Raffaele Milani 
The Aesthetic Exploitation of Landscape 
The aesthetic discovery of landscape in Europe is fairly recent and dates 
back to the 18th century when the threat of industrialisation became visible 
and tangible. To put it succintly, landscape is the overall view an observer 
(immobile or in motion) has of his surroundings f rom a given angle. How-
ever the focus on the landscape in its varied forms, like the pleasure one 
derives from observing it, delineates a complex shift in sensibility and think-
ing f rom a historical and cultural viewpoint open to p ro found and meta-
phorical meanings bound up with being. The landscape thus can be seen 
as a concept concerning numerous disciplines. If we restrict our analysis to 
the area of aesthetics, to the taste for nature which developed dur ing the 
Age of Reason, the scene which immediately unfolds before us presents the 
picturesque as a vision of nature. 
Historically the concept of the picturesque has been interpreted as the 
reappraisal and view of nature f rom the point of view of an aesthetic reflec-
tion on beauty. Signs of this research on landscape and the environment can 
be traced even prior to its theorization in Great Britain at the end of the 
18th century to Vasari when this term was used merely to indicate a tech-
nique in painting »alia pittoresca«. Even then these signs were highly par-
ticular ways of depicting life and objects in relation to the perceptual and 
psychological activity of the subject. During the 17th century and above all 
during the 18th century the picturesque progressively developed into a taste 
through a pressing visual strategy by virtue of what was »proper to painting 
and painters«. Thus in the complex transition f rom the classical to the ro-
mantic, we witness the aesthetic discovery of landscape parallel to the posi-
tive discovery of the natural sciences. Moreover, because of the reasons 
ment ioned above, a fertile exchange between the eye which observes and 
contemplates (the natural eye) and the selective eye of painting (the picto-
rial eye) can be discerned in these pathways. This exchange is also extended 
to the relation between creation and utilization, between painter and ob-
server. Since psychological processes are linked to the evolution of taste, 
seeing (I am referr ing to the historico-perceptual strategies of the pictur-
esque) implies a view; whereas contemplating and representing are seen as 
Filozofski vestnik, XX (2/1999 - XIVI CA Supplement), pp. 121-130 121 
Raffaele Milani 
promot ing a poetic broadening of perception, giving rise to an aesthetic 
emotion and an authentic vision. 
In its search for effect and its taste for ruins the picturesque marks the 
passage f rom the baroque to romanticism as it distances itself f rom reason 
and f rom the rules of classicism relying on freedom of invention. It does not 
convey a profound authentic feeling, but a suggestive staging of curiosities 
and impressions from which unusual and powerful images of wild and spon-
taneous nature arise. During the 18th century in Great Britain the pictur-
esque mingled with the sublime theorized by Burke, with the gothic and with 
the pastoral tradition of literature. It is a plural concept in which beauty in 
painting merges with beauty in nature. This can be seen in the visual arts, ar-
chitecture, gardening, literature (visual descriptivism) and the taste for travel 
and faraway places. 
In this investigation the picturesque is probably also the first important 
theory concerning the landscape. Outside Europe, in China for example, the 
aesthetic interest in the landscape flourished much earlier - about a millenium 
earlier - and led to the view of man and nature conjoined within a cosmic, 
spiritual design. Behind its evolution and its visual discovery seen as a frame-
work of observation, composition and points of view (lights, panoramas, 
scenes) a description unfolds which in time selects, improves, orders, estab-
lishes criteria, sets up comparisons, and elaborates ideas. From the feeling of 
wonder experienced by John Dennis (1693), John Addison (1705), Anthony 
Shaftesbury (1709) and George Berkeley at the sight of overhanging rocks, 
roaring torrents, rugged cliffs and waterfalls, and shadowy forests to the re-
search conducted by William Gilpin, Uvedale Price and Richard Payne Knight 
anticipating romantic, frenzy, an aesthetic theory emerges, halfway between 
our imagination and the pleasure of sight and of the senses. It is a reasoned 
sensibility founded on the value attributed to the irregularity, variety, intricacy 
and roughness of a wild and disorderly nature, an aesthetic pleasure which 
relies on spontaneity and caprice. Nature is a spectacle, a theater of the un-
usual, the stage of our imaginings, a point of departure and of return. The 
astonishment expressed by Goethe (1779) and Hegel (1795) before the view 
of the Bernese Alps can easily be read as a romantic passion emerging from a 
pleasure typical of picturesque taste. The traveller of the picturesque was 
guided towards solitary and uncommon landscapes, architectural ruins and 
tangled vegetation. The description of landscapes becomes a composition of 
selected images, a classification of events and impressions, conjoined judge-
ments made explicit, an elaboration of general concepts and of practical in-
terventions, a path of analogies and memories, a project of variable patterns, 
a focus on particular knowledge to attain a heightened sensibility. In the writ-
122 
The Aesthetic Exploitation of Landscape 
ings on the picturesque at the end of the 18th century and at the beginning 
of the 19th century a broad and systematic interpretation of the world around 
us and of vegetable, animal and human life began to take shape. What we find 
interesting today, despite the differences between the various authors and their 
cultural and temporal backgrounds, is the strategy adopted in the observation 
of nature, the measures to improve its arrangement and the pleasures that 
this arouses also in relation to spectacular outcomes, effect and feeling. It is a 
reordering that follows the laws of nature and the work of man, an illusion 
worth returning to in order to reformulate our attitudes. This illusion was to 
appear again in the observations of Schinkel and Constable and later ex-
panded in a project for a new sensibility in philosophy. 
Many things have changed since the end of the 18th century, but this 
profound feeling for nature has not died out, for we still seek an intimate 
contact with the landscape, seen and experienced as a whole by our minds 
and bodies. Between the world of nature and the world of art which reflects 
it, beauty, grace, the sublime, the picturesque and other aesthetic ideas con-
tinue to spread their seeds and suggest infinite forms to the imagination. To 
perceive the landscape undoubtedly brings into play an aesthetic act which 
forms our culture and history in general. In this connection the teachings of 
Rosario Assunto in Italy were decisive in pointing out how the landscape and 
its interpretation promote a high degree of civilization in the evolution of taste. 
He reminded us that the landscape contains the traces of the identity 
of nature and of the spirit in proposing sensibilities illuminated in turn by 
various aesthetic categories. Contemplation, he asserted, is not pure fantasy, 
but an exercise in feeling. Certain morphologies of landscape can become 
traces of poetics, or ideal indications. Beneath these analyses and the senti-
ment of nature lies a criticism whereby material being is the result of a work-
ing process equal to aesthetic being. Landscape is an aesthetic institution 
by virtue of itself, of literary and travel testimonies, of visual arts and of the 
subject's imagination. This takes us back to the relation between nature and 
culture within which the ecological comparison falls. In Assunto's thought 
landscape is the form of culture and history, the form in which culture and 
history have been absorbed. As for the problem regarding the value of natu-
ral beauty, he opposes the views expressed by Croce (Aesthetica in nuce) who 
reiterated the traditional separation between natural and artistic beauty. 
Assunto (Introduzione alia critica del paesaggio, 1963) also proposes to estab-
lish whether it is possible to elaborate a »landscape criticism« comparable 
to art criticism. This would give rise to a landscape criticism centering on 
the feeling of nature involving philosophical reality, culture, and the vision 
of the world in a connection supported by the aesthetic ideal. This ideal 
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Raffaele Milani 
underlies the discovery of nature and transforms man into an artist. As the 
mediator between nature and history, man today must flee f rom the city of 
Prometheus founded on economism, technical rationalism and scientism 
and seek shelter in the city of Anfione who softened the rationality of build-
ing with music and song. 
In recent years the attention has been focused not so much on the com-
parison between aesthetic sensibility and artistic production, on the aims of 
philosophy and the »objectivity« of natural beauty as on the fact that nature 
itself may be perceived as a work of art. As a result one needs to go beyond 
the perspective of a study of landscape in art, as Kenneth Clark did, or con-
versely, of art in landscape, as the theoreticians of the picturesque at the end 
of the 18th century proposed. Moreover, even the difference between gar-
dens and the natural and cultural landscape, the latter being the result of 
the work of man who molded it, is for the most part interpreted today as an 
art of nature capable of encompassing garden and landscape. The landscape 
(natural or rural) of the entire world could be viewed as a garden, and all 
the gardens of the world, even the smallest ones, could be considered land-
scapes in relation to the world in its totality. 
An aesthetics of landscape is thus delineated which, beyond the debate 
on the system of the arts, appears to be far removed from the principle of 
»aimless finalism«, of the »disinterested pleasure« of art elaborated by Kant. 
The broadened notion which is presented allows one to consider both theo-
retical and practical aspects ranging from the fields of philosophy to art, f rom 
psychology to anthropology, from agriculture and geography to biology and 
ecology: in short, aesthetic Utopia becomes also an ethical project. 
The aesthetics of landscape is based on the fact that we are the ones 
who have created the image of what surrounds us, both on the plane of feel-
ing and of the representation of things, in history and through history. The 
very myth of the wilderness, fueled by the fathers of modern environmen-
talism, should be reconsidered in the light of our vision of nature, even the 
wildest landscape very often bears the signs of man and, in any case, the 
wilderness once again expresses the search of the imagination, the will of 
creative insight to discover the intimate genius of the world a round us. 
Nature and human perception (undoubtedly oriented and heightened per-
ception), like the relationship between object and subject, are not two dis-
tinct kingdoms and cannot be separated. A panorama is formed by the vari-
eties of the given materials of which it is composed, but also by the memo-
ries which have built up and overlapped over the centuries in a process con-
temporaneous to writing. As Simon Shama asserts, it is our perception that 
creates the difference between raw material and landscape. 
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The Aesthetic Exploitation of Landscape 
The landscape therefore is a product of man's work and mind. It is in 
this way that we may comprehend how the sight of nature arouses the imagi-
nation. The imagination, as we know, is strictly linked to percept ion in con-
templating the landscape. The genius of a single artist is replaced by the 
genius of the earth and of our meeting with nature when, voluntarily or 
involuntarily, we are prompted to assign the value of art to it, bearing in mind 
that history and memory must never be seen as distinct f rom man's living 
experience. As Maurice Merleau-Ponty aptly put it, the landscape is situated 
between the gaze cast by the observer and the flesh of the world. It is the 
result of a synaesthetic act and is at one with us. 
Psychological time, connected to the fruition of what surrounds us, ex-
panding and suddenly contracting, is no doubt important from the viewpoint 
of aesthetic reception and artistic creation, but movement is also central be-
cause of the variation of the points of view it produces. With respect to the 
aesthetic perception of landscape, movement automatically involves other 
senses: besides sight, a fixed gaze and its particular vertigo of feeling, hear-
ing, smell and taste as well. 
Movement exerts an all-embracing grip on the world and involves the 
whole body. At a more careful examination what emerges is a continual in-
terplay of viewpoints in time and space according to different speeds and 
means. Walking, dancing, swimming, riding, cycling, travelling by motorcycle, 
car, train or plane are, in our case, ways of experiencing the landscape aes-
thetically. As described by literature, painting and other arts and as we can 
directly experience ourselves, the landscape changes its appearance. We live 
in the wonder of feeling, ranging f rom a solitary stroll, reminiscent of 
Rousseau, to a journey by plane. The landscape alters its appearance thanks 
to our movements, but also thanks to other factors - atmospheric, climatic and 
seasonal variations of light, color, wind and temperature - to variations caused 
by natural phenomena (vulcanic eruptions, earthquakes and so on) or to 
contact with different materials such as sand, earth, water, grass, marble, etc. 
The perception of movement, time and space is condit ioned by the 
changing landscape. In this connection it must be pointed out that today 
man's interventions are not restricted to cultivated land and woodlands, but 
also comprise those of contemporary art such as land art, earth art, environ-
mental art and ecological art. These events are the concern of environmental 
aesthetics which, on the one hand, observes and theorizes artistic processes 
linked to the environment, and, on the other, launches the idea of safeguard-
ing nature in the same way as one does works of art. At any rate, environ-
mental aesthetics and the aesthetics of landscape may be usefully integrated. 
125 
Raffaele Milani 
The evolution of taste for an aesthetic categorization of our surround-
ings in a perception of both distance and closeness must not be seen as fo-
cusing exclusively on the past or on purposes of conservation and restora-
tion, but also on the future. Among the landscapes that this aesthetics com-
prises (natural, cultural, urban) , those provided by space exploration must 
also be included. Within a few years human beings will colonize various 
points of our solar system, and it will no longer be a question of observing 
privileged landscapes; we will have the thrill of a new Grand Tour. How then 
will sensibility respond amid virtual reality, new media and adventures out-
side our planet? We will soon find out by undergoing rapid cultural changes. 
However we must take note of the fact that our sensibility expands between 
the universe of communication and space exploration as homogenization 
advances (the number of species is diminishing as well as the number of 
languages and cultural habits). The appraisal of nature can reach and is 
already reaching borders undreamed of even a few years ago. 
The aesthetics of landscape is an organic rethinking of the sentiment 
of nature, a product of the outcomes of civilization and art. It is at the same 
t ime history, criticism, cu l ture , conservat ion, educa t ion and work; it 
t ranforms man, capable of seeing, contemplating, respecting and promot-
ing, so that he may be conducted from a plane of mere reception to one of 
active, p rofound participation, beyond the consumption of green space, 
beyond a logic linked to the use of leisure time, beyond simplistic solutions 
of environmental impact along a path originating in ancient Greece and 
leading to the present. Along this path we are invited to consider certain 
morphologies of landscape as traces of a poetics, as ideal suggestions, and 
to detach ourselves from a ravaged space-environment in order to relaunch 
an aesthetic and ecological project on a vast scale. Because a place is not only 
a set of physical and geographical features, but an irrepressible, symbolic, 
unconscious, individual and collective memory. 
Besides the authors and ideas usually associated with the aesthetics of 
landscape, two further considerations must be added. The first one concerns 
the cathartic effect of a »beautiful view« in Arthur Schopenhauer, the sec-
ond is the motif of illusion in Jurgis Baltrusaitis. 
In Book III of the Supplements (1844) [Ergänzungen: Vereinzelte 
Bemerkungen über Naturschönheit] to The World as Will and Idea, Schopenhauer 
dwells on the observations regarding the beauty of nature and states that 
every modification, even the slightest, which an object undergoes due to its 
position, shortening, distance, illumination or linear and aerial perspective 
is infallibly given by its effect on the eye and taken into exact account; the 
Indian proverb »every grain of rice casts a shadow« is thus validated. In this 
126 
The Aesthetic Exploitation of Landscape 
chapter the assertion »how aesthetic nature is« refers to the variety and spon-
taneity of nature and praises its wildness. However, what strikes one most 
about these pages is the consideration that thought pursues the method of 
nature after receiving its first impulse. He explicitly declares: »A beautiful 
view is therefore a cathartic of the mind, just as music according to Aristotle 
is of the feeling, and in its presence one will think most correctly« [Eineschdne 
Aussicht ist daher ein Kathartikon des Geistes, wie die Musik, nach Aristoteles des 
Gemiites, und in ihrer Gegenwart luird man am richtigsten denken]. These reflec-
tions are influenced by several passages in paragraph 39 of The World as Will 
and Idea where the sentiment of the sublime and of the variety of nature in 
the representation of our mind is discussed. Despite the difference between 
the motifs, the beautiful view as a 'cathartic of the mind ' (Supplements) ech-
oes a passage in The World as Will and Idea where consciousness is described 
as dissolving into nothingness, like a d rop of water in an ocean: we are one 
with the world. Schopenhauer observes that many objects of our intuition 
arouse the sentiment of the sublime in us because, by virtue of their great 
extension and antiquity, in other words, of their duration, we feel reduced 
to nothingness in their presence, yet we are inebriated by the joy of contem-
plating them; high mountains, the Pyramids and the colossal ruins of ancient 
times belong to this category. It is in this sense that nature is the aesthetic 
manifesting itself as art. The cathartic effect and the principle of annulment 
are valuable in aiding our understanding of the very quality of feeling and 
contemplating. 
Equally valuable in Baltrusaitis' view according to which the garden is 
a place of illusion (a term already employed together with reinvention), not 
only in the sense of a fantastic microcosm, but also as the sum of the most 
diverse forms of experience and knowledge, from plants to animals, f rom 
water to minerals, in an infinite broadening of horizons. Natural history, 
acheology, the history of civilizations and technologies take part in this evo-
lution of the garden in the perspective of a new encyclopedia. As an image 
of the world, the landscape, like the garden is revealed to be a terrain of 
illusion, totality, eternity and beauty in a surge of nostagia and melancholy. 
The landscape is a completed vision, endlessly entwined and fluctuating in 
the depths of spirituality and pervaded by the inexpressible: it is an inter-
nal vision which corresponds to an external vision in a mutual disappear-
ance of nature and man. This vision can be understood as spiritual form and 
work of art (in a process) of styles capable of dissolving into an original, es-
sential, oneiric nothingness. Baltrusaitis develops his theory of illusion 
through affective elements in a becoming of recognition of object and sub-
ject. Illusion is the basis of a philosophy of the earth, of thought regarding 
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Raffaele Milani 
our affective origin in nature in the light of hope and trust in the salvation 
of humanity. Let us instill the vision of an earth renewed, an eden regained, 
a dream about to be fulfilled. As illusion is no t alien to our imagination, it 
is not, nor should it be alien to our doing. 
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