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Documenta Praehistorica XLVII (2020)
The megalithic builders> new data on old bones from
Megalitho do Facho (Figueira da Foz, Portugal)
Ana Maria Silva
University of Coimbra, Research Centre for Anthropology and Health, Department of Life Sciences,
Laboratory of Prehistory, Coimbra, PT
University of Coimbra, Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, Coimbra, PT
UNIARQ – University of Lisbon, Lisbon, PT
amgsilva@antrop.uc.pt
ABSTRACT – Between the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, António dos Santos
Rocha excavated several prehistoric megalithic monuments in the region of Figueira da Foz (Por-
tugal). Some of them revealed human bones, albeit very disturbed and fragmented, which ended up
forgotten in the Municipal Museum of Santos Rocha (Figueira da Foz), as did the individuals to
which they belonged. Here, I revisit the human bone collection preserved from Megalitho do Facho
to access demographic and morphological data; physiological stress indicators; pathologies and in-
juries that these individuals suffered, thus revealing insights on the lives of those who were deposited
in this dolmen. The majority of this collection is composed of unburned bones and a small subsam-
ple of burned ones. Both were radiocarbon dated to the Chalcolithic period (first half of the 3rd mil-
lennium BC). The analysis confirmed that non-adult and adult individuals of both sexes were deposit-
ed in this dolmen. These individuals were affected by biomechanical stress since early in life and dis-
play mild signs of physiological stress associated with remodelled lesions, suggestive of a relatively
good health status. These data are discussed in the context of other coeval sites.
IZVLE∞EK – António dos Santos Rocha je konec 19. in v za≠etku 20. stoletja v regiji Figueira da Foz
na Portugalskem izkopal ∏tevilne prazgodovinske megalitske spomenike. Pri izkopavanjih so odkri-
li tudi ≠love∏ke kosti, ki so bile zelo uni≠ene in razdrobljene ter so ostale v lokalnem muzeju Santos
Rocha (Figueira da Foz) skoraj tako pozabljene kot posamezniki, katerim so pripadale. V ≠lanku
predstavljam zbir ≠love∏kih kosti iz najdi∏≠a Megalitho do Facho za pridobitev podatkov o demogra-
fiji in morfologiji, o kazalnikih fiziolo∏kega stresa, o patologijah in po∏kodbah, ki so jih utrpeli ti po-
samezniki, s ≠imer bom razkril vpogled v ∫ivljenje tistih, ki so bili polo∫eni v ta dolmen. Ve≠ji del
zbira sestavljajo ne∫gane kosti, o∫gane kosti pa predstavljajo le manj∏i vzorec. Obe skupini kosti smo
datirali s pomo≠jo radiokarbonske metode v ≠as halkolitika (prva polovica 3. tiso≠letja pr. n. ∏t.).
Analiza je potrdila, da so bili v dolmen odlo∫eni tako neodrasli kot odrasli posamezniki obeh spolov.
Ti posamezniki so bili v zgodnjem ∫ivljenju izpostavljeni biomehanskemu stresu in ka∫ejo na blage
znake fiziolo∏kega stresa, povezanega s preoblikovanimi lezijami, kar ka∫e na njihovo razmeroma
dobro zdravstveno stanje. O teh podatkih razpravljam v kontekstu drugih so≠asnih najdi∏≠.
KEY WORDS – megalithic tombs; unburned and burned human bones; biological and paleopatho-
logical profiles; Chalcolithic; Western Central Portugal
KLJU∞NE BESEDE – megalitske grobnice; ne∫gane in ∫gane ≠love∏ke kosti; biolo∏ki in paleopatolo∏ki
profili; halkolitik; zahodna osrednja Portugalska
Graditelji megalitov> novi podatki iz starih kosti na najdi[;u
Megalitho do Facho (Figueira da Foz, Portugalska)
DOI> 10.4312\dp.47.21
The megalithic builders> new data on old bones from Megalitho do Facho (Figueira da Foz, Portugal)
391
tombs, but also because they come from a period
and geographic area that are poorly represented by
human remains, and thus they represent one of the
few ways we have of gaining biological knowledge
of these past populations.
Megalitho do Facho
Santos Rocha published data on this tomb in his last
volume of Antiguidades Prehistoricas do Concelho
da Figueira (1900). This dolmen is located on the
eastern limit of the necropolis (Fig. 1), in the Serra
de São Bento (Maiorca, Figueira da Foz). It has a po-
lygonal chamber and a small corridor (Fig. 2), whose
largest axes are 2.5m and 1.1m respectively, orient-
ed NW-SE, with the entrance at SE. The chamber was
around 1.55m in diameter at its mid-point, and 2m
at its NW end. It is formed by 10 orthostats described
in Table 1, and a small area of dry masonry. It was
discovered without the roof slabs and with signs of
old and recent disturbances in the archaeological
levels (as attested by the presence of fractures and
hoe blow marks observed on some bone fragments).
As such, it is not surprising that all of the contents
of the tomb were mixed at the bottom of the mo-
nument. According to Santos Rocha’s descriptions,
mixed charcoal, human bones and artefacts were re-
covered scattered throughout the debris. The 0.7m
Introduction
Between the end of the 19th and beginning of the
20th centuries, the archaeologist António dos Santos
Rocha excavated several megalithic tombs in the
Serra da Boa Viagem, located in the region of Fi-
gueira da Foz (Coimbra, Portugal). This Necropolis
is composed of approx. 21 dolmens that are located
between Cabo Mondego and Serra de São Bento
(Santos Rocha 1900.239) in Western Central Por-
tugal. The majority of the intervened tombs dated
to the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods were found
very disturbed. Some revealed human bones, al-
though very fragmented, poorly preserved and com-
mingled. The collected data then were published in
four volumes of Antiguidades Prehistoricas do Con-
celho da Figueira (1888; 1895; 1897; 1900). This
work contains very complete descriptions of the
finds, taking into account the science at the time,
and an inventory of all the recovered remains (arte-
facts, human and non-human bones). Anthropologi-
cal considerations, such as flattening of the tibia
and severe dental wear were briefly discussed, along
with ethnographic data. Later, in 1969, Vitor Guerra
(at the time the director of the Municipal Museum
of Santos Rocha) published a series of manuscripts
prepared by Santos Rocha for a scientific meeting
he would attend in April 1910 that unfortunately
did not occur, since he died the previous month.
These collections thus ended up forgotten in the
Municipal Museum of Santos Rocha (Figueira da Foz)
without ever having been studied in an exhaustive
manner, with occasional exceptions such as the pub-
lication of an incomplete trepanation observed in
one adult male skull recovered from the Dolmen
Megalitho da Capella (Silva 2003a). Moreover, in
view of how long ago the excavation of these tombs
took place, an unknown part of these collections has
been lost due to, among others, reorganisations, mo-
vements, loaning and/or offers of subsamples.
My primary objective here is therefore to provide a
complete anthropological analysis of the human re-
mains now curated in the Municipal Museum of San-
tos Rocha/Museu Municipal Santos Rocha (MMSR)
to obtain insights on the biological profile, lifestyle,
and health status of the individuals that were depo-
sited in the Megalitho do Facho1 one of the dolmens
of this remarkable necropolis. The importance of
these remains derives not only from their recovery
from a large necropolis of at least 21 megalithic
Fig. 1. Map of Iberian Peninsula showing the loca-
tions of Megalitho do Facho and other sites men-
tioned in this study. Tombs 1 and 2 belong to the
Megalithic necropolis excavated by Santos Rocha.
Legend: 1 Megalitho do Facho; 2 Cabeço dos Moin-
hos; 3 Dólmen de Ansião; 4 Dólmen do Carrascal;
5 Anta da Sobreira 1.
1 The original designation of Santos Rocha, Megalitho, is used. However, Megalitho, dolmen and the Portuguese expression Anta,
represent tombs without major architectural differences.
Ana Maria Silva
392
wide corridor was nearly completely covered by two
limestone slabs, measuring between 1m to 1.25m in
length, 0.48m and 0.5m in width, and 0.12m to
0.14m in depth. The height of the chamber and cor-
ridor are around 1.7m (Santos Rocha 1900.209).
The human bones were only found in the chamber,
including a group of bones that, due to their good
preservation, led Santos Rocha to suggest that they
were recent. However, AMS radiocarbon dating con-
firmed their Chalcolithic chronology (see below).
Two mortuary deposits were detected near the en-
trance of the gallery, probably still intact. However,
their very poor state of preservation only allowed a
few fragments to be recovered by the team working
for Santos Rocha. Next to them, a flint blade and pot-
tery fragments were recovered (Santos Rocha 1900.
209).
The artefact assemblage includes stone axes, hand
stones, blades, retouched tools scrapers, arrowheads,
bone flints, flint retouched tools, lignite beads, se-
veral fragments of schist plaques, one black clay vase
and fragments of three others. One triangular red
flint arrowhead measuring 3cm long was found ce-
mented in the internal part of a human rib fragment.
However, when the tuff was dissolved it was con-
firmed that it was not embedded in the bone. Still,
the most peculiar artefact is a polished grey schist
plaque that represents the outline of a human foot
(Fig. 3). It has a plan surface on one side and the
characteristic curve of a foot sole, including the heel,
which is in relief on the opposite side. The toes are
not represented by divisions or strokes and it seems
to represent the right foot. The analysis of all these
artefacts by Carlos Batista (technician of the Museu
Municipal Santos Rocha) and Raquel Vilaça (Univer-
sity of Coimbra) is still under way.
Anthropological data: the documentary sources
Santos Rocha attributed the human bone remains to
11 skeletons, including very young individuals. His
descriptions comprised an exhaustive inventory of
the recovered bone pieces, which included skull and
hip bone fragments, jaws, six loose teeth, vertebrae,
ribs, clavicles, humerus, cubits, radius, femurs, tibias,
fibulae, patellae, and hand and foot bones (Santos
Rocha 1900.214–216). He noticed that skull remains
were under-represented compared to postcranial
bones, and attributed this to the perturbations that
the monument suffered. The inventory includes
bones from all parts of the skeleton. Santos Rocha
also emphasized that ribs, hand and foot bones were
numerous, but strangely, only two patellae were re-
covered. The non-human bones include rabbit, sheep
and some unidentified species, some of them burned,
besides fragments of Triton nodiferus (some also
with evidence of burning) and valves from Cardium
edule and Mytilus galloprovincialis.
In 1899, at the request of Santos Rocha, this bone
assemblage was briefly studied by Ricardo Severo
(da Fonseca e Costa) and Fonseca Cardoso (Artur Au-
gusto da Fonseca Cardoso). According to their notes,
Fig. 2. Plan of the dolmen of Megalitho do Facho
after the intervention according to Santos Rocha
(1900.Fig. 310).
N Nature of the slab Height Width Depth
1 Sandstone ±1.7m 1.65m 0.27m
2 Grey sandstone (|) ‘almost’ 1.7m – 0.25m
3 Grey sandstone 1.7m 0.9m 0.4m
4 Grey sandstone 1.7m 0.9m 0.4m
5 Portion of dry
– – –
masonry forming a wall
6 Grey sandstone 1.7m 0.56m 0.2m
7 Grey sandstone 1.7m 0.54m 0.3m
8 Limestone ±1.7m 1m 0.15m
Small slab that crosses the gallery
9 Grey sandstone forming a step with 0.1 to 0.2m
height.
10 Limestone (|) 1.7m 1 m 0.2m
11 Limestone 1.45m 1.3m 0.33m
Note> All measurements were taken from the present sur-
face level< | – not indicated.
Tab. 1. Summary of the data of the orthostats of
the Megalitho do Facho, according to Santos Rocha
(1900.209).
The megalithic builders> new data on old bones from Megalitho do Facho (Figueira da Foz, Portugal)
393
this sample was very fragmented, and it was only pos-
sible to measure one femur “420 + 2, corresponding
to a stature of 1625mm and living size of 1605mm”
and the observation of flatness in some tibia frag-
ments (Santos Rocha 1900.268–271).
Material and methods
The human bone assemblage was cleaned, labelled
and marked, and an inventory of the bone sample
was prepared using an Excel database. The mini-
mum number of individuals (MNI) was estimated
based on the adaptation by Silva (1993) of the me-
thod of Herrmann et al. (1990). For the non-adult
sample, skeletal maturation was also taken into ac-
count, as recommended by Silva (1996; 2002). Age-
at-death of the non-adults was estimated using den-
tal mineralization according to AlQahtani et al.
(2010) and, for long bones, the recommendations
of Scheuer and Black (2000). For adult individuals,
epiphyseal union of the iliac crest (Ferembach et al.
1980) and the fusion of the sternal end of the clav-
icle (MacLaughlin 1990) allowed the identification
of young adults (< 30 years). Degenerative altera-
tions of the auricular surface (Lovejoy et al. 1985)
and the obliteration of cranial sutures (Masset 1982)
were considered for estimating age-at-death for the
adult sample. Sex diagnosis was only possible based
on morphological traits, scored according to Ferem-
bach et al. (1980) and metric analysis of talus (Sil-
va 1995). Morphological analysis included metric
parameters and an estimation of the platimeric and
platicnemic indices (Martin, Saller 1956) to provide
data on the flatness of lower long bones, and thus
inferences on daily behaviours. To assess the varia-
bility and affinity of these individuals, several non-
metric postcranial traits were recorded following
Saunders (1978) and Finnegan (1978). Dental non-
metric traits were scored following the ASUDAS pro-
tocol (Turner et al. 1991; Scott, Irish 2017) and the
mandibular molar pit-tubercle (MMPT) according to
Marado and Silva (2016).
To evaluate the childhood illness experience of these
individuals, linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH, a non-
specific stress indicator), cribra orbitalia and poro-
tic hyperostosis (specific stress indicators) were re-
corded. All bones were carefully examined for evi-
dence of pathologies or lesions.
The bone weight methodology proposed by Silva
(2002; Silva et al. 2009) to evaluate bone represen-
tation in a sample was adapted to infer the represen-
tation of some types of bones of this collection, such
as the skull, femurs and tibias. It was not possible
to include all skeletal elements due to the known
loss of a considerable number of bone pieces.
Results
What can the surviving bone collection tell us
about these individuals?
At present, the human bone collection curated in the
MMSR is comprised of 361 fragments from all parts
of the skeleton. Of these, eight exhibit chromatic
changes compatible with exposure to fire, revealing
a bluish colour. This set includes remains that cor-
respond to at least one adult individual and one
non-adult. The latter includes three cranial frag-
ments, a crown of a lower right first molar and a
small fragment of the diaphysis of a long bone. All
are compatible with a non-adult of approximately
three years of age, using the dental calcification
scheme of AlQahtani et al. (2010), although it can-
not be excluded that they belong to different indi-
viduals. A small accessory cusp, C6, is visible on the
crown of the preserved tooth. The remaining non-
metric dental data are provided in Table 2. The cra-
nial remains include a left orbit with mild signs of
cribra orbitalia (Fig. 4), an indicator of specific phy-
siological stress generally associated with chronic
anaemia, although other suggested aetiologies in-
clude eye infections (Walker et al. 2009). A small
fragment of parietal bone and two of long bones
compose the adult subsample.
The majority of bone fragments do not exhibit any
changes related to exposure to temperature. They
display other taphonomic changes, such as the pre-
sence of limestone concretions, small cracks related
to exposure to water, the presence of root marks,
and small black or orange spots. While the black
spots can be attributed to the presence of manga-
nese in the soil, the orange spots are compatible with
the use of pigment. The bones are very fragmented,
but well preserved. All parts of the skeleton are re-
presented, including small hand and foot phalan-
Fig. 3. Original drawing of the schist podomorph
(apparently a right foot) found in the Megalitho
do Facho (in Santos Rocha 1900.Fig. 317).
Ana Maria Silva
394
ges. Despite the considerable number of bone frag-
ments, cross-checking with the descriptions publi-
shed by Santos Rocha confirms the loss of a consi-
derable number of pieces, including some with pa-
thologies, as well as maxillary fragments, patellae
and loose teeth (with exception of one).
To confirm the chronology of these human remains
two samples were selected for AMS dating: a rib frag-
ment from the unburned set and a cranial fragment
with signs of fire exposure. The results confirm that
both are contemporary and date to the Chalcolithic
period, that is, to the first half of the 3rd millennium
BC (Tab. 3).
Currently, considering all human remains (burned
and unburned), at least 11 individuals are represent-
ed. Interestingly, this is an identical estimation as
the one advanced by Santos Rocha. They include se-
ven adults (based on tibia fragments) and four non-
adults. The latter were identified by several bone
types and include non-adults who died at approx.
24 months, three years (burned sample, described
above), six years, and nine to ten years of age. Some
fragments of long bone diaphyses suggest the pres-
ence of adolescents, but the absence of epiphyses
makes confirmation impossible. Among the adult in-
dividuals, there are at least two who died between
the ages of 20 and 25 (due to the presence of two
non-compatible fragments of iliac crest in process of
fusion). The presence of older adults, including those
over 30 years old, is attested by the observation of
fused sternal ends of clavicles (n = 2) and by a cra-
nial fragment with the sutures close to being com-
pletely obliterated. If the burned and unburned frag-
ments were analysed separately, the number of adults
would increase by one (burned sample: one adult
and one non-adult; unburned sample: seven adults
and three non-adult individuals).
The presence of individuals of both sexes is con-
firmed by the hip bone sample, as well as by the
sexual dimorphism observed in some long bone
fragments. The metric analysis of a left talus allowed
us to identify a female individual. Also noteworthy
is skull fragment 122, formed by the parietal and
occipital bones belonging to a young adult (all cra-
nial sutures are open), which display a very marked
nuchal crest (Fig. 5).
Due to the magnitude of bone fragments that were
lost from this collection it was not possible to use
the bone weight methodology proposed by Silva
(2002; Silva et al. 2009) to check for any abnorma-
lity in the representation of all skeletal elements, a
valuable approach for inferences about the burial
practices (Silva et al. 2017). However, the represen-
tativeness of the three most common skeletal ele-
ments recovered were investigated using this me-
thod: skull, femur and tibia. Considering the MNI of
seven adults, it was also possible to estimate the
percentage of preserved to expected bones in these
three bone categories (Tab. 4). The obtained percen-
tages are very similar, at 50%, and about half of the
expected value.
Among the metric analyses, flatness of the femurs
and tibias was investigated. The mean value of the
cnemic index was 73.31 (n = 4), confirming the pre-
sence of flatness in the proximal region of the tibia
diaphysis. The only fragment of a femur that allowed
this analysis also confirmed the presence of flatness
(right femur; 71.43) (Fig. 6). The bone remains of
this collection are small, but robust. A thick cortical
layer was observed in small fragments of the diaph-
ysis of one femur and one fibula.
The search for non-metric characters allowed obser-
vation of a septal aperture in the only distal hume-
rus recovered, two femurs display a hypotrochante-
ric fossae (n = 3) (Fig. 6) and an acetabular fold was
Fig. 4. Cribra orbitalia in the left orbit of a non-
adult individual recovered from Megalitho do Fa-
cho. This bone also displays chromatic alterations
compatible with the exposure to high temperatures.
Traits Observation\Grade
Number of Cusps 5
Groove pattern Y
Presence of C6 2
Presence of C7 0
Deflecting wrinkle 0
Protostylid 0
Mandibular molar pit-tubercle 0
Tab. 2. Non-metric dental traits observed in the
only preserved tooth from Megalitho do Facho (lo-
wer first right molar).
The megalithic builders> new data on old bones from Megalitho do Facho (Figueira da Foz, Portugal)
395
noted in one left acetabulum fragment. The last fea-
ture is rarely documented, either in prehistoric or
historical populations.
Pathologies were observed that reflect signs of infec-
tion and physiological stress indicators, entheseal
changes and degenerative joint pathology. The last
was observed in a right fragment of the temporo-
mandibular joint, in the coxo-femoral joint of a frag-
ment of one iliac bone, and in the body of a thora-
cic vertebra that also displays flattening of its body.
In fragments of the proximal diaphysis of two left
femurs, entheseal changes of the gluteus maximum
are marked. Signs of infection are registered in the
medullary canal of a distal diaphyseal fragment of
one left femur (Fig. 7). In some cranial fragments,
porosity compatible with porotic hyperostosis is re-
gistered, a specific physiological stress indicator usu-
ally related to anaemia. It should be noted that all
observed pathologies and lesions are remodelled.
Discussion
Between the end of the 19th and the first decades of
the 20th centuries, numerous megalithic tombs were
excavated in the present-day Portuguese territory.
Despite the fascination they created, the recovered
human bone assemblages usually ended up forgot-
ten in museums or private collections, waiting for an
exhaustive analysis to be performed by an expert.
This situation changed in the late 1990s when a sys-
tematic analysis of these collections was initiated
due to the recognition of their potential in provid-
ing valuable information about the biological pro-
file, health status and lifestyle of these individuals
(Silva 2003b; 2004; 2005; 2008; 2012; 2017; Silva
et al. 2006; 2012; 2014; 2019; Silva,
Ferreira 2007; 2016/2017; Boaven-
tura et al. 2013; 2014b; 2016). This
analysis was achieved through the
combination of appropriate anthro-
pological methodologies and approa-
ches, specifically adapted to these
types of assemblages that are very
disturbed, fragmented and commin-
gled (Silva 2017; Silva, Ferreira
2016/7; Silva et al. 2019). It was under this scope
that the analysis of the human remains from the dif-
ferent dolmens of the necropolis excavated by San-
tos Rocha and currently curated in the MMSR was un-
dertaken. To date, besides Megalitho do Facho, other
collections exhumed from dolmens with an exhaus-
tive anthropological study include Megalito do Ca-
beço dos Moinhos, another tomb from this necropo-
lis, the Dolmen de Ansião (Coimbra, Silva 2002),
Ref. Bone sample Conventional cal BC cal BP
Beta 542625 Rib fragment 4180 ± 30 BP 2817–2666 cal BC (73.7%) 4766–4615 cal BP (73.7%)
(Facho 82< unburnt) 2887–2835 cal BC (21.7%) 4836–4784 cal BP (21.7%)
Beta 549966 Cranial fragment 4170 ± 30 BP 2819–2662 cal BC (73.7%) 4768–4611 cal BP (73.7%)
(Facho 312< burnt) 2882–2833 cal BC (20.0%) 4831–4782 cal BP (20.0%)
2649–2636 cal BC (2.2) % 4598–4585 cal BP (2.2%)
Tab. 3. Results of radiocarbon dating of both subsets from the collection of Megalitho do Facho.
Fig. 5. Skull fragment 122 from Megalitho do Fa-
cho with a very marked nuchal line.
Fig. 6. Marked flatness and presence of the hypotrochanteric fossa
(arrow) in a right femur from Megalitho do Facho.
Bone Fragment Weight % Expected bone weight 
Skull 2013.92g 50%
Femurs 2253.18g 52.5%
Tibias 1319.82g 53.72%
Tab. 4. Results of the percentage of expected bone
weight of skull, femurs and tibias from Megalitho
do Facho, considering the reference values of Sil-
va (2002; Silva et al. 2009).
Ana Maria Silva
396
Dolmen do Carrascal (Sintra, Lisbon, Silva et al.
2019) and Anta da Sobreira 1 (Elvas, Boaventura
et al. 2014b) (see Fig. 1), here compared in discuss-
ing the results on the scope of other coeval popula-
tions that buried their dead in dolmen-style tombs.
Tomb descriptions and chronology
In Table 5, the architectural aspects and chronology
of these tombs are synthesized. These dolmens have
a polygonal chamber and corridor (Fig. 8). For all,
chronology is confirmed by AMS radiocarbon dating
of human bone samples; human bone loss is docu-
mented, and thus interpretations are imposed with
caution, but at the same time this is the only avail-
able information about these past populations. All
human remains were dated to the Late Neolithic pe-
riod with the exception of the subset of burned
bones recovered from Cabeço dos Moinhos and
both sets from Megalitho do Facho, with AMS radio-
carbon dating confirming their Chalcolithic chrono-
logy (first half of the 3rd millennium BC).
Human remains
These tombs were found disturbed with very frag-
mented and commingled human bones. The Mega-
litho do Facho sample is composed of unburned hu-
man bones and a small subsample of burned ones.
The latter comprise only 2.2% of the collection (se-
ven bone fragments and one tooth) and the ob-
served colour changes are compatible with expo-
sure to low temperature and thus do not allow ex-
clusion of unintentional burning. Radiocarbon dates
confirm the contemporaneity of both subsets. The
coexistence of burned and unburned human bones
was also attested for Cabeço dos Moinhos, another
tomb from this necropolis. However, there are sig-
nificant differences. For the latter, evidence of expo-
sure to higher temperatures is apparent by the pat-
tern of colour changes, including ten calcined frag-
ments. So, for this collection, evidence of intentio-
nal burning is more certain. Moreover, radiocarbon
dates confirmed different chronologies for the two
sets, Neolithic (unburned subset) and Chalcolithic
(burned subset). In fact, the importance of fire in
funerary practices has gained relevance in Chalco-
lithic funerary contexts in the current Portuguese ter-
ritory, including in diverse funerary contexts at Per-
digões (Silva et al. 2014a; 2017; Valera et al. 2014).
However, the architecture of the tombs discussed
here is different from those at Perdigões and, the
human remains, slightly older (Valera, Silva 2011;
Valera et al. 2014). The conclusion of the study of
the human remains from all tombs in this necrop-
olis, supported by an expanded program of radiocar-
bon dating, may contribute to a better understand-
ing of the funerary practices of these communities.
All anatomical parts of the skeleton are represented
in the collection of Megalitho do Facho and, consi-
dering the documentary sources, it seems that com-
plete individuals were deposited in this tomb. San-
tos Rocha had the impression that skull bones were
under-represented in relation to long bones. How-
ever, the bone weight approach applied here to skull,
femurs and tibias indicated that all are represented
in a very similar percentage of over 50% in relation
to expected. The skull sample is thus not under-re-
presented in relation to long bones. In sum, all the
collected evidence, including the presence of two ap-
parently still intact skeletons in the entrance of the
gallery of this tomb, suggest that this tomb was a pri-
mary place of deposition. Moreover, the documen-
tary sources of other less disturbed dolmens from
this Necropolis include descriptions of in situ skele-
tons. One example is the Megalitho de Cabecinha,
in which the chamber was found intact. Next to some
of the supports of the chamber, Santos Rocha (1900.
198–199) documented the presence of skeletons in
articulation.
Fig. 7. Signs of remodelled infection in the medul-
lary canal of a distal diaphyseal fragment of left
femur from Megalitho do Facho.
Fig. 8. Plans of the dolmens of Megalitho do Fa-
cho, Cabeço dos Moinhos, Carrascal and Sobreira
1 (adapted from Santos Rocha 1900; Ribeiro 1880;
Viana 1950).
The megalithic builders> new data on old bones from Megalitho do Facho (Figueira da Foz, Portugal)
397
More consistent evidence of manipulated funerary
contexts in the present Portuguese territory, with
possible co-existence of different mortuary practi-
ces such as primary burials, secondary deposits, and
removal of bones, is documented for collective bu-
rials at tombs 1 and 2 at Perdigões, tholoi type tombs
from the first half of the third millennium (Silva et
al. 2017; Evangelista 2019; Garcia 2018; Valera et
al. 2014). Moreover, later re-use of dolmens (and
other types of tombs) extending to the Medieval pe-
riod is also documented. Inside the Dolmen de São
Gens (Nisa) where a non-adult individual of 12 to 15
years old at death was deposited between the 11th
to 13th centuries according to AMS radiocarbon ana-
lysis (Boaventura et al. 2014b).
Population demography
Non-adults and adults of both sexes are represented
in all tombs, and no evidence of selection based on
these criteria was noted. The proportion of non-adults
is between 36 to 38%, with the exception of Sobrei-
ra, where it is at 50% (Tab. 6). However, all are in
the expected range for an Archaic population, that
is, between 36% to 50% of non-adults (Ascádi, Ne-
meskéri 1970). Moreover, these values are also con-
sistent with other Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic col-
lections unearthed from other types of tombs from
the present Portuguese territory, such as hypogea
and natural and artificial caves (Cu-
nha et al. 2015; Silva 2002; 2003b).
Another common point is the under-
representation of children younger
than five years, particularly less than
one year of age. There is no doubt
that taphonomic agents play an im-
portant role in the lack of preserva-
tion of small and fragile non-adult
bones, including post-excavation loss,
but other explanations such as diffe-
rent mortuary treatments cannot be ruled out. How-
ever, frequently the presence of a significant num-
ber of bones and/or teeth belonging to very young
individuals were emphasized in the excavation notes,
as for Megalitho do Facho, but these are unfortuna-
tely now missing. Occasionally, these bones ended
up stored with non-human remains, and thus lost or
forgotten (Silva, Ferreira 2016/2017).
Although sex was assigned mostly by morphological
features, it was possible to confirm the presence of
individuals of both sexes in these tombs. Therefore,
sex does not seems to be a criterion for exclusion
from these sepulchres.
Morphological traits and bone pathologies
The presence of the proximal shaft flatness is preva-
lent in the femurs and tibias of individuals from all
tombs (Tab. 7). Silva (2002) reported flatness indices
for 535 femurs and 253 tibias from eight Late Neoli-
thic graves and compared these results with other
Mesolithic and Neolithic samples from the present
Portuguese territory. For the femurs, no consistent
pattern of flatness reduction was identified. For the
tibias, a slight trend of decreasing flatness was dete-
cted, with some groups revealing means in the range
of mesocnemia (absence of flatness). Silva (2002) at-
tributed these results to the continuity of high lev-
Sample Monument Chronology (Conventional)
Megalitho do Facho
Polygonal chamber> 2.5m long< 2m wide 4180±30 BP (Beta 542625)*
Corridor> 1.1m long< 0.7m wide 4170±30 BP (Beta 549966)**
Cabeço dos Moinhos Polygonal chamber> 3m long< 3.5m wide 4960±30 BP (Beta 383084)*
(Santos Rocha 1900) Corridor> minimum of 5m long< 1m wide 4360±30 BP (Beta 383085)**
Dolmen de Ansião (Silva 2002) Destroyed 4640±90 BP (SAC 1559)
4766±30 BP (OxA 35900)
Dolmen do Carrascal Polygonal chamber> ± 3.5m 4752±31 BP (OxA 35901)
(Silva et al. 2019) Short corridor (2.4m) 4640±40 BP (Beta 225167)
4770±40 (Beta 228577)
Anta da Sobreira 1 Polygonal chamber> 2.4m long< 1.5m
(Boaventura et al. 2014b) maximum width< corridor – destroyed
4770±40 BP (Beta-233283)
Legend> * Sample of unburned human bone< ** Sample of burned human bone.
Tab. 5. Tomb descriptions and chronology based on human bones of the dolmens mentioned in the text.
Sample Bone Teeth Adults Non-adults
fragments
Megalitho do Facho 360 1 63.6% (7\11) 36.4% (4\11)
Cabeço dos Moinhos 1214 16 80% (8\10) 20% (2\10)
Dólmen de Ansião 1670 533 62.2% (23\37) 37.8% (14\37)
Dólmen do Carrascal 109 138 64.3% (9\14) 35.7% (5\14)
Anta da Sobreira 1 128 21 50% (3\6) 50% (3\6)
Tab. 6. Proportion of adults versus non-adult individuals obtained
in several dolmens with human remains dated to the Neolithic or
Chalcolithic periods in Portugal.
Ana Maria Silva
398
els of biomechanical stress on the proximal end of
the femurs of these individuals during the Neolithic
and Chalcolithic periods. This type of stress could be
related to a high level of mobility of these human
groups, even after the introduction of agriculture,
and to activities such as pastoralism or trade.
Among morphological traits, the presence of hypo-
trocanteric fossae stand out in these assemblages
(Tab. 8). This trait is frequently observed in prehi-
storic populations from the present Portuguese ter-
ritory, but rarely noted in recent individuals. This
fossa seems to be a varied manifestation of the at-
tachment of the gluteus maximus, a muscle respon-
sible for the movement of the hip and thigh. Accord-
ing to several authors, the development of this fossa
may be related to the increased development of this
muscle to reduce the mechanical stress on the fe-
moral diaphysis. This biomechanical stress may be
due to high levels of physical activity, such as pro-
longed locomotion, which is worse on irregular ter-
rain. The dolmens of Facho, Cabeço dos Moinhos,
and Ansião are located in or next to slight mountai-
nous regions where these high levels of physical ac-
tivity would be easily achieved in daily locomotion.
Other indicators of high levels of biomechanical
stress are the observed flatness of the proximal fe-
mur, marked and rugose gluteal ridge on proximal
femur (Megalitho do Facho), signs of coxo-femoral
arthrosis (Megalitho do Facho, Sobreira 1), and a
thick cortical layer of long bones diaphyses of lower
limbs (Megalitho do Facho, Carrascal). In the Sob-
reira 1 collection, one right femur sexed as female
stands out since although being from a young adult
(it was still possible to observe the epiphyseal line,
in some parts), several mechanical stress markers
had already developed: slight enthesis alterations of
the linea aspera, and the beginning of degenerative
changes of the proximal end and flatness.
It is not easy to draw the pathological profile of these
samples due to their fragmentary and commingled
nature, or to compare them, due to differential pre-
servation of skeletal elements. For example, no data
on oral pathologies is available for Megalitho do
Facho, since only one tooth (in calcification) was
preserved. Still, despite all these limitations, the
observed pathologies give us relevant insights on
the lives of these human communities and how
they were adapted to their environment. For that
purpose, relevant stress indicators, such as cribra
orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, enamel hypoplasia
and periostitis, were studied since together they can
be informative on the health status of the popula-
tions. Childhood health is a particularly good indi-
cator of community health status, since children are
more susceptible to metabolic stress due to infectious
diseases, poor nutrition and parasitism (Cunha et
al. 2015).
Overall, few pathologies were noted in the remains
of these assemblages (Tab. 9). Cribra orbitalia was
observed in one non-adult orbit from Megalitho do
Facho and two (n = 4) from Ansião. This pathologi-
cal condition is due to genetic or acquired chronic
anaemia, most frequently caused by inadequate nu-
trition, such as due to iron, magnesium, vitamin B
deficiencies, parasitism, weanling diarrhoea or to
chronic disorders (Novak et al. 2017; Rinaldo et
al. 2019), although other pathological conditions
can’t be excluded (Walker et al. 2009; Brickley
2018). This indicator was also observed in one adult
from Ansião. Linear enamel hypoplasia was only
observed on permanent teeth and in low frequen-
cy. For Sobreira 1, the apparent high frequency of
this type of stress marker results from having three
out of the five teeth with enamel hypoplasia be-
longing to the same individual, which confirms that
this individual survived a very severe stress episode
that left its mark on at least three teeth. Evidence of
porotic hyperostosis was scarce in these individuals.
It is notable that this pathological condition is eas-
ily observed in fragmentary material but, even so,
the careful observation of all cranial fragments from
these assemblages detected only two cases: one at
Megalitho do Facho and another at Carrascal. For
the former, one fragment of parietal bone displays
small holes compatible with this pathology (although
taphonomic alterations cannot be excluded). In the
Carrascal assemblage, mild remodelled porosity was
observed in an incomplete skull (frontal and parietal
bones). According to several authors, these skeletal
changes are related to the healing of an infection or
to metabolic disease. Among the latter, anaemia has
long been suggested, whether acquired from para-
sites, nutritional deficiencies or through genetic con-
ditions (Rivera, Lahr 2017).
Sample Platimeric Platicnemic
index index
Megalitho do Facho 71.43 (n = 1) 73.31 (n = 4)
Cabeço dos Moinhos 75.5 (n = 3) –
Dólmen de Ansião 77.94 (n = 21) 76.19 (n = 1)
Dólmen do Carrascal 66.7 (n = 1) –
Anta da Sobreira 1 81.5 (n = 1) 67.7 (n = 1)
Tab. 7. Mean of platymeric and platycnemic in-
dexes in the samples discussed in the present study.
The megalithic builders> new data on old bones from Megalitho do Facho (Figueira da Foz, Portugal)
399
Evidence of infections in the form of periostitis was
observed in the human remains from all tombs
with the exception of Sobreira 1. The affected bones
include skull and long bones, in low prevalence, and
with few exceptions represent remodelled and old
lesions. At Megalitho do Facho, two bones display
this pathology, a fragment of parietal bone and a
diaphyseal fragment of a left femur. The latter ex-
hibits evidence of remodelled intramedullary long
bone infection. In the assemblage of Carrascal, pe-
riostitis was noted only in adult bones as remodel-
led lesions, with the exception of a fragment of a
right parietal bone where it may be linked to a trau-
ma (depressed fracture), and in one distal fragment
of diaphysis of a tibia with deposition of new bone.
Only at Ansião periostitis was observed in one non-
adult bone, a distal fragment of the diaphysis of a
right humerus with deposition of new bone, that is,
an active lesion at time of death. The adult sample
of this dolmen, including few fragments of skull, fe-
murs, tibias and fibulae, display alterations due to
remodelled lesions which were not active at death.
The exceptions are one fragment of left tibia and a
right one, that had active lesions at death expressed
by the presence of new bone deposition.
All these lesions reflect periods of physiological
stress that these individuals endured. Similarly to
populations today, it is expected that they
had to face some periods of nutrition defi-
ciencies and/or illness during their lives.
Still, the low frequencies of observed stress
indicators and the predominance of remo-
delled lesions suggest that they were resi-
lient and survived various health problems.
This evidence is reinforced by the low fre-
quencies of linear enamel hypoplasia, a per-
manent record of physiological stress.
Concerning oral pathology, another indicator of
health and well-being of an individual, the carioge-
nic lesions are not significant, with frequencies lower
than 3%. Other relevant parameters of oral pathol-
ogy such as antemortem tooth loss, periapical lesions
and periodontal disease cannot be evaluated due to
the total or almost total absence of maxillary bones.
The exception is Ansião, were antemortem tooth
loss (4.3%; 6/139) and periapical lesions (1.4%; 2/
139) were registered affecting the individuals in low
frequencies.
Bone trauma
The analysis of trauma patterns can provide rele-
vant information on the lifestyle of past populations.
Trauma was only observed in cranial bones from
Carrascal and Ansião. In the former, signs of trau-
ma include depressed cranial fractures, trepanation
and two possible osteolytic lesions, despite the low
number of preserved fragments. For Ansião, de-
pressed fractures and two perforating lesions were
described, probably due to arrowheads, all remod-
elled lesions (Silva 2003a). Cranial lesions such as
depressed fractures can result from either everyday
accidents or interpersonal violence. Accidents related
to daily activities can occur more easily in mountai-
nous or irregular terrains, such as where Ansião is
Sample Septal Hypotrocanteric Third
Aperture fossa trochanter
Megalitho do Facho 1\1 2\3 –
Cabeço dos Moinhos – 3\4 1\4
Dólmen de Ansião 2\6 7\28 1\11
Dólmen do Carrascal – 1\1 0\1
Anta da Sobreira 1 1\1 – –
Tab. 8. Morphological non-metric traits observed in the sam-
ples discussed in the present study.
Megalitho do Facho Dolmen Ansião Dolmen Carrascal Anta da Sobreira 1
Caries – 2.6% (2\40) 1.7% (2\117) 0% (0\21)
LEH – 1.2% (6\506) 8.2% (8\97) 23.8% (5\21)
Cribra orbitalia Left orbit non-adult
Non-adults> 2\4<
Not observed Not observedadults> 1\12
Porotic
One parietal bone fragment Not observed 1 incomplete skull Not observedhyperostosis
Infections
One cranial bone<
Skull and long bones Skull and Long bones Not observeddiaphysis of left femur
Osteoarthritis
Slight (skull,
Slight Slight Slightlong bones and vertebrae)
Entheseal changes Slight Slight Slight Slight
Trauma Not observed
5 depressed fractures< 2 depressed fractures<
Not observed2 skull perforations< Trepanation
Legend> LEH – Linear enamel hypoplasia.
Tab. 9. Summary of the pathologies observed in bones in the samples discussed here.
Ana Maria Silva
400
located, although violence cannot be excluded. As
for the two perforation traumas, probably due to ar-
rowheads, violence may be a more plausible expla-
nation.
Besides these traumas, signs of a complete and re-
modelled trepanation in an adult right parietal bone
was described from Carrascal. This intervention
was performed by a drilling method which, accord-
ing to Silva (2003a; 2017), is described for older di-
scoveries from this region of the Iberian Peninsula,
being later replaced by the scraping method. No evi-
dence of trepanation was found in the remaining
samples, but the poor preservation of skulls in these
assemblages, reduced to small pieces due to taphono-
mic factors, makes recognition difficult.
Although no postcranial trauma was detected in these
collections, Santos Rocha (1900.215) mentioned the
presence of a remodelled trauma on the distal part
of a diaphysis of a right humerus from Facho. This
trauma, with a long axis of 22mm, was observed on
the medial surface of the bone fragment. Unfortuna-
tely, this bone fragment is now missing.
In sum, these individuals seem to have been affected
by biomechanical stress since early in life, reflected
by the flatness of their long bones and entheseal and
osteoarthritic changes. Mild to moderate signs of
physiological stress were recorded for these indivi-
duals, which together with the predominance of
healed lesions is suggestive of relatively good health
status within these prehistoric populations.
Final remarks
The study of long excavated osteological collections,
which are often poorly preserved, is always a chal-
lenge. The magnitude of bone loss is variable and
related to several actions over time, frequently start-
ing before excavation due to prior disturbance of
the archaeological levels in the tombs. The excava-
tion procedure in itself can result in the loss of bone
elements, particularly the smallest or more fragile
ones. Other factors contributing to bone loss are the
conditions under which the remains are stored and
curated, reorganized and moved. However, their
study continues to be irreplaceable for the under-
standing of these human communities. Moreover,
the application of similar criteria and protocols in
the study of these collections in recent decades has
allowed not only the assessment of their anthropo-
logical profile, but also provided data for compara-
tive analyses (Silva, Ferreira 2016/2017; Silva
2017).
In these dolmen burials, individuals from both sexes
and apparently from all age groups are present,
although frequently individuals less than five years
in age are under-represented. That can reflect egal-
itarian groups where almost all members were able
to be buried in the collective tomb of their clan/com-
munity. Since early in life, these individuals were
affected by significant biomechanical stress, attest-
ed by the presence of several indicators (flatness of
their long bone, entheseal and osteoarthritis chan-
ges), that are strongly suggestive of high daily mobil-
ity. Signs of physiological stress were mild to mode-
rate, with the predominance of healed lesions, in-
dicative of relatively good health among these pre-
historic populations. More variability was found in
the trauma patterns. This type of pathology was only
described in cranial bones in two collections: Dol-
men do Carrascal and Dolmen de Ansião. The ma-
jority are healed depressed fractures that probably
resulted from accidents, although interpersonal vio-
lence cannot be ruled out. This last explanation fits
better for the two perforation lesions reported from
Ansião. According to Santos Rocha (1900.215), the
collection of Facho included a trauma in a distal frag-
ment of right humerus. Unfortunately, this bone frag-
ment has been lost, but it attests the presence of
trauma in postcranial bones.
In sum, the anthropological analysis of old collec-
tions, such as Megalitho do Facho, continues to be
highly significant for our understanding of prehisto-
ric populations, allowing unique insights into their
way of life.
The author expresses their gratitude to the Museu
Municipal Santos Rocha (Figueira da Foz) for ac-
cess to the collection, and all the collaborators from
the museum, in particular Ana Margarida Ferreira,
Rodrigo Pinto and Carlos Batista. Steve Emslie for
the English revision and for useful suggestions that
improved the manuscript. Thanks are also due to
the two reviewers for their helpful comments. André
Afonso Pereira helped in editing some of the
Figures. CIAS (PEst-OE/SADG/UI0283/2020) provid-
ed financial support for the radiocarbon dating.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The megalithic builders> new data on old bones from Megalitho do Facho (Figueira da Foz, Portugal)
401
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