Mastrogianni A., Psychountaki M, Donti O.: SELF_PERCEPTIONS AND SELF_ESTEEM …         Vol. 12 Issue 3: 357 - 366 
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SELF-PERCEPTIONS AND SELF-ESTEEM IN ADOLESCENT 
RHYTHMIC GYMNASTS: IS TRAINING LEVEL A 
DETERMINANT? 
 
Angeliki Mastrogianni, Maria Psychountaki, Olyvia Donti 
 
School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of 
Athens, Greece 
 
 
 
 
Original article 
Abstract 
The purpose of this study was to examine Self-Perceptions and Self-Esteem in adolescent 
rhythmic gymnasts of different training levels. One hundred female rhythmic gymnasts (32 
competitive and 68 recreational level gymnasts), aged 13-15 years, participated in this study. 
Participants’ Self-Perception and Self-esteem were evaluated through the Greek version of 
Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (Harter, 1986;2012; Makri-Mpotsari, 2001) 
which measures nine specific domains of self-perception (Scholastic Competence, Relations 
with Peers, Relations with Parents, Mathematics Competence, Athletic Competence, Physical 
Appearance, Language Competence, Behavioral Conduct, Close Friends) consisting of 5-items 
each. The inventory also includes a ten-item Global Self-Worth scale that measures Self-
Esteem. In addition, gymnasts provided information on their training. Competitive level 
gymnasts scored higher than recreational in the domain of Relations with Parents (p=0.027, 
d=0.50) and in Global Self-Worth (p=0.046, d=0.45). No differences were found between 
groups in other self-perception domains (p=0.068 to 0.611, d=0.41 to 0.10). Engaging in 
competitive sport may enhance adolescent athletes’ Self-Esteem and it is likely that this 
engagement strengthens the relations of the gymnasts with their parents. Further research is 
required on the association between training level and Self-Perception domains, and in 
particular in the case of adolescent female athletes. 
 
Keywords: self-concept, adolescence, personality traits, assessment, rhythmic gymnastics, 
relations with parents. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
A large number of studies, over the last 
two decades have examined the self, across 
many fields of psychology (e.g. personality 
psychology, developmental psychology, 
etc.) and many disciplines (Harter, 2012). 
The complexity of the self-system has been 
increasingly evident, with self-perceptions 
(evaluative distinctions that people make 
about their competence in various domains  
 
 
 
of their lives) beginning in childhood 
(Harter, 1999; 2012). Children have 
domain-specific perceptions of their 
adequacy in different fields (e.g. school, 
family, friends, etc.) and an overall sense of 
their worth as individuals, labeled Self-
Worth or Self-Esteem (Harter, 2012). Self-
Perceptions are specific in context (Fox, 
1992) and are formed through interaction 
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with other people and attributions of one’s 
own behavior (Marsh & Shavelson, 1985).  
Self-Esteem refers to the personal 
judgment of an individual’s value 
(Coopersmith, 1967) and is defined as a 
positive or a negative attitude towards a 
particular object, the unique self 
(Rosenberg, 1965). In other words, self-
esteem can be defined as the degree to 
which individuals feel positive about 
themselves and reflects the emotional 
dimension of self-perception (Sonstroem & 
Morgan, 1989). Self-esteem is formatted 
during middle childhood, when children 
have developed the ability to compare 
themselves to their peers (Ruble, Boggiano, 
Feldman, & Loebl, 1980). 
The potential benefit of participating in 
physical activities and sports for children’s 
self-perceptions and self-esteem has been 
supported by many studies (Balaguer, 
Atienza, & Duda, 2012; Fox, 1992; Inchley, 
Kirby, & Currie, 2011). Sports and physical 
activity participation contribute not only to 
the formation of children’s personality, 
their proper perception and self-esteem, but 
also to their physical and psychological 
well-being (Biddle, Ciaccioni, Thomas, & 
Vergeer, 2019; Poitras et al., 2016; 
Whitehead & Corbin, 1997). According to 
previous research, children and adolescents 
with low levels of motor competence 
demonstrate low levels of perceived 
physical appearance, athletic competence 
and global self-worth (Piek, Baynam, & 
Barrett, 2006). In another study, Kimiecik, 
Horn and Shurin (1996) found a strong 
association between the domains of 
perceived motor competence (i.e. 
evaluation of physical fitness, perceived 
physical fitness and goal setting) and 
participation in physical activity in 
adolescents, aged 11-15 years. In general, 
research evidence suggests a positive 
correlation between participation in sports 
with components of mental health, and 
emotional well-being (Nelson & Gordon-
Larsen, 2006). Moreover, physical activity 
and sports are considered effective tools to 
increase self-esteem (Ekeland, Heian, & 
Hagen, 2005), apparently because 
compared to their peers, young athletes 
show higher levels of self-esteem 
(Bissinger, Laure, & Ambart, 2006) even if 
the mechanisms underpinning this fact 
remain unclear (Duda, 1993). Nevertheless, 
in some cases, factors uniquely found in 
competitive sports, and in particular 
aesthetic sports, like excessive training, 
heightened competitive demands, extreme 
dieting and restriction of food intake 
(Theodorakou & Donti, 2013) in 
combination with significant others’ (e.g. 
parents, coaches, judges etc.) expectations 
and judgements might affect young 
athletes’ self-perceptions and lower their 
self-esteem (Donti et al., 2012). For 
example, Amac and colleagues (2002) 
reported that, the self-esteem of young 
gymnasts (6-13 years old) competing at 
school level was significantly lower than 
that of their peers participating at 
recreational level. 
Given the importance of the self in the 
development of social relationships and 
adjustments, it is essential for researchers to 
examine the varying effect of different 
contexts on adolescents’ self-perception 
(Kokkinos & Hatzinikolaou, 2011). 
Adolescence is a developmental period 
where a more complex picture of oneself 
emerges (Kokkinos & Hatzinikolaou, 
2011). Past research has shown that during 
this period, self-perceptions and self-esteem 
are related to mental health, depressive 
mood and anxiety (Bolognini et al., 1996). 
Lower levels of self-esteem in adolescence 
are also associated with neuroticism and 
decreased self-efficacy (Judge, Erez, & 
Bono, 2002).  
Both, competitive and recreational 
sports contribute to the formation of 
children’s self-perceptions and self-esteem 
(Whitehead & Corbin, 1997), although they 
place different demands on adolescents’ 
physical, cognitive and emotional skills, as 
their practice aims at a whole different 
purpose (Amac et al., 2002). However, the 
association between different training and 
performance levels with adolescents’ self-
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perceptions and self-esteem has not been 
explicitly studied. Thus, the aim of this 
study was to examine self-perceptions and 
self-esteem in adolescent rhythmic 
gymnasts of different training levels. 
 
METHODS 
 
One hundred adolescent rhythmic 
gymnasts, aged 13-15 years, were assigned 
according to their training level as follows: 
(a) Thirty-two competitive level gymnasts 
that participated at international and 
national level competitions, and (b) sixty-
eight gymnasts participating at recreational 
level (i.e. in festivals and contests). All 
gymnasts completed a questionnaire which 
included age, weight and height 
information, as well as training and 
competition details, such as training 
experience, number of training 
sessions/hours per week and number of 
competitions per year. Participants’ Body 
Mass Index (BMI) was calculated as the 
ratio of body weight to the squared standing 
height (kg/m2).  
Competitive level gymnasts were 
training daily (5 to 6 days per week) for 3-4 
hours in each training session and were 
randomly recruited from 8 different 
gymnastics clubs. In addition, competitive 
level gymnasts competed 3-4 times/per year 
to official qualification, national and 
international competitions according to the 
calendar of the Hellenic Gymnastics 
Federation. Recreational level gymnasts 
were training 2-3 times a week, for 60-90 
minutes in each session, and were recruited 
from 4 different gymnastics clubs.  
Prior to the study, the athletes and their 
parents were fully informed about the 
purpose and the procedures of this study. 
Written parental consent was obtained for 
each participant and every athlete 
completed a consent form. The participants 
filled in the inventory before their training 
sessions. Procedures were approved by the 
Institutional Ethics Review Committee and 
complied with the Code of Ethics of the 
World Medical Association (Helsinki 
declaration of 1964, as revised in 2013). 
Gymnasts’ self-perceptions and self-
esteem were measured via the Greek 
version of Harter’s Self-perception Profile 
for Children (Harter, 1986; 2012; Makri-
Botsari, 2001), which is addressed to high 
school-aged adolescents (aged 13-15 
years). The questionnaire was created from 
Harter (1986), in order to assess nine 
domain specific Self-Perceptions, 
consisting of 5-items each, namely: 
Scholastic Competence, Relations with 
Peers, Relations with Parents, Mathematics 
Competence, Language Competence, 
Athletic Competence, Physical Appearance, 
Behavioral Conduct, and Close Friends. 
The instrument also includes a ten-item 
Global Self-Worth scale which measures 
Self-Esteem. Each item contains one 
positive and one negative description of a 
specific skill in a binary form in order to 
minimize socially undesirable responses. 
Respondents are asked to choose which one 
of the two descriptions (positive or 
negative) best depicts them. After choosing 
the description, responders select to what 
extent the chosen description depicts them 
by choosing “Really true for me” or “Sort 
of true for me”. Instructions to the 
participants included a reminder to respond 
to all items and a statement that there were 
no right or wrong answers. Participants 
were well instructed as mentioned above 
and asked clarifying questions if needed, in 
order to understand the tool items and to 
respond properly to the questionnaire. In 
order to analyse these data, according to 
Harter (1986; 2012), each item/description 
is scored on a four-point scale from 1 to 4, 
where a score of 1 indicates the lowest 
perceived competence or adequacy, and a 
score of 4 reflects the highest level of 
competence or adequacy. Scale scores are 
calculated as the sum of the scores of items 
divided by five or ten, accordingly.  
The Self-perception Profile for 
Adolescents is validated for adolescents 
aged 13–15 years showing strong 
psychometric properties (Cronbach’s α 
Mastrogianni A., Psychountaki M, Donti O.: SELF_PERCEPTIONS AND SELF_ESTEEM …         Vol. 12 Issue 3: 357 - 366 
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coefficients: 0.70 to 0.90) (Harter, 1986; 
2012) and the same was found for Greek 
population (Cronbach’s α coefficients: 0.68 
to 0.83) (Makri-Mpotsari, 2001). 
Cronbach’s α coefficients in this study 
were: 0.83 for Scholastic Competence, 0.73 
for Relations with Peers, 0.79 for Relations 
with Parents, 0.80 for Mathematics 
Competence, 0.90 for Language 
Competence, 0.87 for Athletic Competence, 
0.78 for Physical Appearance, 0.71 for 
Behavioral Conduct, 0.70 for Close Friends 
and 0.85 for Global Self-Worth. 
Data are presented as means and 
standard deviations for all variables. 
Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was 
used to detect linear associations among the 
selected variables. Differences in 
anthropometric characteristics and in all the 
examined variables between competitive 
and recreational level gymnasts were 
determined using independent samples t-
tests. For pairwise comparisons, Cohen (d) 
effect sizes were calculated and their 
magnitude was categorized as follows: 
trivial, <0.2; small, 0.2 to 0.5; small to 
moderate, 0.5 to 0.8, and large, >0.8 
(Cohen, 1988). Statistical significance was 
accepted at p<0.05. All analyses were 
performed using SPSS (version 20.0, SPSS 
Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). 
 
RESULTS 
 
The anthropometric characteristics of 
the participants (mean±standard deviation) 
are shown in Table 1. No differences were 
observed between groups in age, training 
experience and height, however, 
competitive level gymnasts were lighter and 
had lower body mass index (Table 1). 
Competitive gymnasts scored higher 
than recreational in the Self-Perception’s 
domains of Relations with Parents 
(p=0.027, d=0.50) and Global Self-Worth 
(p=0.046, d=0.45) (Table 2). No differences 
were observed between the two groups in 
the rest of the subscales. 
Significant correlations were found 
between Self-Perception’s domains and 
Self-Esteem (Table 3). 
 
 
 
 
 
Table 1  
Anthropometric characteristics of the participants (mean ± standard deviations) (n = 100). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Variable Recreational level gymnasts (n=68) 
Competitive level 
gymnasts (n=32) p 
Age (years) 13.78±0.83 13.88±0.75 0.580 
Training Experience (years) 5.12±2.45 5.71±2.05 0.234 
Height (cm) 157.22±7.33 156.47±6.21 0.617 
Body Mass (kg) 47.97±7.83 42.90±6.80 0.002 
Body Mass Index (kg/m2) 19.41±3.00 17.45±2.04 0.001 
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Table 2  
Answers of the adolescent rhythmic gymnasts in the Greek version of Self-Perception Profile 
for Children Questionnaire (means ± standard deviations) (n=100). 
 
 
 
Table 3  
Correlations between the Self-Perception domains in adolescent female gymnasts (n=100). 
 
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 
1          
2 .292**         
3 .439** .145        
4 .425** .038 .329**       
5 .669** .163 .219* .388**      
6 .465** .068 .111 .289** .542**     
7 .086 -.005 .196 .031 .018 -.179    
8 .406** .082 .387** .287** .276** .079 .134   
9 .367** .088 .487** .537** .310** .136 .484** .330**  
10 .430** .612** 1 .202* .380** .279** -.085 .084 .180 
*p<0.05, ** p<0.01  
Note: 1. Global Self-Worth 2. Close Friends 3. Behavioral conduct 4. Language Competence 5. Physical 
Appearance 6. Athletic Competence 7. Mathematics Competence 8. Relations with Parents 9. Scholastic 
Competence 10. Relations with Peers. 
 
 
DISCUSSION 
 
The aim of this study was to examine 
self-perceptions and self-esteem in 
adolescent rhythmic gymnasts of different 
training levels. The main finding of the 
study was that competitive rhythmic 
gymnasts scored higher than recreational in  
the self-perception’s domains of Relations 
with Parents, and Global Self-Worth with 
no difference between groups in the rest of 
the self-perception subscales.  
It is well-established that children self-
perceptions on their adequacy in different 
fields are formed through interaction with 
‘significant others’ and attributions of one’s 
own behavior (Burns, Green, & Chase, 
1986). The positive association between 
participation in physical activities or sports 
and children’s self-perceptions and self-
esteem has been supported by many studies 
Domains of Self-
Perception 
Recreational level 
gymnasts (n=68) 
Competitive level 
gymnasts (n=32) p 
Cohen’s 
d 
Scholastic Competence 3.06±0.73 3.33±0.49 0.068 0.41 
Relations with Peers 3.06±0.65 2.96±0.70 0.500 0.15 
Relations with Parents 3.10±0.64 3.40±0.52 0.027 0.50 
Mathematics Competence 2.92±0.99 3.04±0.72 0.531 0.13 
Athletic Competence 2.89±0.68 3.09±0.50 0.140 0.32
Physical Appearance 2.65±0.70 2.83±0.66 0.222 0.26 
Language Competence 2.80±0.86 2.88±0.73 0.611 0.10 
Behavioral Conduct 3.08±0.60 3.22±0.50 0.255 0.25 
Close Friends 3.38±0.60 3.54±0.53 0.207 0.28 
Global Self-Worth 3.03±0.55 3.26±0.44 0.046 0.45 
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(Balaguer, Atienza, & Duda, 2012; Fox, 
1992; Inchley, Kirby, & Currie, 2011). 
However, it is often reported that 
competitive sports demands, may place 
excessive physical and psychological load 
on youth athletes (Theodorakou & Donti, 
2013) and this fact, in combination with 
significant others’ expectations and 
judgements might affect young athletes’ 
self-perceptions (Donti et al., 2012). 
This study highlights an interesting 
finding: competitive adolescent rhythmic 
gymnasts scored higher than recreational in 
Global Self-Worth or self-esteem. This 
finding is in line with recent findings also 
suggesting that both, female and male 
adolescents who were involved in 
competitive sports (irrespective of whether 
they participated in individual or team 
sports) demonstrated high levels of self-
esteem (D'Anna, Rio, & Gomez-Paloma, 
2015). Contrary, a previous study found that 
the self-esteem of young gymnasts (aged 6-
13 years) practicing competitive 
gymnastics was significantly lower than 
that of girls practicing recreational 
gymnastics (Amac et al., 2002). However, 
that study used a sample of child and 
adolescent gymnasts (6-13 years) and the 
heterogeneity of the age-range may have 
affected the findings of the study. A more 
recent study did not detect any differences 
in Global Self-Worth, in 10-12 years old, 
competitive and recreational gymnasts 
(Donti et al., 2012). Another study reported 
low levels of self-esteem among rhythmic 
gymnasts due to the pressure to keep low 
body weight, aesthetics overestimation, and 
the association with high incidence of 
eating disorders and body dissatisfaction 
(Amorim, 2019; Denoma et al., 2009; 
Krentz & Warchsburguer, 2011). 
Nevertheless, all previous studies examined 
child or preadolescent athletes. It is 
plausible that, as athletes grow and mature, 
participating in competitive sport along 
with gymnast’s achievements, as well as to 
whom they compare themselves to, may 
have a positive impact on the way they 
value themselves. Along this line, because 
self-esteem is formed relatively early in the 
course of development, and remains fairly 
constant over time, it may be that, a global 
sense of self-worth may precede, rather than 
follow domain specific self-representations 
(Marsh, Craevn, & Debus, 1991). 
Nevertheless, further research is required on 
the formation of self-perceptions and self-
esteem in different contexts and levels of 
performance over time in order to 
understand the psychological parameters 
underlying elite performance (Gibbons, 
Lynn, & Stilles, 1997). 
The Self-Perception’s domain 
“Relations with Parents” refers to the 
familiarity that gymnasts feel towards their 
parents. Experts believe that children’s 
emotional, cognitive and behavioral 
development is affected by parental 
bonding and relationships (Harter, 1985; 
Rosenberg, 1986). In general, parental 
support and understanding have been 
associated with successful career 
development among elite young athletes 
(Wuerth, Lee, & Alferman, 2004) and 
higher levels of perceived parental support 
were related to higher levels of adolescent 
well-being (Kocayӧruk, Altıntas, & İçbay, 
2015). The results of this study, showed that 
competitive rhythmic gymnasts scored 
higher than recreational in the domain of 
Relations with Parents (d=0.50) and the 
same was found in another study in 
preadolescent rhythmic gymnasts (aged 11-
15 years), which reported that parents were 
supporting their children-athletes in both, 
training and competitions 
(Giannitsopoulou, 2016). Rhythmic 
gymnastics training and performance on a 
national level, demands daily training 
practices of 6 days per week, adherence to 
strict nutritional demands and a very well 
organized daily-schedule (Donti, Tsolakis, 
Bogdanis, 2014; Michopoulou et al., 2011). 
It seems that, the adolescent competitive 
gymnasts of this study, felt that their parents 
supported them and contributed 
significantly to their participation in daily 
trainings and competitions. In addition, 
asking from parents’ support is particularly 
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important for adolescents because they have 
more limited coping strategies than adults 
(Van Yperen, 1995). 
In this study, no difference was found 
between competitive and recreational 
rhythmic gymnasts in the self-perception’s 
domains of Physical Appearance and the 
effect size for between group comparisons 
was small (d=0.26). Despite their slim 
figure and trained bodies (i.e. competitive 
gymnasts’ BMI was 17.45±2.04 kg/m2 vs. 
19.41±3.00 kg/m2 in recreational) 
competitive rhythmic gymnasts did not 
score higher than recreational in the domain 
of Physical Appearance. In addition, 
competitive gymnasts’ BMI in this study 
was near 17 kg/m2 a value defining thinness 
in adolescence (Cole et al., 2007) and 
indicating gymnasts’ attitude towards food. 
It is known that, competitive rhythmic 
gymnastics has strict demands on body 
weight and shape, reinforced by coaches, 
judges and peers’ comments (Theodorakou 
& Donti, 2013). Along this line, no 
differences were observed between groups 
in Athletic Competence (d=0.32). This 
result is interesting because some 
competitive gymnasts were Greek 
champions of their age category. However, 
in rhythmic gymnastics performance, every 
little step, or mistake can make the 
difference between winning and losing, 
while at the same time constant 
improvement of the gymnast’s skills is 
required (Donti, et al., 2016). It seems that 
the heightened demands of the environment 
in which gymnasts are exposed and interact, 
shapes their perceptions.  
Collectively, although competitive 
rhythmic gymnasts would be expected to 
have higher Physical Appearance and 
Athletic Competence compared to 
recreational gymnasts, this was not found in 
the present study possibly due to the strict 
demands on body appearance, and 
performance of the competitive 
environment. It is constantly reported that 
in rhythmic gymnastics, the desire to be 
leaner to improve performance reinforced 
by coaches, parents and team-mates 
pressures for thinness are often confronted 
by athletes with food restriction (Krentz & 
Warschburger, 2011). Negative comments 
from coaches and parents about body 
weight may increase gymnasts’ fear of 
fatness and body image anxiety (Tan et al., 
2016). On the other hand, body appearance 
in recreational level gymnasts is not judged 
as they participate in the sport to learn new 
skills and to spend time with their peers.  
A limitation of the study that should be 
acknowledged is the use of the Greek 
version of Harter’s Self-perception Profile 
for Children (Harter, 1986; 2012;  Makri-
Botsari, 2001) which captures general self-
perceptions and global self-worth in 
adolescence and is not specific for youth 
athletes. However, in this study also 
participated a large sample of recreational 
level gymnasts (n=68), and it was thought 
that an instrument capturing perception of 
the self for general population would be 
more appropriate. Another limitation of this 
instrument is that the Global Self-Worth 
scale contains two possible answers 
(positive or negative) and does not evaluate 
any responses in between.  
 
CONCLUSIONS 
 
In conclusion, this study found that 
rhythmic gymnasts engaging in competitive 
sports showed higher levels than 
recreational in General Self-Worth (which 
is the emotional dimension of self-
perceptions) and in Relations with Parents. 
It is possible that as athletes grow and 
mature, the context of competitive sport, 
along with their achievements, may 
influence the way they value themselves. 
However, evidence is limited on if winning 
at sports leads directly to increases in Self-
Esteem (Gibbons, Lynn, & Stilles, 1997). 
On the other hand, in certain self-perception 
subscales, some competitive sports’ 
characteristics (the environment athletes 
participate in or to whom they compare 
themselves to), may influence the way these 
gymnasts perceive their Athletic 
Competence and Physical Appearance. 
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Notably, although the perceptions of 
competitive level gymnasts about their 
competence in Physical Appearance and 
Athletic Competence did not differ from 
recreational gymnasts, their personal 
judgement on their overall value (Global 
Self-Worth) was higher (d=0.45). Τhis 
research provides useful information for 
coaches, parents, judges and sport 
specialists on the psychological parameters 
underlying performance and how 
‘significant others’ (parents, coaches, 
judges, peers etc.) and sport demands may 
shape gymnasts’ perceptions. Therefore, 
further long-term research is required on the 
association between performance level and 
self-perception domains, and in particular in 
the case of adolescent female athletes, in 
order to promote understanding of the 
psychological parameters underlying 
gymnastics performance.  
 
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Corresponding author: 
 
Olyvia Donti 
Institution: National and Kapodistrian 
University of Athens, School of Physical 
Education and Sport Science, Athens, 
Greece 
E. Antistasis 41, 17237 
E-mail: odonti@phed.uoa.gr  
Tel and fax num: +302107276109 
 
 
Article received: 16.5. 2020 
Article accepted: 2.8. 2020