Academica Turistica
Tourism & Innovation Journal – Revija za turizem in inovativnost
Year 12, No. 1, June 2019, issn 2335-4194
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12(1)
3 Editorial
Tomi Brezovec
5 Visitors to Greek Thermal and Seaside Spas (Mid-19th Century–Early 20th Century)
Melina Kostidi
13 Leisure and Commerce: Seafront Rivals in England’s First Seaside Resorts
Allan Brodie
23 The City and the Sea: Evolution and Transformation of a Controversial Relationship
Annarita Teodosio
31 Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port: The Case of the Brijuni Islands
during the Habsburg Empire
Nataša Urošević
41 Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
Jasenka Kranjčević
55 Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure by Travel Purpose:
The Case of Japan
Kenichi Shimamoto
73 The Differences in Perceptions of Organisational Values in the Hospitality Sector:
What Do They Tell Us?
Mitja Gorenak
83 The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke
97 Abstracts in Slovene – Povzetki v slovenščini
101 Instructions for Authors
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Tanja Mihalič, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Matjaž Mulej, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Milena Peršič, University of Rijeka, Croatia
Jasna Potočnik Topler, University of Maribor, Slovenia
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Vinod Sasidharan, San Diego State University, usa
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2 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Editorial
Tomi Brezovec
Guest Editor
University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia
tomi.brezovec@fts.upr.si
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.3-4
Today, bathing in the sea, sunbathing and enjoying
various activities at the coast attract millions of people
of all classes and ages and represent the most frequent
form of spending summer holidays. Seaside prome-
nades, hotels with sea views, restaurants and bars of-
fering local or international food, amusement parks,
entertainment centres, casinos and shops can be found
at every seaside town that has recognised tourism as an
opportunity for its growth and development.
The collection of articles on historic perspective on
seaside tourism focuses on specific problems encoun-
tered during its development. Papers tackle issues such
as the rivalry between tourism and traditional indus-
tries, impact of social and/or political factors on its de-
velopment and the impact of its development on the
transformation of the waterfront areas.
Compared to traditional seaside activities such as
fishing, shipping or shipbuilding, seaside tourism has
not a long tradition. Sea bathing was a new form of the
use of the sea introduced about two centuries ago. First
seaside resorts emerged in small English coastal towns
in early 18th century. In his article on leisure and com-
merce in those first seaside resorts, Brodie discusses
seaside tourism development in towns that were al-
ready established fishing or commercial ports. With
increasing popularity of sea-bathing, it became nec-
essary to build adequate infrastructure to satisfy the
needs of growing number of visitors. This caused the
rivalry between tourism and traditional trades for the
use of the waterfront. The outcome of this dispute was
not uniform; sometimes the development of commer-
cial port pushed tourism to the outskirts of the town
while in other instances tourism took over the aban-
doned infrastructure of cessed commercial activities.
By the 19th century, sea-bathing popularity ex-
panded to the southern coasts of Europe. New resorts
were emerging along the coasts of France, Spain, Italy
and other countries. On the Adriatic, the first sea-
baths were built during the first half of the 19th cen-
tury in Trieste and Venice, where they invented float-
ing bathing establishments, anchored in the sea, close
to the centre of the town. The two towns were in con-
stant competition for the prestigious title of having the
finest baths andwere constantly enlarging existing and
adding new baths. The competition ended by the end
of the century with the development of numerous sea-
side resorts on both shores of the Adriatic. The paper
from Uroševič discusses the development of tourism
on Brijuni Islands in the proximity of Pula, the major
naval port of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Brijuni
have developed from malaria-infested islands into an
elite resort in less than two decades. Further devel-
opment was interrupted by the outbreak of the First
World War has that has put to rest many other invest-
ments along the east coast of the Adriatic as reported
in Kranjčevič’s paper. During the last decades of the
19th and pre-wwi years of the 20th century, tourism
experienced fast development andmany investors saw
their opportunity in emerging seaside resorts. Invest-
ing on the waterfront was very profitable and every
year new hotels, restaurants and entertainment estab-
lishments as well as private villas were available to vis-
itors. To gain a better understanding of the scale of
tourism investments during that period, projects that
were halted and/or abandoned due to the outbreak
of the war should also be taken into account. These
projects also demonstrate how external political fac-
tors impact on tourism development.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 3
Tomi Brezovec Editorial
Tourism in Greece has followed a similar devel-
opment path. After some initial developments during
19th century when visitors in Greece discovered sea-
side bathing, the pre-war period brought significant
changes in terms of scale of investments, structure of
visitors and volume of tourism business. In her paper,
Kostidi presents insights into development of some
early Greek spa and seaside resorts and their transfor-
mation from domestic into international destinations.
The paper also focuses on changes of social struc-
ture of their visitors and discusses some governmental
measures that were crucial for tourism development.
Teodosio’s article discusses the process of regener-
ation of the waterfront within a wider geographical
context and describes practices introduced in Spain
and Italy. The development of urban areas around the
commercial port has often set the limit to further ex-
pansion of commercial activities. Their development
was thus possible only by moving commercial activ-
ity to a new location, abandoning the infrastructure
close to or within the city centre. Reuse of abandoned
and degraded industrial waterfront areas became a key
area of urban planning. Inmany cities, these areas have
been transformed into an attractive environment for
locals and tourists alike.
Centuries ago, bringing tourism to the shores of the
sea was a challenging venture. The sea was unattrac-
tive for visitors and uncompetitive to established in-
land thermal and spa centres. However, when seaside
environment was recognised as being beneficial for
health, the coast soon became a fashionable place. The
aim of this set of articles is to contribute to better un-
derstanding of this early development phase of seaside
tourism destinations. Learning from past experiences
does provide useful knowledge needed for develop-
ment of new destinations and for solving contempo-
rary seaside tourism issues.
This paper is published under the terms of the
Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International (cc by-nc-nd 4.0) License.
4 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Original Scientific Article
Visitors to Greek Thermal and Seaside Spas
(Mid-19th Century–Early 20th Century)
Melina Kostidi
University of Thessaly, Greece
melinakostidi@hotmail.com
Thermal tourism is considered the first form of tourism in the 19th-century Greek
state. At that time, patients decided to travel to Greek thermal baths to seek therapy
and pain relief. The first thermal spas in Greece can be considered ‘latecomers,’ be-
cause they began to develop after their counterparts in other areas of Europe, and
they had few and limited facilities.However, in themid-19th century, the urban space
of Greek thermal spas and seaside resorts began to transform architecturally due to
measures taken according to state policy and the increasing number of visitors. In
this paper, I will attempt to study the architectural transformation of Greek spas
and the profile of visitors and patients in the two phases of their development. My
research is based on 19th-century primary sources (laws and doctrines, patient reg-
istries, medical reports, advertisements, postcards, novels andmemoirs). I will assert
that in the first stage of their development (1833–1890) Greek resorts had minimal
accommodation and leisure facilities. Their clientele consisted of patients and trav-
ellers from nearby locations who encountered the lack of proper medical care and
accommodation establishments. In their next phase (1890–1930), the urban space of
Greek spas was transformed to cater to the needs of a different clientele. Visitors to
Greek spas were patients and holidaymakers who usually travelled with other family
members. The square and the promenade of thermal spas and seaside resorts be-
came centres of urban sociability. They stayed at luxury hotels, and they enjoyed the
sociability of modern facilities (restaurants, theatres, and casinos).
Keywords: spas, seaside resorts, leisure, tourism, Greece
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.5-12
Introduction
In the 21st century, travellers can plan a trip to any des-
tination they wish easily and quickly thanks to tech-
nological and transport innovations. When they ar-
rive at the tourism destination of their choice, several
accommodation and leisure amenities can cater to all
their needs. It could be claimed that modern travellers
face few or no difficulties in comparison to the trans-
port and accommodation problems that 19th-century
travellers had to overcome. However, these problems
did not seem to deter the first patients who travelled
to Greek spas to seek thermal therapy. Although they
were aware of the transport difficulties and the lack
of proper amenities, these patients and visitors sought
the ‘world of Greek baths.’
This paper presents the profile of these patients and
visitors in the two periods of development of Greek
spas. In the first period (1833–1890), patients trav-
elled mainly alone, while in the next period (1890–
1930) they took their families with them for vacations
and they seemed to show a higher preference for sea-
side resorts that had entertainment facilities. Primary
sources (patient registries, medical treatises, adver-
tisements, travel guides, literary and autobiographical
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 5
Melina Kostidi Visitors to Greek Thermal and Seaside Spas
texts were used to highlight the gender, interests, and
diseases of patients and visitors (men and women of
different classes) toGreek spas. The poor patients were
also a particular but ‘neglected’ category of the pub-
lic of Greek baths, as they also travelled to them and
received proper care.
The First Patients and Visitors to Greek Spas
(1833–1890)
The period 1833–1890 is considered a crucial point
in the development of Greek spas, as in this period,
their urban space began to transform, and their first
clientele was formed (Dritsas, 2002). The spas that
welcomed the first patients were Kythnos, followed
by Edipsos, Hypati, Loutraki, Methana, Kyllini, and
Faliro (Varella, 2001a; 2001b). These first resorts had
two main advantages that favoured their gradual de-
velopment: they were conveniently located, and pa-
tients could travel to them quite easily from Athens
and from the nearby cities and islands. All of them
(Hypati excluded) were seaside towns, and thus, they
were accessible by sea. Apart from the fact that the sea
facilitated relatively easy transportation, the seafront
gradually became an integral part of the urban space
of Greek spas. Taking sea baths, which were initially
recommended to patients by their doctors, quickly
became a fashionable trend. In contrast, the various
accommodation and leisure facilities (hotels, restau-
rants, coffee shops) that were constructed on their
seafront in this period facilitated the sociability among
patients and their escorts.
The first patients who visited the Greek baths for
cure were those of the Cycladic island of Kythnos.
They travelled to this spa town in the 1830s seeking
thermal therapy upon the recommendations of doc-
tors and writers of medical treatises who praised the
healing properties of the thermal waters (Landerer,
1850). Their number showed a remarkable increase,
especially after the visits of the royal couple Otto and
Amalia. Queen Amalia made use of the baths of Kyth-
nos, because she was hoping to overcome her gynae-
cological problems and be able to conceive an heir.
The first records of patients on Kythnos began imme-
diately after the establishment of the bathing facilities
(Kardamitsi-Adami, 2001). The caretakers and baths
doctors recorded with great care the gender, occupa-
tions, and diseases of patients as well as the effects that
the hot water had on their health. Thus, these patient
registries are critical archival sources that provide in-
formation on the profile of the first Kythnos patients.
In 1844, during the bathing season (June to Oc-
tober), 50 patients received care in the bathhouse of
Kythnos. The patient registry of the year 1847 is ex-
tremely meticulous, since the name, occupation, and
diseases of the 58 patients and the effects of the hot
baths were recorded. The patients of 1849 totalled 101.
The patient registry 1851, also written with great care
and detail, shows 172 patients (men and women) who
lived in various regions of Greece (Ministry of Interior
1845, 1848, 1851, 1861).
Eight years later Katakouzinos, the doctor of Kyth-
nos baths wrote a medical report on the patients trav-
elling to Kythnos. The 272 patients lived in Athens,
or they were locals. Others came from the nearby Cy-
cladic islands or large Greek city centres. More specif-
ically, 56 patients lived in Athens, 47 lived on Syros, 40
were locals from Kythnos, 17 lived in Nafplio, and 11
in Patras, while three patients came from Smyrna and
one from Istanbul (Ministry of Interior Archive, 1861).
Another essential primary source for the number
and the diseases of Kythnos patients is the 1835 trea-
tise on the baths of Kythnos, written by a Bavarian
chemist Xavier Landerer. His treatise was based on the
fieldwork and scientific observations of bath doctors
Konstantinos Drosinis and Gregorius Despotopoulos.
According to the chemist, the Kythnos bathhouse had
200–250 patients annually. During the 14 months of
its operation, 500 patients received treatment. Only
84 could afford to stay in the baths of Kythnos for
an extended period and receive medical care. Most of
them suffered from rheumatism, arthritis, or venereal
diseases, and they noticed that the mineral waters of
Kythnos offered them some relief. The 80 female pa-
tients suffered from gynaecological problems. In the
next decades, the number of patients showed a gradual
increase due to the expansion of the royal bathhouse
and the appointment of a spa doctor. According to
the medical observations of the spa doctor Gregorius
Despotopoulos, in 1847–1849, the number of Kythnos
patients stood around 300–400 per year, and those
6 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Melina Kostidi Visitors to Greek Thermal and Seaside Spas
who had received hot water treatment for three con-
secutive years fully recovered (Kandylis, 1981).
For the patients, the trip to Kythnos was a real ad-
venture, since in the first years no steamboat would fa-
cilitate the access to the island. Upon arrival, patients
had to cope with inadequate accommodation facili-
ties. It is worth noting that even in the first years of
Kythnos, social segregation existed: The poor patients
found accommodation in two other buildings and at a
small church, and they were separated from those who
stayed at the bathhouse. The price of a bath was half
drachma and of a room was one and a half drachma.
The Kythnos spa doctor, Gregorius Despotopoulos re-
quested that there should be a room price adjustment
according to the number of patients in each bathing
season (Ministry of Interior, 1864). The bathing and
accommodation facilities were improved when the
doctor Aggelis Hantzaras rented the baths for twenty
years in 1871 (Efimeris tis Kyverniseos, 23–24 March
1871).
The poorer patients of Kythnos baths are a ‘ne-
glected’ and perhaps unknown category of their pub-
lic. According to their request letters, these patients
were eligible to free travel and free use of baths. They
usually requested to be sent to the spa for therapy dur-
ing the summer months, from April to July (when the
thermal baths were open, and the number of patients
was high). In their request letters, they stated that ther-
mal therapy was a necessity to them, as they suffered
from chronic pains, and they were unable to work
and look after themselves. The surviving documents
provide evidence about their gender, their residence,
their health problem, and in some cases their occupa-
tion. According to their poverty certificates, they were
mainly internal migrants: they lived in the Munici-
pality of Athens (and one lived in the Municipality of
Piraeus), but they were born in other different regions
of Greece. The lack of reference to their occupation
could imply that their disease prevented them from
working. Their most common diseases were arthritis
and rheumatism, and there was one case of a woman
who suffered from a gynaecological problem (Min-
istry of Interior 1845, 1848, 1851, 1861, 1864).
The patients of Kythnos baths could be considered
an interesting case study for a researcher of the his-
tory of medicine because they were the first public
who trusted and used the thermal baths for healing.
In the following decades, the growing interest on be-
half of the public resulted in a gradual development
of other spa resorts. These Greek spas were: Hypati,
Edipsos, Methana and Loutraki. Although in their be-
ginnings they had minimal accommodation facilities,
and their patients faced the similar problems as those
in Kythnos, the number of their visitors continued to
grow and today these destinations are considered to
be the oldest Greek hot springs spa towns. Another
two early destinations were two seaside resorts, Kyllini
and Faliro, where visitors could enjoy a combination
of thermal and sea baths.
Nineteenth-century advertisements and announce-
ments in the press (in magazines and newspapers) are
essential primary sources for the development of these
Greek resorts as well as the interests and habits of their
visitors. The advertisements emphasised the low cost
and suitable services that Greek spas were able to offer
to their visitors. In press announcements, the renters
of Greek baths and the managers of grand hotels com-
peted with each other, as they all promised comfort
and proper treatment. Advertisements also stated that
hotel rooms and meals in the restaurants of Greek
spas had the same price as those in Athens (Empros,
18 March 1899; Efymeris, 28 June 1890).
The advertisements frequently used phrases such
as: ‘rooms available for all classes and budgets’ and
‘the aristocracy and the people,’ which promoted the
inclusivity of Greek baths (Efymeris, 21 April 1884; 3
May 1884). Thus, it could be claimed that the accom-
modation, treatment, and entertainment in the urban
space of Greek thermal and seaside resorts was not
an exclusive privilege of the upper class. However, it
can be concluded that the majority of visitors were
middle-class people whose salary would have offered
them the chance to travel to Greek spas for a few days
with the family and combine their need for treatment
with leisure.
The Patients-Tourists in the Second Period
of Development of Greek Spas (1890–1930)
The second period of development of Greek resorts
could be considered their ‘heyday.’ In the period of
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 7
Melina Kostidi Visitors to Greek Thermal and Seaside Spas
1890–1930 Greek spas became popular tourist desti-
nations due to legislation that favoured the operation
of luxurious grand hotels and entertainment facilities.
Elefterios Venizelos’ government, in light of the geo-
graphical expansion of the Greek state following the
BalkanWars, passed a great number of laws about the
exploitation of thermal springs that encouraged the
development of spas. In 1915, the Ministry of National
Economy set up a committee to ‘study the measures to
be taken for the scientific anddeliberate exploitation of
the thermal springs.’ During 1915 and 1916, a chemist,
Anastasios Damvergis, also a member of the commit-
tee, wrote a series of memoranda requesting the adop-
tion of a special law that would regulate the exploita-
tion of thermal waters. Eventually, these requests were
accepted, and the laws 1292 (Efimeris tis Kyverniseos,
13–16 April 1918) and 2188 (Efimeris tis Kyverniseos,
17 June 1920) defined that the thermal springs were
owned by the State and their exploitation was trans-
ferred to the Ministry of National Economy. The ther-
mal springs that were not being exploited on January
1, 1920, were owned by the State regardless of the own-
ership of the land in which they were (Law 2188, article
2). This law gave to the state the right to supervise the
operation of private thermal springs and to expropri-
ate them when appropriate (Law 2188, Article 3).
In 1922, Law 2992 facilitated the concession agree-
ments (for a period of up to 25 years) between the
state and individuals or companies in exchange for the
construction of accommodation and entertainment
facilities. The renters of the thermal baths of Kaiafa,
Smokovo, Platistomou, Sidirokastro, Lagkada, Neo
Loutraki, and Kyllini had an obligation to construct
facilities of European standards within the 25-year pe-
riod of the contract. According to the law, the terms
of exploitation of the thermal springs were specified in
the contract that was signed by the contractors and the
government. The decisions for the development of the
Greek baths were taken by the Ministry of Economy.
The contractorswere obliged to act in accordancewith
the ministry’s instructions, and the erected buildings
(hydrotherapy facilities, hotels, and clubs) would have
to comply with the hygiene regulations. In the 1930s,
most mineral springs had been declared public, but
there were still some which were owned by individu-
als, municipalities, and monasteries. However, in the
late 1930s, there were some variations in the number
of public and private thermal springs. Of the total of
160 registered thermal springs, only 44 were in use,
and 32 of them belonged to the state, while only 12 be-
longed to individuals, municipalities, andmonasteries
(Lekkas, 1930).
During this ‘heyday’ period, visitors showed a par-
ticular preference for sea baths, they walked along the
seafront, and they socialised in the square and at the
leisure facilities (hotels, casinos, and restaurants) of
Greek spas. Another important factor that increased
the popularity of Greek thermal and seaside resorts
was the improvement of transport. The difficult ac-
cess to the baths in the previous period was a deterrent
factor for Greeks and for incoming visitors. However,
in the 1890–1930 period, visitors could travel quickly
and comfortably to spas from Athens and other major
cities by coach, by train, or by ship.
In the late 19th century, the seaside spas Edipsos
and Loutraki began gaining popularity, because they
offered sea and thermal baths and accommodation fa-
cilities that were affordable to visitors of all classes and
incomes. The grand hotels Thermae Sylla, Avra, Pi-
gai, Heraklion and Istiea in Edipsos and Palmyra, as
well as Akti and Avra in Loutraki, offered comfortable
and luxurious accommodation to upper-class visitors,
but there were rooms available for visitors and lower-
income families. The establishment of entertainment
facilities also made these cosmopolitan spas an ideal
destination for visitors and their families who were
seeking sociability, relaxation, and rest. The members
of a family who travelled to Edipsos enjoyed the sun
and sea on the beaches of the spa town; they went
on excursions to nearby areas, and they took walks
in the countryside. They spent most of their day and
night socialising in the casino which was built ac-
cording to the architectural design of the casino of
Berlin. The casino had separate rooms for meals, fam-
ily gatherings, and dances. There was also a chat and
billiard room and rooms that were suitably furnished
for poker and bridge players. Apart from the relax-
ation and gambling that the casino offered, the public
had the opportunity to watch performances and films
in the cinema-theatre. There were drama and comedy
8 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Melina Kostidi Visitors to Greek Thermal and Seaside Spas
performances performed daily, and various famous
Greek playwrights of this period presented their plays
to the public of Edipsos for the first time.
‘Greece’s Monte Carlo,’ Loutraki, developed due
to railway transport that was established in the last
decades of the 19th century and the aftermath of the
earthquakes of 1924 and 1928. The aosk (Autono-
mous Organisation of Earthquake – Victims of Corin-
th) chaired by the bishop of Corinth Damascus was
established in 1930 to help the earthquake victims. In
this period, the spa town was rebuilt, and a casino and
hotels were constructed. Its urban space was signifi-
cantly improved with the design of parks and squares.
Thus, during the interwar period, Loutraki became a
cosmopolitan destination, and famous personalities
from Greece and abroad visited the seaside spa town
throughout the year. The casino of Loutraki was the
main attraction during the winter and summer season
until its closure in 1936 (Koukoulas, 2001).
In this period the remarkable work of the Service
of Foreigners and Exhibitions provides insight on the
profile of Greek spas visitors. This service of the Min-
istry of National Economy had a special department
responsible for the research and operation of thermal
springs. The service played an essential role in the
development of Greek spas, as it carefully recorded
the number of their visitors. In 1920, the first statisti-
cal analysis was conducted, and the service recorded
the number of bathers in order to detect any deficien-
cies and to proceed to the necessary construction im-
provements of baths. Since then, the service published
an annual statistic of the people who frequented the
spas (patients, their escorts and tourists), the number
of baths they were taken and the revenues that were
generated (Efimeris tis Kyverniseos, 30 August 1911, 19
February 1919).
Nicholaos Lekkas, the head of the service, attribu-
ted the increase in the number of spa visitors to two
main factors: The visitors (who could be called holi-
daymakers) in this period came from various parts of
Greece and from abroad (mainly from Egypt). They
were attracted by the improved leisure and accommo-
dation facilities that Greek spas offered to them. An-
other factor was the economic crisis of the years 1936–
1938 that limited the currency capacity of upper-class
Table 1 A catalogue of Patients Who Used the Public
Mineral Springs of Greece in the Years 1935–1937
Public thermal springs Number of persons
  
Edipsos   
Eleftheres   
Thermopylae   
Kamena Vourla   
Caiaphas   
Kythnos   
Kyllini   
Lagadas   
Loutraki   
Methana   
N. Apollonia   
N. Loutraki (Pozar)   
Smokovo   
Hypati   
Notes Adapted rom Lekkas (1938, p. 245).
visitors who used to prefer the European spas in the
previous period. The number of patients who used the
private thermal springs of Greece for the years 1935,
1936 and 1937 were 24,667, 25,917, and 22,069, respec-
tively. The public thermal springs had 36,495, 35,219
and 42,878 patients for the years 1935, 1936, and 1937,
respectively (Table 1) (Lekkas, 1938).
According to the statistics of the year 1933, the
spas that gathered the larger number of tourists from
abroad were Loutraki and secondarily Edipsos. The
continuous stream of people (local and foreigners)
who visited the spas (mainly Edipsos and Loutraki)
indicates that most of them were not patients but
tourists who visited the Greek spas with their fam-
ilies for holidays. Apart from these two cosmopoli-
tan resorts, Methana, Hypati, Smokovo, Lagadas, and
Caiaphas had the appropriate infrastructure to host
foreign tourists. The figures indicate a gradual in-
crease in the number of visitors due to a large extent to
concession agreements between the state and compa-
nies or entrepreneurs that improved that urban space
of Greek thermal and seaside resorts, thereby mak-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 9
Melina Kostidi Visitors to Greek Thermal and Seaside Spas
ing them more appealing to visitors. A characteris-
tic example is the Caiaphas baths, which managed to
triple the number of their visitors during the conces-
sion period, which lasted for twenty years (1907–1927)
(Lekkas, 1923).
The ‘Voices’ of the Public: Visitors to Greek Spas
in Literary and Autobiographical Texts
The ‘voices’ of Greek spas visitors and patients were
documented in thank you letters, memoirs, and auto-
biographical novels. These texts are essential sources
of oral history as they reveal the preferences and expe-
riences of the public of Greek resorts. In their thank-
you letters, patients mentioned their name, their place
of origin, the time they stayed in the baths and the ef-
fect that the thermal springs had on their health. These
letters were also as a means of persuasion to ‘advertise’
the healing properties of the baths (Damvergis, 1905).
The Greek spa towns in the last decades of the 19th
century and the early 20th century served as a source
for inspiration for novelists who chose to depict the
urban spaces of Greek spas and the profile of their
visitors in literary texts. These texts (novels, short sto-
ries andmemoirs)were often based on the experiences
and the impressions that their writers had during their
stay at the thermal and seaside Greek resorts. The
main themes of these life-writing texts are the hope
of patients for a cure, social discriminations, and the
need of the public for entertainment and sociability in
the leisure facilities of resorts.
The great novelist Penelope Delta met and later
married by match-making her husband, Stefanos Del-
tas in Faliro, the popular seaside resort near Athens.
She travelled with her family from Alexandria to Ath-
ens to meet Stephanos Deltas and consent (with few
objections) to the marriage arranged by her family.
Before their first meeting, her mother advised her to
wear appropriate clothing for the occasion, which in-
dicates the importance of public display in the public
sphere of the Athenian resort (Delta, 1994). During
her stay in Athens, Penelope Delta had the opportu-
nity to dine several times in Faliro and experience
herself the sociability that the bourgeois Athenians
enjoyed in the resort. She met many members of the
Athenian bourgeoisie in the restaurants located on the
seafront of Faliro. The pier offered Penelope Delta and
her company the pleasure of walking along the sea-
side. In such a walk on the pier, the novelist discussed
the matter of her marriage with her uncle, and she was
persuaded to give her consent. The eve of their en-
gagement ended with a family dinner in a restaurant
on the Faliro seafront in which she received the wishes
of her relatives.
In another walk on the pier with her future hus-
band, she had the opportunity to make a personal
‘confessional’ conversation with him in an attempt to
become better acquainted with him. While they were
conversing, she avoided looking at him, and she fo-
cused her attention on the stormy sea, which reflected
the lights of the seafront. During their conversation
on the pier, the pair was keeping some distance from
the crowd of walkers. At the end of the night, they
returned to Athens together by train (Delta, 1994).
In contrast to Penelope Delta who experienced the
sociability of the popular resort from the ‘privileged’
position of the visitor, another renownedGreekwriter,
Menelaos Lountemis, spent a summer working in an-
other famous spa town. In his autobiographical novel
Kalinyxta Zoe (Goodnight Zoe) Menelaos Lountemis
describes his experiences as a waiter in Edipsos. The
case of the author, who found seasonal employment
in the resort, is perhaps indicative of the development
of the spa and its architectural transformation from a
small village to a popular tourist resort. M. Lountemis
uses the term tempeloupoli (lazy town) to stress the
touristic aspect of Edipsos in the late 1930s. Accord-
ing to the author, most visitors chose Edipsos for their
holidays. They frequented the beaches, and they so-
cialised and flirted in the restaurants, cinemas and ho-
tels located along the seafront of the spa town. In con-
trast, restaurant and hotel managers wanted to make
a profit, and they tended to economically exploit the
patients and tourists who visited Edipsos (Lountemis,
2000).
Lountemis claims in his novel that the public of the
spa consisted of men and women of different classes
and social discriminations were evident. The ‘privi-
leged’ visitors stayed at luxurious hotels, while the peo-
ple of lower incomes bathed in the public baths (the
price of a bath was only 10 drachmas) and they stayed
10 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Melina Kostidi Visitors to Greek Thermal and Seaside Spas
at smaller and cheaper hotels. The author states that in
the late 1930s Edipsos was a cosmopolitan resort, since
European tourists and Greeks from Alexandria spent
their holidays there. Although in this period Edipsos
was a destination for holidaymakers, there were still
a large number of patients who hoped that the use of
thermal springs of the spa town could offer them ther-
apy. Unfortunately, their hope for a cure did not al-
ways come true. One such case was the one of an el-
derly patient in the novel, who hoped to walk without
his crutch and he was deeply disappointed when he
left the spa town holding two crutches instead of one
(Lountemis, 2000)!
Another category of the public of Greek seaside
and thermal resorts was the children who travelled to
the baths with their family. Elias Papadimitrakopou-
los (1995) describes the journey by train to the baths
of Katakolo in Peloponnese from the point of view of
a child in his autobiographical novel, Therma Thalas-
sia Loutra (Hot Water Baths). When he was a child,
the novelist travelled to the baths every summer with
his aunt, who suffered from rheumatism. The trip to
the baths was a matter of significant importance, and
therefore, every year, she made all the proper arrange-
ments. She wore her hat from Trieste (which she kept
hidden the rest of the year), she cleaned her black scarf,
and she put their snack in a straw basket. The sea baths
were very popular in the pre-war period, as there was
a special first-class ticket for the hot water baths. This
ticket was granted to the ticketholders who could af-
ford to travel in the special wagon for bathers. The
first-class passengers could sit in the luxurious and
comfortable straw seats. It should be noted that the
novelist names the wagon ‘a true sanctuary,’ which im-
plies the social distinction between the privileged and
poorer bathers (Papadimitrakopoulos, 1995).
Conclusion
In this paper, I have attempted to present the world of
Greek thermal and seaside resorts in the two phases
of Greek baths. A corpus of different primary sources
provided interesting facts about the profile of Greek
spas’ visitors. These patients and visitors were a diverse
world that consisted of people of different origin and
residence, income, education, and interests. However,
all of them had one goal in common: both the wealthy
and the poor and the patients who visited the thermal
springs of Greek resorts hoped to recover or at least
find some relief. They were encouraged by their doc-
tors to make use of the baths and, depending on their
financial status; they resided for or longer periods in
Greek resorts. It can be claimed that the public played
a vital role in the architectural improvement of the ur-
ban space Greek spas, as the increasing demands for
bettermedical, accommodation and entertainment fa-
cilities led to the construction of the necessary ameni-
ties, which were often of European standards.
In the first period, the public made limited use of
thermal waters, and began to timidly trust the baths
of Kythnos. As this ‘relationship of trust’ between the
Greek baths and their public gradually grew stronger,
other seaside and thermal spas developed. At the end
of the first period, their urban space improved sig-
nificantly due to the construction of luxury hotels
and entertainment facilities. The first visitors came
mainly from the middle strata and travelled alone or
with family members. In the second period of devel-
opment of Greek resorts, their heyday, a shift in the
profile of visitors was observed. As statistics and pa-
tients testimonies revealed, the public of Greek spas
was amounted to thousands and consisted mostly of
vacationers. Thus, the sea and the thermal baths, the
square, the pier, luxury hotels, casinos and restaurants
attracted the interest of visitors and transformed the
Greek spas to popular destinations of domestic and
incoming tourism.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Professor Tomi Brezovec and Mr
Allan Brodie for their helpful comments on this pa-
per. I would also like to thank Associate Professor Anna
Matthaiou for her supervision and support of the thesis
from which this material is drawn, and the Foundation
for Education and European Culture (ipep) for their fi-
nancial assistance.
References
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Makri en Aedipso tis Evias. Athens, Greece: Nicholaos
Tarousopoulos.
Delta, P. S. (1994). Anamniseis 1899. Athens, Greece: Ermis
Publications.
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Dritsas, M. (2002). Water, culture and leisure: From spas
to beach tourism in Greece during the nineteenth and
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Loutra-Epta Imeres Kathimerinis, 24(6), 18–19.
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iamatikon ydaton. Athens, Greece: Konstantinos Anto-
niadis.
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Greece: Ministry of National Economy, Service of For-
eigners and Exhibitions.
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Ministry ofNational Economy, Service of Foreigners and
Exhibitions.
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Greece: N. p.
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ka Grammata.
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General State Archives of Athens, Athens, Greece.
Ministry of the Interior. (1847). Ottonian Record (File 3).
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Ministry of the Interior. (1848). Ottonian Record (File 4).
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General State Archives of Athens, Athens, Greece.
Ministry of the Interior. (1864). Ottonian Record (File 10).
General State Archives of Athens, Athens, Greece.
Papadimitrakopoulos, E. (1995). Therma thalassia loutra.
Athens, Greece: Nefeli Publications.
Varella, E. (2001a). I fimismeni Aidipsos. Iamatika Loutra-
Epta Imeres Kathimerinis, 24(6), 20–21.
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This paper is published under the terms of the
Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International (cc by-nc-nd 4.0) License.
12 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Original Scientific Article
Leisure and Commerce: Seafront Rivals in England’s
First Seaside Resorts
Allan Brodie
Historic England, Partnerships Team West, United Kingdom
allan.brodie@historicengland.org.uk
During the first half of the 18th century, the earliest seaside resorts were created in
England in small coastal towns that had previously made their living as commercial
and fishing ports. Today many seaside resorts are still co-located with ports, ranging
from small, quaint fishing and leisure harbours to major container and ferry ports.
In most towns, industrial places of work are in areas near the periphery or where
the edge of the town was located when the factories or mills were being created in
the 18th and 19th centuries. However, the harbour inevitably lies at the heart and on
the front of a settlement that might become a seaside resort, and often this aspect of
their story has continued alongside the new leisure industry that has come to dom-
inate their identity. Therefore, this could lead to conflicts over time between polite
society and the commercial realm, and respectable visitors and the men and women
servicing the harbour and its shipping. Over 300 years, the detailed geographical
and economic relationship between leisure and commerce on seafronts has evolved,
and new arrangements are being reached as visitor numbers have increased and as
commercial facilities have expanded. This paper will consider a number of 18th-
century English and Welsh ports that pioneered sea bathing and seaside holidays.
Today, some are seaside resorts, some are purely ports, and a small group haveman-
aged to negotiate a more or less uneasy relationship between these two apparently
conflicting functions
Keywords: leisure, commerce, seaside resorts
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.13-22
The First Resorts: Changing Fortunes
By the mid-18th century, a number of small coastal
towns were beginning to be transformed into seaside
resorts, a consequence of the arrival of visitors seeking
to bathe in the sea for the benefit of their health. At the
forefront of this process was Scarborough, which had
been a popular spa town since the 1620s and there-
fore already had all the entertainment facilities that
spa, and later seaside, visitors would require. Initially,
these facilities were contained within existing build-
ings in the historic town that had developed on the
slope above and behind the harbour. Scarborough’s
harbour, which was home to a fishing fleet and ship-
building, also served as a port for a growing num-
ber of vessels that were transporting coal from north-
east England to London. During the 1730s a wealth of
documentary material, including an early guidebook,
miscellanies of poetry celebrating the town and sea
bathing, scientific texts, and Setterington’s wonderful
panoramic view of the town, clearly demonstrate that
sea bathing was a prominent new factor in identity of
the town (A Journey from London to Scarborough, 1734;
The ScarboroughMiscellany for the Year 1732, 1732; The
Scarborough Miscellany for the Year 1733, 1733; The
Scarborough Miscellany for the Year 1734, 1734; Shaw
1734, 1735; Setterington, n.d.).
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 13
Allan Brodie Leisure and Commerce
Figure 1 John Setterington, View of the Antient Town, Castle, Harbour, and Spaw of Scarborough 1735
(reproduced with permission from Historic England, cc 80/00145)
At Brighton and Margate, the central narrative of
their history in the first half of the 18th century is that
the new fad for sea bathing came to the rescue of these
failing coastal towns. During the first half of the 18th
century, Brighton was a small, struggling, seafaring,
and fishing community with no harbour, its boats be-
ing drawn up on to the beach (Berry, 2005, pp. 2–
6, 10–11). The cessation of fishing in the North Sea,
prompted in part by the erosion of the town’s fore-
shore, led to long-term economic decline and a reduc-
tion in population (Walton, 1983, p. 48; Borsay, 2000,
p. 788). In the first edition of Reverend Lewis’ book
on the history of the Isle of Thanet published in 1723,
he described a struggling fishing industry that was
heavily impacting Margate’s economy, but by 1736 the
situation had worsened with some fishermen having
given up fishing due to suffering from poor catches in
the North Sea (Lewis, 1736, p. 33). These two exam-
ples contrast with Scarborough, where the expansion
of the coal industry led to significant investment in
the town’s harbour and increasing prosperity from the
commercial part of its economy. They also make an
interesting contrast because, unlike Scarborough with
its pre-existing tourist market due to its spa, Brighton
and Margate had to rapidly establish the range of en-
tertainment facilities expected by visitors. Local en-
trepreneurs, often innkeepers and doctors, were be-
ginning to make available bathhouses, circulating li-
braries, theatres and assembly rooms at these, and
other, coastal towns for a growing number of aristo-
crats and gentry seeking to be part of the resort’s lead-
ing social circle as well as attempting to improve their
health. The character of this new clientele, who were
wealthy, sophisticated, metropolitan, well-dressed vis-
itors accustomed to luxury, must have been in marked
contrast to the population of these first resorts, small,
provincial working towns or, as John Byng snootily
described them, ‘fishing holes’ (Andrews, 1934, p. 87).
In the early 18th century, John Macky saw Margate as
‘a poor pitiful Place’ and Revd Lewis in 1736 recorded
that the town was ‘irregularly built, and the Houses
generally old and low’ (Macky, 1714, p. 50; Lewis, 1736,
p. 123). These ports that were adding a resort function
had unpretentious buildings set in small plots sepa-
rated by narrow streets, and the buildings were pre-
dominantly vernacular in style and materials. Some-
thing of the atmosphere of these proto-resorts can
still be experienced in the old town at Margate, in the
Laines, the original part of Brighton and behind the
harbour at Scarborough. Although they were being
favoured for sea bathing, their orientation, despite the
presence of harbours, was not primarily towards the
sea, and it was still common for buildings to be facing
inland rather than seawards.
Margate and Brighton demonstrate an almost to-
tal shift from an economy dependent on the sea for
14 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Allan Brodie Leisure and Commerce
Figure 2 1728 Engraving by Samuel and Nathaniel Buck Entitled the South-West Prospect of Liverpoole
(reproduced with permission from Historic England, bb 86/03830)
commerce and fishing to one focused on leisure by the
end of the 18th century. Moreover, by the 19th century,
the seafront of these towns was being recast with new
buildings that were now facing the prized sea view. At
other early seaside resorts, the initial commercial di-
mension of the original coastal towns has continued to
the present day. For instance, Scarborough and Wey-
mouth successfully combine busy working harbours
with entertaining holidaymakers, though the size of
the harbour and the scale of the commercial economy
has not grown nearly as quickly as the leisure indus-
try. At Hastings, a more or less uneasy truce exists be-
tween the traditional beach-launched fishing fleet and
the encroaching seafront amusements and accommo-
dation desired by tourists.
Liverpool: An Early Seaside Resort?
Inevitably, anyone considering the origins of the sea-
side resort will concentrate their efforts on existing
resorts, plotting the shift from commerce to leisure,
and examining the territorial and economic tensions
that exist between twomore or less incompatible func-
tions. There is also a definite reorientation of these
early seaside resorts from a geographical focus on the
harbour and the town centre to the seafront and the
sea view. England’s rich heritage of seaside resorts has
some settlements that can trace their roots back to his-
toric coastal ports and some are stillmore or less active
today. However, there were a handful of Georgian ‘sea-
side resorts’ that have followed a different path, shed-
ding their initial seaside, seafront leisure activities as
the commercial dimension of these towns expanded.
At the beginning of the 18th century, many early
resort facilities were available at Liverpool, a city now
regarded as an international port rather than a sea-
side resort. An urban bathhouse existed during the
first decade of the 18th century, and a riverfront bath-
house was depicted in an engraving in 1728 at the edge
of the town as it existed at that date. There were proba-
bly primitive bathingmachines (cart-like contraptions
to take bathers into the sea), and updated versions of
these facilities were still in use in the early 19th century.
As well as opportunities for sea bathing, Liverpool of-
fered the range of facilities required by the clientele
of a rapidly-growing port, but these would have also
catered for any visitors seeking to bathe in the sea, a
function obscured by its later success as a port.
In 1673 Liverpool had around 1,500 inhabitants, liv-
ing in a town that consisted of only seven main streets
covering a mere 300 metres from north to south and
spreading a similar distance inland from the water-
front (Chalklin, 1974, pp. 98–100; Sharples & Stonard,
2008, pp. 3–4). In 1680, Daniel Defoe described ‘a
large, handsome, well built and encreasing or thriv-
ing town;’ ten years later ‘it was much bigger than at
my first seeing it, and, by the report of the Inhabitants,
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 15
Allan Brodie Leisure and Commerce
more than twice as big as it was twenty Years before
that’ (Defoe, 1968, pp. 664–665). By 1700, its popu-
lation was 5,145; twenty years later it had more than
doubled to 11,833, and by the beginning of the 19th
century it had grown to more than 80,000 (Chalklin,
1974, p. 20; Enfield, 1773, p. 28; Mitchell, 1962, p. 24).
Liverpoolmoved during the 18th century from being a
small provincial town to being the second largest town
in England (Chalklin, 2001, p. 79). This rapid growth
was in large measure due to its location; like Bristol, it
was convenient for the Atlantic trade in slaves, sugar,
textiles and tobacco, but it also had a substantial hin-
terland that expanded rapidly during the 18th century
due to the Industrial Revolution (Porter, 1982, pp. 199–
200; Chalklin, 1974, pp. 19–20, 49–51; Ascott, Lewis, &
Power, 2006, p. 16; Longmore, 1989, pp. 116–146, 117–
119). In 1709, 374 ships brought in 14,574 tons of cargo
and 334 exported 12,636 tons, but by 1771 this had risen
to 891 ships importing 66,656 tons and 1,024 export-
ing 83,798 tons (Enfield, 1773, p. 67). The Old Dock,
the first enclosed, commercial maritime dock in the
world, was completed in 1719, and by the end of the
18th century the riverfront was dominated by a mile of
docks (Ritchie-Noakes, 1984, p. 19; Ascott et al., 2006,
p. 14; Longmore, 1989, pp. 120–122).
With a rapidly growing population and increasing
commercial activity, Liverpool also began to expand
its civic facilities including a new custom house built
in 1721–1722 and an ambitious new exchange com-
plete with lavish ballroom that was erected in 1749–
1754 (Rideout, 1927, pp. 5–6, 3–73; Borsay, 1991, pp. 109,
157; Sharples and Stonard, 2008, p. 7). New entertain-
ment facilities included walks and pleasure gardens, a
purpose-built theatre that opened in 1772 and by the
end of the 18th century, there was a Public Concert
Room (Moss, 2007, pp. 125–126, 128–129; Brodie, 2012,
pp. 63–76, 66–67). The 1766 Liverpool Directory listed
a range of professions and facilities that would be ex-
pected in a major port, but also in a nascent seaside
resort (Liverpool’s First Directory, 1987). There were
booksellers and stationers providing services similar
to circulating libraries, innkeepers and coffee-house
proprietors, and tradesmen providing luxury services
for people of wealth. This infrastructure of leisure
evolved to cater to the prosperous port, but these were
also the type of facilities that were fundamental to
the development of seaside resorts in the 18th cen-
tury. However, proof that Liverpool was more than
just a growing port, with entertainments for mariners,
merchants and residents, is provided by its history of
sea-bathing facilities.
The first reference to sea bathing in the vicinity
of Liverpool occurs on 5 August 1708 in the diurnal
of the local landowner Nicholas Blundell: ‘Mr Aldred
& I Rode to the Sea & baithed ourselves [. . .] it was
extreamly hot as were also the two preceding days,
the lick hardly ever known at this time in these parts’
(Tyrer, 1968, p. 181). This reference appears six years
after his diary begins, suggesting that sea bathing was
still only an occasional and novel activity. Blundell
seems to have bathed because it was hot, but a year
later the sea was being used for medical reasons: ‘I
went part of the way towards the Sea with my Chil-
dren but turned back, my Wife & Dorothy Blundell
went with them, they were put into the Sea for some
out breacks’ (Tyrer, 1968, p. 225). The Blundells prob-
ably visited the stretch of coast nearest their house,
possibly Crosby Beach, where Antony Gormley’s at-
mospheric ‘Another Place’ has become amodern place
of pilgrimage.
At the beginning of the 18th century, Liverpool had
an urban bathhouse on the south side of the Pool on
the road lying to the south of where the Old Dock
would be built (Touzeau, 1910, pp. 358–359, 398). A
second bathhouse is mentioned in a 1708 rate book,
‘ye bagniall’ being in the heart of the rapidly expand-
ing town, probably at the bottom of Water Street, on
the riverside beside the CustomHouse (Peet, 1908, pp.
55–56). However, the first reference to organised sea
bathing, which would not have been in the heart of
the town, occurs in the early 1720s. On 1 August 1721
Blundell wrote that: ‘Pat: Acton lodged here, he came
with an Intention to stay some time to Baith in the Sea,
I went with him to the Sea side to shew himwhat Con-
veniency there was for him.’ The entry for the follow-
ing day reads: ‘I went with Pat: Acton to Leverpoole &
Procured him a Place to Lodg at & a Conveniency for
baithing in the Sea’ (Tyrer, 1972, p. 52). ‘Conveniency’
is being used for something that has not yet acquired
a name and Blundell used the term to refer to some-
16 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Allan Brodie Leisure and Commerce
Figure 3 Detail of Sea Bathing from John Setterington,
View of the antient Town, Castle, Harbour, and
Spaw of Scarborough 1735 (reproduced with
permission from Historic England, cc 80/00145)
thing to aid bathing. A similar use of the word appears
in 1735 referring to sea bathing at Scarborough: ‘the
Ladies have Guides, Rooms, and Conveniences for it
[sea bathing], under the Cliff ’ (Shaw, 1735, pp. 35–36).
In the same year, John Setterington’s view of Scarbor-
ough depicts a figure emerging from what appears
to be a primitive bathing machine, and this seems
to be the only ‘convenience’ to which Shaw can be
referring.
Blundell’s companion, Father Acton, appears to
have been using some form of primitive bathing ma-
chine, which was probably available to the north of
the docks where there was a waterfront bathhouse by
the 1720s. A small rectangular building labelled ‘Bath,’
divided into two sections, presumably for male and
female bathers, is depicted on a map by John Eyes in
1765, at the left (north) side of the map.1 The same
arrangement appears in 1785 and 1796/1797 editions
of maps, but the building disappeared with the con-
struction of the Princes’ Dock, which opened in 1821
(Ritchie-Noakes, 1984, p. 43; Jarvis, 2014, p. 54). Frus-
1 Liverpool’s 18th-century maps are reviewed in Stewart-
Brown (1911, pp. 143–174).
Figure 4 Detail of Bathhouse in 1728 Engraving by Samuel
and Nathaniel Buck Entitled the South-West
Prospect of Liverpoole (reproduced with
permission from Historic England, bb 86/03830)
tratingly, Chadwick’s map of 1725 does not cover this
area, as if it was still largely or wholly undeveloped,
and the southern viewpoint of a 1725 painting of the
townmeans that a distant bathhouse could not be seen
(Tibbles, 2003, pp. 21–25). However, the building does
appear at the far left-hand side of the 1728 engrav-
ing by Samuel and Nathaniel Buck entitled the South-
West Prospect of Liverpoole (Buck & Buck, 1728) which
shows the river frontage of the rapidly expanding town
(Figure 4).2
A small, rectangular building is shown standing on
its own beside the river in the position of the bath-
house on the 1765 and subsequent maps. Its slightly
odd size and shape, including the number and position
of the chimneys and its tall proportions as depicted by
2On 26 August 1727 Nathanial Buck visited the Blundell’s
house to try to sell prints: ‘Nathaniall Buck came to see if
I would subscribe to his Proposalls for Publishing the per-
spective Views of some old Abbies and Castles &c: in Lan-
cashire, Chesshire and Darby-Shire’ (Tyrer, 1972, p. 221).
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 17
Allan Brodie Leisure and Commerce
the Bucks are confirmed in a view of the bathhouse
as it existed at the end of the 18th century. The bath-
house continued in use until the early 19th century but
was apparently demolished in 1817 tomake way for the
Prince’s Dock as the riverfront began to become in-
creasingly dominated by docks and other commercial
structures. An 1814 map included the site of Prince’s
Dock with a faint rectangular shape labelled ‘Baths,’ as
if its future removal was expected, while a map pub-
lished in the following year shows the baths as if in-
tact but with the line of the dock wall running through
them.3
As the port grew during the 19th century, bathing
was instead relegated to the suburbs and beyond. A
bathhouse was open by the 1820s at 1 Neptune Street,
which was further to the north, lying inland from East
Waterloo Dock (Gore’s General Advertiser, 6 March
1823). Waterloo and Crosby, where the Blundells had
bathed at the beginning of the 18th century, became
increasingly popular. At Southport, a bathing house
was built in 1792 by William Sutton, followed by his
hotel in 1798 and a range of other facilities accrued
gradually during the early 19th century (Bailey, 1955,
pp. 29, 34; Glazebrook, 1862, pp. 59–64; Alsop, 1832,
p. 39; Robinson, 1848, p. 25). In the course of the 19th
century, Southport became a favourite place for peo-
ple from Liverpool to enjoy the sea and a place for
wealthy businessmen to live. However, there was still
a need for baths to serve Liverpool and people using
the docks and a new bathhouse opened on the river in
front of George’s Dock in 1828 in a monumental clas-
sical structure. This was demolished in 1906 during
the redevelopment of the Pier Head (Newlands, 1856,
p. 10; Calvert, 1987, pp. 117–136, 121).
Modern Ports – Old Resorts
Aswell as Liverpool, there are othermajor cities where
sea bathing was once a significant presence on the
seafront but has now been driven to the peripheries
of the settlement or beyond. In a letter dated ‘Satur-
day 9 August 1755,’ ‘Mr H’ wrote that ‘Portsmouth has
been now, for many months, the rendezvous of the
fashionable world; every gay young man of fortune,
3 Thomas Kaye’s Map of 1815 in Gregory et al. (2014, p. 95).
Figure 5 Quebec House, Portsmouth from Passing Car
Ferry (photo by Allan Brodie)
and woman also, in their circle of joyous amusements,
took a transient view of it’ (Mr. H., 1757, p. 16). The rea-
son for this seems to have been a nascent sea bathing
culture in the town, rather than at nearby Southsea
where resort functions developed during the 19th cen-
tury. Remarkably, Portsmouth still retains its Georgian
bathhouse near the docks. Quebec House was built
in 1754 and was mentioned in the same year by Dr
Richard Pococke: ‘The town of late has been resorted
to for batheing and drinking the sea-water, and they
have made a very handsome bathing-house of wood,
at a great expence, with separate baths and apartments
formen andwomen’ (Cartwright, 1888, p. 114). In 1755,
Archibald Maxwell waxed lyrically about this new fa-
cility in a footnote to a poem: ‘The open and close
Baths begun and finish’d by the worthy Corporation
and principal Inhabitants, at their own private Ex-
pence; which for Elegance of Structure, and Salubrity
of theWater, are no where exceeded’ (Maxwell, 1755, p.
15). The incoming tide was used to fill four baths, two
of which were apparently large enough for swimming
(Riley, 1972, p. 5; Lloyd, 1974, pp. 49, 51) (Figure 5).
This bathhouse still stands near the docks and can
be seen most clearly from passing car ferries. While
this location may seem strange, a quayside position
was also used for Weymouth’s first bathhouse in the
18th century, despite the town having a long beach and
seafront (Brodie, Ellis, Stuart, & Winter, 2008, p. 12).
The same letter written by ‘MrH’ in 1755 also recorded
18 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Allan Brodie Leisure and Commerce
that: ‘In this reign of saltwater, great numbers of people
of distinction prefer Southampton for bathing; but you
agree with me, that the bathing-house is not compa-
rable to that of Portsmouth: not only as being smaller,
and uncovered, but here is no water, except at cer-
tain times of the tide; whereas at Portsmouth one may
always bathe’ (Mr H., 1757, p. 25). Southampton had
mineral springs and three bathhouses developed be-
side its two quays as the town only had a muddy fore-
shore rather than a beach (Temple Patterson, 1966, p.
39; Hembry, 1990, p. 242). A 1771 map shows bathing
houses on the water’s edge, beside theWest Quay with
the ‘Long Room’ behind, while an 1802 map shows a
similar arrangement along with Goodman’s Baths fur-
ther to the south. Although the docksidemay not seem
a particularly salubrious or glamorous location, in
1750George ii’s son, FrederickPrince ofWales, bathed
in the town while staying nearby (Temple Patterson,
1966, p. 39). Dr Pococke, who visited in 1757, noted
that: ‘if it had not of late been much frequented for
bathing and drinking the salt waters they would have
had very little commerce, except among themselves’
(Cartwright, 1888, p. 242). Count Friedrich von Kiel-
mansegg, who visited England in 1761–1762, described
how: ‘Many people come here every year, partly for
sea-bathing, partly by order of their physicians, who
consider the air of Southampton to be the healthi-
est in all England’ (von Kielmansegg, 1902, p. 270).
Baths survived on the quayside until the 1830s when
themain bathing establishmentwas converted into the
‘Dock-house’ (Freeling, 1839, p. 51). Like Portsmouth
and Liverpool, the growing scale of the commercial di-
mension of the town displaced sea bathing to further
afield.
Other, smaller ports also managed the dual func-
tion of being a commercial port and a seaside resort for
a time.Dover, although primarily a port of transit, pro-
vided many features expected at a seaside resort (Fig-
ure 6). It hosted visitors during the summer who used
its hot baths and bathingmachines, as well as its circu-
lating libraries and its new assembly rooms and theatre
(A Guide to all the Watering and Sea-Bathing Places,
1810 pp. 225-229). Snargate Street running along the
base of the cliffs contained facilities for visitors includ-
ing circulating libraries, a theatre and lodging houses,
Figure 6 Early Photograph of Bathing Machines on the
Beach at Dover (reproduced with permission
from Historic England, bb 88/03995)
while a row of early 19th century houses survive nearer
the modern ferry terminal. During the 19th century,
bathing machines are shown in photographs on the
beach that lies within the harbour and people still reg-
ularly swim in this location. Harwich, a small port in
the 18th century, also had private baths filled by the
tide and by 1810 the town was offering bathing ma-
chines (A Guide to all the Watering and Sea-Bathing
Places, 1810, p. 261). From 1766, a ‘mixture of county,
naval and Plymouth families’ in search of a colourful
social life could use that town’s Long Room and the ac-
companying tepid bath on the shore of Mill Bay (Gill,
1993, p. 193; Rolf, 2011, p. 51). By the early 19th century
Swansea was attracting sea bathers despite the pall of
copper smoke that apparently hung over the periphery
of the town (Miskell, 2011, pp. 113–125, 115–117). It had
hot and cold sea water baths, libraries, and an assem-
bly room and theatre – the key pieces of infrastructure
for a successful resort.
Conclusion
At Swansea, the construction of commercial docks
in the mid-19th century on the foreshore tradition-
ally used for sea bathing meant that this leisure ac-
tivity shifted out of the town to the western end of
Swansea. Moreover, around Britain, there are major
towns where, like Swansea, the centre is now dom-
inated by commercial activity and leisure access to
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 19
Allan Brodie Leisure and Commerce
the sea has been displaced to the edge of the settle-
ment or to a largely self-contained twin settlement.
In the case of Portsmouth, Southsea serves as its twin
with extensive sea bathing and leisure facilities. Wa-
terloo, Crosby and further away Southport now meet
the leisure demands of Liverpudlians on the east bank
of the Mersey, while on the Wirral, New Brighton re-
mains a popular place for a day out after a trip on
the legendary ferry or through the tunnel beneath
the river. Dover, now dominated by its ferry terminal,
still attracts some people to bathe in the sea, though
many appear to be waiting for a ferry or preparing
to swim across the English Channel. Furthermore,
a modern creation, Port Talbot in South Wales, has
the adjacent Aberavon where the residents can en-
joy access to the sea against the backdrop of the steel-
works, much as the inhabitants of Swansea two cen-
turies ago bathed under clouds from the nearby copper
works.
While there is now a geographical and economic
need to separate large-scale commercial and indus-
trial activity from leisure pursuits, this was far from
the case during the 18th century. Although this process
of separation was already underway at many coastal
towns, industrial activity, including the working life
of the port, was even an attraction for some visitors.
For instance, in the diary of his holiday in 1829 Daniel
Benham described a visit to the gasworks at Margate
and seeing the steam engine at Ramsgate that opened
the harbour sluices (Whyman, 1980, pp. 185–225, 191,
197). Moreover, diaries and guidebooks regularly refer
to a wide range of industrial, commercial, and insti-
tutional sites that members of the public might en-
joy visiting, ranging from textile mills and breweries
to prisons and active military fortifications. In mod-
ern parlance, they were indulging in a form of dark
tourism, the difference being that in the 18th cen-
tury these tourists were examining living phenomena
rather than staring at relics of the past. Today, holiday-
makers at seaside resorts with active harbours often
pass the time watching the boats and fishermen. How-
ever, it is unlikely that people driving past the rear of
the Liver Building on Liverpool’s waterfront realise
that they are passing over the site of the town’s brief
life as a seaside resort during the 18th century. Nor
do many travellers on ferries to France realise that,
as they are leaving Portsmouth, they are passing by a
Georgian bathhouse, a relic of the town’s previous life
of leisure.
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22 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Original Scientific Article
The City and the Sea: Evolution and Transformation
of a Controversial Relationship
Annarita Teodosio
University of Salerno, Italy
ateodosio@unisa.it
Over the centuries, the relationship between the city and the sea has been trans-
formed. Diverse factors (political, economic, social, scientific) have changed the way
people see the sea, gradually turning the seafront from being a place of danger into
a new development opportunity. In recent years, the demolition of restrictive struc-
tures and the construction of promenades along the waterfront hasmarked its open-
ing to the horizon and contributed to giving a new face to the coastal cities. In addi-
tion, the economic crisis of the 1970s led to the decline of many industrial and port
areas and the subsequent abandonment of several coastal areas. Since the 1980s, a
series of actions began to restore these degraded areas. The various interventions, al-
though different in origin and designmethods, had in common the desire to restore
the relationship between the city and the sea and the creation of new opportunities
for urban, economic, and socio-cultural growth. This study traces the critical stages
of a slow and complex process of opening cities to the sea and analyses the transfor-
mations from the 19th-century historical promenade into a territorial landmark, a
fulcrum of urban, economic, and tourism development. It provides, through a com-
parative and critical analysis of the case studies, which include famous and egregious
examples such as Barcelona and Bilbao, and less known and discrete destinations
such as Vigo, as well as some Italian cases, an overview of the extensive experience
of abandoned and re-used port areas and suggests a reflection on the city in general.
Now more than ever, cities are in search of a new identity, alternative centralities,
and environmental, social, and economic sustainability.
Keywords: coastal cities, promenade, waterfront regeneration
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.23-30
From a Place of Contemplation to an Opportunity
for Development
Between the 17th and 18th centuries, the decreasing
need for coastal, military defences due to changes in
political conditions1 and the spread of a landscape aes-
1 The Battle of Lepanto of 1571 put an end to the so-called
‘Turkish danger’ and restored theMediterranean to a climate
of peace, after a period of great instability. For this reason,
from the 17th century onwards, fortifications arwase con-
thetic that preferred open scenery and natural envi-
ronments contributed to the establishment of a new
urban vision especially evident in coastal cities (Mar-
ciano, 2005). The sea was no longer perceived as a
danger; it was transformed into a pleasant and sensual
place for rest and recreation.
The role of the sea as the bearer of aesthetic, recre-
centrated only in strategic points and coastal cities opened
up progressively on the coast.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 23
Annarita Teodosio The City and the Sea
ational, therapeutic, and symbolic values is found in
every period of the history of Mediterranean civilisa-
tions. However, the concept of the modern waterfront
was born in the late 18th century, when English seaside
resorts were created and organised to provide holi-
days (Camporesi, 1992; Corbin, 1988). This blended
the contemplative Nordic spirit of escape to nature
with a typical Mediterranean feeling of those com-
munities that, for climatic reasons, are accustomed to
living outdoors to enjoy the landscape, tomeet people,
and to see and be seen (Massa, 2005).
From that point onward, the waterfront shifted
from being a simple transition between land and wa-
ter and was transformed into a public space par excel-
lence, beloved by locals and tourists. The spatial ar-
rangements become increasingly complex and struc-
tured by new features and new functions. These are
generally organised in parallel bands marked by se-
quences of natural (flower beds, gardens) and manu-
factured (benches, fountains) elements and by build-
ings for recreation and leisure (Balducci & Orioli,
2006). Architectural essays resulted from the rework-
ing of existingmodels (hotels, cafes, kursaal) or by new
inventions (beaches used for leisure, pleasure piers)
(Massa, 2005). Buildings that previously turned their
backs to the sea and had their primary facades facing
the city were now facing the coast.
Cities, especially thosewith tourist ambitions, asked
the most influential engineers and architects to build
monumental marine promenades and seafronts, with
a strong visual impact. Between the end of the 19th
century and the beginning of the 20th century, the
most famous scenic routes and walks along the coast
were built, which often become the subject of literary
descriptions, paintings, photographs, and even film
sets (Massa, 2005, p. 13): from the elegant Promenade
des Anglais in Nice, with its dream hotels and its Art-
Deco architectures (Massa & Zucchini, 2005a), to the
‘exclusive’ boardwalk in Atlantic City, where access
was prohibited to beggars, drunks, people of colour,
or the badly-dressed (Massa & Zucchini, 2005b), to
the Brighton seafront with the Victorian buildings, its
piers and terraces from which visitors enjoyed spec-
tacular views (Di Cristina, 2005). Beyond the differ-
ent names that these routes take in various European
countries,2 they represent ‘the synthesis between the
natural environment and the architectural solutions of
urban monumentality’ (Marsala, 2002, p. 79).
The different perception of the land-water margin
as a place of leisure and meeting place for citizens and
tourists consolidated and grew until the first decades
of the 1900s. However, the various plans for recon-
struction after World War 2 did not seem to attribute
due importance or respect to the coast. Along the coast
and seafront, in fact, the main roads and rail arteries
frequently were placed, constituting a physical and vi-
sual barrier between the city and the sea; these are fo-
cuses of an intensive urbanisation, almost always of
poor quality and insensitive to environmental issues,
which cannot produce architectural and urban envi-
ronments worthy of their 19th-century predecessors.
Towards the end of the 20th century, the fate of his-
torical promenades became intertwined with disused
port areas within broader and complex urban regen-
eration projects that impacted ever longer stretches
of the coast. The industrial crisis of the 1970s and the
evolution of transport and storage infrastructure en-
tailed the reorganisation of commercial activities and
the relocation of many pieces of infrastructure. There-
after, large spaces were liberated, often in strategic lo-
cations in contact between the sea and the city, which
had been previously denied or inaccessible because
of the port and industrial installations. The need for
transformation and re-appropriation of these urban
voids also stimulated new reflections on the city in
general. The seafront was no longer an equipped walk
of 19th-century memory or a simple line between wa-
ter and land, nature and buildings, but was becoming
‘a network of places and functions, grafts and recon-
nections between the coast and the city, between the
port and urban activities’ (Carta, 2006, p. 227). There
are discussions about how to organise these spaces
filledwith historical, social, but also economic heritage
and activity. The urban centres of gravity have moved,
and the presence of water has become an added value
and a valuable ‘card to play’ for these cities to en-
hance their attractiveness and competitiveness (Brut-
2 Passeggiata or lungomare in Italy; promenade in France;ma-
rine parade in England; paseo in Spain.
24 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Annarita Teodosio The City and the Sea
tomesso, 2007). Many cities are in search of new iden-
tities and new areas of development, and the seafront
becomes the fulcrum around which new urban de-
velopment occurs (Teodosio & del Caz Enjuto, 2013);
it provides an excellent opportunity for growth, in-
cluding economic growth (Alemany, 2006). The keen
interest in the topic is demonstrated by many events,
debates, research activities, and scientific publications,
as well as by the birth of various associations and web
sites devoted to documentation and information about
the problems and the experiences of urban settlements
defined by their relationship with water.3 Since the
1980s, many various actions have taken place aimed
at the physical regeneration of seafronts, at the archi-
tectural restoration of industrial heritage and/or the
general reorganisation of the city waterfront, includ-
ing through the creation of various functions (public,
touristic, commercial, residential). San Francisco led
the way: a remarkable transformation took place start-
ing from the sea and spreading to the inland areas of
the city. It was followed by other examples, includ-
ing Baltimore with its Inner Harbour and the Saint
Charles district, New York with Pier 17, Sydney with
the Darling Harbour area, London with the Dock-
lands area, Barcelona with Port Vell, Bilbao with the
Abandoibarra area, Genoa with Porto Vecchio, and
the more recent experiences of Vigo and Salerno.
Spanish Accomplishments and Italian ‘Promises’
At the end of the 20th century, in the Mediterranean
countries with strong historical links to the sea, water-
front regeneration policies assumed particular impor-
tance, creating some emblematic achievements.
In Spain, in the 1980s, with the end of the dicta-
torship, the recovery of the coast assumed even great
political value. The coast had been severely compro-
mised by the balearizaciòn4 phenomenon and by the
serious setbacks of the maritime boundary. Therefore,
3 Among these, the Centro Internazionale Città d’Acqua, an
association founded in Venice in 1989, to develop and
promote research initiatives on different aspects of water-
city relationship; rete, an association between ports and
cities; the win (Waterfront International Network) special-
ized website on the themes of the waterfront.
4 A term coined in the late 1950s to indicate urban destruction
the new democratic government, which succeeded the
Franco regime, decided to intervene through the pro-
mulgation of the Ley de Costas (1988). This law, which
repealed previous ones,5 proclaimed the public char-
acter of the coast, removing it from the hands of pri-
vate speculators and returning it to the people (Pié
i Ninot, 2005). This law recognised the great strate-
gic value of the shore, even in the economic sphere.
Thereafter, thanks to shared and synergistic action by
all levels of government (municipalities, autonomous
regional governments, state) it triggered a process
of transformation that produced solutions with high
technical and economic content that became real ref-
erence models. They involved projects to regenerate
the beach and the marine ecosystem using new mar-
itime engineering techniques.6 Good quality, modern
architecture has been built on the seafront, and well-
equipped spaces and paths have become critical ele-
ments of the redevelopment of the waterfront (Trap-
ero, 1988).
The transformation of Barcelonawas in the context
of the award of theOlympicGames (1986), new legisla-
tion, and general, widespread optimism, as well as the
availability of substantial economic resources, trigger-
ing a significant process of urban renewal. Eventually,
it was possible to overcome all the technical, admin-
istrative and economic difficulties that had led to the
failure of previous attempts to change.7 The transfor-
implemented on the coasts of Mallorca during the Franco
dictatorship. In the broadest sense, it refers to continuous
and massive construction on the coast.
5 Ley de Aguas (1866, 1918), Ley de Paseos Maritimos (1918,
1957), and Ley de Costas (1969), where the laws that favored
the privatisation of the territory.
6 Since the late 1970s in Spain, there has been discussion
about coastal erosion. The engineer EnriqueCopeiro delVil-
lar attributed the degradation to the construction of infras-
tructure (marinas, especially) and to the positioning of the
breakwaters that interfered in the natural dynamics of the
sea and he stressed the need for ‘suaves’ (sweets) and non-
invasive actions (Copeiro de Villar, 1978, 1980).
7 The first attempt at coastal redevelopment is represented
by the Plan de Ribera (1965), promoted by large businesses.
The plan, much disputed and fortunately not implemented,
envisaged a very dense development of residential building
along the seafront.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 25
Annarita Teodosio The City and the Sea
Figure 1 Barcelona, Port Vell (Photo by Author)
mation also involved areas not directly affected by the
Olympics and led to the demolition of about thirty
buildings, the regeneration of 30,000 m2 of beach
(Nóvoa, 2005) and the construction of the Port and
the Olympic Village that become the symbol of the
new Barcelona (Martorell, Bohigas, Mackay, & Puig-
doménech, 1988). The Special Plan of the Olympic city
– Plan Especial de ordenación Urbana de la fachada al
mar de Barcelona en el sector Carlos I y Avenida Icarìa
(1986) – includes a series of structural and infrastruc-
tural works and pays particular attention to the wa-
terfront area. Here, it sought to reduce the separation
between the city and the sea (by relocating railways
and removing remnants of the industrial activities of
the Poblenou district), redeveloping the stretches of
sand, building quality public spaces (parks, squares,
port) and opening a wide coastal road. The new mar-
itime walk, the Ronda Litoral, became the backbone
of Barcelona and plays a key role with its playful, sym-
bolic, and representative character, but it is also func-
tional, ensuring the connection between the various
parts of the city by promoting communication and
social aggregation (Trapero, 1988).
During the same period, Bilbao undertook a pro-
cess of renewal in which the Guggenheim Museum is
the most famous and striking, element but which, in
reality, is the result of a different set of factors that are
rooted in the political, economic and social history of
Bilbao (Cenicacelaya, 2004). The Basque city, located
inside the Ria of the Nervion River, is an important
Figure 2 Bilbao, View of the Rìa whith the Guggenheim
Museum (Photo by Author)
centre for shipbuilding, as well as for steel production
and manufacturing. Factories, warehouses, and stores
occupied the entire coastline, creating an urban sky-
line with a purely industrial character. With the eco-
nomic crisis, the changed political conditions result-
ing from the death of the dictator General Franco and
the flooding of the River Nervion in 1983, Bilbao had
to undertake a process of renewal. This time the start-
ing point for the redevelopment was brownfield sites
located on the riverfront. This required significant in-
frastructure projects (e.g., the relocation of the port
and the railway line, the construction of a subway line
along the Rìa) and two detailed plans (Plan Especial
de Reforma Interior) were drawn up for the areas of
Abandoibarra and Ametzola. On that latter area are
the Guggenheim Museum and the Euskalduna Palace
of Music and Congress; they became the two ends of
the new urban route along the banks of the estuary, a
fitting public space for the city (Ronzani, 2006).
A similar, but yet very different, operation was re-
alised in Vigo between 1994 and 2004 by the architect
Guillermo Vázquez Consuegra, winner of the com-
petition ‘Abrir Vigo al mar’ promoted by the Consor-
tium of the Zona Franca de Vigo. The competition
was aimed at the redevelopment of the waterfront to
revitalise and integrate it into the city centre. The An-
dalusian architect worked on a long and linear band
delimited by two squares – Plaza de la Estrella east and
Plaza de Berbes west. This led to the creation of an ex-
tensive public space, with pedestrian paths, gardens
26 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Annarita Teodosio The City and the Sea
Figure 3 3 Vigo, Waterfront designed by Guillermo
Vázquez Consuegra (Photo by Author)
and fountains, large sculptures, public buildings (the-
atre, maritime station, shopping centre, aquarium),
along with some underground infrastructure (tun-
nels, parking lots). He realised a high-quality project,
using a stripped-down vocabulary, a skilful choice
of good-quality materials (granite, galvanised steel,
corten steel, white concrete for the exterior, glass),
precise design, and careful execution (Vázquez Con-
suegra, 2008). Consuegra, with its poetic and discreet
work, transformed a marginal area in a central lo-
cation and opened to the sea a city with a histori-
cally consolidated industrial and port. His scheme,
although using small-scale interventions compared to
other celebrated cases in Spain, has been recognised as
a good example of the redesign of a marine frontage
for a city (Pittini, 2006).
In Italy, with its 8000 kmof coastline, interest in the
redevelopment of coastal areas is becoming increas-
ingly important in urban policies. Since the 1990s,
many coastal cities seeking to emulate the positive re-
sults of international examples have equipped them-
selves with planning tools based on growth forecasts
expected from a renewed relationship with the sea.
Unfortunately, the Italian situation is very different
from the Spanish one; there are still many critical is-
sues and conflicts that need to be solved, primarily at a
bureaucratic and legislative level. Coastal areas, where
industrial and port areas exist, are potential places of
conflict between the many institutions that have juris-
diction (state and local authorities, port authorities).
The administrative and procedural complexity, the
lack of clear and shared strategies, and a chronic lack
of economic resources have led to the failure of almost
all the proposals.8 Years of discussions, disputes, and
hundreds of architectural and urban projects designed
to regenerate the waterfront across Italy, have not, in
most cases, produced the desired results (Savino, 2010)
and, despite the few concrete achievements, the initia-
tive has often been ceded to private investors, a dan-
gerous trend that, in some cases, has produced prob-
lematic speculations (Pierotti, 2010). Many ambitions
have not been realised (Pavia, 2012) and, although
projects have begun to progress, thus far the only con-
crete and completed programmes are that of the Old
Port of Genoa by Renzo Piano, (totally renovated to
mark the occasion of the Columbus celebrations of
1992), while in Salerno the ‘Sea Front’ designed by the
Catalan architect Ricardo Bofill is a project headlined
by the construction of a monumental Crescent (Teo-
dosio, 2014).
Intervention Strategies on the Seafront
The redevelopment of the land/water margin involves
a set of tangible and intangible interventions, which
are complex and varied. There is no singlemethod and
universally valid operational criteria for such projects,
but as a result of completed schemes, it is possible to
identify common strategies that characterise the re-
generation of these areas.
The re-appropriation of these places cannot be sep-
arated from their accessibility. Therefore, it is essential
to eliminate of all physical barriers between the city
and the sea, through the demolition of the enclos-
ing walls of the old ports; the removal or rerouting
of railway lines and main roads and the construction
of underground car parks). In addition, the upgrad-
ing of public transport and pedestrianisation make
the recovered spaces generally more accessible and
usable, providing locations for sport, leisure, and cul-
ture. In Barcelona, Moll de la Fusta (1983–1987), with
its cross-section with steps, allowed the funnelling of
traffic through an underground tunnel on top ofwhich
8 Examples of unrealised schemes include for the waterfronts
of Naples, Palermo, Messina, and Reggio Calabria.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 27
Annarita Teodosio The City and the Sea
Figure 4 Salerno, Maritime Terminal
designed by Zaha Hadid (Photo by Author)
pedestrian areas were created. The solution, designed
by Solà Morales, solved the problem of crossing the
road and contributes to the opening of the city to the
sea. The relocation of the railway line from the Bil-
bao riverside freed the left bank of the estuary and
established a large urban park. In Vigo, the burying of
vehicular traffic in the Túnel de Beiramar, which runs
under the boardwalk, allowed the reconfiguration of
setting the coast.
Ports began to take on a new strategic role. Within
old harbours, there were various port functions (leisu-
re, traditional fishing boats and passenger), but these
are compatible with urban use. These areas have taken
on new functions thanks to the renovation of decom-
missioned port heritage; for instance, Genoa’s Con-
vention Centre is located in the former cotton ware-
houses, exhibition spaces have been created in Venice,
and a hall for temporary exhibitions has been estab-
lished in the former Trieste Fishmarket. The construc-
tion of newbuildings also often assume a paradigmatic
role. Salerno’s maritime terminal, designed by archi-
tect ZahaHadid and inaugurated in April of 2016, with
its sinuous and daring forms, now dominates the old
commercial port (Teodosio, 2017).
The role of representing the transformation and
the new status acquired by a city often relies on the
construction of a ‘symbol building.’ The case of the
Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao is the most striking
example in this category. There are other less well-
known cases, such as the Crescent in Salerno. Such
buildings, often large and even bombastic statements,
emerged on regeneratedwaterfronts and aspired to be-
come, not necessarily always successfully, a new ful-
crum around which the public space and social life of
the city are organised. They stand as monuments of
contemporary town planning, symbols of a renewed
city’s identity, a sign of renewal and rebirth. However,
despite good intentions, many of these seem to seek
only sensationalism and originality at all costs, by of-
fering design solutions and an architectural vocabu-
lary almost always out of context, which can be diffi-
cult to assimilate.
However, the redevelopment of the coast concerns
not only sensational and futuristic architecture but of-
ten also includes a series of actions that, although less
dramatic, are of fundamental importance. These in-
clude interventions needed to secure the natural char-
acter of the seafront, dictated by a growing sensitivity
to environmental issues, including the nourishment of
the beaches of Barcelona and land reclamation and the
clean-up of thewaters of the estuary in Bilbao to repair
damage resulting from the former presence of steel-
works.
Conclusion
In these various examples, a range of different ap-
proaches have been applied, and the regeneration pro-
grammes have varied according to the uses to which
the regenerated areas will be put. The characters of the
individual urban areas are very different, as well as the
historical, geographical, political, social and economic
conditions. Moreover, the success of some schemes
does not imply that their ‘model,’ once exported, can
guarantee the same results. Indeed, at times, it can
generate bitter disappointments and disastrous fail-
ures. This happened at Barcelona, where the attempt
to repeat the success of the operations related to the
Olympics of 1992 generated the failed operation of the
2004 Forum of Cultures (Borja, 2004; 2010). This oc-
curs whenever the regeneration of an area relies on
the mere presence of a prominent building (Busquets,
2006).
The examples already undertaken can be useful
models to inspire other architects and cities, who can
draw lessons for future actions, provided that they do
28 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Annarita Teodosio The City and the Sea
not ‘copy’ uncritically the model, but understand the
essence and detect the underlying logic, its fundamen-
tal character, and the background processes.
Today there is a need for a co-ordinated overall.
Therefore, any project for the regeneration of a water-
front must align itself with contemporary town plan-
ning thinking and propose approaches that promote
the construction of new cultural attractions, while also
attempting to find areas to allocate for residential and
commercial functions. It favours a functional mixité,
namely the peaceful coexistence ofmultiple functions.
It is necessary to avoid the mass tourism, gentrifica-
tion or the marginalisation of the area and to ensure
that the regenerated coastal areas can be used and en-
joyed at any time of year, at any time of day, by locals
and tourists.
Waterfront regeneration and the recovery of aban-
doned port areas often change the face of the city,mov-
ing the physical centre of gravity of urban activities,
creating a new equilibrium and improving the qual-
ity of life. The promenade becomes a public space par
excellence, a meeting place for social gathering, and
an attractive tourist destination. These interventions
have a positive impact providing that they are based on
an urban planning project of quality and they main-
tain a strategic balance between the necessary private
profits of some activities (commercial, recreational,
tourist) and the compelling visions of social develop-
ment, along with the preservation of services, equip-
ment and public spaces. The most successful projects,
in fact, are those based on strategies that have been
able to intelligently combine urban regeneration and
economic development with respect for the natural
and built environment and social needs.
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Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International (cc by-nc-nd 4.0) License.
30 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Original Scientific Article
Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port:
The Case of the Brijuni Islands
during the Habsburg Empire
Nataša Urošević
Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Croatia
natasa.urosevic@unipu.hr
The present paper presents the results of the archival and field research conducted
in the framework of the author’s research project ‘Valorisation of the common Eu-
ropean heritage of Pula as the former main Austrian naval port and Brijuni Islands
as an elite resort’ in Austrian archives, with the focus on the Kupelwieser Collection
kept in the Austrian National Library. The research aimed to offer a new perspective
in the elaboration of the key initial phases of the development of modern tourism on
the Brijuni Islands, by analysing their important function as an aristocratic residence
near the main naval port in a comparative and transnational framework. The main
research question was whether Brijuni followed a European model of development
of an aristocratic resort near a major port. Combining archival and field research,
the author has explored and compared some of the well-known island aristocratic
residences in Europe and theMediterranean,which developed as popular seaside re-
sorts in the 19th and 20th centuries, such as the Isle of Wight, Mallorca, Corfu, and
Brijuni. An overview of the available recent theoretical literature provided compar-
ative insights into the search for such a model of the successful symbiosis of resorts
and ports. As a case study, the author analysed the development of tourism on the
Brijuni Islands in the most dynamic and dramatic periods before, during, and af-
ter the First World War, bearing in mind their importance as an elite resort in close
proximity to Pula as the former main Austrian (Austro-Hungarian) naval port.
Keywords: aristocratic residences, resorts, ports, Brijuni, Pula, tourism history
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.31-40
Introduction
The European Year of Cultural Heritage and the com-
memoration of the end of World War I were an op-
portunity to reflect on the importance of Pula as the
former main Austro-Hungarian naval port and the
nearby Brijuni Islands as an elite aristocratic resort.
Because of their strategically crucial geopolitical po-
sition, Pula and the Brijuni Islands had a particularly
significant role inmodern European cultural, political,
diplomatic, and tourism history. After they had lost
their key function and strategic role in the broader
Central European and Mediterranean context, Pula
and Brijuni stagnated, wanting for new development
opportunities. The purpose of this paper is to present
the results of the archival and field research conducted
in Austrian archives in the framework of the author’s
research project ‘Valorisation of the common Euro-
pean heritage of Pula as the former main Austrian
naval port and Brijuni Islands as an elite resort,’ with
the focus on the Kupelwieser Collection, kept in the
AustrianNational Library. The research aimed to offer
a new perspective in the elaboration of the key initial
phase of the modern tourist development on the Bri-
juni Islands, by analysing their important function as
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 31
Nataša Uroševi Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port
an aristocratic residence near the main naval port in a
comparative and transnational framework. The main
research question was whether Brijuni followed a Eu-
ropean model of development of an aristocratic resort
near a major port. An overview of the available recent
theoretical literature provided comparative insights
into the search for such amodel of the successful sym-
biosis of resorts and ports. As a case study, the author
analysed the development of tourismon the Brijuni Is-
lands in themost dynamic and dramatic period before,
during and after the First WorldWar, bearing in mind
their importance as an elite resort in close proximity to
Pula as the formermain Austrian (Austro-Hungarian)
naval port.
From the valuable archive material and rare collec-
tions kept in the archives in Vienna (Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek [Austrian National Library] and
Staatsarchiv [State Archiv]) and Graz (Landesarchiv
[Provincial Archive] and Landesbiblitohek [Provincial
Library]), it is possible to read an exciting story of an
unknown part of the history of Brijuni.1 In addition
to the 161 folders full of interesting rare photos and
illustrations, letters, business plans and documents,
the Kupelwieser Collection also contains unpublished
parts of the autobiography of the owner of Brijuni,
in which Paul Kupelwieser describes in detail the cir-
cumstances that led to his conflict with the Crown
Prince Franz Ferdinand, who was so enchanted by the
islands after his first visit that he wanted to take them
over from the owner at any price and build a perma-
nent residence there.
Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port
In 1850, Pula was selected as the site of the future most
important Austrian military harbour, which gave the
nearby Brijuni Islands a military function as well. Five
fortifications were erected on Veli Brijun and two on
Mali Brijun, and the Fažana Channel served as an an-
1 This paper is result of the archival and field research, con-
ducted in the framework of the author’s research project
‘Valorisation of the common European heritage of Pula as
the former main Austrian naval port and Brijuni Islands as
an elite resort’ during the Richard Plaschka Fellowship of the
Austrian Ministry of Research, Science and Economy.
chorage for the Austrian fleet. In such circumstances,
it was quite unusual that onAugust 15th 1893, theVien-
nese industrialist and steel magnate Paul Kupelwieser
bought these uninhabited malaria-ridden islands at
the entrance to the leadingAustrian naval port of Pula.
Twenty years later, on the eve of the World War I, the
Brijuni Islands had been transformed into an elegant
health resort, a world-renowned élite seaside destina-
tion, an exclusivemeeting place for the European aris-
tocracy, artists, and financial magnates, a symbol of
cultivated relaxation, and a unique blend of nature and
culture. The Brijuni Archipelago came to be known as
a Mediterranean paradise at the foot of the Alps, a
pearl of the Austrian Riviera, and an oasis of peace
(Urošević, 2014).
Thanks to the frequent visits and extended stays
of the Habsburg imperial family, close relations with
the top industrial and military circles, and good mar-
itime and railway connections with European capitals,
shortly before the First World War, Brijuni developed
into a focal point of social life on the Austrian Riviera,
and an unique hub of technological and tourism inno-
vations. As an Austrian counterpart to other promi-
nent Mediterranean rivieras and resorts, Brijuni also
had an extraordinarily important political, military
and diplomatic function as an elite resort and cultural
centre near the main naval port.
The period of intensive modernisation, industri-
alisation and urbanisation in southern Istria, which
started after the opening of theArsenal in Pula in 18562
and which was accompanied at the turn of the cen-
tury by the development of tourism in Pula and on the
Brijuni Islands, was abruptly interrupted by the out-
break of the Great War, during which Brijuni again
acquired strategic importance in defending the mili-
tary harbour in Pula. The numerous forts on the is-
lands were manned by crews, while the hotels served
to accommodate Austrian officers. At the very peak of
their development, after twenty years of intensive in-
2 It is interesting to note that Karl Marx dedicated to Pula, the
importance of its port, and its arsenal two articles published
in the New-York Daily Tribune in January and August 1857.
See http://marxengels.public-archive.net/en/ME0988en
.html.
32 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Nataša Uroševi Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port
vestments, their owner could have started returning
huge invested capital, the islands were affected by the
dramatic warfare.
Paul Kupelwieser described his life and entrepre-
neurial adventure in memoirs, published in 1918 (Ku-
pelwieser, 1918). He was 76 when he died in Vienna in
1919, exhausted by severe illness and post-war uncer-
tainty. The documentation and correspondence pre-
served in the collection of the rare manuscripts of the
Austrian National Library testify to the dramatic cir-
cumstances in which his children took over the fam-
ily business after the First World War, within a wholly
transformed geopolitical framework. An unpublished
part of Kupelwieser’s biography, kept in the same col-
lection, contains interesting details about his problem-
atic relationshipwith themost famous guest of the Bri-
juni Islands, Crown Prince Franz Ferdinand, who was
so enchanted by the islands after his first visit in July
1909 that he wished to build the permanent residence
there. In the following three years, he spent several
springweeks on the islands where he completely cured
his chronic lung problems. Paul Kupelwieser took ad-
vantage of his stay to launch a marketing campaign
through the islands’ newspapers – Brioni Insel Zeitung,
published from 1910 to 1914. Delighted by the islands’
climate, and natural and cultural heritage, the Crown
Prince wanted to build a permanent residence there,
which was a common habit among the European aris-
tocracy. About his intention, he informed the German
Kaiser, who visited Brijuni during his trip fromVenice
to his residence in Corfu3 in the spring of 1912. Ac-
cording to Kupelwieser, the Kaiser replied: ‘Lucky you!
You need only 12 hours to arrive at your paradise from
Vienna, and I need 4 days to get to Corfu!’ (Kupel-
wiser, 1917, p. 362). In addition to the climatic benefits,
as well as the richness of natural and cultural heritage,
it was the proximity to the empire’s capital and its cen-
tral position in the region, near the main naval port
3 German Kaiser Wilhelm ii purchased in 1907 the former
residence of the Empress of Austria Elisabeth, Achilleion on
Corfu, after her 1899 assassination by the Italian anarchist
Luigi Lucheni in Geneva. During Kaiser Wilhelm’s visits a
great deal of diplomatic activity took place inAchilleion, and
it became a hub of European diplomacy.
that made the future emperor’s island residence so at-
tractive.
It is evident that there are parallels and similarities
in the habits and practices of the European aristocracy
in creating residences in elite destinations, and that the
Austrian court used the Europeanmodels of best prac-
tice, both during the construction of naval ports and
the development of elite tourist resorts in Central Eu-
rope and the Mediterranean.4
It is also known that Austria’s ruling Habsburg
family had a significant role in inventing and pro-
moting the ‘Austrian Riviera’ (Baskar, 2010). Some of
them were pioneers of tourism in the Mediterranean,
such as the Archduke Ludwig Salvator, who ‘discov-
ered’ and popularised many island destinations like
Mallorca during his Mediterranean cruises (Woerl,
1899). Obviously, Mallorca could be a model for the
development of an exclusive archipelago resort, as one
of the first ‘Mediterranean paradises,’ which success-
fully attracted an elite aristocratic clientele and a cos-
mopolitan colony of artists and intellectuals (Walton,
2005).
Resorts and Ports
An overview of the available recent theoretical litera-
ture provides comparative insights in search of a Eu-
ropean model of development of an aristocratic resi-
dence near the naval port. ThemonographResorts and
Ports (Borsay & Walton, 2011), discusses the relation-
ship between tourist resorts and seaports in the his-
tory of tourism. In the introductory chapter, its editors
also mentioned a kind of symbiosis of functions of the
leading British naval port in Portsmouth and the aris-
tocratic resort on the Isle of Wight, a favourite sum-
mer residence of Queen Victoria (Blom, 2008), em-
phasising that ‘the Royal Navy offered a military spec-
tacle to holidaymakers at Southsea or on the Isle of
Wight’ (Borsay & Walton, 2011, p. 4). Other mono-
graphs, which emphasise the importance of compar-
ative, transnational approaches in research on Euro-
pean resorts and ports (Zuelow, 2011; Borsay&Furnée,
2015) are also very useful.
4 About ‘cultural transfers’ between European spas see Borsay
and Furnée (2015) and Steward (2000).
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 33
Nataša Uroševi Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port
The above-mentioned archival research conducted
in the Austrian archives indicated that Pula was rep-
resented in the Austrian newspapers at the end of the
19th and early 20th centuries as the ‘Austrian Ports-
mouth’ and that the Brioni (Brijuni) Islandswere com-
pared and described as ‘even more beautiful than the
Isle of Wight.’ Rare collections in Austrian archives
keep old local newspapers, such as Die Steierische
Alpen-Post from 8 July 1905, in which, in the article
Reisebriefe aus dem oesterreichischen Portsmouth by
von Josef Steiner-Wischenbart Pula is compared with
themain British naval port, as the ‘Austrian Portsmou-
th’ (Steiner-Wischenbart, n.d.). In contrast, in many
articles published in the first tourismmagazines on the
Adriatic, such as the Oesterreichische Riviera Zeitung
andAdria, as well as in Karl Brockhausen’s (n.d.) study
Brioni: Ein Kulturmärchen aus unseren Tagen, the Bri-
juni Islands were compared to the Isle of Wight. It is
well-known that Austria, in the creation of its navy,
used the best European practices, copying port infras-
tructure and fortification architecturemodels from the
most developed European navies and employing top
experts, such as the admiral of the fleet, theDaneHans
Birch vonDahlerup, who chose Pula for themainAus-
trian naval port in 1850 (Scandinavians dominated
the corps of navy engineers throughout the 1850s),
or the Pole Viktor von Domaszewski, the first urban-
ist of modern Pula, who, before the construction of
the port infrastructure, visited all European (British,
French, Dutch, and Russian) naval ports, including
Portsmouth, Plymouth, London, Liverpool, Paris, and
Toulon (Balota, 2005).
Looking for a model of an elite tourist destination
development near the naval port, apart from archival
and field research, it is undoubtedly a very useful com-
parative overview of the development of similar des-
tinations in Europe. Combining the aforementioned
methods, the author has explored and compared some
of the well-known aristocratic island residences in Eu-
rope and theMediterranean, which developed as pop-
ular seaside resorts in the 19th and 20th centuries, such
as the Isle of Wight, Mallorca, Corfu, and Brijuni.
Unlike Queen Victoria’s summer residence in Os-
borne House, built in 1845 on the Isle of Wight, op-
posite the naval port in Portsmouth, in the style of
the Italian Renaissance, Mallorca, Corfu, and Brijuni
were typical Mediterranean aristocratic destinations,
which developed as popular seaside resorts. Mallorca
is the official holiday destination of the Spanish royal
family, and the invention of modern tourism on the
Balearic Islands is linked to visits of aristocratic guests
and artists. After the first famous guests, Chopin and
George Sand, who spent the winter of 1838/1939 in
Valdemossa, in 1867 the Archduke Ludwig Salvator of
Austria arrived. Having initially acquired properties
in medieval Miramar, between 1872 and 1901, he pur-
chased the entire coastal strip between Valdemossa
and Deià, and built an extensive network of paths and
viewpoints, creating a true paradise on Mallorca.
Besides learning the local dialect, Ludwig Salvator
researched the islands’ flora and fauna, history and
culture, which resulted in the nine-volume mono-
graph Die Balearen in Wort und Bild (The Balearic
Islands in Word and Image). For many decades, the
Archduke explored the Mediterranean with his fa-
mous yacht ‘Nixe.’ He preferred small and undiscov-
ered regions and islands, such as Paxos andAntipaxos,
Ithaka, Levkas and Zante in the Ionian sea as well
as the Liparian Islands north of Sicily, the small is-
lands Giglio, Ustica, and Alboran and especially the
Balearic Islands Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, and For-
mentera (Woerl, 1899). A special congeniality of spirit
connected the royal vagabond with Empress Elisabeth
(‘Sisi’), who held the educated archduke in high es-
teem. She visited him twice with her yacht ‘Miramar’
on Mallorca (see http://www.ludwigsalvator.com).
The landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana, pro-
tected in 2001 by unesco, holds the famous trail
built by Ludwig Salvator, as well as a literary trail
from Valldemossa to Pollença, which pays homage to
George Sand and Robert Graves and the highly scenic
Sóller to Palma narrow-gauge historic railway.
The Austrian empress, Elisabeth of Bavaria, built
another very famous aristocratic residence on the Is-
land of Corfu, after the tragic loss of her only son,
Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, in 1889. The Achillei-
on Palace, inspired by Greek mythology, was Elisa-
beth’s favourite vacation place and summer residence,
dedicated to her admiration for Greece, its language
and its culture until her tragic death in 1899. After
34 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Nataša Uroševi Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port
Elisabeth’s assassination, German Kaiser Wilhelm ii
purchased Achilleion in 1907 and used it as a summer
residence. Until 1914, many diplomatic activities took
place in the palace, and Achilleion became a hub of
European diplomacy. DuringWorldWar I, Achilleion
was used as a military hospital by French and Serbi-
an troops (see https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter
/achilleion-corfu-elisabeths-flight-antiquity). Briefly
reclaiming the status of the centre for European diplo-
macy that it possessed during the Kaiser years, the
Achilleion has been used in recent times for European
summits and as a museum.
Years of Fulfillment
Aristocratic visits marked probably the most excit-
ing period of development and international recog-
nition of Brijuni, from Easter 1910 to the beginning
of the First World War, and can be traced through
the preserved editions of the Brijuni Islands newspa-
pers. In addition to the first tourist magazines in the
Adriatic: the Illustrierte österreichische Riviera Zeitung
(1904–1905) and Adria, Illustrierte Monatsschrift für
Landes- und Volkskunde, Volkswirtschaft und Touris-
tik der adriatischen Küstenländer (1908–1914), the Bri-
juni Islands had their own newspaper: Brioni Insel
Zeitung (1910–1914). The first issue of the islands’
gazette, which was published in March 1910, reported
on the stay of Franz Ferdinand with his family on the
Brijuni Islands, and it is evident that the presence of
the imperial family was used to promote the desti-
nation (which was a frequent practice in other Euro-
pean destinations visited by aristocracy). The newspa-
per regularly reported, among other things, about the
stay of the emperor’s family, as well as other famous
personalities, which can be traced through the list of
guests published in each issue (see http://library.foi.hr/
novine).
Another valuable source is the tourist magazine
Adria, which reports about Franz Ferdinand’s visits to
Brioni in several issues in 1910. After his first working
visit in July 1909, during the Adriatic tour fromVenice
to Corfu on the imperial yacht ‘Miramar’ (Adria, Au-
gust 1909, p. 341), in the issue from February 1910,
Adria reported about the first longer stay (February
and March) of the Archduke’s family on the Adriatic
coast, with a six-page report on the islands’ beauty
(Adria,February 1910, pp. 77–88). The issue fromApril
1910 reported about A Year of Fulfilment (Adria, April
1919, pp. 157–160) with an illustrated reportage and
the photo of the archduke with his wife on Brijuni.
Finally, the issue from June 1910 reported about his
activities during a two-month stay. Apart from treat-
ing lung problems and enjoying the beauty of nature
and peace, the crown prince was very interested in
studying the preservation of cultural monuments and
learning about the cultural and economic develop-
ment of the Austrian Riviera as well as in the nearby
naval port. Almost every day he visited, by car or by
boat, the Istrian coast and the interior, from the sur-
roundings of Pula to Učka, including the opening of
the Provincial Exhibition in Koper. In conclusion, the
editors reported that he was so satisfied with his stay
on Brijuni that he announced his intention to choose
beautiful Istria as a permanent residence for the first
weeks of spring (Adria, June 1910, pp. 237–240). The
issue of March 1911 briefly reports on his arrival to
Brijuni with the whole family for another two-month
stay.
Another very valuable and useful source are mem-
oirs of the Brijuni’s owner Paul Kupelwiser, Aus den
Erinnerungen eines altenÖsterreichers (From theMem-
oirs of an old Austrian), written in 1917 and published
in 1918 (Kupelwieser, 1918). It is fascinating to observe
that Kupelwieser’s memoirs end with the first visit of
the crown prince, his imperial highness Franz Ferdi-
nand and his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg. How-
ever, the original manuscript (actually a typoscript),
kept in four folders of the Kupelwieser Collection in
the AustrianNational Library (Kupelwieser, 1917), also
include, an unpublished part, with much less well-
known details related to the owner’s efforts to struggle
with nature, the state bureaucracy, and the military
authorities. Particularly interesting and impressive are
pages describing Franz Ferdinand’s attempts to take
over the islands and build a permanent residence on
them. The typoscript in the third and fourth folder
contains a detailed description of the preparations for
the first longer stay of the Crown Prince’s family on
the islands in 1910. At the beginning of February 1910,
the heir to the throne arrived with his family on the
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 35
Nataša Uroševi Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port
islands. They enjoyed very much the pleasant island
climate during their eight-week stay, so that Franz Fer-
dinand felt his chronic lung problems no more, which
was not the case after his stays on the French Riviera
and in St. Moritz.
From the letter of the head of the cabinet (Vorstand
der Militär Kanzlei) Alexander von Brosch-Aerenau
to Franz Ferdinand from March 16, 1910 (Brosch-
Aerenau, 1910), it is also possible to read about the
archduke’s intentions to build a residential villa on the
western Istrian cost, more precisely on the Brijuni Is-
lands. He was authorised to negotiate the acquisition
of Peninsula Barbana at the north-western tip of the
island or Cape Peneda in the very south, for which the
Archduke was particularly interested. According to
the negotiator, Kupelwieser was more willing to give
up Cape Peneda than Barbana, because he needed the
field for his livestock and local traffic, but also because
of the planned construction of the bridge from Bar-
bana to BrioniMinor. Kupelwieser did not want to sell
anything but proposed a lifelong or longer lease. He
was ready to renounce any payment, demanding that
after the lease had ended, everything would pass back
into his (or his heirs’) possession. Although Brosch-
Aerenau did not consider Kupelwieser’s offer accept-
able, after detailed calculations, he recommended fur-
ther negotiations.
In his (unpublished) memoirs, Paul Kupelwieser
describes the visit of the head of the cabinet, Colonel
Brosch, who attempted to negotiate on behalf of Franz
Ferdinand. He informed Kupelwieser that his Impe-
rial Highness was 49 years old and, as the future em-
peror, needed a residence, and it was to be Brijuni.
During Easter 1910, the Brijuni islands were visited
by the court garden director Umlauf, who was asked
to have a closer look at the islands and to estimate
the value of the whole estate. He estimated that be-
cause of the islands’ climatic benefits with the same
isotherms as Lošinj and the wealth of abundant fer-
tile soil as well as relative proximity of Vienna, Brijuni
were worth 25,000,000 crowns and that his Imperial
Highness could pay even 30,000,000 crowns. Accord-
ing to Kupelwieser, these amounts, which were well
over twice what he had invested in Brioni, were proba-
bly the reason that Franz Ferdinand no longer thought
of the purchase, but sought other ways in which the
desired goal could be achieved. Several weeks after
this estimation, an article was published in the Paris
issue of The New-York Herald, announcing that the
political situation in Italy made it urgently necessary
that the state acquire the Brijuni islands. Parts of the
islands that were not used for fortification purposes
could be left to the heir to the throne as a stay there
had proved to be very favourable to his health (Ku-
pelwieser, 1917, p. 357). Kupelwieser denied this false
report in his own newspaper (Brioni Insel Zeitung, 29
march 1910).
From the unpublished part of the Kupelwieser
memoirs, it is evident how much he was concerned
with the intense pressures related to the Archduke’s
wishes to take over the island, which affected his ner-
vous system so much that he had heart problems
several weeks after his departure. Apart from heart
spasms, throughout the whole spring, summer, and
autumn of 1910, Kupelwieser had problems with boils
on various parts of his body and with eczema which
could not be effectively treated. In autumn, he decided
to visit dermatologist Prof. Dr Una in Hamburg, and
since the disease caused by stress became complicated,
he had to lie in bed because of painful boils and eczema
(Kupelwieser, 1917, p. 321). Kupelwieser used his stay in
Hamburg to visit Karl Hagenbeck in his famous zoo
and arrange his visit to Brijuni the following year (in
January 1911).
In the meantime, the harbour admiral, Excellency
von Ripper, also attempted to complicate or block ev-
ery investment in the islands in the next three years.
Although the construction of the new hotel Neptun
iii, designed by the young architect Eduard Kramer,
was repeatedly interrupted, until the next Easter sea-
son in 1912 and re-arrival of prominent guests, the ho-
tel was completed, which also enabled a larger visit of
themost distinguishedViennese circles. It was the year
of fulfilment and the highest ranking visits, according
to local tourist magazines. At the invitation of Franz
Ferdinand, on his trip from Venice to Corfu, the Ger-
man Kaiser visited the islands. Along with the solemn
welcome of the war fleet, the emperor was welcomed
by 400 guests of the Brijuni spa. The presence of such
high-level guests on Brijuni greatly contributed to the
36 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Nataša Uroševi Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port
island’s promotion, so much so that all rooms were
sold out several weeks before the Kaiser’s arrival (Ku-
pelwieser, 1917, p. 362).
Finally, Kupelwieser offered the construction of the
residence, the castle with a larger park surrounding the
villa on the Peneda peninsula, which was one fifth of
the island’s surface. Kupelwieser offered Franz Ferdi-
nand a twenty-year lease, so he could use it under the
same conditions as long as he lived (Kupelwieser, 1917,
p. 363). After unsuccessful negotiations, Franz Ferdi-
nand seemed to give up taking over the Island, and
over the next two years he spent the late winter at the
Miramar Castle near Trieste. The intention of Franz
Ferdinand to take over Brijuni is also confirmed by
the book of his secretary in which, in the chapter en-
titled Brioni, he describes in detail the relation of the
crown prince towards Kupelwieser and his attempts to
become the owner of the most attractive parts of the
islands, in the broader context of political and diplo-
matic relations and visits (Nikitsch-Boulles, 1925, pp.
140–150).
Ambitious Development Plans
In the winter before the outbreak of World War I,
massive investments were completed: the visitors of
Brijuni’s five deluxe hotels with 500 beds could enjoy
the first indoor swimming pool with heated sea wa-
ter in Europe in a wellness centre, which was opened
in October 1913. In the unpublished part of his mem-
oirs, Paul Kupelwieser mentions Dr Neumann’s pro-
posal for the construction of a sanatorium projected
by the architect Kramer a few months earlier in the
framework of his ambitious plans to develop a health
tourism resort. Several weeks after that, Franz Ferdi-
nand was killed in Sarajevo. Because the First World
War began four weeks later, Kupelwieser commented
that he was glad that the construction for which he
had been ready had not begun (Kupelwieser, 1917, pp.
373–374):
I’m thinking about the future enlargement of
our hotel resort through the arrangement of
about 100 rooms in the hotel on the west coast
of Brijuni, perhaps at the same place where a
sanatorium was planned, not as a private joint
stock company, but in the joint venture with
our own hotel company and led by well-paid
medical staff.
The most informative preview of the most pros-
perous period before the First World War, and prob-
ably the most comprehensive guidebook is the Führer
durch Brioni (Gnirs, 1910).
Along with the already published autobiograph-
ical notes of the island’s medical doctor Otto Lenz’s
wife Brijuni – Lost Paradise, (Lenz Guttenberg, 2007),
which include important details related to the events
on the island on the eve of the First World War (such
as the arrival of the British fleet just before the very be-
ginning of the war), in some very informative Brijuni
guide books from the 1920s and ’30s, written by the
islands’ physician Otto Lenz, there are interesting de-
tails about the First World War. In the publication Die
Bedeutung der Insel Brienz als hervorragender Clima-
tischer Kurort der Nordadria, we can read that ‘the war
passed almost unperceived near Brijuni [. . .] only a
few bombswould fall on Brijuni, but without any dam-
age [. . .] That is how our beautiful island could, after
the peace agreement, be awakened again from the un-
wanted four-year-old dream’ (Lenz, 1930, p. 4).We can
also learn that immediately before the outbreak of the
war, large investments were completed: with a unique
indoor heated swimming pool connected to the rooms
with a heated corridor, Brijuni had 300 rooms in five
hotels that could accommodate 450 guests. The heated
swimming pool should be the centre of future devel-
opment of Brijuni as a winter spa, insisted Dr Lenz
in conclusion of his very informative guide. He also
announced intensive equipment of the spa centre,
the building of a new sanatorium, in addition to the
existing hotels, where guests will be offered special
treatments, massages and hydrotherapy, mud ther-
apy, diets, and seawater inhalation, ‘as in Salsomag-
giore spa.’ The future spa and wellness centre would
include a gym room and fitness in the pool, along
with the unavoidable walks over 80 km of decorated
paths. In conclusion, the indications for treatment
were listed.
Particularly impressive is a booklet Spaziergänge
auf Brioni (Lenz, 1926) in which the island’s physi-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 37
Nataša Uroševi Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port
cian, through a proposal of 12 walks through the pic-
turesque Brijuni Islands, also recounts the history of
Brijuni as a tourist destination, presenting a whole
range of important details.
Dr Lenz, among other things, elaborated a signif-
icant project to build a sanatorium in Madona Bay,
which was planned before the start of the First World
War (also mentioned by the publicist Richard Voss
(1914) in his book Die grüne Insel, dedicated to the
owner of Brijuni. Because of the best climatic condi-
tions in the Madona Bay, after a long period of reflec-
tion on arranging the winter sanatorium for conva-
lescence, a joint stock company was organised. The
plans were completed, the construction was approved
by the Austrian command of the naval port (with the
condition that the building be coloured green so as
not to become the target of the enemy), the capital for
construction was also ready; then the war came and
blocked the project.
This information is confirmed by an unpublished
development study from 1919, which is also kept in
the Kupelwieser Collection. After the war and in the
year of Paul Kupelwieser’s death, his heirs founded
the Brioni joint stock company in 1919. The contract,
held in the Department for the Rare Collections of the
AustrianNational Library, is one of the few documents
related to the company’s business (Kupelwieser, 1919).
This document, which presents a feasibility study and
a strategic framework for further development of the
islands at the same time, apart from financial struc-
ture, which includes both future British and us in-
vestors, mentions detailed ambitious development
plans, including, for example, connecting the Veli Bri-
jun toMali Brijun (BrioniMinor) by a bridge, and fur-
ther spreading of the health resort offer through a new
sanatorium in Madona May, as well as new spa com-
plexes on both islands. Another document related to
this substantial investment, which was unfortunately
interrupted byWorldWar I, is an architectural project
for a never-built health resort in the Madonna Bay,
a work of the well-known architect, Eduard Kramer
(who designed almost all the hotels in Brijuni) dating
back to 1915.
Along with another unrealised project, a large 1905
seafront hotel, there is also a project for a largeKurhaus
building that was to be built in Dobrika Bay. The spa
building was supposed to be five stories high in the
central part and only one floor in the wings. About 120
accommodation units were planned in this impressive
health resort.
After the war, when, after great political changes,
Istria and Brijuni fell under the authorities of Italy,
only huge debts remained. Paul Kupelweieser died
shortly after the collapse of the monarchy in 1919. His
son Karl continued his venture with less success, and
new investments in golf and polo fields only increased
the enormous debts. After additional family problems,
he took his own life in 1930, and in 1936 Brijuni was
sold to the Italian state.
Very interesting is also the preserved documen-
tation from the family legacy (diaries, letters and re-
ports) after World War ii, which testifies about the
first visit of Kupelwieser’s family members to the Is-
lands after the forced departure in 1935. The letter from
October 1960, written by family members (Mautner
Markhof, 1960) who were pleasantly surprised by the
reception by the new authorities, documents their rea-
sons for leaving the islands in 1935, as well as the cur-
rent situation in Brijuni, which in the meantime had
become a presidential residence.
Conclusion
At the end of the SecondWorldWar, on 5th May 1945,
the Brioni Islandswere liberatedwith the rest of south-
ern Istria, and were under the control of the Yugoslav
Government, in contrast to Pula, which was then un-
der Allied control. Josip Broz Tito, the president of
the Federative Peoples’ Republic of Yugoslavia, came
to Brioni on 20th June 1947 and declared them a res-
idential area (Begović & Schrunk, 2007, pp. 155–166).
Since that time, extensive work had begun on their re-
covery from the damage inflicted by bombing. From
1952 to 1981, numerous foreign dignitaries visited Bri-
juni, including members of European royal families
and high-ranking diplomats. The summer presiden-
tial residence was built on the Island of Vanga. The
Brijuni Islands were an important venue of historical
meetings of the 20th century. In October 1983, the Bri-
juni Islands were declared a National Park.
In their turbulent history, from the Roman era to
38 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Nataša Uroševi Inventing Tourism in the Naval Port
the modern times, the Brijuni Islands had a signif-
icant economic function, related to elite leisure, but
also a prominent political and diplomatic role, as a res-
idence. The conducted research has indicated similar-
ities, common practices and models of the elite Euro-
pean spas and seaside resorts, including the relation
between resorts and ports, which could also be useful
in the analysis of tourism development on the Brijuni
Islands.
Valuable rare archival documents kept in Austrian
archives, related to the development of tourism on the
Brijuni Islands in the most dynamic and dramatic pe-
riod before, during and after the World War I, can
illuminate previously unknown sections of the past
of the Brijuni Islands and should, therefore, be fur-
ther analysed and presented. Since the archival ma-
terial related to the history of Brijuni is dispersed in
different institutions and partially lost, it is essential
to continue research, which could reconstruct some
critical events. Besides the afore-mentioned Austrian
archives and collections, there are fascinating sources
in archives in Trieste, Pazin, and Belgrade, which
should be analysed in greater detail. The European
Year of Cultural Heritage, besides commemorating
the end of the First World War and celebrating the
common European values and heritage, was an op-
portunity to valorise former aristocratic residences
as common Euro-Mediterranean heritage through
transnational projects and networks as well as in-
ternational labels (European heritage label, unesco
heritage, etc.).
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40 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Original Scientific Article
Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast
and World War I
Jasenka Kranjčević
Institute for Tourism, Croatia
jasenka.kranjcevic@iztzg.hr
Research on tourism history has been mainly confined to considering tourism area
life cycles (talc). Although destinations with a tourism tradition spanning over a
century have undergone various life cycles, their tourism history has rarely been con-
sidered in the context of global changes, such as World War I, and how and to what
extent these global changes have affected the development of tourism in the tourist
area and tourism architecture. Since no direct hostilities took place in the area of
present-day Croatia during wwi, the present paper investigates the indirect impact
of thewar as a global event on the rise of tourism at the time through unbuilt tourism
architecture, whichmay be seen as halting investments in tourism.This researchmay
be used to consider the creation of a model for global tourism life cycle by stages,
including also paradigmatic changes in the design of tourism architecture.
Keywords:World War I, global tourism cycle, tourism area life cycle, unbuilt
tourism architecture, Croatia
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.41-53
Introduction
Regardless of the potential possessed by a specific
destination for tourism development (climate, natu-
ral and cultural heritage, human resources, etc.), an
often-neglected fact is that its tourism area life cycle
(talc) depends directly or indirectly on global events,
in particular, world wars. In this respect, there is a lack
of global interdisciplinary research on the impact of
global wars on tourism development, as well as on the
paradigm shift on tourism and tourism architecture.
Only complex interdisciplinary research can yield
an answer to the question of what the Great War
(1914–1918) changed directly and indirectly in tourism.
Given that global (wwi and wwii) and regional wars
(Vietnam, Palestine, Homeland War in Croatia, etc.)
strongly impact all tourism activities (Butler & Sun-
tikul, 2013), there is a lack of research on the impact
of war on tourism development through halting in-
vestments, that is on building tourism architecture,
especially during the war.
Safety is an essential prerequisite for the devel-
opment of tourism and the choice of the destination
while lack of safety damages the image and compet-
itiveness of a destination (Richard, 2003; Frey, 2004;
Mansfeld & Pizam, 2006). War, the proximity of war,
or terrorist events strongly influence tourism, primar-
ily reflected through a sudden decline in tourism fig-
ures (Dragičević, Nikšić Radić, & Grbić, 2018). There
is a lack of research in Croatia on the impact of global
historical events, such as wwi, on the development
of tourism on the Croatian coast at the time through
the stagnation of investments in tourism, i.e., through
unbuilt tourism architecture.
The subject of this research is, therefore, the recog-
nition of increased tourism on the Croatian Adriatic
coast before wwi and a sudden drop in tourism fig-
ures due to the onset of war operations in Europe,
resulting in the stagnation of investments in tourism.
That stagnation can be traced through unbuilt tourism
architecture. The phrase unbuilt tourism architecture,
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 41
Jasenka Kranjevi Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
due to the outbreak of wwi, indicates architecture
projects in the field of tourism (hotels, nautical cen-
tres, sports centres):1
• that had been designed and/or prepared for con-
struction,
• for which public architecture competitions had
been conducted just before the outbreak of the
war,
• that were prepared by public institutions (e.g.,
Ministry of Public Works),
• that were discussed during the war,
• that were discussed after the war because they
had not been built.
This means that these architecture projects were at
a relatively high level of preparation for construction
and can be characterised as investments in tourism
that had been halted. Investments in tourism require
years of preparation and several years for construction
(market analysis, sorting out property ownership is-
sues, project development, finding the workforce, se-
curing building material, etc.).
The aim of collecting and making an inventory of
unbuilt tourism architecture on the Croatian Adriatic
coast is to link the impact of global events, in this case,
wwi, with the development of tourism and the design
of tourism architecture, and the reflection on a global
understanding of life cycle tourism.
Apart from tourism architecture, wwi halted the
construction of new railway lines from Zagreb to Dal-
matia and a railway line from Slavonia via Bosnia and
Herzegovina to Dalmatia, but they are not the subject
of this paper.
Literature Review
In scientific literature, experts agree that war, ter-
rorism, and different types of crises strongly affect
tourism revenue and thus also investments in tourism
(Čorak, Mikačić, & Ateljević, 2013).
In the recent literature on tourism, war has often
been considered for creating social memory (Lisle,
2000; Winter, 2009), which includes the selection
and articulation of information on the war because
1 A large number of Croatian men took part in wwi.
it establishes a connection between the past and the
present. Regarding wwi, between 2014–2018, many
countries of south-eastern Europe (Bosnia andHerze-
govina, Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Slovenia etc.) or-
ganised scientific meetings to mark a century since
the beginning or the end of wwi. Presented at these
meetings weremost frequently the political, historical,
military and medical aspects of the war. Studies re-
lated to the linkage between tourism and wwi mainly
concerned the recognition of events from World War
I and their transformation into a tourist attraction
(Kavrečič, 2016) and how to use it for education (Geor-
ge & Das, 2017).
Regarding research on tourism history from the
interdisciplinary aspect, it is somewhat marginalised
in the literature, although this has slowly started to
change (Walton, 2009) given that the historical aspect
is increasingly represented at numerous scientific con-
ferences on tourism (Baranowski & Furlough, 2001;
Berghoff, Korte, Schneider, & Harvie, 2002; Koshar,
2002; Tissot, 2003; Walton, 2005).
In the world literature, very few papers focus on
researching the impact of global political and war
events on global tourism development (Gillena &
Mostafanezhadb, 2019), especially during the very be-
ginnings of the development of modern and global
tourism. In Croatia, too, little attention has been paid
to interdisciplinary research on tourism history, al-
though a significant number of places boast a tourism
tradition more than a century-long (Blažević, 1987;
Vukonić, 2005; Vasko-Juhász, 2006). In the context
of tourism history, research on tourism architecture
is particularly neglected, although it plays a vital role
in the range of tourism services. Interestingly, certain
destinations, as well as corporations, create their iden-
tity with the help of tourism architecture from the be-
ginning of the 20th century (Vasko-Juhász, 2006). The
history of tourism architecture is mainly the subject of
research of art historians or architects (Flückinger-
Seiler, 2003; Keck, 2008) and is rarely associated with
trends in tourism and how tourism architecture de-
pends on global influences (Kranjčević, 2018b).
To link tourism and architecture at the beginning
of the 20th century (i.e., until the outbreak of wwi),
this research mostly used literature (books and maga-
42 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Jasenka Kranjevi Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
zines) in German and Croatian and available archival
material from archives and museums.
MaximilianKrausswrote on several occasions abo-
ut the negative impact of wwi on tourism in Ger-
many (Krauss, 1915, 1918, 1923) and linked it with inter-
national and domestic tourism figures, as well as with
the negative impact on the economy. For understand-
ing tourism circumstances in the Austro-Hungarian
Empire, as well as on the Croatian Adriatic coast be-
fore wwi, valuable sources include tourism journals
Österreichische Touristen-Zeitung (1881–1938) [Jour-
nal of Austrian Tourism], Fremdenverkehr (1908–1914)
[Tourism] and Moderne Illustrierte Zeitung für Sport
und Reise [Modern Illustrated newspaper for Sports
and Travel], published in Vienna, as well as tourism
journals published in Croatia, specifically in Opatija
(Kur- und Bade-Zeitung der österreichischen Riviera,
1906–1914) and on the Brijuni Islands (Brioni Insel
Zeitung). Tourism planning before wwi was the mat-
ter of advisors the imperial court, but also of their
public actions (Schindler, 1912).
To understand tourism architecture on the Croa-
tian Adriatic at the time, articles from journals such
asDerArchitekt [Architect] andWiener Bau-Industrie-
zeitung [a Viennese construction industry newspaper]
were used while monographs of individual architects
were used to investigate hotel projects unbuilt because
of the outbreak of wwi (Boyd Whyte, 1989; Kranjče-
vić, 2013). During the war, architecture journals at-
tempted to affirm and justify some of the tourism ar-
chitecture projects such as, for example, by architect
Alfred Keller on the Croatian coast (Dalmatia), rec-
ommending that it be finished it as soon as peace is
restored (V. F., 1916, 1918).
Prior to the cancellation of the Fremdenverkehr
[Tourism], Moriz Band (1914), as a significant author-
ity on tourism opportunities on the Croatian Adri-
atic, thought in 1914 that the war would soon end.
A year later, R. E. Petermann (1915) published in the
Österreichische Touristen-Zeitung [Journal of Austrian
Tourism] a detailed article about the negative impact
of war on nature, the landscape, tourism and tourist
arrivals.2
2 R. E. Petermann is the author of the famous and extensive
From the literature on Croatian tourism history
(general overview) in theCroatian language, a book by
Boris Vukonić (2005) was used. Apart from research
at the state level, valuable research on the history of
tourism also exists at the regional level. The works
useful for the understanding of tourism history at the
regional or local level were by Lavoslav Golf (1929)
for Dalmatia and Ivan Blažević (1987) for Istria and
Kvarner. There is also valuable research on tourism
history of local destinations such as Dubrovnik (Perić,
1983), Zadar (Jadrešić & Jurić, 1985), Baška (Šale &
Pavlović, 2004), Opatija (Zakošek, 2005), Makarska
(Urlić, 2008), Hvar (Petrić, 2018) among others. Their
research does not analyse the impact of wwi and
wwii but helps to understand how wars represent a
turning point in tourism. Ivan Pederin (1991) analysed
Austrian and German travelogues and their influence
on the promotion of the Croatian coast.
However, there are no works that link the impact
of global events on tourism architecture and the in-
terruption of investments in it. Therefore, this paper
aims at linking the impact of global wars on trends
in tourism and on tourism architecture. Although re-
search into contemporary tourism seeks to link trends
in tourism with the use of tourism architecture, there
has been no research into the impact of the war on
architecture. Similarly, little research has been done
on tourism promotion that promoted tourism archi-
tecture, in addition to natural and cultural heritage
prior to wwi (Pederin, 1991; Storch, 2013; Kranjčević,
2018a).
Research Design andMethods
To explore the fascinating impact of the global war on
tourism, the present paper relies on the research of un-
built tourism architecture in 13 tourist destinations on
the Croatian Adriatic. Although there were no direct
hostilities on the territory of present-day Croatia, the
war had a strong indirect impact on tourism develop-
ment. For this reason, the analysis of the impact of the
war on tourism development was embedded on the
example of the Croatian Adriatic coast as a theoreti-
guide on Dalmatia Führer durch Dalmatia [Guide through
Dalmatia] (1899).
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 43
Jasenka Kranjevi Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
cal confirming study case based on the so-called most
likely or typical case.
To investigate the impact of wwi as a global event
on the talc of the Croatian Adriatic, the paper relies
on the creation of an inventory of planned architecture
projects for tourism purposes that had not been built
because of the outbreak of the war.
The paper first briefly describes the conditions for
tourism and the rapid growth of tourism figures from
the end of the 19th century until the beginning of the
war, that is until the beginning of a sudden decline in
tourism figures, in order to point out the negative im-
pact of wwi on tourism development. Numerous in-
vestment projects were halted due to the decline in the
number of tourists, the insecurity of investment, and
the insecurity of passenger traffic on the Adriatic.
Notwithstanding the fact that the paper focuses on
unbuilt tourism architecture, it should be noted in the
introductory part that the inventory of tourism figures
relies on available statistical data on settlements on the
Croatian Adriatic coast, especially those after wwi.
This research on the impact of wwi on the de-
velopment of tourism on the Croatian Adriatic coast
faced certain limitations because that planned invest-
ments in tourism had not been listed in a table or
itemised in any other way; therefore, the research
relied on collecting information from journals (of
tourism and architecture), biographies of architects,
and materials preserved in archives and museums
(Croatia, Czech Republic).
Prior to wwi, the Croatian coast had been gov-
erned from Vienna, the capital of the Austro-Hunga-
rian Empire, whereas after wwi its territory was di-
vided between the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom
of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
Based on investments halted in different destina-
tions on the Croatian Adriatic, the paper attempts to
link talc with global events. By observing the con-
sequences of global events on investments in tourism
on the Croatian Adriatic and on architectural design,
the paper attempts to test one of the most commonly
used models for the analysis of talc (Butler, 1980).
Since no quantitative data exist, the research is based
on the conclusion drawn from quantitative research.
The Croatian Adriatic coast, attractive and rich in
natural and cultural heritage, recorded soaring fig-
ures in tourist arrivals up to wwi. The area under-
went significant transformations, with types of build-
ings unknown before that time (hotels, guesthouses,
villas, etc.) being built, opening themselves towards
the sun (terraces, balconies), while traditional build-
ings preferred shade and compactness. Although it
was the time of intensive building of private villas
(Lovran, Ika, Opatija), it was also the time of the emer-
gence of large corporations that, in addition to build-
ing colonies of villas, also invested in the construc-
tion of hotels (e.g., South Railways Company, Lloyd
Steamship Company). Large corporations were ready
to speculate on land and investment. Another prob-
lem was that local governments was not prepared for
tourism development and did not develop land (water
supply and sewage infrastructure) as an essential pre-
condition for construction. Although war is known
to have a substantial impact on tourism, there is al-
most no research into how wwi influenced tourism
development and investments in tourism at that time.
Therefore, the main aim is to show that the Great
War had a negative impact on the rapid development
of tourism on the Croatian Adriatic coast at the time.
The main part of the research relates to finding data
about hotels not built due to the outbreak of wwi.
Statistical data and architecture and tourism journals
emerging during the Austro-Hungarian Empire were
used for the research, as well as monographs of indi-
vidual architects and tourism travel books. To under-
stand the context of the time, the research used statis-
tical data on tourism figures at the level of the Austro-
Hungarian Empire and the level of individual tourist
destinations on the Croatian Adriatic and briefly de-
scribed the most critical tourism-related events.
To ensure an as objective as possible presentation
of unbuilt tourism architecture due to the outbreak of
wwi, the paper relies on a series of primary and sec-
ondary sources, including tourism statistics, museum
and archivalmaterial, tourism literature, and literature
on architecture and construction.
The research on the impact of the global war be-
comes more complex if we take into account that
the end of the war brought about significant socio-
political, economic (changes in power centres, new
44 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Jasenka Kranjevi Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
territorial divisions, etc.) and cultural changes, sowith-
drawals from investment projects in tourism were not
officially recorded.
Several years after the end of the war, the new states
were busy with organising themselves, taking care of
the wounded, and tourism was only secondary in im-
portance.
Tourism Opportunities from the End of the 19th
Century to the Beginning ofWWI
By bringing the military, security and socio-political
situation in south-easternEurope in order, theAustro-
Hungarian Empire wanted to capitalise on its Riviera
in the same way France and Italy had with theirs,
although spa tourism was already well-developed in
Czech spa towns.3
Because the French and ItalianRivieraswere record-
ing increasing tourism revenues year after year in
the second half of the 19th century, it is not unusual
that different investors, as well as the government of
the Austro-Hungarian Empire, saw possibilities for
tourismdevelopment on the east coast theAdriatic Sea
(today part of Italian, Slovenian, Croatian, Bosnian-
Herzegovinian and Montenegrin coast).
According to statistics, tourism turnover, as well
as the number of designated spa towns (German:
Kurorte) in the entire Austro-Hungarian Empire, was
growing seemingly unstoppably.4 Spa tows were des-
ignated according to specific climatic characteristics
and strict and specific requirements for a spa.
The growing number of spa towns, not only in the
Empire but throughout Europe, required an inventory
(Reimer, 1889). Apart from showing basic data about
the spa town (short description of the location, num-
ber of inhabitants, how to travel there, etc.) and med-
ical characteristics, the inventory helped doctors and
patients choose a spa. The inventory of spa towns was
3 In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, area of the present-day
Czech Republic recorded highest tourism figures.
4 The operation of spa towns (German: Kurorte) was under
the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior, and some of
them lost that status. Therefore, the number of spas in the
Empire did not always increase but fluctuated because of the
need to meet strict requirements of the Ministry of the Inte-
rior.
 
 
 
 
Figure 1 The Number of Spa Towns in the Austro-
Hungarian Empire (adapted from from
Statistisches Jahrbuch der Österreichischen
Monarchie, 1905, p. xvi)
 
 
 
 
Figure 2 The Number of Spa Guests in the Austro-
Hungarian Empire (adapted from from
Statistisches Jahrbuch der Österreichischen
Monarchie, 1905, p. xvi)
interesting to (large and small) investors as well when
choosing the location for their investment.
In order to attract investors and as many guests
as possible, great efforts had been put into promo-
tion. One could read, for example, in travel books and
tourist guides that Dalmatia was called ‘the land of
history and the land of future travels’ (Holbach, 1908)
or ‘a tourism country of par excellence in Austria’ (Il-
lustrierted Führer durch Dalmatien, 1912). Small and
relatively unknown tourist destinations added a com-
parison with the world-famous destinations. Thus,
Hvar was called the ‘Austrian Madeira’ and Rab the
‘Austrian Venice,’ among other examples. The pre-war
press in Croatia, such as Sloboda from Split, published
articles on tourism development. Thus, Marjanović
(1909) discusses tourist arrivals in Dalmatia, the or-
ganisation of foreigners’ traffic, the organisation for
the promotion, public education, rational financing,
hotel society, and so on. Marjanović also proposed the
establishment of a domestic hotel society – the Croa-
tian hotel society. As the number of spa towns was
growing, so did the number of guests in the Austro-
Hungarian Empire.
The east coast of the Adriatic Sea, regardless of
its tourism potentials (climate, sea, sun, culture and
natural heritage), was the economically undeveloped
part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The economy
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 45
Jasenka Kranjevi Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
of Adriatic coast was based on outdated forms of agri-
cultural production, sale of rawmaterials, and a poorly
developedmanufacturing industry. The economic cri-
sis (brought on by the collapse of sailing ship con-
struction, the Wine Clause of 1891 and the Phylloxera
outbreak, which devastated vineyards in 1894), caused
the emigration of the population to overseas coun-
tries, primarily of young people from the coastal re-
gion and islands. Not to be neglected is the fact that
about 90 of the population was illiterate. With the
emigration of the working population, the price of
land dropped, which played particularly well into the
hands of speculation with land for the construction
of buildings for various purposes. Austrian, German,
English, and even Czech investors were on the lookout
for investment opportunities, inter alia, in tourism.
The development of tourism, and thus the reflec-
tion on tourism architecture, was also attributed to
the Technische Hoch Schule [Technical High School]
in Vienna. Numerous students chose tourism archi-
tecture projects on the Croatian Adriatic for their
diploma theses (Kranjčević, 2017).
Investments, education, promotion, and techni-
cal infrastructure were the topics (among others) dis-
cussed at the beginning of the 20th century. Architects
were designing larger and more complex buildings
(hotels as well) because guests should be, inter alia, at-
tracted by innovative architecture. All these new types
of buildings (hotels, boarding houses, casinos, etc.)
were to be built at the local level. Investors often en-
countered resistance from local municipalities.
Adriatic Exhibition
To make the Austrian Riviera recognisable as suitable
for investments in tourism and to attract as many
tourists as possible, the first sizeable thematic ex-
hibition was organised in 1913 in Prater in Vienna
on tourism on the east coast of the Adriatic called
Adria Ausstellung [Adriatic Exhibition] (Storch, 2013;
Kranjčević, 2018a). The exhibition was organised on
the model of Internationale Ausstellung für Reise und
Fremdenverehr [Travel and Tourism Exhibition] in
Berlin in 1911.
The exhibition in Vienna was of international sig-
nificance. Apart from the presentation of the south-
ern Austro-Hungarian Empire, the exhibition was at-
tended by Canada, Italy, Turkey and other countries.5
Although themain objectives of the exhibition were to
represent the potentials in culture and economy, and
thus tourism of the Adriatic region, the educational
function of the exhibition should not be neglected.
During the exhibition, there were numerous lectures
(Adria Ausstellung, 1913) and a conference on tourism
Adria Fremdenverkehrkonferenz [Adriatic Conference
on Tourism]which discussed, among other things, the
problems of building hotels in Dalmatia (i.e., invest-
ments in tourism on the east coast of the Adriatic).
Two large companies that invested in tourism – Süd-
bahngesellschaft [Austrian Southern Railway] and the
Austrian Lloyd, a steamship company – clashed at the
conference.
The construction of new hotels often faced numer-
ous problems, primarily of an administrative nature,
and investors often found it challenging to obtain con-
struction permits.
Given that investors encountered numerous prob-
lems on the Croatian coast of the Adriatic when ob-
taining construction permits, the Ministry of Public
Works presented, at the exhibition, a prototype of the
prefabricated hotel Dalmatia which was also used as a
catering facility at the exhibition space. The prototype
was built with the aim of speeding up the construction
of hotels, which often faced problems of administra-
tive nature at the local level. Hotel design included re-
gional design characteristics (Adria Ausstellung, 1913;
‘Das Musterhotel in der Adria,’ 1913).
Positive reactions to the exhibition are also evi-
dent from the fact that it was visited by 2,080,000 vis-
itors over 155 business days (Storch, 2013; Kranjčević,
2018a).
The exhibition generated strong interest for the
eastern Adriatic coast by the general public and in-
vestors alike, and thus also the Croatian coast, and
should have created preconditions for further tourism
development on the easternAdriatic coast.What tour-
ism on the eastern Adriatic coast would have looked
5 Since the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th cen-
tury was an era of great technological progress, it was also a
time of organising major economic and world exhibitions.
46 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Jasenka Kranjevi Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
like had wwi not broken out a year after the exhibi-
tion can only be assumed.
Ministry of Public Works
The entire east coast of the Adriatic, owing to its
favourable climate, rich cultural, and natural heritage,
cheap land for construction and poor economic de-
velopment, possessed all the prerequisites for tourism
development. All statistical data (tourism figures) lead
to the conclusion that the end of the 19th and the be-
ginning of the 20th century was the time of dazzling
tourism development.
The Ministry of Public Works also became in-
volved in tourismdevelopment as well as in improving
economic conditions inDalmatia. It commissioned ar-
chitect Alfred Keller (1911 to 1913) to make projects for
hotels in Susak, Trogir, Split, Dubrovnik, and Trsteno,
and architect Wilhelm Jelinek to make a project for
Makarska (Kranjčević, 2013; Kranjčević, 2016a). Hotel
projects by Alfred Keller were again discussed dur-
ing wwi, in 1916 in journalsDer Architekt andWiener
Bauindustrie Zeitung (V. F., 1916, 1918), given that these
cases did not concern exclusive hotels but rather the
category of hotels for the wider public.
His projects were discussed even a decade after the
end of the war in the journal Jugoslovenski turizam
[Yugoslav tourism] (Ćulić, 1928).
The First Impact of War on Tourism Turnover
on the Eastern Adriatic Coast
Only two and a half weeks after the Austro-Hungarian
Empire had officially declaredwar on Serbia on 28 July
1914, passenger ship traffic on the Adriatic Sea suffered
a harsh blow. Baron Gauctsch, a passenger ship sail-
ing on the Trieste–Kotor–Trieste express route, ran
into a minefield near the Brijuni Islands on 13 Au-
gust 1914. Due to the high number of victims, cer-
tain shipping lines were suspended (Tudor, 2007, pp.
33–34). Navigation on the Adriatic Sea became even
more unsafe in 1915 when Italy entered the war be-
cause Italian submarines and torpedo boats started
to attack Austrian-Hungarian ships. Voyage by ship
on the Adriatic Sea suffered a significant setback, and
tourism-related voyages sharply declined.
Table 1 Number of Registered Tourists in Opatija, Lovran,
Mali Lošinj, and Veli Lošinj in 1913, 1914 and 1915
Town   
Opatija , , ,
Lovran , , –
Mali and Veli Lošinj , , –
Notes Adapted from Blažević (1987).
Table 2 Number of Registered Arrivals of Guests
in Dubrovnik, Split, Šibenik, Korčula, Rab, Hvar,
and Kotor in 1913 and 1923
Town  
Dubrovnik with Kupari , ,
Split , ,
Šibenik , ,
Korčula , ,
Rab , ,
Hvar  ,
Kotor , 
Total , ,
Notes Adapted from Golf (1929). Kotor was part of the
Austro-HungarianMonarchy until 1918, more specifically of
the Kingdom of Dalmatia. It is now part of Montenegro.
During the four-yearwar, about forty vessels owned
by Lloyd and other steamship companies were de-
stroyed or damaged on the east Adriatic coast (Tu-
dor, 2007, pp. 33–34). In short, due to unsafe naviga-
tion on the Adriatic Sea, the number of passengers on
steamers plummeted, resulting in decreased numbers
of tourists and overnight stays in tourist destinations.
The decline in tourism turnover could not have re-
covered for many years after the war (Table 2).
Unbuilt Hotel Projects
A prerequisite for the construction of hotels and other
types of buildings for entertainment and leisure is the
construction of transport and technical infrastructure
(railways, roads, ports, water supply, sewage, electric-
ity, telephone, etc.). The construction of a hotel is
known to be a complex and long-term job because
it is necessary to design the project, secure land, build
traffic and technical infrastructure, among other en-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 47
Jasenka Kranjevi Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
Figure 3 Project for Hotel in Crikvenica (Prokop, 1897, p.
6)
Figure 4 Project for Hotel in Dalmatia, Unknown
Location (Band, 1910)
deavours. The Society for Economic Development of
Dalmatia, founded in Vienna in 1894 (Piplović, 2011),
commissioned architects to prepare hotel projects to
attract investors and reduce resistance by municipali-
ties. Numerous reasons exist why some hotel projects
remain unbuilt. Some projects were not realised be-
cause there were no more interested investors or the
investors gave up because the infrastructure was not
developed at certain locations. Then, there is also a ho-
tel project by an unknown architect for an unknown
location in Dalmatia whose drafting was inspired by
the Society for Economic Development of Dalmatia
(Band, 1910).
Problems about making a project for hotels often
lead to debates in architectural journals (Lux, 1909).
Therefore, just before the GreatWar, several urban
and architectural competitions were held and master
plans and architectural projects elaborated, aiming to
reconcile thewishes of investors and the possibilities of
the local community (Opatija, Rab, Korčula, Lošinj).
Constant increases in the number of tourists called
for a corresponding increase in hotel room capacity.
In Opatija, the famous Austro-Hungarian health
resort, by the sea, Österreichische Riviera Gesellschaft
[Austrian Riviera Society] planned to build a spa ho-
tel palace and announced an architectural competi-
tion in 1911/1912. The first prize was awarded to archi-
tects Hoppe, Schönthal, and Kammerer in collabora-
tion with Professor Otto Prutscher. The layout area of
the spa palace was to be 11,500 m2. As it was a huge in-
vestment, only earthworks were carried out while the
spa palace-hotel was never built. The size of the invest-
ment is evident from the fact that the sea was filled
with 79,500 m2 of material to obtain a surface area of
26,000 m2 (Kranjčević, 2016a).
The second unbuilt hotel project in Opatija is a ho-
tel on six floors from 1914 by the already mentioned
Viennese architectural trio of Hoppe, Schönthal, and
Kammerer. Unlike the previous project, the facade of
this hotel was to be simpler, that is, designed more ra-
tionally (Boyd Whyte, 1989).
Because of the increase in nautical tourism inOpa-
tija (before wwi), a nautical centre was planned for
building by August Belohlavek in 1916 (Belohlavek,
1919). This building was never built.
Likewise, in Dobrika Bay on the island of Veliki
Brijun, a hotel project from 1915 by architect Eduard
Kramer and investor Paul Kupelwieser also remained
unbuilt (Kranjčević, 2016b). This hotel on five floors
was designed to havemore than 100 rooms, which was
a huge investment for Croatia at the time (np Brijuni).
After an architectural competition was held for the
building of a large hotel complex on the island of Rab
in 1914, the project by architect Karl Lehrmann went
on to be unrealised. Unfortunately, although the first
prize was awarded, the project was not realised pri-
marily due to the outbreak of the war (Kranjčević,
2016a).
One particularly interesting unbuilt project on the
east coast of the Adriatic Sea is the project by a Berlin
48 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Jasenka Kranjevi Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
Figure 5 Project for Riviera Zaratina, 1910
consortium for Borik (Puntamika) in Zadar from the
first decade of the 20th century. This project, called
‘Riviera Zaratina,’ proposed three luxury hotels, a well-
equipped sand and bathing space, hotel space specially
equipped for guests in winter, maintenance and ex-
pansion of green areas with the emphasis on the culti-
vation of Mediterranean plants.
Sadly, for Lovran (near Opatija), the 1908 project
for a multi-purpose stadium (sports competitions,
tombola, etc.) remained unbuilt (Fassbender, 1908).
This is an indicator that sports facilities were planned
for expanding the tourist services offered.
In the continental part of the Empire, discussions
were also held on the construction of new hotels in
health resorts. For Topusko (continental part of Croa-
tia), an architectural contest was announced in 1910.
Since the construction of a hotel requires many years
of preparation, the project was not realised.
Research on unbuilt hotels is certainly just one of
the segments that can be used to track the impact of
wwi at the then turbulent development of tourism.
Military Spa Resorts and Hotels as Hospitals
for Wounded Soldiers in World War I
Along with ‘civil’ spa houses (Kurhaus) on the east
coast of the Adriatic Sea, military spa resorts were also
built under the auspices of the White Cross Associa-
tion. This association built and/or renovated and re-
furbished military spa resorts in Opatija in 1888 and
Čikat on the island of Lošinj in 1907. During the war,
in 1916, a new military spa resort Kaiserin Zita Of-
fizierkurhaus [Empress Zita Spa Resort for Officers]
was planned for building, with a larger capacity (60
beds) than the current one (16 beds), after a design by
architect Alois Wurm Arnkkreuz (Jahrbuch der K. K.
Gesellschaft vomWeissen Kreuze, 1917, p. 51).
The recovery of a large number of wounded sol-
diers and disabled workers required large accommo-
dation facilities, leading to many hotels being con-
verted into military spa resorts. For example, Hotel
Liburnia in Kraljevica (built in 1904) and Hotel Emi-
granti in Rijeka (built in 1908) were converted into a
military spa resort/military hospital during the war, as
well as some other hotels on the Adriatic Sea.
Discussion and Conclusions
Had the end of the 19th and the beginning of the
20th century not been marked by global development
of technology, communication, medicine and trans-
portation as well as the surplus of free time, tourism as
a new social phenomenon could certainly not have de-
veloped. Without a doubt, a great impetus to tourism
development at the beginning of the 20th century
came from organised tourism propaganda and the-
matic tourism or economic exhibitions.
The rise of tourism in the Austro-Hungarian Em-
pire, and thus also on the Croatian Adriatic coast,
should be considered in the context of global tourism
development, not just through talc.
There is no doubt that the staggering tourism de-
velopment before wwi, manifested through a sud-
den growth in tourism figures, the construction of
tourism architecture and traffic, had the features of
mass tourism from the very beginnings.
Likewise, there is no doubt that the staggering
tourism development before wwi in the world, as
well as on the Croatian Adriatic coast, caused the be-
ginning of the spatial transformation of the Croat-
ian Adriatic coast. A constantly increasing number of
tourist arrivals called for (demanded) the construction
of previously unknown types of buildings, such as ho-
tels, villas, guesthouses, restaurants, and other build-
ings of tourism architecture that, in turn, required spe-
cific infrastructure (electric power stations, a water
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 49
Jasenka Kranjevi Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
Table 3 List of Some of the Unbuilt Hotel Projects on the Croatian Adriatic Coast
Towns Type of hotels Architect Investor
Crikvenica Hotel Palace, 1896 Arnold Lotz (Prokop, 1897) –
Brijuni Hotel, 1914 Eduard Kramer Paul Kupelwieser
Dubrovnik 1911–1913 Alfred Keller Society for Economic
Development of Dalmatia
Kupari, Dubrovnik Hotel Resort Jiři Stibral and Alois Zima Czech consortium
Lošinj Spa resort for royal and state
officials, 1909
Alexander Krasza 1909.
Opatija Hotel Palace 1911/1912. Hoppe, Schönthal, and
Kammerer
Österreichische Riviera
Geselschaft
Hotel 1914 Hoppe, Schönthal, and
Kammerer
–
Nautical Centre, 1916 Johan August Belohlavaek –
Rab Hotel Resort Karl Lehrmann –
Makarska Hotel, 1911–1913 Wilhelm Jelinek Society for Economic
Development of Dalmatia
Split Hotel Palast, 1911–1913 Alfred Keller Ministry of Public Works
Susak Spa hotel (kurhaus) Alfred Keller Ministry of Public Works
Trogir Hotel, 1911–1913 Alfred Keller Ministry of Public Works
Trsteno Tourist Resort (hotel and villas)
1911–1913
Alfred Keller Society for Economic
Development of Dalmatia
Unknown location Hotel for Dalmatia From book (Band, 1910) –
Unknown location Prototype of the hotel Dalmatia Adriatic exh. in Vienna 1913 Ministry of Public Works
Zadar Riviera Zaratina 1904 T. Jaffé German consortium
supply network, roads, a railway network, parks, etc.).
Numerous destinations put significant effort into be-
ing known on the tourism market.
The issue of new trends in shaping tourism ar-
chitecture on a global scale before wwi became in-
creasingly pronounced. The inflow of capital into the
tourism sector required ever faster and simpler con-
struction,6 as tourism encompassed increasingly wi-
der layers of society.
Although the Croatian coastal area was econom-
ically underdeveloped, from the end of the 19th and
6As new time demanded a new approach to architecture, it is
not unusual for Adolf Loos to publish essays ‘Ornament and
Crime’ 1906–1909 in which he advocated building buildings
without ornamentation.
at the beginning of the 20th century, tourism together
with planned industry and agriculture development
was supposed to facilitate its modernisation, and the
coast was to become a serious competitor to Italian
and French tourism (Piplović, 2011).
The suspension of investment at the beginning of
World War I referred not only to the construction of
hotels but also to the construction of the railway net-
work, ports, and other facilities used in tourism.
Investments in tourism required attractive loca-
tions for which adequate land and labour force had
to be secured, and therefore their realisation certainly
required time. Quite quickly, the narrow coastal strip
become a large construction site. wwi did not put a
stop to tourism development only on the coast, but
also in the continental part of Croatia.
50 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Jasenka Kranjevi Tourism on the Croatian Adriatic Coast and World War I
Given the boom in tourism on the Croatian coast
in the early 20th century,WorldWar I as a global event
heavily impacted investments in tourism and, in turn,
in the economy. This interruption in the development
of tourism undoubtedly influenced the change in the
relationship between tourism and space.
We can only hypothesise as to what the Croatian
coast would have looked like had at least the major-
ity of the presented hotels been built. The Croatian
Riviera would have certainly appeared different than
it does now, and the attitude towards tourism would
have undoubtedly been different as well.
This means that talc cannot be observed only
through the prism of the destination, but should be
viewed through the prism of the impact of global
changes that have had a substantial impact on the his-
tory of tourism, changes in trends in tourism (supply
and demand), the development of destination tourism
and thus also on tourism architecture.
Although at the beginning of the 20th century,
there were indications of changes in architectural de-
sign and thus the design of tourism architecture, the
approach to tourism architecture design undoubtedly
changed after wwi.
While archival material about unbuilt tourism ar-
chitecture was viewed here as material for consider-
ing the impact of global changes on tourism, undoubt-
edly this archivalmaterialmay be used to contribute to
the rethinking of thismaterial as architectural tourism
heritage and presentation of this type of heritage.
Tourism recovery on the Croatian coast after wwi
was relatively slow. While there is archival material
about unbuilt tourism architecture as a resource for
reflecting on the impact of global changes on tourism,
thismaterial can serve as a contribution to the rethink-
ing of this material such as architectural tourism her-
itage and presentation of this type of heritage.
Acknowledgments
This work has been supported in part by the Croatian
Science Foundation under the project heru-2032.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommen-
dations expressed in this material are those of the author
and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Croatian
Science Foundation.
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Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 53

Original Scientific Article
Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related
Expenditure by Travel Purpose: The Case of Japan
Kenichi Shimamoto
Konan University, Hirao School of Management, Japan
ken_japan51@hotmail.com
Addressing seasonality for the travel industry has been a challenge for many tourist
destinations. Japan is no exception, and with its recent focus on developing into a
tourism nation, it has become even more critical to understand seasonality trends.
Methods to address seasonality, such as differential pricing, diversified attraction,
market diversification, and facilitation by the state will require the segmentation of
the market to form appropriate strategies. Therefore, to provide insight into the sea-
sonality of different markets, this paper categorises the travel-related expenditure
into six consumption items for three travel purposes: holiday travel, visiting friends
and relatives (vfr) travel, and business travel. It examines the trends and characteris-
tics of the seasonality and the fluctuation across the fiscal years from 2010 to 2017 for
domestic travel in Japan. The results show that amongst all three travel purposes, the
consumption items with relatively low seasonality and fluctuation across the obser-
vation period with stable highest and lowest expenditure months over the years, are
shopping/travel gifts expenditure for holiday travel; transportation and food/drink
expenditure for vfr travel; and transportation expenditure for business travel. In
contrast, the consumption items across the travel purposes with relatively signifi-
cant seasonality and inconsistent highest and lowest expenditure months over the
years are package holidays/tours expenditure and attraction/entrance expenditure
for vfr and business travel; and accommodation expenditure for business travel.
Keywords: tourism seasonality, consumption items, travel purpose, Japan
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.55-72
Introduction
Tourism is an attractive industry with the significant
impact it can have on the economy through not only
the additional income but also the effect it can have on
a wide range of industries. Japan has been introducing
policies to encourage inbound travel alongside the re-
inforcement of domestic tourismby Japanese residents
with the aim of becoming a tourism nation.
One phenomenon that has been widely studied is
the seasonality aspect of tourism. The influential work
by Bar-On (1975) provides a comprehensive study of 16
countries over 17 years. Bar-On (1975) and Hartmann
(1986) identify the leading causes of seasonality as nat-
ural factors and institutional factors. Natural factors
include climate, such as the duration of daylight, as
well as the amounts of sunshine, rain, and snow, which
are difficult to overcome (Hartmann, 1986; Lundtorp,
Rassing, &Wanhill, 1999). Institutional factors include
public and school holidays, which are affected by so-
cial factors, such as religion and culture (Hartmann,
1986; Allcock, 1989; Butler, 1994; 2001; Hinch & Jack-
son, 2000). Butler andMao (1997) suggest that the age-
ing society may affect seasonal patterns in the future
since they are less restricted in planning their travels.
This is identified in a number of literature resources
as an essential segment for countries, such as Sweden
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 55
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
(Gustafson, 2002) and areas such as southern Europe
(Williams, King, Warnes, & Patterson 2000).
The adverse effects of tourism seasonality on the
economy have also been researched (Bar-On, 1975;
Murphy, 1981; Go, 1990; Lockwood & Guerrier, 1990;
Snepenger, Houser, & Snepenger, 1990; Faulkner &
Tideswell, 1997). Some of the economic impacts of
having an off-peak and peak times are the underutili-
sation and the overuse of the available capacity, which
affects employment and capital investment (Nadal,
Riera-Font, & Rossello, 2004). The inefficient use of
resources and facilities often causes loss of profit (Sut-
cliffe & Sinclair, 1980; Manning & Powers, 1984), and
the heavy reliance on the business during the peak
seasons makes it difficult to attract investors from the
private sector, which then may require public support
(Mathieson&Wall, 1982). The impact on accommoda-
tion and occupancy rate has also been discussed (Jef-
frey & Barden, 1999; Jeffrey, Barden, Buckley, & Hub-
bard, 2002; Fernández-Morales & Mayorga-Toledano,
2008; De Cantis, Ferrante, & Vaccina, 2011). The sea-
sonality impact on employment has been frequently
studied (e.g., Ball, 1988; Aswhorth & Thomas, 1999;
Krakover, 2000; Jolliffe & Farnsworth, 2003; Getz &
Nilsson, 2004).
There are also the social-cultural effects on tourists
and host destinations. Peak periods can cause con-
gestion and overcrowding of facilities, increase costs,
and reduce the quality of services, which impacts both
tourists and local residents (Hinch & Jackson, 2000;
Kennedy & Deegan, 2001). A higher number of peo-
ple could also lead to an increase in crime during peak
seasons (Mathieson & Wall, 1982). Extra facilities and
services such as public toilets, parking, and police may
be required. In this way, it has been argued that the
socio-cultural impacts put a strain on the social car-
rying capacity (Manning & Powers, 1984). There are
similar arguments concerning the environmental im-
pacts during the peak time, which could also impact
the carrying capacity of the environment (Manning &
Powers, 1984).
Considering the broad impact that seasonality has
on the economy, society, and the environment and
that the need to forecast tourism requires the under-
standing of the stability or instability of seasonality,
there are extensive studies that measure it to under-
stand the trends across many tourist destinations. For
example, Fernandez-Morales, Cisneros-Martinez, and
McCabe (2016) examine the seasonality of the num-
ber of tourists in the uk by using the Gini coefficient.
Duro (2016) analyses the trend of the seasonality of
the number of overnight stays in Spain, also by util-
ising the Gini coefficient. Coshall, Charlesworth, and
Page (2015) examine the inbound tourists’ trend for
vfr travel and holiday travel in Scotland. Moreover,
Juganaru, Aivaz, and Juganaru (2017) investigate the
seasonality trends, comparing Romania and other eu
countries, applying the mobile average method and
Struck method, for travel with overnight stays. A re-
cent study on tourism seasonality in Spain by Turrión-
Prats and Duro (2018) examines the impact of prices,
exchange rates, and income levels.
In these examples, studies on seasonality have been
conducted for various regions. However, the seasonal-
ity study focused on Japan is not well documented ex-
cept for the study byOi (2013; 2016). Oi (2016) analyses
the seasonality trends for domestic travel, examining
the number of tourists by categorising them into occu-
pational segments. Studying the number of overnight
stays, Oi (2013) analyses the seasonality and identifies
two types of tourists: tourists with the highmotivation
of leisure travel and tourists with the lowmotivation of
leisure travel for each region of Japan.
Possible solutions to address tourism seasonality
have also been well documented in previous studies.
The strategies to address seasonality impacts sum-
marised by Lee, Bergin-Seers, Galloway, O’Mahony,
and McMurray (2008) are differential pricing, diver-
sified attraction, market diversification, and facilita-
tion by the state. Differential pricing includes the in-
troduction of seasonal or promotional prices or of-
fers to increase or discourage visitation (Commons &
Page, 2001; Jang, 2004; Jeffery & Barden, 1999). Butler
(2001) suggests the closure of businesses during off-
peak season to reduce operational costs. Suggestions
for diversified attraction include the hosting of festi-
vals and events, such as sports in low seasons or the
development of new attractions and facilities (Witt &
Moutinho, 1995; Higham & Hinch, 2002; Goulding,
Baum, & Morrison, 2004). Off-season holiday pack-
56 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
ages and complementary offers and diversifying into
niche products or services are also suggested (Jeffery
& Barden, 1999; Witt & Moutinho, 1995; Goulding
et al., 2004; Jang, 2004). Approaches identified for
market diversification include marketing campaigns
to attract different markets during different periods
(Witt &Moutinho, 1995), the determination of the op-
timal segmentmix (Jang, 2004) and aligning with tour
operators and travel agents (Jeffery & Barden, 1999).
Areas recommended for facilitation by the state in-
clude the staggering of holidays, initiatives to increase
and encourage flexibility in the labour market, and the
provision of financial support such as loans, subsidies
and tax concessions (Witt & Moutinho, 1995; Gould-
ing, et al., 2004; Krakover, 2000; Baum & Hagen,
1999).
To develop such strategies, the segmentation of the
market will be necessary. Therefore, in order to pro-
vide insight into the seasonality of the different mar-
kets, this paper categorises the travel-related expendi-
ture into consumption items for holiday travel, vfr
travel and business travel. The most frequent mea-
surement unit of seasonality is the number of visitors
(Lundtorp, 2001). Other units include the number of
arrivals or departures, the number of overnight stays,
the length of stay, and the expenditures of the visitors
(Koc & Altinay, 2007; Karamustafa & Ulama, 2010;
Duro, 2018; Šegota & Mihalič, 2018). However, sea-
sonality research based on a range of travel-related
expenditures is limited.
For Japan, such studies do not exist and, to the
best of my knowledge, a study of the seasonality on
the different types of travel purpose has not been con-
ducted. This paper applies severalmethods to examine
the trends and characteristics of the seasonality and
the fluctuation across the fiscal years between 2010
and 2017 for domestic travel in Japan. It also exam-
ines the consistency of the highest and lowest expen-
diture months over the observation period for each
consumption item and travel purpose.
The structure of this paper is as follows. The next
section will describe the methods and data, and in the
third section, we will analyse the seasonality and the
fluctuation and the consistency of the highest and low-
est expenditure months across the fiscal years for each
travel purpose and each consumption item. The fourth
section will summarise the main results, followed by a
discussion section regarding policy implications. The
conclusion is provided at the end.
Methods and Data
The data applied are the domestic travel-related ex-
penditure by Japan residents for each consumption
item for each type of travel purpose from the JapanNa-
tional Tourism Survey from the Japan Tourism Agen-
cy for the period from 2010 to 2017 (http://www.mlit
.go.jp/kankocho/siryou/toukei/shouhidoukou.html?).
The Japan National Tourism Survey is a survey sent
twice a year to a random sampling of 2.5 million
residents in Japan (from the Basic Residents Reg-
istry). The total domestic travel expenditure is ob-
tained by the sum of the domestic travel expendi-
ture with overnight stays and the domestic travel ex-
penditure without such stays. There are three travel
purposes identified: holiday, vfr, and business. The
six consumption items for the travel expenditures are:
package holiday and tours expenses (package); trans-
portation expenses (transportation); accommodation
expenses (accommodation): food and drink expenses
(food&drink); shopping and ‘omiyage (travel gifts)’
expenses (souvenir); and entrance and attraction ex-
penses (attraction).
As an indicator for seasonality, the coefficient of
variation (cv) will first be adopted. The cv is calcu-
lated by dividing the standard deviationwith themean
in order to address the problem in which the variance
depends on themean. Thus, the equation is as follows.
cv =
1
p
i μt
√
1
n
∑
(pi ym,t −pi μt)2 =
p
iσt
p
i μt
. (1)
i refers to each consumption item. p denotes the pur-
pose of travel, which is classified as holiday, vfr, and
business. m represents months. t is fiscal year, pi ym,t is
the domestic travel-related expenditure by Japan res-
idents for a given month of a fiscal year for a specific
consumption item for each travel purpose. pi μt repre-
sents the mean monthly domestic travel-related ex-
penditure by Japan residents for a specific fiscal year
for each consumption item by travel purpose. n repre-
sents the number of months.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 57
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
As the second indicator of seasonality, the stan-
dard deviation of logarithms (sdl)will be utilised. The
equation is as follows.
sdl =
√
1
n
∑
(lnpi ym,t − lnpi μt)2. (2)
The logarithmic conversion enables an analysis of
fluctuations between months with low expenditure.
This indicator is also not dependent on a unit since it
is free from absolute values.
As the third indicator, we adopt the relative mean
deviation (rmd), which can be represented as follows.
rmd =
1
npi μt
∑
|pi μt −pi ym,t |. (3)
The numerator of the right-hand side of equation
(3) represents the difference between pi ym,t, the domes-
tic travel-related expenditure by Japan residents for a
given month of a fiscal year for a specific consump-
tion item for each travel purpose and pi μt, the mean
monthly domestic travel-related expenditure by Japan
residents for a given fiscal year for each consumption
item for each travel purpose, which is measured in ab-
solute values. As in the case with cv, in order for the
indicator to not depend on the mean, it is divided by
p
i μt. Therefore, this represents the relative dispersity
of domestic travel-related expenditure by Japan resi-
dents, which is measured in absolute values. If the do-
mestic travel-related expenditure for Japan residents
each month is equivalent, then the indicator is 0. In
contrast, if the expenditure for one month completely
makes up the entire annual expenditure, the indicator
will be 2(n − 1)/n. Thus, the smaller the indicator, the
smaller the dispersity between the months. However,
since this indicator relies on the absolute value differ-
ence of themonthly travel-related expenditure and the
mean monthly travel-related expenditure, it is unre-
sponsive to changes amongst months taht are above
or below the mean (Sen, 1973).
The fourth indicator applied to overcome this chal-
lenge is theGini coefficient. The indicator is defined as
follows. Suppose that the number of months in a year
is, n, the domestic travel-related expenditure by Japan
residents for a given month of a fiscal year for a spe-
cific consumption item for each travel purpose is pi ym,t
and the mean monthly domestic travel-related expen-
diture by Japan residents for a given fiscal year for each
consumption item by travel purpose is pi μt. Then, the
order from the smallest monthly expenditure would
be, i.e. pi ym=1st,t ≤ pi ym=2nd,t ≤ pi ym=3rd,t · · ·. From the
above, the Gini coefficient is represented as follows.
gini =
1
2n2 pi μt
∑∑
|pi ym,t −pi yl,t |. (4)
Here, the Gini coefficient represents the ratio be-
tween themean annual domestic travel-related expen-
diture and the mean of the absolute value difference
between travel-related expenditures of two randomly
selected months, m, l. Based on this indicator, if the
distribution of the domestic travel-related expendi-
ture for each month is entirely equivalent, gini is 0.
In contrast, if the domestic travel-related expenditure
is concentrated in one month and the other n − 1
months have no expenditure, gini becomes 1. The
characteristic of the Gini coefficient is its sensitivity to
central observations, giving greater weight to changes
that occur in the months situated around the mode
of monthly distribution (Duro, 2016; Turrión-Prats &
Duro, 2018).
Next, as the indicator of seasonality, the Theil in-
dex, which incorporates the entropy concept to in-
formation theory, is applied. The index utilises the
characteristics that the maximum value of entropy
is attained by a uniformly distributed random vari-
able. According to this index, the larger the difference
between the maximum value and the entropy of the
domestic travel-related expenditure is, the larger the
dispersity. The Theil index can be represented as fol-
lows.
ti =
1
n
∑ p
i ym,t
p
i μt
⎛⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝ln
p
i ym,t
p
i μt
⎞⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠
=
1
n
∑
p
i μtln
1
p
i μt
−
∑
p
i ym,tln
1
p
i ym,t
. (5)
Results
Seasonality for Each Consumption Item
by Travel Purpose
For each travel purpose, seasonality will be examined
for each consumption item for each of the fiscal years
58 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(a) Package
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(b) Transportation
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(c) Accommodation
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(d) Food&Drink
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(e) Souvenir
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(f) Attraction
Figure 1 Seasonality Fluctuation for Holiday Travel
Notes Light gray – relative mean deviation, dark gray – coefficient of variation, dark gray dashed – standard deviation of
logs, black – Gini coefficient, black dashed – Theil entropy measure.
observed. The seasonality indicator results from each
analysis will be examined in the following figures. The
first travel purpose reviewed is holiday travel. Figure
1(a) shows that, regarding package for holiday travel,
most indicators peak in 2011 and then decrease until
2014, followed by a gradually increasing trend. Next,
from Figure 1(b), the transportation results show that
all indicators slightly peak in 2011 and gently decrease
until 2014, followed by an increase and decrease for
every other year. Figure 1(c) indicates that for accom-
modation, most indicators slightly decline from 2011
to 2016 and then increase in 2017. Figure 1(d) indicates
that all indicators for food&drink show a modest de-
cline and then an increase in 2017. The results for sou-
venir in Figure 1(e) show a gentle U shape for almost
all indicators. The overall fluctuations are not large.
Figure 1(f) indicates that for attraction the fluctuations
between the years are rather large, with all indicators
increasing and decreasing every other year.
Next, with regards to vfr travel, the results for
each consumption item are as follows. Figure 2(a)
shows that for package, most indicators drop in 2011
and then peak in 2013 and 2016, indicating large fluc-
tuations in the seasonality across the fiscal years. Next,
from Figure 2(b), the results for transportation show
limited fluctuations for all indicators except for in-
creases in 2017. Figure 2(c) indicates a declining trend
for accommodation with large fluctuations for most
indicators. Figure 2(d) shows that most indicators for
food&drink show slight fluctuations with increases in
2017. For most souvenir indicators, Figure 2(e) shows
some small fluctuations over the years, with increases
in 2017. Figure 2(f) indicates that all indicators for at-
traction decline in 2011 and peak in 2012 and 2015 and
most remain flat after that.
Finally, wewill review the trends for business travel.
The indicators for package in Figure 3(a) show gen-
tle inverted U shapes with peaks in 2012 and declines
ending in 2014. They then increase for most indica-
tors. Moreover, the fluctuations in seasonality over the
observation period are large. Next, from Figure 3(b),
the results for transportation show gradual increas-
ing trends for most indicators, though the seasonality
fluctuations over the years are very small. Figure 3(c)
shows large fluctuations across the years for accom-
modation with drops in 2011 and 2014 and peaks in
2013 and 2016 for all indicators. Figure 3(d) indicates
that for food&drink almost all indicators show grad-
ual increasing trends with peaks in 2014. Figure 3(e)
indicates that for souvenir, all indicators show a slight
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 59
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(a) Package
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(b) Transportation
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(c) Accommodation
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(d) Food&Drink
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(e) Souvenir
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(f) Attraction
Figure 2 Seasonality Fluctuation for vfr Travel
Notes Light gray – relative mean deviation, dark gray – coefficient of variation, dark gray dashed – standard deviation of
logs, black – Gini coefficient, black dashed – Theil entropy measure.
decrease in 2011 and a gradual increase after that with a
large increase in 2017. The results are large fluctuations
in seasonality over the observation period. Figure 3(f)
shows fluctuations for attraction with drops in 2011,
followed by inverted U shapes with peaks in 2013 and
ending in 2016 with large increases in 2017 for most
indicators. This indicates large fluctuations in season-
ality over the observation period.
Changes to Seasonality over the Observation Period
for Each Consumption Item of Each Travel Purpose
Next, the changes in the seasonality between the first
and last fiscal year of the observation period will be
compared for holiday travel, vfr travel, and business
travel to observe whether the seasonality is increas-
ing or decreasing over the years. From Table 1, busi-
ness travel shows that for all consumption items, all
the indicators are increasing. This suggests that busi-
ness travel has not been able to reduce the seasonality
during the observation period, compared to holiday
and vfr travel. For vfr travel, the indicators have
increased in four out of the six consumption items:
transportation, food&drink, souvenir, and attraction.
However, the monthly seasonality for package and
accommodation have decreased. Concerning holiday
travel, the indicators for half of the consumption items,
package, souvenir, and attraction have increased, while
they have decreased for transportation, accommoda-
tion, and food&drink.
Since the results for the different indicators (rela-
tive mean deviation, coefficient of variation, the stan-
dard deviation of logs, Gini coefficient and Theil en-
tropy measure) on seasonality show consistently sim-
ilar trends, the remaining analysis will focus on the
Gini coefficient, which is frequently used to examine
seasonality.
The Magnitude of the Seasonality for Each
Consumption Item by Travel Purpose
over the Observation Period
Next, the magnitude of the seasonality over the obser-
vation period will be examined for each consumption
60 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(a) Package
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(b) Transportation
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(c) Accommodation
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(d) Food&Drink
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(e) Souvenir
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(f) Attraction
Figure 3 Seasonality Fluctuations for Business Travel
Notes Light gray – relative mean deviation, dark gray – coefficient of variation, dark gray dashed – standard deviation of
logs, black – Gini coefficient, black dashed – Theil entropy measure.
item by travel purpose. The mean of the Gini coeffi-
cient for the observation period will be used to deter-
mine the magnitude of the seasonality.
From Figure 4(a) and Table 2, concerning holi-
day travel, the seasonality for accommodation is the
largest amongst the six consumption items during the
observed period. This is followed by the seasonality
for transportation and food&drink. Attraction is next
in most years with souvenir and package showing the
smallest seasonality. The seasonality for package is not
only low but is stable for the more recent years. This
suggests that travel agencies have been able to reduce
seasonality differences with effective group travel or
package tours throughout the year.
Next, from Table 2, as for vfr travel, the season-
ality for attraction is larger than others during the ob-
served period. In particular, as seen in Figure 4(b),
seasonality has been great in recent years. Table 2
shows that package has the second largest seasonal-
ity out of the six consumption items with substantial
changes by year. This is followed by accommodation
and food&drink. Figure 4(b) shows that accommo-
dation has large fluctuation in seasonality depend-
ing on the year. In contrast, Figure 4(b) shows that
food&drink seasonality is stable throughout the ob-
served years, maintaining the middle position over
the observation period. Souvenir achieves a lower level
of seasonality in the more recent years, achieving one
of the lowest positions.Transportationmaintains a low
position throughout the observation period withmin-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 61
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
Table 1 Comparison of Seasonality between the First Year of Observation and the Last Year of Observation
Item Holiday VFR Business
Package Increase in all indicators Decrease in all indicators Increase in all indicators
Transportation Moderate decrease in all indi-
cators
Increase in all indicators Increase in all indicators
Accommodation Moderate decrease in majority
of indicators
Moderate decrease in majority
of indicators and decrease for
remaining
Increase in all indicators
Food&Drink Moderate decrease in all indi-
cators
Moderate increase in more
than half of indicators
Increase in all indicators
Souvenir Increase in all indicators Moderate increase in more
than half of indicators
Increase in all indicators
Attraction Increase in all indicators Increase in all indicators Increase in all indicators
Notes ’Majority’: 4 out of 5 indicators; ’More than half ’: 3 out of 5 indicators; ’Moderate’: The ratio of difference of each
indicator between the first year and the last year to the indicator of the last year is ±0.1.
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(a) Holiday
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(b) vfr
.
.
.
.
.
.
       
(c) Business
Figure 4 Fluctuation by Consumption Item: Gini
Notes Light gray – package, light gray dashed – transporta-
tion, gray – accommodation, gray dashed – food&drink,
black – souvenir, black dashed – attraction.
imum fluctuation over the years, which suggests the
least impact of seasonality.
With respect to business travel, Table 2 shows that
attraction has the most substantial fluctuation in sea-
sonality out of the six consumption items for the pe-
riod observed. Figure 4(c) confirms that it is also the
largest in most years. This is followed by package and
Table 2 Mean of Gini Coefficient from 2010 to 2017
Item Holiday VFR Business
Package . () . () . ()
Transportation . () . () . ()
Accommodation . () . () . ()
Food&Drink . () . () . ()
Souvenir . () . () . ()
Attraction . () . () . ()
Mean . () . () . ()
Notes Numbers in parentheses represent the rank order.
then accommodation and souvenir. Figure 4(c) shows
that the fluctuation in seasonality for accommodation
is not consistent over the years. The seasonality for
food&drink is stable for themost recent fiscal years at a
consistently low level.Transportationhas the least fluc-
tuation over the years, mostly at the lowest level. This
is similar to the results of vfr travel.
Comparing the Magnitude of the Seasonality
between Travel Purposes
Table 2 shows that the seasonality of holiday travel is
the smallest of the three travel purposes with a value of
0.134. Business travel is second with 0.156. vfr travel
is third with 0.194, suggesting that it is the most unsta-
ble.
62 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
.
.
.
.
.
       
(a) Package
.
.
.
.
.
       
(b) Transportation
.
.
.
.
.
       
(c) Accommodation
.
.
.
.
.
       
(d) Food&Drink
.
.
.
.
.
       
(e) Souvenir
.
.
.
.
.
       
(f) Attraction
Figure 5 Seasonality Trends by Consumption Item
Notes Light gray – holiday, dark gray – business, black – vfr.
Comparing Seasonality Trends between Travel
Purposes for Each Consumption Item
Next, for each consumption item, we compare the an-
nual seasonality trends for each travel purpose. Con-
cerning package, Figure 5(a) shows that holiday travel
has the lowest seasonality difference during most of
the period observed. There is also an indication that
the fluctuations across the fiscal years are limited for
holiday travel.
In contrast, the difference in seasonality is high for
business and vfr travel, and the fluctuations across
the fiscal years are large for both. Hence, depending
on the year, business travel or vfr travelmay have the
largest seasonality.
Next, concerning transportation, Figure 5(b) indi-
cates that business travel consistently has the least sea-
sonality impact out of the three travel purposes for
the period observed. It also shows that the fluctuations
across the fiscal years for business travel are limited.
Holiday travel appears second concerning the level of
seasonality. Seasonality for vfr travel is the greatest
for most of the period observed and is consistently
high over the years.
With respect to accommodation, Figure 5(c) shows
that holiday travel is mostly in second place concern-
ing seasonality for most of the years, and the seasonal-
ity is stable across the period observed. Business travel
and vfr travel show large changes in the order of sea-
sonality. Business travel often shows the lowest season-
ality, but it appears as the highest twice, showing large
fluctuations depending on the year. vfr travel often
shows the largest seasonality, but it appears as the low-
est twice, which represents large changes in seasonal-
ity.
With regard to food&drink, Figure 5(d) shows that
the seasonality of vfr travel is consistently larger
than the others during the observation period and the
seasonality of business travel is smaller than the oth-
ers for most of the period. The seasonality for holiday
travel is the second largest and stable over the years
observed.
As for souvenir, Figure 5(e) indicates that the sea-
sonality of holiday travel is smaller than others for
most of the period observed, and the fluctuations
across the fiscal years are small. The seasonality of
business travel starts at the lowest level of the three
travel purposes, but shows an increasing trend, end-
ing with the highest level of seasonality. Excluding the
last two years, vfr travel shows the greatest season-
ality over the years.
Concerning attraction, Figure 5(f) shows that the
seasonality for business travel tends to increase. The
seasonality of vfr travel is larger than others formost
of the period observed. The seasonality of holiday
travel is relatively small and alternates between an in-
crease and decrease every year,
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 63
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
Table 3 Spearman’s Rank Correlation Test:
Mean of Gini Coefficient
Item Holiday vs
VFR
Holiday vs
Business
VFR vs
Business
Spearman’s rho –. –. .
Pro. > |t| . . .
N   
Seasonality Characteristics for Each Consumption
Item by Travel Purpose
Next, the similarities between seasonality for the dif-
ferent travel purposes for each consumption item and
their characteristics will be observed. Table 2 shows
that the seasonality for souvenir is relatively small and
stable compared to the other consumption items for
each of the travel purposes. In contrast, Table 3 shows
that the seasonality for accommodation is substantial
in all of the travel purposes.
According to Spearman’s rank correlation coeffi-
cient of Table 3, the rank for the seasonality of the
consumption items for business travel and that of vfr
travel are significantly positively correlated, suggest-
ing that they are similar. For instance, in Table 2, the
seasonality for attraction and package for both busi-
ness and vfr travel are significant and, thus, unstable.
In contrast, the seasonality for transportation for both
business and vfr travel are smaller and more stable
than the others.Moreover, Table 3 shows that the rank-
ing between the seasonality for consumption items of
holiday travel and vfr/business travel are negatively
correlated, suggesting that they have opposite results.
However, it should be noted that the correlation is not
significant.
The Fluctuation of the Seasonality for Each
Consumption Item for Each Travel Purpose over the
Observation Period
Next, in order to observe the fluctuation of the season-
ality during the observation period, the standard devi-
ation of the Gini coefficient will be measured for each
consumption item.1 The aim is to examine whether
1Due to limitation of space, the results on the fluctuation of
the seasonal range have been omitted due to similar results
Table 4 Standard Deviation of Gini Coefficient between
2010 and 2017
Item Holiday VFR Business
Package . () . () . ()
Transportation . () . () . ()
Accommodation . () . () . ()
Food&Drink . () . () . ()
Souvenir . () . () . ()
Attraction . () . () . ()
Mean . () . () . ()
Notes Numbers in parentheses represent the rank order.
the year-to-year fluctuations of the seasonality of con-
sumption items for each fiscal year are large. The con-
firmation of such trends will aid in understanding the
stability and predictability of the market.
First of all, Table 4 indicates that, concerning holi-
day travel, the order of fluctuation over the fiscal years
concerning the seasonality of the expenditure, starting
from the largest, is attraction, accommodation, pack-
age, transportation, souvenir, and food&drink.With re-
spect to holiday travel, the fluctuations of the season-
ality for food&drink (0.013) and souvenir (0.016) are
particularly small, and attraction (0.020) and accom-
modation (0.019) are relatively large for holiday travel.
The mean of the fluctuations of the seasonality of all
consumption items for holiday travel is smaller than
those of the other travel purposes and is the most sta-
ble.
Next, concerning business travel, Table 4 shows
that the order of seasonality fluctuation amongst the
fiscal years, starting from the largest, is attraction,
souvenir, package, accommodation, food&drink, and
transportation. In particular, attraction (0.102), sou-
venir (0.059), and package (0.056) are large. Com-
pared to the seasonality fluctuations for all consump-
tion items for holiday and vfr travel, business travel
shows a relatively large fluctuation for all consumption
items, excluding transportation. The fluctuation for
attraction, souvenir, and package are especially large,
which means there are opportunities to address the
obtained from the standard deviation. Results can be pro-
vided upon request.
64 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
seasonality in business travel for these areas. Finally,
concerning vfr travel, Table 4 indicates that the sea-
sonality fluctuation amongst the fiscal years, in or-
der of size, is package, accommodation, attraction, sou-
venir, food&drink, and transportation. In order to re-
duce the seasonality in vfr travel, consumption items
with the largest fluctuation, such as package (0.046)
and accommodation (0.045), will need to be priori-
tised.
The Seasonality Fluctuation for Total Travel
Expenditure by Travel Purpose
across the Observation Period
From Table 4, the fluctuation amongst the fiscal years
concerning seasonality of the total travel expenditure
for holiday travel shows the lowest level of fluctuation
and that it is the most stable over the observation pe-
riod with a value of 0.017. The second is vfr travel
with a value of 0.033. The third is business travel with
a value of 0.051, suggesting that it is the most unpre-
dictable of the three travel purposes. Hence, business
travel is where there are the most significant oppor-
tunities to reduce the seasonality fluctuations and de-
velop a more stable market.
Characteristics of the Seasonality Fluctuation for Each
Consumption Item across the Observation Period
for Each Travel Purpose
Next, concerning the fluctuation of seasonality across
the fiscal years for each consumption item by travel
purpose will be examined for similarities and char-
acteristics. Table 4 shows that the seasonality fluctua-
tions across the fiscal years for attraction and package
are significant in each of the travel purposes. There-
fore, these businesses could be considered unstable
and challenging from a planning perspective. In con-
trast, Table 4 shows that the seasonality fluctuation
across the fiscal years for each travel purpose is small
for transportation and food/drink. Therefore, these can
be considered to be stable in each of the travel pur-
poses. According to Spearman’s rank correlation coef-
ficient in Table 5, the rank between the seasonality of
the consumption items for holiday travel and that of
vfr travel; between that of holiday travel and that of
business travel; and between that of vfr travel and
Table 5 Spearman’s Rank Correlation Test: Standard
Deviation of Gini Coefficient
Item Holiday vs
VFR
Holiday vs
Business
VFR vs
Business
Spearman’s rho . . .
Pro. > |t| . . .
N   
that of business travel, are all positively correlated,
suggesting that they are similar. However, it should
be noted that these correlations are not significant.
Highest and Lowest Expenditure Months for Each
Consumption Item by Travel Purpose
Next, the months with the highest and lowest expen-
diture for each consumption item by travel purpose
will be examined. The primary purpose is to under-
stand the months when expenditure is concentrated
and when it is light for each consumption item and
travel purpose.
Concerning holiday travel, Table 6 shows that Au-
gust has themost significant expenditure for all the fis-
cal years observed for all consumption items exclud-
ing package. It can be assumed that this is due to Au-
gust being themonthwhenmostworkers in Japan take
their summer holidays as well as children and students
being out of school for summer. Though August does
appear to have the largest expenditure for package in
some years, others show October and November to
have the largest expenditure. This is likely to do with
autumn being a popular season to take holidays to en-
joy the autumn foliage. Concerning the month with
the smallest expenditure, Table 6 shows that Febru-
ary is the smallest month for the majority of the fiscal
years observed, for all consumption items except for
package. This may be due to February being one of the
coldest months and the shortest one.
Next, concerning vfr travel, Table 7 indicates that
August has the largest expenditure for transportation,
food&drink, souvenir, and attraction for all of the fiscal
years observed. Concerning accommodation, though
August is the largest for most years, May, which has
the GoldenWeek holiday, also appears as the largest in
some years. Concerning the month with the smallest
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 65
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
Table 6 Highest/Lowest Month: Holiday Travel
Year Category Package Transportation Accommodation Food&Drink Souvenir Attraction
Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest
 Month Aug Dec Aug Jan Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb
ac            
 Month Nov Jan Aug Feb Aug Apr Aug Mar Aug Jan Aug Feb
ac            
 Month Nov Jan Aug Jan Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Jan
ac            
 Month Nov Jan Aug Feb Aug Jan Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Apr
ac            
 Month Oct Feb Aug Feb Aug Apr Aug Jun Aug Apr Aug Feb
ac            
 Month Nov Jan Aug Jan Aug Jun Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb
ac            
 Month Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb
ac            
 Month Oct Jan Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Jan Aug Jan
ac            
Notes ac: the amount of consumption. Unit of ac: Million yen.
Table 7 Highest/Lowest Month: vfr Travel
Year Category Package Transportation Accommodation Food&Drink Souvenir Attraction
Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest
 Month Jan Sep Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Jun
ac            
 Month Jul Mar Aug Oct May Jan Aug Oct Aug Jun Aug Nov
ac            
 Month Aug Dec Aug Feb May Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb
ac            
 Month Jan Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Jul
ac            
 Month Dec Apr Aug Feb Aug Apr Aug Feb Aug Apr Aug Feb
ac            
 Month Dec Feb Aug Feb Aug Jun Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Nov
ac            
 Month Oct Mar Aug Feb Aug Jan Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Jun
ac            
 Month Jan Oct Aug Feb Aug Jul Aug Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb
ac            
Notes ac: the amount of consumption. Unit of ac: Million yen.
expenditure for vfr travel, Table 7 indicates Febru-
ary is the most frequent for all the consumption items.
In particular, the frequencies are high for transporta-
tion, food&drink, and souvenir. Package does not show
a clear largest or smallest expenditure month.
Finally, concerning business travel, Table 8 shows
66 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
Table 8 Highest/Lowest Month: Business Travel
Year Category Package Transportation Accommodation Food&Drink Souvenir Attraction
Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Highest Lowest
 Month Feb Nov Feb Aug Feb Aug Feb Oct Feb Dec Feb Nov
ac            
 Month Oct Mar Jun Jan Sep Jan Jun Apr Jul Apr Feb Sep
ac            
 Month Jul Jan May Jan Jun Jan Feb Jan Jul Jan May Dec
ac            
 Month Jul Mar Jun Jan Jan Nov Mar Aug Feb Mar Jun Dec
ac            
 Month Feb Dec Mar Aug Mar Aug May Aug Feb Apr Oct Jan
ac            
 Month Dec Feb Jun Jan Dec Oct Nov Jan Oct Jan Dec Sep
ac            
 Month Nov Apr Jun Jan Jun Jan Jul Jan Nov Mar Sep Oct
ac            
 Month May Jan Jun Feb Oct Feb Dec Jan Nov Jan Nov Aug
ac            
Notes ac: the amount of consumption. Unit of ac: Million yen.
that there is no clear largest or smallest month, except
for transportation where June is the largest month and
January the smallest.
Discussions
Themain results regarding seasonality are summarised
as follows.
• Based on total expenditure, holiday travel is found
to be the least impacted by seasonality and is the
most stable of all the travel purposes. This is fol-
lowed by business travel. Results from vfr travel
suggest that it is the most unstable of the travel
purposes. However, past studies by Fernández-
Morales, Cisneros-Martinez, andMcCabe (2016)
on the United Kingdom (uk) and by Fernández-
Morales (2017) on Spain, which compare the
seasonality of these three travel purposes, find
that holiday travel has the strongest seasonality
impact and business travel the weakest. These
studies examine the number of tourists, whereas
this paper examines travel-related expenditure,
which may be the reason for the difference, or
it could be the difference in market conditions
compared to Japan. Japan has 40–50more pub-
lic holidays than the uk and Spain do, and they
are spread out throughout the year. This suggests
that the state interventions in Japan to provide
a public holiday every month and the encour-
agement of the usage of paid holidays have been
effective in reducing seasonality and improve
productivity in the travel business (Morikawa,
2008; Yagasaki, 2015). The high seasonality in
vfr travel could be due to a social-cultural effect.
During the Bon Festival in August, the Japanese
often return to their home town.
• For each travel purpose, the seasonality for sou-
venir is relatively small and stable compared to
the other consumption items. The tradition in
Japan of giving ‘omiyage’ (travel gifts) to col-
leagues at work and neighbours may be work-
ing positively to limit seasonality in this instance.
In contrast, the seasonality for accommodation
is large and irregular. The seasonality for each
consumption item for business and vfr travel
are positively related, and thus, are similar. For
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 67
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
example, while the seasonality of attraction and
package are large and unstable, the seasonality
for transportation is the smallest and most stable
of the consumption items for both business and
vfr travel. However, holiday travel and busi-
ness/vfr travel are negatively correlated, but sta-
tistically insignificant concerning the order of the
seasonality of the consumption items.
• The main results concerning the increase/decre-
ase in seasonality for each consumption item for
the period observed are as follows.
1. Concerning business travel, the seasonality
for all the consumption items increased. For
vfr travel, the seasonality for four consump-
tion items (transportation, food&drink, sou-
venir, and attraction) increased. In contrast,
those of package and accommodation decre-
ased. Finally, concerning holiday travel, the
seasonality for half of the consumption items
(package, souvenir, and attraction) increased,
and the other half (transportation, accommo-
dation, and food&drink) decreased.
2. For all travel purposes, the seasonality of sou-
venir and attraction increased for the period
observed.
Next, the main results concerning the fluctuation
of the seasonality over the fiscal years are as follows.
• Seasonality fluctuation for holiday travel was the
smallest and the most stable, followed by vfr
travel and then business travel, which was the
greatest. All the consumption items within hol-
iday travel show the smallest fluctuation in sea-
sonality over the fiscal years compared with the
other travel purposes. In particular, the season-
ality fluctuation for food/drink and souvenir are
small. These results are slightly different from the
intra-year seasonality result forwhich vfr travel
showed the greatest seasonality. The impact on
seasonality over the observed period on business
trips may be influenced by the economy, which
may have a larger impact on seasonality. Kulen-
dran and Wilson (2000) suggest that the impact
of economic variables is essential to understand-
ing business travel.
• Concerning business travel, the seasonality fluc-
tuation for attraction, souvenir, and package are
large, indicating substantial changes in the sea-
sonality depending on the year.
• Attraction and package are substantial for each of
the travel purposes in terms of seasonality fluc-
tuations across the fiscal years. This indicates
instability and unpredictability. In contrast, the
seasonality fluctuations for transportation and
food&drink are small for each of the travel pur-
poses across the fiscal years, which make them
easier to plan.
• The seasonality fluctuation of all the consump-
tion items between holiday travel and business
travel; between holiday travel and vfr travel;
and between vfr travel and business travel are
all positively-correlated, but the results are in-
significant.
Next, themain observations concerning the largest
and the smallest expenditure months are provided be-
low.
• Concerning holiday travel, August is the month
when the expenditure is the largest and Febru-
ary is the smallest. From the details of each con-
sumption item, transportation, accommodation,
food&drink, souvenir, and attraction, the largest
expenditure month for the observation period
is August. The spending on package is high not
only in August but also during the autumn fo-
liage season of October and November. The low-
est spending on transportation, accommodation,
food&drink, souvenir, and attraction is in Febru-
ary for most of the years observed. The same
trend is seen in vfr travel, except the concen-
trations in the highest and lowest months are
not as severe. The highest month for transporta-
tion, food&drink, souvenir, and attraction is again
August during the observation period. It is also
the highest month for accommodation in most of
the years observed. February is again the low-
est month for all the consumption items. The
concentration in February is especially high for
transportation, food&drink, and souvenir. These
observations indicate that for holiday and vfr
68 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
travel, the seasonality is stable overmultiple years,
which will enable the development of a targeted
strategy. Finally, concerning business travel, the
seasonality for the largest and smallest expendi-
turemonths aremore dispersed than holiday and
vrf travel are. In particular, the largemonths are
dispersed. Since the high seasonality months are
not consistent over the years, a more flexible plan
may be required to tackle the business travelmar-
ket.
• Next, we will identify the three consumption
items for each travel purpose concerning low
seasonality and fluctuation across the period ob-
served with stable2 largest and smallest months.
These are souvenir of holiday travel, transporta-
tion and food&drink of vfr travel and trans-
portation of business travel. Since these areas are
stable and predictable within each travel purpose,
they will not be as difficult to plan and manage.
In contrast, the three consumption items across
the travel purposes with relatively significant sea-
sonality and fluctuation and inconsistent largest
and smallest months over the years, are package
and attraction of vfr and business travel and ac-
commodation of business travel. The magnitude
of the seasonality and the fluctuation across mul-
tiple years will be substantial for these areas and
the peak and off-peak months will not be con-
sistent, which suggests unpredictable businesses
whichwill bemore challenging to plan andmain-
tain.
These results that identify the areas of strong sea-
sonality suggest future research opportunities to ex-
amine the determining factors behind the strong sea-
sonality. For example, why is the seasonality impact on
souvenirs weak and why is it strong for accommoda-
tions, and why is the seasonality for the consumption
items for business and vfr travel similar? Consider-
ing that the seasonality results obtained for the three
travel purposes were not consistent with previous re-
2Definition for stable in this section is if the largest (smallest)
consumption month is consistent in five of the eight years
observed between 2010 to 2017. For years or less will be con-
sidered unstable.
search studying other countries, which examined the
number of visitors as the measurement unit of season-
ality, it would be interesting to examine whether the
results differ if the number of visitors was applied as
the unit. This would provide insight into whether the
differences are influenced by the measurement unit or
if they stem from the markets examined.
Conclusions
As Japan aims to become a large tourist nation, it fo-
cuses on inbound policies and reinforcing domestic
tourism by Japan residents. The travel industry is re-
quired to reduce the seasonality in the travel business
in order to develop amore stable business with reliable
income and to provide more stable employment. This
paper aims to provide insight into the seasonality for
each travel purpose. It analyses Japan holiday travel,
vfr travel and business travel for each travel-related
expenditure by consumption item using data for the
fiscal years from 2010 to 2017 on domestic travel by
Japan residents to observe the trends in seasonality.
These results that identify the consumption items
that have predictable and stable seasonality as well as
those that are difficult to predict and show an increas-
ing seasonality trend provide several policy implica-
tions. The observation of the different travel purposes
could assist in the development of strategies in differ-
ential pricing, diversified attraction, market diversifi-
cation and facilitation by the state to address seasonal-
ity. Since the analysis is based on the expenditure of the
various travel-related consumption items rather than
the number of visitors, it provides insight to the ar-
eas that differential pricing may be effective and may
assist in decisions concerning areas of the business
to close during the off-season to reduce operational
costs. Based on this analysis, the areas identified with
seasonality challenges include package and attraction
of vfr travel. This suggests opportunities for differ-
ential pricing of package holiday/tours expenses and
entrance/attraction expenses aimed at families dur-
ing the vfr travel off-peak seasons. Concerning the
diversification of attraction, the timing or attracting
the hosting of sport events and festivals could be con-
sidered based on the seasonality of the attraction ex-
penditure. For example, during the off-peak of vfr
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 69
Kenichi Shimamoto Examining the Seasonality of Travel-Related Expenditure
travel, attractions and events aimed at families could
be considered. Since package and attraction for busi-
ness travel were also identified as a seasonality chal-
lenge for Japan, the timing of conferences and exhibi-
tions during the off-peak seasons for business travel
may be an effective solution. Promotion to encour-
age corporate incentives and meetings during this
time and the development of packages could be con-
sidered. The analysis based on travel purposes and
a range of travel expenditure may also facilitate the
diversification of niche products and services. For ex-
ample, in order to help address the business travel ac-
commodation seasonality, the inclusivity of breakfast
buffets, which is the 2nd reason for the choice of ac-
commodation (Development Bank of Japan & Japan
Economic Research Institute Inc., 2017), could be de-
veloped as a niche product aimed for business travel.
The results of this paper also assist in identifying ar-
eas for market diversification. The observation of the
seasonality for package holidays/tours, for instance,
suggests an opportunity for tour operators and travel
agents to develop new products and services for the
vfr travel off-peak period, such as family-targeted
packages. Considering that accommodation of busi-
ness travel was also identified as an area with season-
ality challenges, there is an opportunity for lodging
and transportation businesses to cooperate and en-
courage business trips during the off-peak season for
business travel.3 This analysis could also help target
areas for state intervention. The seasonality challenge
with vfr travel identified in this analysis may be ad-
dressed with the encouragement of companies pro-
viding more flexibility to enable paid holidays to be
taken during the children’s school breaks4 or the stag-
gering of public holidays by region. The identification
of consumption items and travel purposes with sim-
ilar seasonality trends could also assist the local gov-
ernment in the development of relevant local business
partnerships as well as in targeting necessary financial
provisions such as loans and subsidies.
Granular analysis to support the segmentation of
3 jtb has introduced such packages.
4 In 2010, the Japan Tourism Agency set up the ‘Family Time
Development Project’ to support this.
the tourism market is now easier to utilise with the
development of the internet and social media. Local
businesses and destinations can target and promote to
an international niche audience. Information technol-
ogy also supports the monitoring of performance and
assists in planning differential pricing. With such pos-
sibilities in mind, this paper aims to support the ap-
propriate development of policies that encourage the
dispersity of tourism seasonality and support the sus-
tainable development of tourism.
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72 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Original Scientific Article
The Differences in Perceptions of Organisational
Values in the Hospitality Sector:
What Do They Tell Us?
Mitja Gorenak
University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Slovenia
mitja.gorenak@um.si
Organisational values have been in the focus of management for several years.
Knowing that strong values can help organisations stay on the right course in the
fast-changing working environment has proven to be a solid basis for their prosper-
ity. However, organisations are nothing without their employees; this led as to the
question of what the differences in the perception of organisational values between
employees of different ages and genders are.We have conducted research in the hos-
pitality sector; based on a paper-pencil survey among a representative sample of 388
employees, we have determined that there are six predominant organisational values
within the sector. In the second part, we have identified that two out of six identified
organisational values are statistically significantly more highly evaluated in terms of
importance by women in comparison to men. There were no statistically significant
differences found regarding the age of employees.
Keywords: values, organisational values, hospitality, demographics, perception
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.73-82
Introduction
In our rapidly changing world, the importance of
understanding organisational values is becoming in-
creasingly critical for every organisation. In the ser-
vice sector, including hospitality, this is even more
critical since this is a sector with steady economic
growth (Prevolšek, Rozman, Pažek, Maksimović, &
Potočnik Topler, 2017; Rangus & Brumen, 2016). The
hospitality sector, known for its high turnover of em-
ployees (Brown, Bosselman, & Thomas, 2016), due to
the high-paced and very demanding working envi-
ronment (Hsieh, Sönmez, Apostolopoulos, & Lemke,
2017) that is continually changing with the arrival
of new phenomena, such as the sharing economy
(Turnšek & Ladkin, 2017), will need to pay particu-
lar attention to its organisational values and how em-
ployees perceive them. Researchers (Hofstede, 1998;
Rokeach, 1968) have been researching the field of val-
ues, both on the individual and organisational levels,
for decades. There is a rather common consensus that
organisational values evolve from individual values
(Collins & Porras, 2005), while at first organisational
values are very much related to the individual values
of founding members of the organisation, later they
are influenced by all the members of the organisation.
Organisational values are an inseparable part of the or-
ganisational culture (Schein, 1985) and represent rela-
tively (Rokeach, 1973) permanent, motivational, emo-
tionally positive categories, for which people believe
that they are worth aspiring to (love, peace, friendship,
health, etc.). The answer to the question of why val-
ues are so important has been provided by Rokeach
and Ball-Rokeach (1989), who have identified values
as ‘one of the very few social psychological concepts
that have been successfully employed across all social
science disciplines.’
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 73
Mitja Gorenak The Differences in Perceptions of Organisational Values
There is no question that organisational values
serve many purposes. Hassan (2007) sees these pur-
poses in the way the organisational values set the
tone of the environment within the organisation, bind
people together, facilitate work behaviour, and help
achieve shared goals of the organisation. There is also
a theory about managing by values (Dolan & Garcia,
2002; Dolan, Garcia, & Richley, 2006) that promotes
the use of values and organisational values in manage-
ment of the organisation with the concept of reducing
formal control through trust gained through shared
values. Some research (Dearlove & Coomber, 1999)
published before the work of Dolan, Garcia, and Rich-
ley indicates that value-led companies outperform
others in both growth and revenue being up to four
times faster, creation of new jobs up to seven times
higher, growth in stock price up to twelve times higher
and profit performance up to seven and a half times
higher. Dearlove and Coomber (1999) also found that
those same organisations experienced significantly
lower employee turnover when they valued respect
and teamwork. Kač, Gorenak, and Potočan (2016) de-
termined that shared values influence trust within the
organisation in a meaningful way. With the evidence
that there is a significant influence of organisational
values on company performance, we were interested
in seeing how some general demographic differences
influence the perception of organisational values and
subsequently the performance of the individual within
the organisation. For this reason, we have set ourselves
the main research question; What are the differences
in the perception of organisational values between (a)
gender and (b) age group?
Theoretical Background
Values
Values are most commonly perceived as beliefs upon
which individuals perform their tasks (Allport, 1961)
in accordance with their personal preferences. Influ-
enced by the upbringing the individual had, the soci-
ety in which they grew up, and people with whom they
have interacted values are relatively permanent (Eng-
land, 1967). Unknown to the person, values present
their perception frames that shape and influence the
very core of individuals’ behaviour. Rokeach (1968)
sees this as representing an individual’s attitudes to-
wards how someone should or should not behave. In
his opinion, values are types of beliefs that are cen-
trally located in individuals’ system of beliefs and in-
fluence individuals’ behaviour (Rokeach, 1968). In the
field of social psychology, extensive research has also
been conducted regarding human values (Schwartz &
Bilsky, 1987), in which values are seen as beliefs or con-
ceptualisations about desired end states or behaviours
that exceed specific situations. In this sense, values di-
rect the evaluation of behaviour based on the rate of
relative importance to the individual.
The most commonly recognised classification di-
vides values into two groups (Rokeach, 1973). The first
group presents so-called instrumental values; these
are values linked to the way people work. The second
group are the so-called terminal values; these are re-
lated to the desired end state in contrast to the opera-
tional performance that is seen in instrumental values.
Within each of the two basic types of values (instru-
mental and terminal), we find two sub-categories: the
first sub-category of terminal values is personal termi-
nal values; the second sub-category is social terminal
values. This division is linked to the importance of a
value, whether it is important to the individual (salva-
tion, peace) or society (world peace, fraternity). In the
set of instrumental values, we divide these into moral
values and competence-based values. This division is
linked to the individual’s feelings, so moral values are
linked to self-perception (sense of guilt), while com-
petence values are linked to self-actualisation (logical
reasoning). Both of them can come into conflict with
themselves or between groups. Thus, an example of a
conflict of two moral values is loving behaviour and
sincere behaviour, an example of the conflict of two
competence values is imaginative and logical think-
ing, and the example of the conflict between moral
and competence values is polite behaviour and well-
founded criticism. Meglino and Ravlin (1998) have
indicated that, from an organisational perspective, a
greater focus on instrumental values as modes of be-
haviour is seen opposed to end-states of existence (ter-
minal values).
Values are also changing due to changes in the en-
vironment; in many cases, we can see changes based
74 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Mitja Gorenak The Differences in Perceptions of Organisational Values
on the changes in the economic sphere, as well as in
the social and technical spheres (Freeman,Herriges, &
Kling, 2014). Values are also highly linked to genera-
tional differences, although as Parry and Urwin (2011)
point out, the results of research focusing on differ-
ences in values based on generation are at best mixed:
some studies show obvious differences, while others
find none. We believe that, in this case, differences are
more related to the intensity of the values than the val-
ues themselves.
Personal values are the basis upon which concepts
of organisational values are presented, individuals are
the founding blocks of any organisation, and without
their personal values, there is no means of organisa-
tional values to evolve.
Organisational Values
Many authors (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Chatman &
Cha, 2003; Judge & Cable, 1997; Kenny, 1994) have
been exploring the field of organisational values in
attempts to reach a consensus about the definition of
such values. Themost common view of organisational
values is that they evolve from organisational culture;
this is generally the philosophy that an organisation
follows (Pfeiffer, Goodstein, & Nolan, 1985). Kenny
(1994) claims that just as any person or community
has his/her/its set of values the same is true for every
organisation. Given the fact that organisational cul-
ture defines expectations regarding behaviour, modes
of conduct, modes of decision-making, and styles of
communication, we can perceive organisational values
through this (Simerly, 1987).
Organisational values emerge at the beginning of
the existence of any organisation; although at the be-
ginning they may seem a bit unclear, it can be said
that they are very closely related to the personal values
of the founding members of the organisation (Pfeif-
fer et al., 1985). It is not uncommon that further in
the life of an organisation, members (usually manage-
ment) decide to define organisational values. We have
to understand that organisational values may be re-
lated to the foundingmembers at first, but later, several
things influence their evolution, such as dynamic of
growth of the company, new employees, business suc-
cess of the company, etc.Musek Lešnik (2008) explains
the need for wide-ranging and open discussion about
what the organisational values within the company
really are so that they can be identified and that the
‘trap’ of management-defined organisational values be
avoided. This was also emphasised by Cha and Ed-
mondson (2006) warning about the potential hazards
young organisations face, especially regarding organ-
isational values: when an organisation is young and
growing, ill-defined organisational values can hinder
its growth and potentially endanger its development.
Organisational values and the long-term perfor-
mance of organisations has been studied and estab-
lished by many authors (Chatman & Cha, 2003; Col-
lins, 2001; Collins & Porras, 2005; Peters,Waterman, &
Jones, 1982). More precisely, Collins and Porras (2005)
have determined that organisations with clearly stated
organisational values, which are internalised by em-
ployees, reach significantly higher performance results
in comparison to organisations with values that are
less clearly stated or not stated at all.
To understand the positive influence of organisa-
tional values on organisational performance, it is es-
sential to understand how the fit of values is achieved.
Five different theories predominate. The first is the so-
called personality-environment fit theory that evolved
from interactional theory (Lewin, 1951), in which the
fit between personal values and environmental values
is sought. The second is the theory seeking fit between
person and job (personality-job fit theory) (Holland,
1985), while the third theory focuses on the fit be-
tween the person and the organisation (personality-
organisation fit theory) (Judge & Cable, 1997); the
remaining two theories are the theory that exam-
ines the fit between a person and his or her vocation
(personality-vocational fit theory) (Hoerr, 1989) and
the theory that examines the fit between a person and
a group (personality-group fit theory) (Guzzo & Salas,
1995).
The most critical finding in this sense came from
Posner, Kouzes, and Schmidt (1985), who have empiri-
cally proven that the higher level of fit between organ-
isational and personal values is clearly shown in in-
dividuals’ positive approach to work as employees are
more satisfied when they are performing their tasks.
However, themodernworking environment is rais-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 75
Mitja Gorenak The Differences in Perceptions of Organisational Values
ing yet another issue when it comes to organisational
values: although we are creating working environ-
ments that are more and more flexible, and allow peo-
ple to work from home or while travelling, we are cre-
ating work that is increasingly complex and requires
greater cooperation, as indicated by Lee, Olson, and
Trimi (2012). Globalisation itself, carried over from
the 20th century, along with new technological ad-
vantages, and changing demographics, is leading to
changes in the industry, thus opening paths to new
innovation paradigms that can help organisations cre-
ate value through convergence, collaboration, and co-
creation. However, as indicated by Ye (2012), organ-
isational values can still be seen as the core of or-
ganisational culture, thus affecting a number of key
or pivotal values concerning organisation-related be-
haviours and states-of-affairs, which are shared by
members of an organisation. This is why organisa-
tional values define the acceptable that which govern
the behaviour of individuals within the organisation.
Knowledge about values and specifically organisa-
tional values has led us to the question of how vari-
ous demographical difference influence the perception
of the importance of organisational values; this is pre-
sented in the next part of this article.
Values, Organisational Values and Demographics
The question about differences in perception of values
betweenmen andwomen as well as the question about
differences between older and younger people has
been a subject of discussion in the research commu-
nity for quite some time. Prince-Gibson and Schwartz
(1998) have determined that theories of gender-based
value differences provide ambiguous results. Dietz,
Kalof, and Stern (2002) have done extensive research
on values, determining that there are no substantial
differences in value factor structures, although they
did find differences in value priorities, with women
ranking altruism as more important than men did.
Therefore, we can say that women value responsibil-
ity towards others as being more important than men
do. This is vital knowledge with regards to hospitality,
in which the well-being of others is at the core of ev-
ery operation. Beutel and Marini (1995) have similar
findings in their research, determining that females
are more likely than males to express concern and
responsibility for the well-being of others, less likely
than males to accept materialism and competition,
and more likely than males to indicate that finding
purpose and meaning in life is extremely important.
This leads to the question of how individuals chose
their occupation The link between individual val-
ues and organisational values is very well established
(Kenny, 1994; Pfeiffer et al., 1985; Simerly, 1987); based
on this,Marini, Fan, Finley, and Beutel (1996) have de-
termined that individuals choose occupations on the
basis of internalised interests and work values. Marini
et al. (1996) have further determined that choosing an
occupation involves finding the maximum highly val-
ued occupational characteristics while minimising the
loss of other enjoyable or necessary ones. This further
strengthens the relationship between individual and
organisational values.
Regarding organisational values, various studies
have produced highly diverse results. Rudman and
Phelan (2008) have determined that research on gen-
der stereotypes generally shows that women are per-
ceived to be more communal (e.g., caring and inter-
dependent) than men are. Kite, Deaux, and Haines
(2008) determined that women, for example, are vie-
wed as more emotional, gentle, understanding, and
devoted, whereas men are seen as more active, com-
petitive, independent, and self-confident. Kwun (2011)
claims that women tend to evaluate the importance of
quality higher than men are. Interestingly, Jin, Line,
and Goh (2013) have determined that while service
quality is important for both males and females, the
impact of aesthetics on relationship quality is only im-
portant for males.
In contrast, Posner (2010) says that are no differ-
ences that were found betweenmen and women in his
study, while previously significantly lower levels of val-
ues congruency had been reported by women. Parry
and Urwin (2011) did extensive work on the question
of generational differences and work values; their con-
clusion is that whilemany studies have foundmore ar-
eas of similarity between generations than differences,
some that do find that differences have produced sig-
nificant findings of only a small magnitude and have
found differences in the opposite direction from that
76 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Mitja Gorenak The Differences in Perceptions of Organisational Values
predicted by the commonly held generational stereo-
types. Thus, it can only be concluded that some studies
have found differences in work values between gener-
ations, while others have not.
Methodology
Research Question and Hypothesis
The research aimed to test how various groups of em-
ployees perceive the importance of organisational val-
ues in the hospitality sector. For that purpose, we have
set the following research question: What are the dif-
ferences in the perception of organisational values be-
tween (a) genders and (b) age groups?
In order to answer this research question, the fol-
lowing research hypotheses were set up:
h1 There is no statistically significant difference in
the perception of organisational values between
male and female employees.
h2 Older employees evaluate the importance of
organisational values statistically significantly
higher than younger employees do.
Sample
Thepopulation of the selected sector (travel and leisure
industry) was based on the data of the Statistical Office
of the Republic of Slovenia regarding a total of 9,117
people (see http://pxweb.stat.si). In order to obtain a
relevant representation of this sample, we asked ran-
dom organisations within the sector for permission to
survey their employees; we were granted the consent
of several organisations, which employ a total of 2,762
people. We distributed 1100 paper-pencil questioners
among randomly selected employees; for this purpose,
we used the simple random sampling method.Within
the 60-day period set for the survey, 388 out of 1100
questionnaires were returned, representing 35.27 of
all questionnaires sent out, which is 4.26 of the pop-
ulation. The questionnaire comprised several parts,
but only a part of the results are used for this study:
25 questions relating to organisational values and 5
questions regarding respondents’ details (age, gender,
number of working years, level of education, etc.).
To be able to generalise the results to the entire
population, we first performed tests to establish the
validity of the sample. For this step, we performed the
chi-square test of significance on the demographic in-
formation for the population as well as the sample
(gender, education, and age). For the variable gen-
der, chi-square was calculated at 0.598 and signifi-
cance level at p = 0.434m for the variable education,
the chi-square test value was calculated at 9.296 with
significance level at p = 0.054m the final variable age
provided a value of 13.971, and the level of significance
was at p = 0.052.
The values of chi-square distribution at signifi-
cance 0.05 or 5 are 3.8415for variables with a single
degree of freedom (variable gender), 9.4877 for vari-
ables with four degrees of freedom (variable educa-
tion), and 14.0671 for variables with seven degrees of
freedom (variable age). Based on these findings, we
can conclude that the research sample could be gener-
alised to the whole population (Hannan & Freeman,
1977).
The sample that has been used for this paper con-
tained 133 (38.4) male respondents and 213 (61.6)
female respondents. The average age of respondents
was calculated at 38.17 years. The sample contained 34
(9.6) respondentswith elementary school level of ed-
ucation or less, 83 (23.5) respondents with vocational
high school 121 (34.3) respondents with high school,
80 (22.9) respondents with college degrees, and 35
(9.9) respondents with university degree or more.
Results
First, we tested the validity of the questionnaire using
Cronbach’s alpha test, calculating the coefficients for
the set of variables. We performed this test on vari-
ables that measured values and obtained the value of
0.859, which indicates the high reliability of measure-
ment (Cronbach, 1951) and, with regard to the compo-
sition and characteristics of the sample, we believe that
it is representative.
Factor Analysis
With a larger number of variables in the survey, we
have decided to conduct the factor analysis in order to
create a smaller number of more manageable factors.
When creating a survey, we intentionally formed some
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 77
Mitja Gorenak The Differences in Perceptions of Organisational Values
Table 1 Factor analysis of variables that measured organizational values
Variable Factor
ovq ovi ove ovem ovc ovr
Quality of work is important in our organization. .
Within our org. we are focused on successfully completing our tasks. .
Encouragement of positive examples is rare in our organization. .
Inhibition of innovative ideas is frequent in our organization. .
Adaptation to different business situations presents a problem for our org. .
Immoral behaviour at work is acceptable in our organization. .
In our organization we respect each other. .
Employees in our organization interact. .
In our organization we try to satisfy the needs of our customers. .
Practices in our organization are focused on our costumers/guests. –.
At work in our organization we behave responsibly towards others around us. .
To achieve the objectives within our organization we are working persistently. .
variables with a negative statement; these were re-
coded before the factor analysis was performed. How-
ever, we left the statements in their original form with
regard to the text. Once we performed the factor anal-
ysis, we calculated six different factors with suitable
weights. Factor analysis was performed with the ex-
traction method principal axis factoring.
Within these six factors, 12 variables positioned
themselves, while eight variables did not position them-
selves clearly in any of the factors and had weights in
two or more factors with values of the weight being
below the suppress point which was set at 0.200. As
a result, we decided to remove them entirely. Some
might argue that the suppression point is low but, as
indicated by Child (2006), this is acceptable for large
enough samples. With the help of factor analysis, we
were able to explain 67.76 of the variability of organ-
isational values with these 12 variables in six factors;
since all of the variables are latent variables, we de-
cided to allow only two variables per factor based on
the recommendation of Bollen (1989); the results are
shown in Table 1. The six factors represent various val-
ues; we decided to name each of them in accordance
to some common organisational values that are ex-
pressed in the sector (travel and leisure) in which con-
ducted our research. Through the factor analysis, we
also merged the variables that have positioned them-
selves in individual factors into new variables, thus
we have a new variable we have labelled ovq – Or-
ganisational value quality for the first factor, ovi –
Organisational value innovation for the second factor,
ove – Organisational value ethics for the third fac-
tor, ovem – Organisational value employees for the
fourth factor, ovc – Organisational value customers
for the fifth factor and ovr –Organisational value re-
sponsibility for the final sixth factor. The second vari-
able in the last factor has a relatively low weight, being
just above the cut-off point, but since it is the second
variable and it is in the very last sixth factor, we have
decided to use it.
We have further tested the validity of newly formed
factors with Cronbach’s alpha test, calculating the co-
efficients for each of newly formed factors. ovq – Or-
ganisational value quality showed the value of 0.891;
ovi – Organisational value innovation showed the
value of 0.647; ove – Organisational value ethics
showed the value of 0.591; ovem – Organisational
value employees showed the value of 0.792; ovc –Or-
ganisational value customers showed a value of 0.765;
ovr – Organisational value responsibility showed a
value of 0.769. Although the values were lower than
the values for all variables together, as expected, they
78 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Mitja Gorenak The Differences in Perceptions of Organisational Values
Table 2 Independent Sample t-Test
Variable t p Mean
Male Female
ovq – Organizational value quality –. . . .
ovi – Organizational value innovation –. . . .
ove – Organizational value ethics –. . . .
ovem – Organizational value employees –. . . .
ovc – Organizational value customers –. . . .
ovr – Organizational value responsibility –. . . .
are still within the acceptable range based on (Cron-
bach, 1951). With factor analysis, we have also calcu-
lated the value of kmo at 0.870, which indicated that
sampling was adequate; furthermore, the p-value with
Bartlett’s test showed a value of 0.000, which again
confirms that factor analysis on the selected variables
is appropriate for further use.
Gender Differences Analysis
Further, we have decided to see if there are any differ-
ences betweenmale and female respondents regarding
their perception of the importance of organisational
values. For this stage, we decided to use an indepen-
dent sample t-test; this text is based on the presump-
tion that the two averages between groups are equal.
For the sampled data, experimental value statistics are
calculated, and, based on the result, the presumption is
either confirmed or rejected; statistically significant or
statistically insignificant differences between the two
groups are thus obtained (Hodges & Lehmann, 1956).
The results are shown in Table 2. For variable ovq –
Organisational value quality, there is a statistically sig-
nificant difference (t = –3.048; p = 0.003). Male re-
spondents evaluated this variable lower (mean value
4.14) than female respondents did (mean value 4.45).
For the variable ovr –Organisational value responsi-
bility, there is also a statistically significant difference
(t = –2.313; p = 0.022); male respondents evaluated this
variable lower (mean value 3.97) than female respon-
dents did (mean value 4.40).
With all the other variables, it can be seen that
there is no statistically significant difference, although
with all variables it is apparent that female respondents
Table 3 Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient
Variable Age
ovq – Organizational value quality –.
ovi – Organizational value innovation –.
ove – Organizational value ethics –.
ovem – Organizational value employees –.
ovc – Organizational value customers –.
ovr – Organizational value responsibility –.
evaluated all the variables more highly than male re-
spondents did.
Age Differences Analysis
In the next step, we decided to see if there is any cor-
relation between organisational values and the age of
the respondents. In this stage, we have calculated Pear-
son’s correlation coefficient. This coefficient represents
the size of linear correlations between variables X and
Y. The coefficient is defined as the sum of all prod-
ucts of standard deviations of both values in relation
to the degrees of freedom, or as the ratio of the co-
variance and the product of two standard deviations.
The result obtained is one of the square roots (can be
negative or positive); the correlation coefficient is the
ratio of the explained variance and the total variance.
The value of the Pearson correlation coefficient can be
between values –1 and 1. The value –1 represents a per-
fect negative correlation between variables; conversely,
the value of 1 indicates a perfect positive correlation
(Huck, 2015). The results for Pearson’s correlation co-
efficient are shown in Table 3.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 79
Mitja Gorenak The Differences in Perceptions of Organisational Values
There is no statistically significant correlation be-
tween the variables representing organisational values
and the age of the respondents. All the correlations are
negative and veryweak. Furthermore, these same vari-
ables were tested with the help of anova based on
a comparison to eight different age groups: up to 24
years of age, 25 to 29 years of age, 30 to 34 years of age,
35 to 39 years of age, 40 to 44 years of age, 45 to 49
years of age, 50 to 54 years of age, and 55 years of age
or above. anova did not discover any other statisti-
cally significant differences among age groups.
Practical Implications of Findings
Today’s working environment, especially in the hospi-
tality sector, is very competitive and very demanding
towards employees. For that reason, as much as possi-
ble about the relationship between organisational val-
ues and the demographics of employees must be un-
derstood in order to help managers organise work in
a way that will simultaneously provide the maximum
satisfaction of both guests and employees. Values of in-
dividuals, as well as organisational values, can be at the
core of human resources management. This supports
the idea of transforming the management style from
Management By Objectives (mbo) (Drucker, 2012) to
Management By Values (mbv). Although mbv was
previously discussed by others (Blanchard, O’Connor,
& Ballard, 1997), it was the contribution of (Dolan &
Garcia, 2002) and their further work (Dolan et al.,
2006) that developed the theory as it is known today.
Putting values at the forefront of management style
can be a variation of management style, but it is essen-
tial to know who different (by gender and age) people
perceive these same values.
Through our research, we have determined that
gender does influence the perception of selected or-
ganisational values. Women evaluated the organisa-
tional value quality statistically significantly higher
than their male counterparts did, which is congruent
with the finding of (Kwun, 2011) and is a significant
finding formanagement since it can be directly applied
to the training of employees (giving male employees
more training focus on attention to details), as well as
the regular working environment (e.g., letting women
oversee the quality of work). This will also directly af-
fect the experience of customers, thus improving their
satisfaction.
The secondorganisational value that showed statis-
tically significant differences betweenmen andwomen
was that of responsibility; other researchers had sim-
ilar findings (Kite et al., 2008; Rudman & Phelan,
2008). This is a significant finding for managers since
quality assurance must always be one of their top pri-
orities in the fast-paced and highly competitive hospi-
tality sector.
Further, we have analysed whether there are any
statistically significant differences between different
age groups; our findings show that there is no statisti-
cally significant difference; we contribute this finding
to the relevant congruent population regarding the
age distribution of our sample; thus, this could be a
specific solely to Slovenia.
Service industries, such as hospitality, need to em-
phasise the quality of their product (Augustyn & Ho,
1998) and responsibility towards customers (Holjevac,
2008) in order to achieve success. Knowing what we
can do to help our employees achieve success is es-
sential knowledge formanagers that can be applied di-
rectly to working environments.
Conclusion
Knowledge of how organisational values are perceived
by men and women, or how they are perceived by
younger or older employees, can be used to achieve
better organisational effectiveness, thus also increas-
ing the satisfaction of the end customer – tourists.
There is no clear answer about whether there are dif-
ferences between men and women or younger and
older in all the cases; it seems increasingly apparent
that it is a case-by-case scenario. However, for the hos-
pitality sector, where our research was conducted, the
results that we have found are of great significance.
The importance of quality and responsibility as or-
ganisational values are statistically significantly more
highly evaluated by women in comparison to men.
Given the fact that women are perceived as more al-
truistic, this is relatively expected. Although women
represent over 60 of the entire population working
in hospitality, they still face the so-called glass ceiling,
not being found in higher executive positions within
80 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Mitja Gorenak The Differences in Perceptions of Organisational Values
the industry, although this cannot be attributed to dif-
ferences in education, hours worked, or occupational
crowding (Sparrowe & Iverson, 1999). Hospitality is
focused on the nurturing of guests, providing them
with the best possible experience. With this in mind,
we can say that women have a gender-based predis-
position that is beneficial for achieving precisely that.
Managers should increase the involvement of women
in duties that are marked by the need for quality as-
surance and responsible behaviour.
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82 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Research Note
The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination
Branding
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke
Department of Transport and Tourism Studies, Redeemer’s University, Nigeria
jacobe@run.edu.ng
The purpose of this article was to examine the effect of the availability of hotel brands
in a destination on the promotion of the destination. Data for this study were col-
lected through online questionnaires from a diverse population. The respondents
were reached via a social medium (LinkedIn, on which the author has an account)
and membership in different tourism-related and non-tourism related groups. The
tourism-related groups are made up of both professionals in the field and non-
professionals. The data were analysed using descriptive analysis (tables, cross tab-
ulation, and Spearman ranked correlation) with spss. It was discovered that hotel
brands have little impact on the choice of destination to visit in comparison to other
elements of a destination, such as attraction, transportation, and other supporting
services. Therefore, a hotel brand cannot be used as the sole element of destination
branding as it has little or no effect on branding a destination.
Keywords: hotel branding, destination branding, destination marketing, destination
promotion
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.83-96
Introduction
Accommodation in the forms of hotels, hostels, and
other types are essential parts of a destination, and
they create the feeling of welcome and a lasting im-
pression on the tourists when they visit (Cooper, 2012).
Anyone travelling to visit a destination away from
their usual place of residence for any purpose requires
accommodation. While some might have friends and
family at the destination, some may not, but they both
need a place to stay, especially when staying for more
than a day. This contributes to the experience of the
tourists at the destination, which is paramount for the
promotion of the destination (Cooper, 2012). In addi-
tion, according to Ismail (2011), factors such as brand
name, price, advertising, word of mouth, and expe-
rience determine the type of experience a customer
would have on a product or services and also deter-
mines their loyalty. Hence, the importance of accom-
modation facilities at the destination.
Regarding how the brand of hotel in a destina-
tion determines the choice of a gaming destination,
Dioko and So (2012) determined that the brand of
hotel does not determine the choice of destination;
they recommended a further study on the topic. Their
study was limited to one destination (Macao); there-
fore, they said that a conclusive statement could be
made on the topic and that tomake a generalised state-
ment, visitors to other destinations have to be sur-
veyed. While accommodation providers are not the
only service providers that make up the destination
brand, from the perspective of the researcher, they are
themajor service provider without which destinations
cannot be complete. According to Pike (2005); Mor-
gan, Pritchard, and Piggott (2003), and Pritchard and
Morgan (2001), destination branding is complex, as
there are still many destinations yet to be studied in
applying branding to the marketing principles of des-
tinations (Dioko & So, 2012).
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 83
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
The following are the objectives of the research:
1. To know if the brands of hotels in the destination
influence the choice of destination.
2. To examine the influence of hotel brand informa-
tion on the promotion of tourism destinations.
Research Hypotheses
1. Accommodation facilities, in terms of their brand
as a key element of a destination, have no effect on
the inspiration for a choice of destination.
2. There is no significant relationship between loy-
alty to a hotel brand with the inspiration for the
choice of a destination.
Hotel Branding
According to Medlik and Ingram (2000), hotels play
essential roles in most countries by providing facili-
ties for business transactions, formeetings and confer-
ences, and for recreation and entertainment. As iden-
tified by Medlik and Ingram (2000), the hotel is both
for accommodation and for the transaction of busi-
ness. This is the aspect of the use of space, especially
the lobbies and the lounges for purposes of meetings
and business transactions. The hotel business as a ser-
vice business operates to provide accommodation and
other needs of the people during their stay (Bhatia,
2006). The mode of operation and revenue generation
can be analysed from the way the business is struc-
tured, i.e., its organisational structure. The structure
of any hotel would be based on its size, such as luxury
hotel, economy/budget hotel, boutique hotels, lifestyle
hotel (Freund de Klumbis, 2002); all of these also en-
hance the branding of a hotel based on the type of ser-
vice it promises to deliver.
This is because the hospitality industry has grown
over the years from the traditional hospitality service
to a more comprehensive service – diverse in its op-
eration (Berger & Chiafor Jr., 2007). The industry in-
cludes accommodation, catering, and places for social-
ising (Nailon, 1982). Due to the change in the needs
of people and for the enhancement of competition
among operators, there is a need for the uniqueness
of the organisations in the industry, and this is the
essence of branding and other distinguishing concepts
of marketing (Forsgren & Franchetti, 2004). Branding
is one of the concepts of differentiation (Dioko & So,
2012) used by marketers in the industry.
Hotels have always been identified by their names,
which shows that they held the common features of a
product brand – the name (Connell, 1992). According
to Olsen, Chung, Graf, Lee, and Madanoglu (2004),
to capitalise on brand identification and differentia-
tion in the face of competition, and to facilitate growth
strategies, marketing executives have employed brand
value, brand premium, brand equity, brand awareness,
and brand image to enhance competition, from the as-
pect ofmanagement contracts and approaches tomeet
corporate goals. This affirms that branding is far more
than merely having a name.
Destination Branding
Branding as a marketing concept also applies to des-
tinations (Hankinson, 2005) because the products of
tourism are also homogenous and there is a need for
the identification of a unique factor for differentiation.
Branding has gone beyond merely having a logo, sign,
symbol, term, design, or combination of these (Blain,
2001). It has to do with the delivery of service to com-
plement the name of the organisation and what they
have to offer. According to Veríssimo, Tiago, Tiago,
and Jardim (2017), destination branding is becoming a
powerful marketing; this further emphasises the need
for brand management.
BrandManagement
Brand management is used in the construction of
brandmeaning, value, quality, personality and identity
(Iglesias & Bonet, 2012). According to Jevons, Gabbot,
and De Chernatony (2005), brand meaning is influ-
enced by the high level of influences, of which some
can be controlled and some cannot but can be viewed
and observed. It is essential, therefore, that the own-
ers of brands ensure that high-quality service aligned
with vision is delivered with a genuine commitment
to the satisfaction of their customers (Blackett, 2004).
Brand Identity
Brand identity is the tangible aspect of the brand that
can be seen and felt, ensures recognition, allows for
84 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
differentiation, andmakes the brand accessible (Alina,
2009). Brand identity, according to Kapferer (2008),
is the internal construct of the product based on the
view of the organisation in terms of what they want
the brand to be. This requires stability and consistency
to ensure that the brand is what it is intended for it to
be (Da Silveira, Lages, & Simoes, 2013). Brand iden-
tity can help the organisation in navigating and adapt-
ing to market changes (Da Silveira et al., 2013). In the
opinion of Da Silveira et al. (2013), brand identity is
not merely created by the organisation alone: it is es-
sential to understand that the consumers also create
the identity of the brand and this helps in the creation
of value.
Just as the brand is an asset to the organisation, so
too is the brand an investment for the consumers, and
there has to be value gained that would be worth the
investmentmade. Therefore, the argument of Kapferer
(2008), asserting that brand identity emanates from
the organisation and requires stability, can be said to
be insufficient to explain brand identity as we are now
in a global world with a dynamic environment. Con-
sequently, for the survival of any brand, the identity
should bemade to suit the environmental condition as
it changes. When the perspective of the consumers is
viewed in the creation of an identity for the brand and
the dynamism of the environment is also considered,
the creation of brand identity will not be just from
the internal perspective alone, and this would create
a proper identity for the brand that will suit both the
organisation and the consumers.
Brand Value
According to Aaker (1991), brand value is the aware-
ness of the brand, its quality perception and the overall
satisfaction the customers derives frommaking use of
the brand. Chu andKeh (2006) pointed out that brand
value is significant at two levels: the micro (consumer)
andmacro (firm) levels, each with different effects. On
the consumer level, it positively affects the behavioural
outcomes, including the intention to purchase (Cobb-
Walgren, Ruble, & Donthu, 1995), while at the firm
level, it affects the perception of investors and the fi-
nancial analysts, which subsequently determines the
stock prices (Simon & Sullivan, 1993).
Brand Experience
Brand experience is the feel of the brand that the
consumers have when they make use of the brand.
This is an essential part of brand management, and it
can lead to brand loyalty, depending on whether the
experience is positive or negative (Iglesias, Singh, &
Batista-Foguet, 2011). Brand experience is the impres-
sion taken away by the consumer (Carbone&Haeckel,
1994) as a result of making use of the brand or having
an encounter with it (Klaus & Maklan, 2007). Good
customer experience is essential to any business, and
having a brand requires more from the brand owner.
This is because it is assumed that any branded prod-
uct is a promise of quality, and anything short of this
is questionable.
Brand Equity
Brand plays a vital role in the promotion of a business,
company or organisation, and to the customers as well.
This is highlighted by Keller and Lehmann (2006) to
being composed of three primary roles: the customer
market, the product market, and the financial market.
In the case of the consumer market, brands make it
easy for the identification of products by the simpli-
fication of choice, the promise of quality to a partic-
ular level, and the reduction of risk and/or engender-
ing trust. It plays a marketing role by ensuring effec-
tive marketing efforts; for the financial role, brands
are assets (intangible) in a financial sense (Keller &
Lehmann, 2006). All value of these roles are the brand
equity (Aaker, 1991). In the words of Randall (2000),
brand equity is the value of the brand to both the con-
sumers and the organisation that owns the brand. Ac-
cording toMorgan et al. (2003), themakeup (dna) of a
destination is expected to reflect the value of the brand
and its unique propositions in the eyes of the customer.
Brand Image
The brand management components discussed above
constitute an image for a brand; it us vital for any busi-
ness to manage its brand appropriately. The prior per-
ception of a brand image is created by the properman-
agement of the brand, but the image created for the
brand after the consumers’ use of the brand is equally
significant. This is because it is seen as an essential
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 85
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
tool with the ability to influence the perception of the
customer of a good or service offered, thereby having
an impact on customer behaviour (Zeithaml & Bitner,
1996).
Furthermore, image also influences the loyalty of
customers to an organisation, their enthusiasm, and
satisfaction depending on the type of image created in
the minds of the customers (Kandampully & Suhar-
tanto, 2000; Binkowska, 2005). Branding is used to
gain the loyalty of customers, but the image created
in the mind of the people as regards the brand can ei-
ther ensure loyalty or not; this is where brandmanage-
ment becomes important, as emphasised earlier. This
is because branding is a form of promise made by the
organisation to provide the service or products at a
certain standard, distinct from others (Kotler & Gert-
ner, 2004). The concept of brand image is the exami-
nation of the overall information held by a consumer
of a product/service brand including the brand quality
and value (Ashton & Scott, 2011). Branding, however,
allows for differentiation in the marketplace and the
creation of the image of the organisation in the mind
of the people by creating value (Johnson & Scholes,
2001).
According to Aaker (1991; 1996) and Keller (1998),
the achievement of successful brand management is
dependent on the enhancement of brand value or eq-
uity. Brand equity, according to Aaker (1991), is the
value of a brand as a valuable company asset, to the
consumer and the company. The value of a brand to
the consumer is identified in the image created of
such a brand in the mind of a consumer. Accord-
ing to Qu, Kim, and Im (2011), the image of a prod-
uct/destination/service mediates between the brand
associations, cognitive, affective, and unique image
components and the future behaviour of buyers.
Destination Marketing
Pike (2008) defined a destination as a geographical
space accommodating the existence of a cluster of
tourism resources and being less of a political bound-
ary. Furthermore, on the definition of a destination,
Leiper (1995) defined a tourist destination as a place
where people choose to visit for the purpose of having
an experience of certain features of the destination,
and Buhalis (2000) said it can also be viewed as a per-
petual conceptwhich can be interpreted by the tourists
subjectively based on their experience, purpose of
visit, cultural background, and psychographic and de-
mographic characteristics (Periera, Correia, & Schutz,
2012). Destinations are representations of the tourism
industry as they are the place where the tourism ac-
tivities occur and where the service providers of the
industry are located to meet the needs of the tourists.
Marketing a destination, also known as place mar-
keting, is a distinct task (Ashworth, 1993) and re-
quires more complex managerial activities than the
product does in its branding (Karavatsis & Ashworth,
2005). Of all the products of tourism, the destina-
tion is one of the most difficult to manage and mar-
ket (Fyall & Leask, 2006) yet also the most important
(Cooper, 2012). Destination marketing, according to
Elbe, Hallen, and Axelsson (2009) is the deliberate
strategically developed activities carried out in order
to attract visitors to a destination. Due to the complex-
ity of the nature of the destination, its marketing, as
suggested by Helfert, Ritter, andWalter (2002), should
be a relational approach. Even with the complexity of
marketing destinations, Fyall and Garrod (2005) sug-
gests that for destination marketing to be successful,
it is necessary that the customers be engaged in the
marketing activities and provide information about
the experience they demand.
In line with the above, Dioko and So (2012) are of
the opinion that for a relatively unknown destination,
the entrance of international branded hotels enhances
its marketing and the image of the places where new
concepts of leisure and entertainments are introduced,
and these are integrated with the core of accommoda-
tion services. This is also applicable to established and
well-branded destinations. Furthermore, their find-
ings confirmed this in the case of the Macao gaming
centre. However, this can be seen as limited as as it was
only tested on one particular gaming destination.
According to Cooper (2012), to effectively market
a destination, branding of the destination is expedient
for unique identification and differentiation among
other destinations. This is also supported by Morgan,
Pritchard, and Pride (2004), who consider destina-
tion branding to bea potent marketing tool, in con-
86 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
trast to some researchers who find destination brand-
ing to be a complex concept. Therefore, Cai (2002)
defined destination branding as a selection of consis-
tent element mix of a destination used to identify and
distinguish the destination among other destinations,
while Gilmore (2002) sees destination branding as a
re-positioning concept, and Curtis (2001) sees desti-
nation branding as the reconstruction of the destina-
tion (Park & Petric, 2006).
The complexity of destination branding due to the
nature of the destination and what is involved requires
proper management: hence, the role of Destination
MarketingOrganisations (dmos) as solely responsible
for the marketing of the destination (Elbe et al., 2009).
Part of the responsibilities of the dmo in promoting
the destination is the branding of the destination. Al-
though the destination is made up of individual ser-
vice providers and other stakeholders, the dmos are
responsible for the promotion of the destination to
tourists, known as destination marketing.
Destination Promotion
The survival of any business is dependent on meet-
ing the needs of the people/customers as the needs
and desires of the people are changing now due to
their changing lifestyles and other environmental fac-
tors (Shoemaker & Shaw, 2008). Branding is believed
to help create an image in the minds of the guest, and
that helps in the promotion of a hotel. It has also been
proven by research that branding adds value to hotels
than the usual contributors (O’Neill & Xiao, 2006).
The choice of a destination according to Kotler and
Gertner (2004) begins with the collection of informa-
tion before visiting the place and the ability to make
sense of the information collected on the destination.
Information about accommodation facilities available
at the destination is one type of information that a
tourist would seek before deciding, which can create
an image of the destination in the mind of the tourist.
Due to internationalisation, hotels of different brands
can be found in different locations/destinations, which
often attracts or has the potential to attract visitors.
This, therefore, indicates the possibility of the two in-
dustries complementing each other.
In promoting tourism destinations, the various
tourism enterprises have a role to play in creating an
image of the destination. Aside from this fact on the
promotion of a destination, customer experience is
of utmost importance. No tourism enterprise can be
without patronage from tourists and, for there to be
patronage, the environment in which the organisation
is located is of utmost importance. dmos are charged
with the responsibility of making a difference in the
context of the growth of destination choices (Wahab
& Cooper, 2001; Stamboulis & Skayannis, 2003; Pike,
2004).
Research Methodology
In carrying out this study, a survey research design
was utilised. According to (MacDonald & Headlam,
n.d.), the survey research method is commonly used
in collecting primary data, involvesmeasurement pro-
cedures involving asking respondents questions, and
they are flexible tools used in gathering both qualita-
tive and quantitative data. Therefore, for this research,
both quantitative and qualitative data was collected,
thereby reflecting mixed method research. According
to Creswell (2003), the mixedmethod is the process of
the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data.
It can also be seen as the combination of both numeric
and narrative data in research (Aaron, 2011).
In collecting both the quantitative and qualitative
data, as recommended by Bhattacherjee (2012), a com-
bination of techniques is required, such as question-
naires, interviews, observation etc; alternatively, in
the case of highly structured survey questionnaires,
both qualitative and quantitative data can only be
achieved by designing the questionnaire by using both
closed-ended and open-ended questions. This has
been adopted in carrying out this study. Therefore,
the subjects of this are diverse and have in one time
or the other visited different destinations. Because the
questionnaire was uploaded online, there is no spec-
ified sample frame for the research, and the sample
frame for an online questionnaire survey is based on
convenience (Veal, 2011).
An online questionnaire was designed to collect
both quantitative and qualitative data for the study, us-
ing Google Forms; the link to it was sent to respon-
dents via LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter. As indi-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 87
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
cated earlier, Dioko and So (2012) carried out simi-
lar research on a destination. Hence, this study ap-
proached it from the perspective of obtaining respon-
dents from diverse countries who had visited differ-
ent destinations. Twenty-three questions were asked
in the questionnaire using multiple choice questions
and ranking questions for the closed-ended questions,
and providing an avenue for the people to explain the
choice of their answer to some of the closed-ended
questions using the open-ended questions (Matthews
& Ross, 2010).
The questionnaire was divided into four sections.
The first segment asked questions on the demographic
characteristics of the respondent. This is to enable the
researcher to develop an idea of the respondent, espe-
cially regarding their occupation and economic status.
The second segment asked questions about the travel
experience of the respondents to determine how of-
ten they travel and their opinions on the destinations
they have visited. The third segment was based on the
tourism destination features that influence the deci-
sions of the respondents in their choice during their
search on the destination to visit. This is in line with
the opinion of Gartner (1993), who says that the image
of a destination from the perspective of the tourists is
influenced by the information they have on the desti-
nation.
In this segment of the questionnaire, five questions
were asked; three of the five questions were ranking
questions. Options were given, and the respondents
were asked to rank them according to their opinion.
The fourth segment asked questions on the hotel and
destination choice of the respondents. In this segment,
a question on the influence of hotel branding on the
choice of destinationwas asked, regardingwhat would
happen if the hotel brand to which they are loyal were
unable to provide themwith accommodation for them
due to being fully booked. Options were provided for
them to choose the action they would take.
Analysis
The data collected, both quantitative and qualitative,
were analysed in the same manner. The data were
analysed using both descriptive and inferential anal-
ysis with the aid of the Statistical Package for So-
cial Sciences (spss). Descriptive analysis was used in
analysing the frequency of responses and the profile of
respondents. The inferential analysis was carried out
using the Pearson Correlation co-efficient. According
to Asuero, Sayago, and González (2006), the correla-
tion coefficient is themeasure of the degree of associa-
tion between two variables. For this study, the Pearson
Product-moment correlation was used to test for a lin-
ear relationship.
Findings
A total of 99 responses were collated due to the time
constraints. The responses were analysed, and the fol-
lowing are the results of the findings.
Descriptive Analysis
A total of 99 respondents responded to the online
questionnaire. Table 1 gives an overview of the de-
mography of the respondents. Of the 99 respondents
to the questionnaire, 39 were male, and 60 were fe-
males. The age of the respondents also varies, cutting
across almost all age groups: 18–25 years constituted
33.3, 26–33 years made up 33.3, 34–41 years con-
stituted 13.1, 42–49 years made up 5.1, 50–57 years
made up 6.1, while above 57 years were 9.1 of the
respondents.
Regarding marital status, 55.6 of the respondents
are singles, while 34.3 aremarried. The remaining are
divorced, widowed and in relationships, constituting a
total of 9, but one of the respondents did not fill in
their marital status. Regarding the economic status of
the respondents, the majority were in full-time paid
work (40.4, 13.1 worked part-time, 30.3 are stu-
dents (in full-time education), and the remaining are
retired, unemployed and entrepreneurs making up a
total of 16.2.
As stated in the methodology section, the research
was targeted towards a diverse population from dif-
ferent countries around the world who have also vis-
ited different places around the world. Hence, Table
2 shows the diversity in the nationality of the par-
ticipant, spanning almost all countries in the world.
These people were contacted through the use of social
media.
88 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
Table 1 Respondents’ Demography ()
Travel in the last
 months
Yes 
No 
Gender Male 
Female 
Age Range – 
– 
– 
– 
– 
 and above 
Marital Status Single 
Married 
Divorced 
Widow/widower 
Other 
Missing value 
Economic Status In full-time paid work 
In part-time paid work 
In full-the education 
Retired 
Unemployed 
Others – entrepreneur 
Nationality African 
Asians 
Europeans 
Americans 
Australians 
No. of travel times
within  months
– times 
– times 
Above  times 
To identify the type of accommodation the respon-
dents make use of when they visit a destination, a
question was asked on this and the responses indi-
cated that 58.6 of the respondents make use of ho-
tels, 14.1makes use of hostels, 14.1 stays with family
and friends, while 13.1 makes use of guest houses at
the destination, as shown in Table 3. Following iden-
tification of the most used type of accommodation,
Table 2 Nationality of Participants
Nationality () () () ()
Middle East  . . .
American  . . .
Australian (perm. resident)  . . .
Brazilian  . . .
British  . . .
Cameroonian  . . .
Canadian  . . .
Chinese  . . .
Croatian  . . .
Danish  . . .
Dominican  . . .
Dutch  . . .
Egyptian  . . .
Finnish  . . .
French  . . .
German  . . .
Ghanaian  . . .
Greek  . . .
Indian  . . .
Indonesian  . . .
Iranian  . . .
Italian  . . .
Jamaican  . . .
Latvian  . . .
Malaysian  . . .
Nigerian  . . .
Polish  . . .
Portuguese  . . .
Serbian  . . .
South African  . . .
Spanish  . . .
Ugandan  . . .
Total  . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) frequency, (2)
percent, (3) valid percent, (4) cumulative percent.
a question was asked regarding the decision the re-
spondents would make should their choice of ho-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 89
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
Table 3 Types of Accommodation Frequently Used
Type of accommodation () () () ()
Hostel  . . .
Guest house  . . .
Hotels  . . .
Stay with family and friends  . . .
Total  . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) frequency, (2)
percent, (3) valid percent, (4) cumulative percent.
Table 4 Non-Availability of Preferred Hotel
Solution () () () ()
Look for another accommo-
dation within the destina-
tion
 . . .
Postpone the trip till when I
can book for the accommo-
dation at the destination
 . . .
Cancel the trip and search
for another destination with
the same hotel brand
 . . .
Cancel the trip and look for
another destination
 . . .
Total  . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) frequency, (2)
percent, (3) valid percent, (4) cumulative percent.
tel/accommodation not be available for the date they
intend to visit the destination: 83.8 indicated they
would look for other accommodation within the des-
tination, 8.1 said they would postpone the trip until
they could get their preferred hotel, 3.0 indicated
they would cancel the trip and search for another des-
tination with the same brand of hotel, while 5.1 indi-
cated they would cancel the trip and look for another
destination. This, therefore, shows that a total of 16.2
of the respondents are more loyal to the hotel brand.
This is shown in Table 4.
Following the above question on a decision about
the preferred hotel, a question on what inspires the
choice of a destination was expedient was asked; 71.7
of respondants indicated that the attractions at the des-
tination inspire them the most, 14.1 indicated that
Table 5 Inspiration for Choice of Destination
Nationality () () () ()
Attractions at the destination  . . .
Accessibility  . . .
Accommodation  . . .
Others  . . .
Total  . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) frequency, (2)
percent, (3) valid percent, (4) cumulative percent.
Table 6 Choice of Destination Inspiration
and Non-Availability of Preferred Hotel
Inspiration for
choice of destination
Decision when hotel preference
is not available
() () () () ()
Attract. at the dest.     
Accessibility     
Accommodation     
Others     
Total     
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) look for another
accommodationwithin the destination, (2) postpone the trip
till when I can book for the accommodation at the destina-
tion, (3) cancel the trip and search for another destination
with the same hotel brand, (4) cancel the trip and look for
another destination, (5) total.
Table 7 Chi-Square Tests
Item () () ()
Pearson Chi-Square .  .
Likelihood ratio .  .
Linear-by-linear association .  .
No. of valid cases 
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) value, (2) de-
grees of freedom, (3) asymptotic significance (2-sided).
accessibility to and within the destination is their in-
spiration, while just 6.1 indicated the accommoda-
tion facility available at the destination. The remaining
8.1 indicated some other factors, such as cost, famil-
iar people at the destination and culture of the desti-
nation, as indicated in Table 5.
90 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
Table 8 Spearman’s Ranked Correlation Analysis of Elements of Destination Branding and Inspiration
for Choice of Destination
Element (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
(1) Key attractions (a) 1.000 0.195 0.273** 0.301** 0.264** 0.306** 0.368**
(b) – 0.054 0.006 0.002 0.008 0.002 0.000
(c) 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
(2) Accommodation facilities (a) 0.195 1.000 0.572** 0.679** 0.076 0.416** 0.056
(b) 0.054 – 0.000 0.000 0.455 0.000 0.585
(c) 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
(3) Infrastructure (a) 0.273** 0.572** 1.000 0.663** 0.203* 0.478** 0.144
(b) 0.006 0.000 – 0.000 0.044 0.000 0.156
(c) 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
(4) Services and facilities (a) 0.301** 0.679** 0.663** 1.000 0.225* 0.608** 0.152
(b) 0.002 0.000 0.000 – 0.025 0.000 0.132
(c) 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
(5) Emotional appeal (a) 0.264** 0.076 0.203* 0.225* 1.000 0.315** 0.400**
(b) 0.008 0.455 0.044 0.025 – 0.001 0.000
(c) 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
(6) Peace and Safety (a) 0.306** 0.416** 0.478** 0.608** 0.315** 1.000 0.250*
(b) 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 – 0.013
(c) 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
(7) Scenic and Adventure (a) 0.368** 0.056 0.144 0.152 0.400** 0.250* 1.000
(b) 0.000 0.585 0.156 0.132 0.000 0.013 –
(c) 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
(8) Inspiration for choice of destination (a) –0.227* 0.055 –0.062 0.035 0.119 –0.023 –0.054
(b) 0.024 0.586 0.541 0.733 0.240 0.821 0.597
(c) 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
Notes Row headings are as follows: (a) correlation coefficient, (b) significance (2-tailed), (c) N.
Cross Tabulations and Correlation Analysis
In continuation of the descriptive analysis, cross tab-
ulation was used in analysis of both the decision the
respondents will make when their preferred hotel is
not available and the inspiration for their choice of ho-
tel. Table 6 is a cross-tabulation of the two variables
showing a summary of the relationship between them.
From the table, it can be summarised that those who
will look for other accommodation within the same
destination aremore interested in the attraction rather
than the accommodation, and they constitute the ma-
jority in the cross tabulation.
To test the hypothesis, Spearman Rank Correla-
tion analysis was used. The hypothesis for this re-
search states that accommodation facilities in terms
of its brand as a key element of destination have no
effect on the inspiration for a choice of destination.
According to the analysis of data presented in Table
8, the relationship between accommodation facilities
as an element of destination branding and the inspi-
ration for a choice of destination is a weak relation-
ship with r = 0.055 and p = 0.586; therefore, the null
hypothesis is accepted, which means that there is no
significant relationship between accommodation fa-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 91
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
Table 9 Correlation of Destination Brand and Hotel
Brand
Item (1) (2)
(1) Inspiration for choice
of destination
(a) 1.000 0.020
(b) – 0.843
(c) 99 99
(2) Decision when hotel
preference is not available
(a) 0.020 1.000
(b) 0.843 –
(c) 99 99
Notes Row headings are as follows: (a) correlation coeffi-
cient, (b) significance (2-tailed), (c) N.
cilities as a brand element for a destination and being
an inspiration for the choice of destination to visit.
Regarding other elements of destination branding and
inspiration to travel, it is indicated in Table 6 that the
emotional appeal of the destination to the tourists is
more related to why people choose a destination with
r = 0.119 but it is not significant as p = 0.240. From the
analysis on the table, it can then be concluded that no
individual element of destination branding can solely
enhance the branding of a destination nor influence
the decision of the choice of a destination, hence, all
elements are important.
In a test of loyalty to hotel brand or destination
brand, Spearman Rank Correlation analysis was used.
The hypothesis states that there is no significant rela-
tionship between the loyalty to a hotel brand with the
inspiration for the choice of a destination. The report
of the analysis supports the research hypothesis that
there is no statistically significant relationship between
the two, as presented in Table 9 where r = 0.020 and p
= 0.843.
Discussion
As identified in the literature review, the marketing of
a destination, also known as ‘place marketing’ is more
complex than the marketing of other organisations,
such as the hotels or transport service providers (Kar-
avatsis & Ashworth, 2005). Therefore, Echtner and
Ritchie (2003) indicated that, for the successful pro-
motion of the destination in the targeted markets, the
destination must be differentiated from its competi-
tion. As a way of differentiating one destination from
its competition, the availability of a branded hotel at
the destination was assumed to be a differentiating
factor (Dioko & So, 2012), but from the finding, the
availability of branded hotel does not influence their
choice of destination. To some of the respondents, the
availability of branded hotels in a destination indicates
the quality of the destination, and it gives assurance of
value, safety, quality service, assurance of comfortabil-
ity, whichmakes it a significant part of thewhole travel
experience. Therefore, the availability of branded ho-
tels can be seen as an added advantage in the promo-
tion of the destination, which can also create an im-
age of the destination as supported by Gilmore (2002),
who sees destination branding as a re-positioning con-
cept, and Curtis (2001), who sees destination branding
as the reconstruction of the destination (Park & Petric,
2006).
From the research findings, it was discovered that
all the elements of destination branding are essential to
the tourists and the enhancement of the brand of a des-
tination (see Table 10) as supported by Cai (2002) who
defined destination branding as a selection of a con-
sistent element mix of a destination used to identify
and distinguish the destination among other destina-
tions. Therefore, according to Miličević, Mihalič, and
Ivan (2016), in branding a destination, the managers
of the destinations are expected to define their target
group (i.e., to whom to communicate the destination
brand). For some groups, the availability of branded
hotels might not be a important element they seek in
the brand of a destination, while to some it might be.
It was noted that some people find the availability of
branded hotels to be an assurance of the quality of the
destination brand. Hence, the fact of a hotel brand as
an element of destination branding cannot be totally
neglected in the branding of a destination, according
to Miličević et al. (2016).
Furthermore, in the test of loyalty to either the des-
tination brand or hotel brand, it was discovered that
the respondents are more loyal to the destination than
the brand of hotel; this also indicates that the brand of
the hotel cannot be considered to be a major branding
element for a destination. According to Veríssimo et
al. (2017), there are two dimensions to be considered
in evaluating brand loyalty: emotional and rational di-
92 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke The Branded Hotel as an Element of Destination Branding
Table 10 Elements of Destination Branding
Elements (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
N valid 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
N missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mean 4.38 3.72 3.55 3.83 4.14 4.26 4.16
Median 5.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 4.00
Mode 5 5 3 4 5 5 5
Standard deviation 0.955 1.116 1.013 0.969 1.010 0.985 0.900
Variance 0.912 1.246 1.026 0.940 1.021 0.971 0.810
Range 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Sum 434 368 351 379 410 422 412
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) key attractions, (2) accommodation facilities, (3) infrastructure, (4) services and
facilities, (5) emotional appeal, (6) peace and safety, (7) scenic and adventure.
mensions. These have been embedded in the questions
on the decisions the respondents will make when their
preferred brand of hotel is not available at the desti-
nation of interest, and also in the question on the in-
spiration of choice of destination to visit. Therefore,
these variables are applicable as a test of loyalty to ei-
ther the destination brand or hotel brand. The result
of the finding can be said to be justified as this can be
linked to brand equity as supported by Aaker (1996)
who stated that loyalty is a core aspect of brand equity
because it is able to reduce vulnerability of a destina-
tion to competitor’s actions.
Conclusion
The study was carried out to identify the role of ho-
tel brand on the branding of a destination, but the
findings demonstrated that a branded hotel or accom-
modation facility available at the destination does not
solely enhance the branding of a destination; rather,
a combination of some elements does, as identified in
Table 8. This, therefore, further supports the findings
of Pike and Page (2014), who said the most compre-
hensive definition of destination branding has been
that proposed by Blain, Levy, and Ritchie (2005), in
collaboration with Berthon, Hulbert, and Pitt’s (1999)
model of the functions of a brand from the buyer and
supplier’s perspectives, which is given as: ‘the set of
marketing activities (1) that support the creation of a
name, symbol, logo, word mark or other graphic that
readily identifies and differentiates a destination; that
(2) consistently convey the expectation of a memo-
rable travel experience; (3) serve to consolidate and re-
inforce the emotional connection between the visitor
and the destination; and (4) reduce consumer search
costs and perceived risk.’
All of these activities collectively serve to create a
destination image that positively influences consumer
destination choice. In line with this, the research find-
ings also show that tourists are more loyal to the des-
tination brand than the hotel brand.
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hospitality and tourism: Foundations and practices. Up-
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and determinants of brand equity: A financial approach.
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96 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
Obiskovalci grških termalnih in obmorskih zdravilišč
(od sredine 19. do zgodnjega 20. stoletja)
Melina Kostidi
Termalni turizem, ki velja za prvo obliko turizma v Grčiji, se je pričel razvijati v 19.
stoletju, ko so prvi obiskovalci začeli obiskovati termalne kopeli, da bi ozdraveli ali
vsaj olajšali svoje bolečine. Prva termalna zdravilišča v Grčiji imamo lahko za ne-
kakšne »zamudnike«, saj se je njihov razvoj pričel kasneje kot v drugih evropskih
državah, njihova infrastruktura pa je bila relativno skromna. Že sredi devetnajstega
stoletja pa se je urbani prostor grških termalnih in obmorskih središč začel arhitek-
turno preoblikovati zaradi ukrepov državne politike in vse večjega števila obisko-
valcev. V prispevku sta prikazana arhitekturna preobrazba grških zdravilišč in profil
obiskovalcev ter bolnikov v dveh fazah njihovega razvoja. Raziskovanje je temeljilo
na primarnih virih iz 19. stoletja (zakonodaja in predpisi, registri bolnikov, zdravni-
ška poročila, oglasi, razglednice, romani in spomini). V prvi fazi razvoja (1833–1890)
so imela grška letovišča zelo omejene nastanitvene in prostočasne zmogljivosti. Obi-
skovali so jih bolniki in popotniki iz bližnjih krajev, ki so se srečevali s pomanjkanjem
ustrezne zdravstvene oskrbe in nastanitvenih zmogljivosti. V naslednji fazi (1890–
1930) se je urbani prostor grških zdravilišč preoblikoval, da bi zadostil potrebam in
pritegnil nove obiskovalce. Obiskovalci grških zdravilišč so bili pacienti in turisti, ki
so običajno potovali z drugimi družinskimi člani. Trgi in sprehajališča v termalnih
kopališčih in obmorskih letoviščih so postali osrednji prostor urbane družabnosti
gostov, ki so bili nastanjeni v luksuznih hotelih in so uživali v ponudbi restavracij,
gledališč in igralnic.
Ključne besede: zdravilišča, obmorska letovišča, prosti čas, turizem, Grčija
Academica Turistica, 12(1), 5–12
Zabava in gospodarske dejavnosti – tekmeca na obalah
zgodnjih angleških obmorskih letovišč
Allan Brodie
Prva angleška letovišča so se razvila v začetku 18. stoletja v manjših obalnih krajih,
kjer sta pred tem cvetela trgovina in ribištvo. Tudi danes se obmorska letovišča naha-
jajo v bližini pristanišč različnih velikosti, odmanjših ribiških pristanišč ali pristanov
zamanjša plovila do velikih kontejnerskih in trajektnih pristanišč. V večini sodobnih
mest se industrijska območja nahajajo na obrobju urbanih naselij, na območjih, kjer
so bili v 18. in 19. stoletju zgrajeni prvi mlini in tovarne. Nasprotno pa ležijo prista-
nišča v neposredni bližini starih mestnih jeder obalnih krajev, ki so kasneje postala
turistično privlačna, pristaniška dejavnost pa poteka vzporedno z novo turistično
dejavnostjo, ki je spremenila identiteto teh mest. Ta soobstoj različnih dejavnosti
lahko vodi v konflikt med interesi turizma in drugih gospodarskih dejavnosti oz. do
napetosti med gosti in zaposlenimi, ki delajo v pristaniški in pomorskih podjetjih.
Prostorski in gospodarski interesi turizma ter trgovske dejavnosti so se v 300 letih
soobstoja izoblikovali pod vplivompovečevanja števila obiskovalcev in rasti trgovske
dejavnosti. V članku so predstavljeni pristaniški kraji v Angliji in Walesu, ki so v 18.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 97
Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
stoletju pričeli razvijati kopališko ponudbo in infrastrukturo. Nekateri so se razvili v
današnje obmorske turistične destinacije, drugi pa so ohranili pristaniško dejavnost.
Le nekaj krajev je uspelo ohraniti krhko ravnotežje v razvoju obeh dejavnosti.
Ključne besede: prosti čas, trgovina, obmorska letovišča
Academica Turistica, 12(1), 13–22
Mesto in morje: razvoj in preoblikovanje težavnega razmerja
Annarita Teodosio
V preteklih stoletjih se je odnos mest do morja pogosto spreminjal. Različni dejav-
niki (politični, gospodarski, socialni, znanstveni) so vplivali na človekovo dojemanje
morja. Sčasoma je obala izgubila podobo nevarnega področja in je postala poslovno
zanimiva. V zadnjih letih smo priča rušenju starih, odsluženih objektov, izgradnji
obalnih sprehajališč in odpiranju prostora protimorju, s čimer se spreminja tradicio-
nalna podoba obmorskih krajev. Gospodarska kriza v sedemdesetih letih preteklega
stoletja je povzročila opuščanje številnih industrijskih in pristaniških dejavnosti, kar
je povzročilo degradacijo obalnih območij. V osemdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja so
v številnih krajih pričeli pripravljati in izvajati različne ukrepe za obnovo in revita-
lizacijo teh degradiranih območij. Kljub različnim pristopom in obsegu teh projek-
tov pa so bili njihovi cilji podobni – ponovna vzpostavitev povezave med mestom
in morjem ter ustvarjanje novih priložnosti za urbano, gospodarsko in družbeno-
kulturno rast. V prispevku so predstavljeni ključni koraki dolgotrajnega in komple-
ksnega procesa odpiranja protimorju. Predstavljena je tudi analiza preobrazbe obale
iz zgodovinskega sprehajališča devetnajstega stoletja v osrednjo točkomestnega, go-
spodarskega in turističnega razvoja. Predstavljene so bogate izkušnje z zapuščenimi
in revitaliziranimi pristanišči velikih in znanih mest, kot sta na primer Barcelona in
Bilbao, kakor tudi zmanjšimi kraji, kakršen je na primer Vigo, ter nekaj italijanskimi
kraji. Današnjamesta iščejo novo identiteto, alternativne poti ter načine okoljske, so-
cialne in gospodarske vzdržnosti razvoja.
Ključne besede: obalna mesta, promenada, oživljanje obale
Academica Turistica, 12(1), 23–30
Vstop turizma v pomorsko pristanišče: primer Brionov
v času Habsburške monarhije
Nataša Urošević
Prispevek predstavlja rezultate arhivskega in terenskega raziskovanja v okviru av-
torskega raziskovalnega projekta »Valorizacija skupne evropske dediščine Pulja kot
nekdanjega glavnega avstrijskega pomorskega pristanišča in otočja Brioni kot eli-
tnega letovišča«; raziskava je bila opravljena v avstrijskih arhivih in temelji pred-
vsem na zbirki Kupelwieser, ki jo hrani Avstrijska nacionalna knjižnica. Namen raz-
iskave je bil oceniti vlogo aristokratskih rezidenc, postavljenih v bližini glavnega vo-
jaškega pomorskega pristanišča, pri začetkih razvoja sodobnega turizma na Brionih,
pri čemer je bila analiza primerjalna in je upoštevala tudi mednarodni okvir. Glavno
98 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
raziskovalno vprašanje je bilo, ali so Brioni sledili evropskemu modelu razvoja ari-
stokratskih letovišč v bližini velikih pristanišč. V primerjalno študijo, ki je zajemala
dokumentarno in terensko raziskovanje, so bile zajete znane otoške aristokratske re-
zidence v Evropi in Sredozemlju, ki so se razvile kot priljubljena obmorska letovišča
v 19. in 20. stoletju, kot so otoki Wight, Mallorca, Krf in Brioni. Pregled sodobne
znanstvene literature je dodatno prispeval k razumevanju modela uspešnega sožitja
turističnih krajev in pristanišč. V članku je kot primer prikazan razvoj turizma na
Brionih v najbolj dinamičnem in dramatičnem zgodovinskemobdobju, tj. pred,med
in po prvi svetovni vojni, ob upoštevanju njihovega pomena kot elitnega letovišča v
neposredni bližini Pulja.
Ključne besede: aristokratske rezidence, letovišča, pristanišča, Brioni, Pulj,
zgodovina turizma
Academica Turistica, 12(1), 31–40
Turizem na hrvaški Jadranski obali in prva svetovna vojna
Jasenka Kranjčević
Raziskave o turistični zgodovini so bile večinoma omejene na upoštevanje življenj-
skih ciklov turističnega območja (ang. talc). Čeprav so destinacije, ki imajo več kot
stoletno turistično tradicijo, doživele različne življenjske cikle, se njihova turistična
zgodovina redko obravnava v kontekstu globalnih sprememb, kot je prva svetovna
vojna, in tega, kako in v kakšnem obsegu so te globalne spremembe vplivale na ra-
zvoj turizma ter turistično arhitekturo. Glede na to, da na območju današnjeHrvaške
med prvo svetovno vojno ni prišlo do neposrednih sovražnosti, je v članku raziskan
posredni vpliv vojne kot svetovnega dogodka na takratni dvig turizma s pomočjo ne-
izkoriščene turistične arhitekture, kar je lahko razumeti kot ustavitev naložbe v turi-
zem. Ta raziskava je lahko podlaga za razmišljanje o oblikovanju modela za svetovni
turistični življenjski cikel po stopnjah, vključno s paradigmatskimi spremembami v
oblikovanju turistične arhitekture.
Ključne besede: prva svetovna vojna, svetovni turistični cikel, življenjski cikel
turističnega območja, neizkoriščena turistična arhitektura, Hrvaška
Academica Turistica, 12(1), 41–53
Preučitev sezonskosti potnih odhodkov po namenu potovanja:
primer Japonske
Kenichi Shimamoto
Obravnavanje sezonskosti za turistično industrijo je izziv za številne turistične desti-
nacije. Japonska ni izjema in z nedavno osredotočenostjo na razvoj v turistično dr-
žavo je postalo še pomembneje razumeti sezonske trende. Metode za obravnavanje
sezonskosti, kot so diferencirano določanje cen, raznovrstna privlačnost, diverzifika-
cija trga in olajšave s strani države, bodo zahtevale segmentacijo trga za oblikovanje
ustreznih strategij. Zato da bi zagotovili vpogled v sezonsko naravnanost različnih
trgov, članek kategorizira izdatke, povezane s potovanji, v šest potrošniških postavk,
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 99
Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
vezanih na tako prostočasna kot poslovna potovanja. Članek preučuje trende in zna-
čilnosti sezonskosti in nihanja v vseh proračunskih letih med letoma 2010 in 2017 za
domača potovanja na Japonskem. Rezultati kažejo, da ne glede na namen potovanja
obstajajo produkti, ki niso odvisni od sezonskosti in imajo relativno nizko fluktua-
cijo v opazovanem obdobju; gre za izdatke za prevoz, hrano, pijačo. Na drugi strani
pa se pokažejo razmeroma visoke stopnje fluktuacije v opazovanem obdobju za pro-
dukte, kot so paketne počitnice ter stroški nastanitve za poslovna potovanja.
Ključne besede: sezonskost, potrošniška postavka, namen potovanja, Japonska
Academica Turistica, 12(1), 55–72
Razlike v zaznavi organizacijskih vrednot v hotelskem sektorju:
kaj nam povedo?
Mitja Gorenak
Organizacijske vrednote so že nekaj let v žarišču pozornosti vodstev podjetij. Vede-
nje, da lahko trdne vrednote organizacijam pomagajo ohranjati pravo smer sredi hi-
tro spreminjajočega se delovnega okolja, se je izkazalo kot trdna podlaga za njihovo
uspešnost. Vendar pa organizacije niso nič brez svojih zaposlenih, kar nas je privedlo
do vprašanja, kakšne so razlike v zaznavi organizacijskih vrednot med zaposlenimi
glede na njihovo starost in spol. Raziskavo smo izvedli v hotelskem sektorju na re-
prezentativnem vzorcu 388 zaposlenih; ugotovili smo, da med zaposlenimi v hotel-
skem sektorju obstaja šest glavnih organizacijskih vrednot. V drugem delu raziskave
smo ugotovili, da ženske pomembnost dveh od šestih vrednot vrednotijo statistično
značilno višje kot moški. Glede na starost pa statistično značilnih razlik nismo našli.
Ključne besede: vrednote, organizacijske vrednote, gostoljubje, demografija, zaznava
Academica Turistica, 12(1), 73–82
Blagovna znamka hotela kot sestavina blagovne znamke destinacije
Elizabeth Abiola-Oke
Namen tega članka je preučiti učinek razpoložljivosti hotelskih blagovnih znamk na
določeni destinaciji na promocijo slednje. Podatki za raziskavo so bili zbrani s sple-
tnimi vprašalniki. Udeležence raziskave smo izbrali prek socialnih omrežij (Linke-
dIn, na katerem ima avtor profil) in med člani različnih s turizmom povezanih ter
nepovezanih skupin. S turizmom povezane skupine sestavljajo strokovnjaki na tem
področju pa tudi nestrokovnjaki. Podatke smo analizirali z deskriptivno analizo s
programom SPSS. Ugotovili smo, da imajo blagovne znamke hotelov majhen vpliv
na izbiro destinacije v primerjavi z drugimi sestavinami, kot so privlačnost destina-
cije, možnosti prevoza in druge podporne storitve. Na podlagi tega ugotavljamo, da
blagovne znamke hotela ni mogoče uporabiti kot edini element blagovne znamke
destinacije, saj ima nanjo zelo majhen vpliv oziroma ga sploh nima.
Ključne besede: hotelska blagovna znamka, destinacijska blagovna znamka, ciljni
marketing, promocija destinacije
Academica Turistica, 12(1), 83–96
100 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Academica Turistica Instructions for Authors
Instructions for Authors
Aim and Scope of the Journal
Academica Turistica – Tourism and Innovation Journal
(at-tij) is a peer-reviewed journal that provides a fo-
rum for the dissemination of knowledge on tourism
and innovation from a social sciences perspective. It
especially welcomes contributions focusing on inno-
vation in tourism and adaptation of innovations from
other fields in tourism settings.
The journal welcomes both theoretical and appli-
cative contributions and encourages authors to use va-
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Manuscripts are accepted in both American and Bri-
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As a result of this your paper will be either accepted
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Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 101
Academica Turistica Instructions for Authors
the equation editor or MathType for equations. Whe-
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Thetitlepage should include the title of the article (no
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References
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start with the title of the work. If you are citing a work
that is in print but has not yet been published, state all
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102 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019
Academica Turistica Instructions for Authors
list. Full titles of journals are required (not their abbre-
viations).
Citing References in Text
One author. Tourism innovation specific is mentioned
(Brooks, 2010). Thomas (1992) had concluded . . .
Two authors. This result was later contradicted (Swar-
brooke &Horner, 2007). Price andMurphy (2000)
pointed out . . .
Three to five authors, first citation. Laroche, Bergeron,
and Barbaro-Forleo (2001) had found . . . It was
also discovered (Salamon, Sokolowski, Haddock,
& Tice, 2013) . . .
Three to five authors, subsequent citations. Laroche et
al. (2009) or (Salamon et al., 2011).
Six or more authors.Wolchik et al. (1999) or (Wolchik
et al., 1999).
If two references with six or more authors shorten
to the same form, cite the surnames of the first author
and of as many of the subsequent authors as necessary
to distinguish the two references, followed by a coma
and et al.
List several authors for the same thought or idea
with separation by using a semicolon: (Kalthof et al.,
1999; Biegern & Roberts, 2005).
For detailed instructions please see the Publica-
tion Manual of the American Psychological Association
(American Psychological Association, 2009, Chap-
ter 6).
Examples of Reference List
Books
American Psychological Association. (2009). Publica-
tion manual of the American Psychological Associ-
ation (6th ed.). Washington, dc: Author.
Swarbrooke, J., & Horner, S. (2007). Consumer beha-
viour in tourism. Oxford, England: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
Journals
Laroche,M., Bergeron, J., & Barbaro-Forleo, G. (2001).
Targeting consumers who are willing to pay more
for environmentally friendly products. Journal of
Consumer Marketing, 18(6), 503–520.
Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.–
Y., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., . . . Griffin, W. A.
(2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-
basedmother andmother-child programs for chil-
dren of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 68, 843–856.
Newspapers
Brooks, A. (2010, 7 July). Building craze threatens to
end Lanzarote’s biosphere status. Independent. Re-
trieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/
environment/nature/building-craze-threatens-to
-end-lanzarotes-biosphere-status-2020064.html
Chapters in Books
Poirier, R. A. (2001). A dynamic tourism develop-
ment model in Tunisia: Policies and prospects. In
Y. Aposotolopoulos, P. Loukissas, & L. Leontidou
(Eds.),Mediterranean tourism (pp. 197–210). Lon-
don, England: Routledge.
Conference Proceedings
Price, G., & Murphy, P. (2000). The relationship be-
tween ecotourism and sustainable development: A
critical examination. In M. Ewen (Ed.), cauthe
2000: Peak performance in tourism and hospitality
research; Proceedings of the Tenth Australian Tou-
rism and Hospitality Research Conference (pp. 189–
202). Bundoora, Australia: La Trobe University.
Paper Presentation
Thomas, J. (1992, July). Tourism and the environment:
An exploration of the willingness to pay of the ave-
rage visitor. Paper presented at the conference To-
urism in Europe, Durham, England.
Theses andDissertations
Sedmak, G. (2006). Pomen avtentičnosti turističnega
proizvoda: primer destinacije Piran (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). University of Ljubljana, Lju-
bljana, Slovenia.
Working Papers
Salamon, L. M., Sokolowski, S. W., Haddock, M. A., &
Tice, H. S. (2013). The state of global civil society vo-
lunteering: Latest findings from the implementation
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 1, June 2019 | 103
Academica Turistica Instructions for Authors
of the un nonprofitt handbook (Comparative Non-
profit Sector Working Paper No. 49). Baltimore,
md: Johns Hopkins University.
Web Pages
Croatian Bureau of Statistics. (2001). Census of popu-
lation, households and dwellings. Retrieved from
http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/censuses/Census2001/
census.htm
For detailed instructions please see the Publica-
tion Manual of the American Psychological Association
(American Psychological Association, 2009, Chap-
ter 7).
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