green – bronze fibula. Scale 1–5 = 
1:2; 6–9 = 1:5. 
T. 1: Batina, Grob 101. 1–2 bron, 3 železo, 4–9 keramika, rumeno – žgane kosti, zeleno – bronasta fibula. M. 1–5 = 1:2; 
6–9 = 1:5.
187Two Graves from Batina: An indication of the economic role and social status of women ...
Pl. 2: Batina, Grave 105. 1 bronze, 2 stone, 3–4, 6 iron, 5, 7–28 ceramic, yellow – unburnt animal bones. Scale 1–4, 6 = 
1:4; 5, 7–8 = 1:6; 9–28 = 1:4.
T. 2: Batina, Grob 105. 1 bron, 2 kamen, 3–4, 6 železo, 5, 7–28 keramika, rumeno – nežgane živalske kosti. M. 1–4, 6 = 
1:4; 5, 7–8 = 1:6; 9–28 = 1:4.
188 LOŽNJAK DIZDAR, METZNER-NEBELSICK, RAJIĆ ŠIKANJIĆ, BARBIR, FILEŠ KRAMBERGER
Daria Ložnjak Dizdar
Institut za arheologiju
Jurjevska ulica 15
HR-10000 Zagreb
e-mail: dldizdar@iarh.hr
ID orcid: 0000-0002-5769-2269
Carola Metzner-Nebelsick
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
Institut für Vor- und Frühgeschichtliche
Archäologie und Provinzialrömische Archäologie 
Geschwister-Scholl-Platz 1 
D-80539 München
e-mail: Metzner-Nebelsick@vfpa.fak12.uni-muenchen.de
ID orcid: 0009-0008-5995-8551
Petra Rajić Šikanjić
Institut za antropologiju
Ljudevita Gaja 32
HR-10000 Zagreb
e-mail: petra@inantro.hr
ID orcid: 0000-0002-7760-5193
Antonela Barbir
Institut za arheologiju
Jurjevska ulica 15
HR-10000 Zagreb
e-mail:abarbir@iarh.hr
ID orcid: 0000-0003-3825-1596
Julia Katarina Fileš Kramberger
Sveučilište u Zagrebu
Filozofski Fakultet
Odsjek za arheologiju
I. Lučića 3
HR-10000 Zagreb
e-mail: jkkrambe@ffzg.hr
ID orcid: 0000-0002-5580-4693
Illustrations: Fig. 3 (drawing: Arheoplan Ltd). – Fig. 5 (photo: B. Jobst; marked by: J. K. Fileš Kramberger). – Fig. 6 (photo: 
D. Doračić). – Pl. 1 (drawing: M. Marijanović Lešić and M. Rončević). – Pl. 2 (drawing: A. Kapuran and M. Rončević).
Slikovno gradivo: Sl. 3 (risba: Arheoplan d. o. o.). – Sl. 5 (foto: B. Jobst; dodelava: J. K. Fileš Kramberger). – Sl. 6 (foto: 
D. Doračić). – T. 1 (risba: M. Marijanović Lešić in M. Rončević). – T. 2 (risba: A. Kapuran in M. Rončević).