Documenta Praehistorica XLIV (2017)
Introduction to the absolute chronology of Neolithic cultures in Eastern Europe
Andrey Mazurkevich
The State Hermitage Museum, Department of Archaeology of Eastern Europe and Siberia, Sankt-Peterburg, RU
a-mazurkevich@mail.ru
ABSTRACT - This paper is an introduction to the discussion of radiocarbon chronology of Neolithic cultures in Eastern Europe. It relates to a number of papers published in this volume.
KEY WORDS - Neolithic cultures; radiocarbon chronology; Eastern Europe
Uvod k absolutni kronologiji neolitskih kultur na območju Vzhodne Evrope
IZVLEČEK - Članek je uvod v diskusijo o radiokarbonski kronologiji neolitskih kultur v vzhodni Evropi. Nanaša se na tekste, objavljene v tej publikaciji.
KLJUČNE BESEDE - neolitske kulture; radiokarbonska kronologija; vzhodna Evropa
Discussions about radiocarbon dates and the origin of dated materials have led to a revision of the absolute chronology of Neolithic cultures in Eastern Europe (Mazurkevich et al. 2016). On the other hand, it has been suggested that a series of radiocarbon dates should be rejected due to the questionable nature of the dated material, i.e. organic material from pottery, food crust etc. (cf. van der Plicht et al. 2016). Source criticism as a 'form of cognition' deepens our understanding of facts. However, we appear to be too critical, often forgetting about archaeological/historical possibilities for verifying dates and interpretation of a surprisingly old/ young 'absolute' radiocarbon date.
Radiocarbon dates are not just dry figures; they conceal complex physical processes which reflect the natural history of the Earth. The accuracy and validity of radiocarbon dates have become two of the most important subjects recently. The results obtained while dating different materials from archaeological sites are regarded in light of the development of radiocarbon dating methods, the validity of the result obtained (taking into account, for example,
the reservoir effect) and the possibility of its use in further reconstructions of historical background.
Discussions about the reservoir effect have a particular importance for the radiocarbon chronology of Eastern Europe, given the complex foraging economy of the ancient inhabitants of this region, where fishing often played a major role. Research of the reservoir effect in Denmark and Northern Germany has shown different values for the reservoir effect for different epochs and regions (Philip-psen, Heinemeier 2013; Philippsen 2013). The dating of modern samples indicates that the freshwater reservoir effect is great and also variable even on short time scales. It has been suggested that it is impossible to find a single freshwater reservoir age for a given river system (Philippsen 2013). Recent research testifies to the difficulties in determining the reservoir effect, which might influence dates, as well as offset values. The detection of aquatic (fish) processing in charred food residue even by the use of the stable isotopes 13C and 15N (Boudin et al. 2010) may be complicated, or an unlikely prospect.
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Introduction to the absolute chronology of Neolithic cultures in Eastern Europe
Investigations into the reservoir effect and arrays of radiocarbon dates related to Neolithic materials from Eastern Europe illustrate different possible scenarios (see, for example, articles by Piezonka et al. and Dolbunova et al. in this volume). Studies of sites in the Dnepr-Dvina region indicate differences in offset values even for different micro-regions and for different epochs. The comparative 14C dating of wooden piles, food-crusts, fish and animal bones at the Serteya II site show that the FRE in Late Neolithic pottery food-crusts is generally negligible for this area (Kulkova et al. 2015; 2016). The reservoir effect may also be absent in some of the regions (cf. Marchenko et al. 2015).
Another problem is related to the calibration of dates and the existence of plateaus. The appearance of the most ancient pottery in Eastern Europe is dated to the first half of the 7th millennium bC, a period with one such plateau, which does not allow a more accurate chronology of this process (Mazurkevich et al. 2016).
The choice of dating material is another important problem. It relates to the reliability of the archaeological context and, hence, the contemporaneity of different events represented by different materials. Events might have overlapped at an archaeological site which was occupied repeatedly. In cases when all artefacts, faunal remains and other objects were not recorded in a 3-D coordinate system, it might be difficult to divide these events, and their contemporaneity may appear to be doubtful. On the other hand, the choice of material for dating sites in Eastern Europe is determined mainly by the absence of a wide range of organic materials (wood, food crust, charcoal), which led to the use of pottery as a popular material for radiocarbon dating. The reliability of this material has been much discussed, although the first attempts to date organic material from pottery were made already at the end of the 1950s (de Atley 1980.988). The main problem is that carbon from non-cultural sources may also be present in ceramic materials, and this may effectively dilute the age or otherwise contaminate the cultural sample and, thus, different sources of carbon are possible (de Atley 1980; Bonsall et al. 2002; Zaitseva et al. 2009).
At first, many dates of pottery for the territory of Eastern Europe were primarily made in the Kyiv radiocarbon laboratory, which allowed a proposed scheme of absolute chronology for regions from where almost no radiocarbon dates had been obtained before (Vybornov 2008). These dates and the
method itself were highly criticised (cf. van der Plicht et al. 2016). The number of dates for organic material on pottery from different laboratories as well as cross-dating of other materials has now increased dramatically (see article of Vybornov et al. in this volume; Mazurkevich et al. 2016). The coincidence of the series of dates obtained in different laboratories by different methods (AMS and conventional dates) and on different materials requires a specific discussion by specialists in this domain. A comparison and coincidence of different dates does not allow us to avoid this discussion or to neglect dates of organic material on pottery (see article of Vybornov et al. in this volume).
The radiocarbon chronology of Eastern Europe is based mainly on conventional dates, which extend the periods of the earliest ceramic cultures attributed to Neolithic era according to Russian scientific tradition. The correlation of processes dated by conventional dates and more precise AMS dates will allow us to narrow the period covering the appearance and longevity of these traditions.
During the last two decades, radiocarbon dates became the main resource for constructing different chronological and historical-cultural models. These important issues side-lined archaeological proxies, which led to the creation of various mathematical models, with very little consideration of archaeological context (cf. Davison et al. 2009; Silva et al. 2014; Jordan et al. 2016). All these models were based on the values of radiocarbon dates and were not corrected with data about archaeological context, the typology of materials, cultural entities or cultural networks identified on the basis of archaeological materials. Thus a reverse trend can be noticed: all 'historical/cultural' connections and processes are adjusted to a certain mathematical (chronological) model.
The reliability of 14C dates can be also verified by correlating these dates with typologies which were constructed on the basis of other independent proxies/principles or methods. This is well illustrated by the various discussions about the chronology of Rakushechny Yar, one of the oldest Neolithic sites in Eastern Europe, dated to the 7th-6th millennium cal BC. New investigations, including analysis of the context of dated materials, archive research and archaeological excavations allowed the chronology of this site to be refined and a revision of the notion that the existing chronology of southern Russia is unreliable (see Tsybrij et al. in this volume).
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The radiocarbon dates collected for different periods of the Neolithic challenged our habitual linear scheme, the perception of continuity within the development of the Neolithic period. We can trace the asynchrony of various cultural events in different regions, as opposed to gradual changes in cultures (see Mazurkevich et al. in this volume). Radiocarbon dates challenge our notions about chronological boundaries between different cultures, as well as epochs. They require us to think more about the possibility that societies with different cultural attributions in different epochs coexisted. It is especially clearly seen on maps showing site distribution according to their chronology (Maps 1-5). Could such a 'striped pattern' have existed in the past? Our interpretation is also greatly influenced by stereotypes about primitive societies, which intentionally opted for such a way of life and preserved society in such a state (Artemova 2009). Interpretation is also influenced by our perception of time, when several hundreds of years or one millennium are regarded as a short period, and not as the lifetime of at least forty generations.
New radiocarbon dates will allow us to refine the chronology of different processes and influence much of our interpretation of social changes in the Neolithic era. It is important also to regard arrays of data grouped according to the main river basins of Eastern Europe, which served as waterways in the past, along which major migrations could have occurred.
The tradition of compiling radiocarbon dates has a long history. In Russian historiography, such compilations have been made since the 1970s; Pavel M. Dolukhanov, Vladimir I. Timofeev and Aleksandr M. Miklyaev laid the basis for this tradition (cf. Dolukhanov et al. 1969; 1972; 1978; Timofeev et al. 1978; 2004; Mazurkevich et al. 2014). Such data compilation will continue to be published when a 'critical amount' of dates become available, giving rise to new discussions. The articles represented are devoted to different aspects of radiocarbon dating and chronology of Neolithic materials in Eastern Europe from the 7th to the 3rd millennium BC. The territory of research presented in this volume encompasses almost the whole of Eastern Europe, from the Lower Don River and Eastern Ukraine to Finland, from the Dnepr River basin to the Urals. The data and maps presented in the monographs reveals one more problem, about the definition of the Neolithic, the Neolithic revolution, and the Early, Middle and Late Neolithic, their chronological boundaries, which appear to be transparent in many cases, and how they can be distinguished one from another on the basis of archaeological features. The articles devoted to Eastern European chronology presented in this volume do not encompass all known radiocarbon dates for this area, but suggest another, new, point of view of the Neolithic in Eastern Europe.
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List of sites shown on Maps 1-5
1	Rakushechny Yar	58	II Scherbetskaya	120	Gronov 3
ia	Razdorskaya II, site	59	Karamyshevo 5	121	Balakhchinskaya VIa
	Samsonovskoe	60	Lesnoe Nikolskoe III	122	Berezovaya Slobodka VI
2	Kairshak III	61	Krasny Yar VII	123	Orovnavolok V
2a	Kairshak I, IV	62	Maksimovka I	124	Kladovets Va
3	Baibek	63	II Dubogrivskaya	125	Veksa I
4	Chekalino IV	64	IV Tetushckaya	126	Chernashka
5	Ivanovka	65	Fat'ma-Koba	127	Plautino 1
6	Ust'-Tashelka	66	Mainova balka	128	Kyilud III
7	Bolshaya Rakovka II	67	Buz'ki	129	Panozero I
8	Varfolomeevskaya	68	Kyilud II	130	Karamyshevo 9
9	Levshino	69	Kyzylchak	131	Serebryanskoe
10	Kugat IV, Kulagaisi	70	Sheltozero X	132	Simo Tainiaro
11	Gard VII	71	Shettima I	133	Staro-Mazikovskaya III
12	Cherkasskaya, Cherkasskaya 3, 5	72	Kalmozero II	134	Chernikovo ozero
13	Kremennaya II	73	Tuba 1, 2	135	Pischiki
13?	Kremennaya III	74	Mullino	136	Chumoitlo I
14	Zamostie 2	75	Ziarat	137	Nizhnyaya Orlianka II
15	Matveev Kurgan I	76	Ust'-Zalaznushka II	138	Poser
16	Ozerki 5, 17	77	Vilovatoe	139	Chashkinskoe ozero I
17	Kleshnya 3; Zelena Gornica 1, 6	78	Chashkinskoe ozero VI, VIII	140	Kaen-Tubinskaya
18	Dobryanka 1, 2, 3	79	Molebnoe ozero I	141	Pielavesi Kivimäki
19	Girzhevo	80	Lyadina Mys, Nobel' 1	142	II Lebedinskaya
20	Stanovoe 4	81	Tarchan I	143	Imerka III
21	Berezovaya Slobodka II-III	82	Krushniki	144	Dronikha
22	Shmaevka	83	Koshkinskaya	145	Shan-Koba
23	Tenteksor, Tenteksor III	84	Velika Pererva 1	146	Kryazhskaya
24	Rassypnaya VI	85	Mokino	147	Kaluga 1, 2
25	Tudozero V	86	Plutovische	148	Bukol'nikov 1
26	V'yunovo ozero I	87	Kuzmichi 1	149	Karavaikha 1
27	Imerka VII	88	Chernaya Rechka 1	150	Podolie 1
28	Karavaikha 4	89	Universitetskaya 3	151	Vozhmarikha 4
29	Dzhangar	90	Chashkinskoe ozero IV	152	Russko-Azibeyskaya
30	Pustynka 5	91	Chirvinskaya II	153	Nizhnyaya Strelka V, Galankina
31	Sakhtysh 2a	92	Oulu Vepsänkangas		Gora II
32	Igren' 8	93	Keret' XXII	154	Gulyukovskaya
32a	Popov mys, Stril'cha Skelya	94	Ust'-Shizhma	155	Vantaa Storskogen
33	Dubovskoe III, Otarskoe VI	95	Podlesnoye III, IV	156	Matveev Kurgan II
34	Ozimenki II	96	Podgorovka	157	Bol'shie Bortniki 1
35	Veksa III	97	Chernen'koe ozero III	158	Kladovets IX
36	Il'inka	98	Kovylyai I	159	II Tatarsko-Azibeyskaya
37	Ivnitsa	99	Lebyazhinka I	160	Vasukovo II
38	Burovaya 42	100	Vasilievsky Kordon 7	161	Fofanovo XIII
39	Dobroe 1	101	Oulu Latokangas	162	Kurino 1
40	Lazarevka	102	Ksizovo 6	163	Suna XII
41	Utyuzh I	103	Erpin Pudas I	164	Zolotec VI, Zalavruga I, IV
42	Elshanka XI	104	Dubovskoe XII, VII	165	Outokumpu Sätös
43	Algay	105	Zabornoe Ozero	166	Pegrema I, II
44	Staraya Elshanka II	106	Srednee Shadbegovo	167	Rääkkylä Vihi 1
45	Okaemovo 5	107	Chernushka	168	Orovnavolok XVI
46	Vozhmarikha 1, 26	108	Sheltozero XI	169	Yamnoe
47	Starobelsk, Novoselovka	109	Lyadina 14	170	Chernaya Guba III, IX, IV
48	Khodosovka, Romankiv	110	Dubovskoe VII	171	Vigainavolok
49	Berezovka 4?	111	Borovoe ozero I	172	Vantaa Sandliden
50	Yarlukovskaya protoka (site 222)	112	Lukomie	173	Asavets 2
51	Uya III	113	Sauz II	174	Sosnovaya gora 1
52	Studenok	114	Khutorskaya	175	Sukhaua Vodla I
53	Kachkarstau	115	Vantaa Palmu	176	Inari Vuopaja
54	Krasny Gorodok	116	Imerka Ia	177	Komarin 5
55	Lugovoe III	117	Ivanovskoe 7	178	Voinavolok XXVII
56	Lebyazhinka IV, Kalmykovka I	118	Vasilyevsky kordon 3, 5	179	Berezovo XVII
57	Sulgu II	119	Imerka III, IV	180	Kladovets (burial)
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181	Prorva 2	191 Chernaya Rechka XII	202 Serteya XXIV
182	Pin'guba II	192 Lakshezero II, Kudoma X	203 Serteya XXIV
183	Tunguda III, XIV, XVII	193 Kostomuksha II	204 Serteya VIII
184	Meieri II	194 Vigainavolok II	205 Serteya XXXVI
185	Povenchanka XV, Voinavolok	195 Palaiguba II	206 Serteya I, II
	XXIV, Kochnavolok II	196 Zhekolgan	207 Serteya XI
186	Nizhnyaya Olba 1	197 Sutyrskaya V	208 koorgan near village Serteya
187	Orovnavolok XI	198 Serteya XIV	209 Dubokray V
188	Kudomguba VII	199 Rudnya Serteyskaya	210 Dubokray IX, I
189	Zolotec IX, X, XX	200 Serteya X	211 Usviaty IV
190	Chelmuzhskaya kosa XXI	201 Serteya XXVII, XXII	212 Naumovo
Map 1. Sites of the 7th millennium BC based on radiocarbon dating (modified from Mazurkevich et al. 2016).
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Map 4. Sites in the turn of the 5th to 4th millennium BC.
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Map 3. Sites in the turn of the 6th to 5th millennium BC.
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middle Neolithic: typical comb ware [S| zhizhitskaya ® kargopolskaya Neo-Eneolithic: asbestos pottery
Map 4. Sites in the turn of the 5th to 4th millennium BC.
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late Neolithic: ** corded ware culture
Map 5. Sites in the turn of the 4th to 3rd-2nd millennium BC.
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