ISSN 2463-9281
Izzivi prihodnosti
Challenges of the Future
Letnik 5, številka 2, maj 2020
Volume 5, Issue 2, May 2020
Fakulteta za organizacijske študije
Faculty of organisation studies
ISSN 2463-9281
Izid publikacije je finančno podprla ARRS iz naslova razpisa za sofinanciranje domačih znanstvenih periodičnih publikacij. The journal is subsidised by the Slovenian Research Agency.
GLAVNI IN ODGOVORNI UREDNIK I
EDITOR IN CHIEF
A N N M A R I E G O R E N C Z O R A N
V	,
UREDNIŠKI ODBOR I
EDITORIAL BOARD
Boris Bukovec, Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto, Slovenia Alois Paulin, Technical University Vienna, Austria Juraj Marusiak, Slovak Academy of Science, Slovakia Mario Ianniello, Udine University, Italy Anisoara Popa, Danubius University, Romania Raluca Viman-Miller, University of North Georgia, Georgia, USA Anna Kolomycew, Rzeszow University, Poland Jurgita Mikolaityte, Siauliai University, Lithuania Patricia Kaplanova, Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto, Slovenia Laura Davidel, Univeristy of Lorraine, France Ana Zeleznik, Ljubljana University, Slovenia Marko Vulic, Information Technology School - ITS ComTrade, Serbia Vita Jukneviciene, Siauliai University, Lithuania Mitja Durnik, Ljubljana University, Slovenia Anca-Olga Andronic - Spiru Haret University, Romunija Razvan-Lucian Andronic - Spiru Haret University, Romunija
Naslov uredništva / Editorial address: Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu Ulica talcev 3
8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija
© COPYRIGHT FAKULTETA ZA ORGANIZACIJSKE ŠTUDIJE V NOVEM MESTU. FACULTY OF ORGANISATION STUDIES. VSE PRAVICE ZADRŽANE. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
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BODY IMAGE SATISFACTION AND INTEREST IN LOSING WEIGHT BETWEEN GENDER
Marie-Thérèse Khalil, Maja Mesko, Joseph Matta, Annmarie Gorenc Zoran, Milena Alic
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THE THEORETICAL MODEL OF AN INCLUSIVE LIBRARY FOR PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES AND ITS PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION
Kristina Kulikauskiene, Laima Liukineviciene
102
POMEN ZADOVOLJSTVA OTROK IN MLADOSTNIKOV V MLADINSKEM DOMU
Bojan Macuh, Janez Domajnko
120
MERJENJE DRUŽBENE ODGOVORNOSTI ORGANIZACIJ
Alen Lazič
139
VLOGA ŽENSK V ORGANIZACIJI
Lidija BIjek
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DOI: 10.37886/ip.2020.004
Body Image Satisfaction and Interest in Losing Weight
between Gender
Marie-Thérèse Khalil* Faculty of Organization Studies Novo mesto, Ulica talcev 3, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia Lebanese Canadian University, Aintoura, Lebanon mt.k@live.com
Maja Meško
University of Primorska, Faculty of management, 6000 Koper, Slovenia
maja.mesko@gmail.com
Joseph Matta
Industrial Research Institute, Industrial Research Institute, IRI bldg. - Lebanese University Campus, Hadath (Baabda), PO Box 11-2806 Beirut, Lebanon Saint Joseph University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nutrition Department, Beirut, Lebanon
chem@iri.org.lb
Annmarie Gorenc Zoran Faculty of Organisation Studies Novo mesto, Ulica talcev 3, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia
a.zoran@fos-unm.si
Milena Alič
ALZIT, d.o.o., Murave 16, 4223 Poljane, Slovenia milena.alic@siol.net
Abstract:
Purpose and Originality: The study aims to examine and compare body image satisfaction with
the level of interest in losing weight between gender, considering cognitive behaviours toward
food, age, Body Mass Index, work, marital status, and the number of children.
Method: A quantitative meta-analysis conducted randomly on a pool of Lebanese adults (n = 514)
between February 2018 and June 2018. Anthropometric measures and specific demographic data
assessed individually, and questions related to the level of body image satisfaction and the level of
interest in losing weight were analyzed using bivariate statistical tests (t-test, %2).
Results: No relationship was found between body image satisfaction and gender at any age (p >
0.05), even though women showed a higher mean in the level of interest in losing weight (2.21 ±
0.835) than men (1.87 ± 0.835). Body image satisfaction was found inversely associated with
Body Mass Index and with more significance than the level of interest in losing weight (p <
* Korespondencni avtor / Correspondence author	65
Prejeto: 19. marec 2020; revidirano: 12. maj 2020; sprejeto: 23. maj 2020. / Received: 19th March 2020; revised: 12th May 2020; accepted: 23rd May 2020.
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0.001). Cognitive behaviours toward food and work status were only found significantly related to body image satisfaction, whereas marital status was solitary found related to the level of interest in losing weight with a small effect size (p < 0.01).
Society: This study reflects the different attitude between gender toward body image satisfaction and interest in losing weight in the Lebanese adult population, in order to interpret a better understanding toward image satisfaction, while identifying determinants that might be applied for designing interventions independent of the setting.
Limitations: Pregnant and lactating women were not considered in the sample. Originality/value: The impact of the study concerns the Lebanese society, and it is the first of its kind to open the subject concerning BIS between different Lebanese social groups and initiate further research in this field.
Keywords: Body Image, Weight Loss, Satisfaction, Age, Gender, BMI, Cognitive Behaviours.
1	Introduction
In the context of changes in the ideal body image satisfaction (BIS) perception and its direct and indirect impact especially concerning weight loss therapy, two main research questions (RQ) were examined in this research study:
RQ1. What are the variables among the selected ones that interfere with body image satisfaction (BIS)?
RQ2. Are they consistent with the level of interest in losing weight (ILW)?
This research study consists of measuring the level of BIS between Lebanese adults and comparing it between the different variables of the population, taking into consideration respondents' gender, age, job, marital status, and the number of children. The same comparison was conducted with ILW instead of BIS to check for any differences and possible correlation and association, especially between gender.
The aim of the study is to show that BIS may be better interpreted when substituted with ILW. The investigation is carried out through selective ordinal variables compared between men and women.
2	Theoretical framework
Earlier studies found that people tended to underestimate their current weight and overestimate their height (Gorber, Tremblay, Moher, & Gorber, 2007).
Recent studies indicated correlations between body image satisfaction (BIS) and mental health as well as with physical conditions (Gorber et al., 2007); the reason for which BIS has become an important area of research where the determinants vary by population. Understanding these factors may help to develop targeted strategies to improve BIS when necessary. As such, weight, height and BIS may be influenced by many elements such as physical, interpersonal, emotional, cultural and socioeconomic, including the mass media which increases body image dissatisfaction (BID) and then induce subsequent eating
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disorders (Cash & Henry, 1995; del Mar Bibiloni, Coll, Pich, Pons, & Tur, 2017; Erjavec, Stular, & Kovacic, 2011).
Body image, which is regarded as multidimensional self-attitudes toward one's body, consists of self-perception, cognition, affect, and behaviours vis-a-vis one's physical attributes. Inversely, BID, which is highly prevalent among young women (Tiggemann, 2001), is implicated in a range of public health concerns, including impaired psychological health and weight-related problems such as eating disorders and obesity (M. Bucchianeri & Neumark-Sztainer, 2014).
Many studies have indicated that, in many respects, women possess more negative body image attitudes than men do (del Mar Bibiloni et al., 2017; Grogan, 2016). These differences occur across the lifespan, and the adolescent years may be notably associated with a more negative body image and a tendency for a thinner silhouette (Cash & Henry, 1995; Collins, 1991; Mooney, Farley, & Strugnell, 2010). In general, women often want to lose weight, whereas men want to be more muscular at all ages (Grogan, 2016). Women struggle with body image issues throughout their lives, so there is no significant difference in satisfaction between different age groups of women, irrespective of how BIS is measured. However, there are suggestions that media imagery focuses on the importance of youth, but some women do come to terms with their ageing body and report increased self-acceptance with age ( Marshall, Lengyel, & Menec, 2014). In contrast, older men are likely to be less satisfied with their body size than younger men, though men are likely to have concerns other than weight at all ages, including concerns about insufficient muscularity (Grogan, 2016).
Some other variables concerning eating behaviours, working status as well as being married could be considered. In this context, findings indicated a negative correlation between personal BID and healthy eating habits (Bimbo, Bonanno, Van Trijp, & Viscecchia, 2018). Alternatively, employed married respondents, with or without children at home, reported the highest levels of emotional well-being. The lowest levels of life satisfaction were reported by the unemployed, students, and divorcees (del Mar Bibiloni et al., 2017; Zuzanek, 1998). In fact, the unemployed population usually perceive themselves as being in poor health (Amstadter et al., 2010; Franzini & Giannoni, 2010). More specifically, unemployment was also linked to increased health factor risks such as obesity, amongst other habits such as smoking and alcohol and drug consumption (Hollederer, 2011). On the other hand, no relationship was found between marital status and BIS (Alipour, Farhangi, Dehghan, & Alipour, 2015; Friedman, Dixon, Brownell, Whisman, & Wilfley, 1999). Nevertheless, married persons without children living at home were more satisfied than married persons with children at home (Glenn & McLanahan, 1981).
3 Method
For this study, a quantitative method was applied using a questionnaire that targeted a pool of random Lebanese adult's n = 514 (above 19 years of age) of both genders. Participation in the
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survey was anonymous, voluntary, and followed ethical guidelines. Eight registered dietitians conducted individual interviews (one-on-one basis) with the respondents between February 2018 and June 2018. The questionnaire developed for this study consisted of four main parts: (1) demographic (gender, age, work, marital status and number of children); (2) anthropometric (body mass index (BMI)); (3) cognitive behaviours toward food (assessed with a series of three questions based on the six-level Likert scale, from 1 to 6 where 1 is the least flavourful and 6 the most flavourful (self-monitoring of food and calories intake, selected lower calorie foods, and pre-planned meals); and (4) levels of personal body image satisfaction (BIS) and interest in losing weight (ILW) expressed with low, medium, and high.
Based on the theoretical approach that compares the responsiveness of investigated population toward their BIS, each of the ordinal selective variables has a role in checking if the response of the population is dependent and whether it reflects the reality or is attributed to a denial of the truth. In this case this can be tackled through ILW between men and women.
The variables were analysed and presented using univariate statistics, while the comparison between different variables were analysed through bivariate statistics (t-test, x2). The study analysis started with a descriptive statistic method where general characteristics of the collected data from respondents was analysed and evaluated using Microsoft Excel 2016 and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM SPSS statistics version 22). Relationships between different variables comparable with BIS and ILW were measured and statistical significance was assumed when p < 0.05 and for each significance, the effect size was measured accordingly (Cohen, 1988; Cramer & Howitt, 2004). The sample consisted of 514 adults randomly selected from one area in the capital of Lebanon. Lactating and pregnant women were excluded from the study.
The process of testing the feasibility of the project proposal, recruitment of subjects, research tool, and data analysis, was reported with a pilot study which was conducted on a group of 50 random Lebanese adults in November 2017. The questionnaire was tested and adjusted based on the answers and feedbacks to provide greater clarity and unambiguous comprehensibility. Based on the preliminary results from the pilot study, according to the demographic structure, respondents were divided equally between men and women. As for the demographic difference between the pilot study and the entire survey, all the variables were nearly similar except for the age ranges which were higher for the young of the entire population compared to the pilot study. To check the internal consistency and reliability of the measuring instrument, Cronbach alpha coefficient was computed for which the demographic variables were excluded. For the entire study, a = 0.756 and for the pilot study a = 0.715. Reliability is satisfactory when the coefficient exceeds the recommended value a = 0.7, which means that the questionnaire, as well as the study, may proceed.
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4 Results
600 people were invited to complete the questionnaire, but 86 were either out of the scope (aged less than 19 years, pregnant) or apologized for not participating for personal reasons. Therefore, number 514 represents the sample of Lebanese adults that agreed to carry on with the study; descriptive groups have been detailed in Table 1.
Table 1. Demographic Data of the entire survey (n=514)
Variables
Entire study n (%)
Gender
Men Women Age 19-27 28-36 37-45 46-54 >55 BMI
Normal-BMI (< 24.9 kg/m2) Over-BMI (> 25 kg/m2) Work No
Part-time Full-time Marital Status
Married
singles living with their parents singles (independent) Divorced/widowed Concubine Number of children 0 1 2 3
> 4
Cognitive behaviour toward food
Self-monitoring of food and calories intake Selected lower calorie foods Planned meals in advance
Body Image Satisfaction (BIS) Low Medium High
Interest in Losing Weight (ILW)
Low
Medium
High
1 2
184 (35.8)	59 (11.5)
187 (36.4)	61 (11.9)
194 (37.7)	78 (15.2)
224 (43.6%) 290 (56.4%)
181 (35.2%) 119 (23.2%) 87 (16.9%) 68 (13.2%) 59 (11.5%)
261 (50.8%) 253 (49.2%)
136 (26.5%) 65 (12.6%) 313 (60.9%)
236 (45.9%) 191 (37.2%) 62 (12.1%) 20 (3.9%) 5 (1%)
283 (55.1%) 46 (8.9%) 98 (19.1%) 53 (10.3%) 34 (6.6%) 3	4
100 (19.5) 68 (13.2) 90 (17.5) 67 (13) 87 (16.9) 58 (11.3)
96 (18.7%) 189 (36.8%) 229 (44.5%)
168 (32.7%) 142 (27.6%) 204 (39.7%)
5
47 (9.1) 55 (10.7) 46 (8.9)
6
56 (10.9) 54 (10.5) 51 (9.9)
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Most of the respondents showed a tendency to favour a positive BIS, which seemed to be similar for both genders, with a total mean of 2.26 ± 0.753, whereas the total mean concerning ILW was 2.07 ± 0.849 with a better affinity for women who seemed to be more interested in losing weight.
To verify the presence of any relationship between BIS and ILW, a Chi-square test was performed. In this context, a strong significant relationship was detected; X2(4) = 20.442, p < 0.001. The effect size for this finding, Cramer's V, was moderate: 0.199. A total of 53% of participants who showed low ILW had a high BIS, whereas 19.1% of those with high ILW had a low BIS. To verify whether a relationship was present in BIS between normal and overBMI, a Chi-square test was performed (Figure 1).
Body Image Satisfaction (BIS)
Interest in Losing Weight (ILW)
28.5%

54.8%	42%
m	33.2% ■ 372%
ÎI Ii II il I
Low	Medium	High
■ Normal-BMI «Over-BMI
Low	Medium	High
■ Normal-BMI ■ Over-BMI
Figure 1. Percentage of BIS and ILW between Normal-BMI and Over-BMI
In this context, BIS between normal-BMI and over-BMI, was found statistically significant: X2(2) = 38.078,p < 0.001. The effect size for this finding, Cramer's V, was moderate: 0.272; 9.2% of the respondents with a normal BMI had a low BIS, compared to 28.5% with overBMI. Most of the respondents with normal-BMI (54.8%) had a high BIS, compared to only 34% with an over-BMI. Similarly, ILW between normal and over-BMI was also found statistically significant: X2(2) = 7.821, p = 0.020. However, the effect size for this finding, Cramer's V, was small at 0.123; 35.8% of the respondents with normal-BMI showed low ILW, compared to only 29.6% of those with an over-BMI. Most of the respondents with a normal BMI were in the group highly interested in losing weight (42.1%), compared to only 37.2% of the respondents with an over-BMI.
No relationship between gender and BIS was detected (X2(2) = 2.077, p = 0.354). However, a relationship was observed between gender and ILW (X2(2) = 17.708, p < 0.001). Still, the effect size for this finding, Cramer's V, was small: 0.186; 47.2% of the women showed a high ILW, compared to only 29.9% of men.
BIS, as well as ILW, were compared between gender and age ranges (Figure 2 and Figure 3); When going through the age ranges, both BIS and ILW decreased with ageing with linear regression and negative correlation for women and also for men except for the group having a
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low-BIS. On the other hand, when running Pearson's Chi-square test, no significant relationship was detected between the different groups of BIS and ILW between age groups and gender (p > 0.05) except for the group with medium ILW: X2(2) = 11.690, p = 0.020. The effect size for this finding, Cramer's V, was moderate: 0.287; In this context, participants who only have a medium ILW decreased in percentage when ageing.
Figure 2. Body image satisfaction (BIS) by age ranges and gender (Blue=Male; Orange=Female)
Figure 3. Interest in losing weight (ILW) by Age ranges and gender (Blue=Male; Orange=Female)
In the analysis regarding different behaviours toward food, it was found that most of the respondents do not follow a healthy behaviour toward their food and do not account nor focus on their meals in a vigorous way. When computing each of the three cognitive behaviours toward food with BIS and ILW, a large significant relationship was found between all stated behaviours toward food and BIS as well as with ILW (p < 0.05 and Cramer's V> 0.2). In this context, when all types of cognitive behaviours toward food increase, both BIS and ILW increase as well. 25% of participants who never self-monitored their food and calorie intake had a low BIS, whereas 58.9% of those who had the most self-monitoring had a high BIS. In contrast, 58.3% of participants who never self-monitored their food and calorie intake had a low ILW, whereas 69.6% of those who had the most self-monitoring had a high ILW. On the other hand, 22.5% of participants who never selected lower-calorie food had a low BIS, whereas 63% of those who mostly selected their calorie intake had a high BIS. In contrast, 52.4% of participants who never selected lower-calorie food had a low ILW, whereas 74.9% of those who mostly selected their calorie intake had a high ILW. Similarly, 20.1% of participants who never planned their meals had a low BIS, whereas 41.6% of those who mostly planned their meals had a high BIS. In contrast, 47.4% of participants who never
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planned their meals had a low ILW, whereas 60.8% of those who mostly planned their meals had a high ILW.
When work status was cross-tabulated between men and women with BIS and ILW, a significant relationship was only found between the sexes for those working part-time regarding BIS with a large effect size. In fact, 27.2% of part-time working men show a low BIS compared to 2.3% of women. The majority of women part-time workers have a high BIS compared to men (53.3% to 36.4%). Another significant relationship was also found between the sexes among those working full-time regarding their ILW with a medium effect size, where most of the men (37.7%) who work full-time have a low ILW, compared to 21.2% of women. In contrast, the majority of women working full time (54.8%) have a high ILW, compared to 31.1% of men.
On the other hand, when cross-tabulating BIS between genders with marital status, no significant association was found. However, when cross-tabulating ILW with marital status between genders, a significant association with small effect size was found between genders who were not married but lived with their parents and another with a medium effect size between married people; the results showed that the majority of single men living with their parents had a low ILW compared to women (43% to 26.9%). Whereas, the majority of single women living with their parents had a high ILW compared to men (46.2% to 29.2%). Likewise, it was also found that the majority of married men had a low ILW compared to women (38.7% to 24.8%, respectively). Whereas, the majority of married women had a high ILW compared to men (55.2% to 29.7%).
When cross-tabulating BIS with the number of children between genders, no significant relationship was found. Whereas, when computing ILW instead of BIS, a significant relationship with a small effect size was found between gender among those who have no children, and another with large effect size was found between gender among those who have two children; the results were as such 42.6% of men who had no children had a low ILW compared to 28.6% of women. Conversely, 41.7% of women who had no children had a high ILW, compared to 30.4% of men. Alternatively, 44.2% of men who had two children had a low ILW compared to 20% of women. Conversely, 60% of women who had two children had a high ILW compared to 25.6% of men.
5 Discussion
The respondents, in general, showed a relatively high level of body image satisfaction (BIS), which was found inversely associated with BMI and more practically significant than the question related to the level of interest in losing weight (ILW). Alternatively, no significant association was observed with BIS between men and women, but only a small practical significance was detected with ILW. When adding age, no significant association was found with BIS between genders but a medium significance with the group showing a medium ILW. Although Grogan's (2016) work on BIS and its difference between genders, implied that
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women showed a remarkable BID compared with men; this study did not provide similar findings. Cognitive behaviour toward food was found moderately significant with BMI and largely with gender, BIS and ILW, where women always showed a high BIS and also high ILW. Other variables were tested for BIS between genders, such as work status between gender, which was not found significantly associated with BIS or ILW, except for part-time and full-time workers. No relationship was detected between marital status and BIS between genders, but a small significance was noticed between ILW and single respondents still living with their parents and a medium significance was also detected between ILW and married participants. The number of children was not associated with BIS between genders, as well as with ILW, except for those having no children with a small significance, and for respondents having two children but this time with a large significance.
This study aimed to review BIS and ILW between men and women by selecting some variables that may imply in the comparison; however the theoretical framework was not found consistent with this study concerning women which were supposed to have a higher BID, but ILW was consistent with other research studies in this regard where women showed more ILW than men did (McKinley, 2017; Tsai, Lv, Xiao, & Ma, 2016). Other practical variables, such as cognitive behaviours toward food and working status could also be considered. As for the marital status, no significant association with BIS was showed, similar to the theoretical review (Alipour et al., 2015; Friedman et al., 1999). Inconsistent with the theoretical literature, no association was found between BIS and the number of children, but a strong association was detected between ILW and number of children.
This study opens a debate when assessing BIS leading to consider indirect questions that might imply a hidden psychological denial of the respondents toward their self-esteem following the selected determinant.
6 Conclusion
The questionnaire was distributed to adults living in Lebanon, and as such, the results might show a uniformed pattern reflecting a costumed culture in the context of the topic being covered. The data that were collected from Lebanese adult individuals reflects the degree of body image satisfaction (BIS) on the one hand and their level of interest in losing weight (ILW) on the other hand, taking into consideration different variables such as cognitive behaviour toward food, age, gender, BMI, civil status, number of children, and work status. Although women showed more ILW than men, there seems to be no significant difference between both genders when it comes to BIS. Younger women had more BIS, especially the ones with normal BMI. In general, there was a strong negative correlation between BIS and BMI as well as between BIS and age between gender. A strong association was detected between men and women working part-time and BIS. Whereas, medium to high significant association was found between ILW from one hand and married men and women with children and working full-time from another hand.
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ILW should have inversely similar answers to BIS, namely because people who want to lose weight should be unsatisfied with their body image; this was not revealed when computing the listed variables between gender. Suggesting that certain respondents may pretend to be satisfied with their self-image and do not show or tell openly even if anonymously,
As for BMI, there seems to be a rational pattern of answers only with BIS, where most respondents who were over-BMI had a low BIS and vice versa. Instead, when analysing the answers related to ILW, no balanced pattern was shown. In fact, the majority of the respondents wanted to lose weight, whether their BMI was normal or high, which indicates that even respondents with normal-BMI were not satisfied with their body image even though their answers were contradictory.
The questionnaire which was conducted for this study was not benchmarked or compared with any other similar studies. The participants were randomly chosen from common areas; therefore, the findings reflect a mutual culture and a unified society at the regional level. Only adults above 19 years old were considered in this study, and some categories, such as pregnant and lactating women, were out of scope. Finally, the research did not question the media effect nor the impact of physical activity on BIS.
Further research should include the limitations listed above. Also, including other cultures and regions to conduct a comparative analysis with the results of this study. The research is based on BMI, which can be misleading when muscular content is considered compared with fat deposit and body shape type. Many external variables have positive or negative impacts depending on the situation; therefore, there should be a continuous measurement to provide a better, more accurate view of the situation. In this context, further research adding physical activity and media exposure, as well as body shape, should be considered. In the end, a benchmark with other similar Mediterranean cultures should be measured for further studies.
There is no financial interest or risk; No funding source was provided for this manuscript.
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APPENDICES
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Appendix: Questionnaire 1- Gender:	□ Male
□ Female
2-	Age:
3-	Work (cM):
4-	Civil Status:
□ 19-27
□ No
□ 28-36
□ Part-Time
□ 37-45
□ 46-54
□	Independent single
□	Married
□ Full-Time
□	Single with parents
□	Divorce/widow
□ > 55
□ Concubine
5- Number of children:
□ 0 □ 1 □ 2 □ 3 □ > 4
6- BMI:
□ Normal-BMI (< 24.9 kg/m2)
□ Over-BMI (> 25 kg/m2)
7- Your Behaviour toward eating (from 1 to 6) where 1 is never and 6 is always
1 (-) 2 3
4
5 6 (+)
7.1	Self-monitoring of food and calorie intake
7.2	Selected lower calorie foods
7.3	Planned healthy meals in advance
_Low_Medium_High
8-	Self-image satisfaction
9-	Interest in losing weight
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***
Marie-Thérèse Khalil is a Registered Dietician who lives currently in Beirut, Lebanon and works as a quality specialist in the Quality unit at the Ministry of Economy and Trade in Lebanon and as a teacher of agro food industry and quality and food service management in the Lebanese Canadian university, faculty of arts and science. Marie-Thérèse is a member of EFQM assessors and has several writings in the domain of dietetics, microbiology, supplements and sports nutrition in local magazines and newspapers. She holds a PhD of Science in the field of Quality Management from the faculty of organisation studies in Novo mesto, Slovenia. She also holds a BS in Biochemistry and a MS degree in Nutrition and food service management from the Lebanese University.
***
Maja Mesko is a full professor of management at the Faculty of Management, University of Primorska. She received PhD in kinesiology, the title of her doctoral dissertation is Defining certain motor abilities and psychological characteristics of the Slovenian military pilots. Her research interests include the areas of management, psychology in management, occupational health and management. She has also participated in various projects. She authored or co-authored various scientific papers published in professional and academic journals.
***
Joseph Matta is the head of the laboratories of the Industrial Research Institute (IRI). He provided scientific interaction between universities and industries at the local and international level to ensure multiple projects and research. He published more than 50 articles and new international analytical food tests methods validation. He is a member of several scientific committees, and at the international level, he is the President of the Technical Committee of the Scientific Association of Reference Laboratories "European Federation of National Associations of Measurement, Testing and Analytical Laboratories." In addition, he is a lead auditor of the Food Safety Management Systems ISO 22000 and the competence of the analysis and testing laboratories ISO 17025, member of Technical Committees of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and Member of the Scientific Committee of accreditation of laboratories. Professor Matta received the first prize of technological innovation of the EU in 2013.
***
Annmarie Gorenc Zoran is a Professor at the Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto, as well as teaches distance learning courses abroad. Her research interest is an interdisciplinary approach to communication as a channel in elearning, framework for continuous improvement (quality standards feedback), a tool in education/teaching, an analytical framework to research, and as a contribution to management. She has published
book chapters, numerous articles, and presented at international, national, and regional conferences.
***
Milena Alic studied maths, IT and management (on master and doctoral degree). She is a manager of her own company and Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. She is working on quality management, IT and environmental topics as practitioner (expert, auditor, consultant, trainer), researcher, author, reviewer at renowned scientific journals (e.g. TQM&BE - SSCI indexed) and member of different organizations on national and international level (e.g. official representative of Slovenia at EOQ).
Povzetek:
Zadovoljstvo in zanimanje za izgubo teže med spoloma
Namen in izvirnost: Cilj študije je preučiti in primerjati zadovoljstvo telesne slike s stopnjo zanimanja za izgubo teže med spolom, upoštevajoč kognitivno vedenje do hrane, starosti, indeksa telesne mase, dela, zakonskega stanja in števila otrok.
Metoda: Kvantitativna metaanaliza, izvedena naključno na bazenu libanonskih odraslih (n = 514) med februarjem 2018 in junijem 2018. Antropometrični ukrepi in posebni demografski podatki se ocenjujejo posamično ter vprašanja v zvezi s stopnjo zadovoljstva s telesno sliko in stopnjo zanimanje za izgubo teže smo analizirali s pomočjo bivarijantnih statističnih testov (t-test, %2).
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Rezultati: Ni bilo ugotovljeno razmerje med zadovoljstvom s telesno sliko in spolom v kateri koli starosti (p> 0,05), čeprav so ženske pokazale višji povprečni nivo zanimanja za izgubo teže (2,21 ± 0,835) kot moški (1,87 ± 0,835). Ugotovljeno je bilo, da je zadovoljstvo telesne slike obratno povezano z indeksom telesne mase in bolj pomembno kot stopnja zanimanja za izgubo teže (p <0,001). Kognitivno vedenje do hrane in delovnega stanja je bilo le pomembno povezano z zadovoljstvom s telesno sliko, medtem ko je bil zakonski status samoten, povezan s stopnjo zanimanja za izgubo teže z majhnim učinkom (p <0,01).
Družba: Ta študija odraža različen odnos med spolom do zadovoljstva s telesno sliko in zanimanje za izgubo teže libanonske odrasle populacije, da bi razlagali boljše razumevanje zadovoljstva slike, hkrati pa opredelili dejavnike, ki bi se lahko uporabili za načrtovanje intervencij neodvisno od nastavitve .
Omejitve: V vzorcu niso bile upoštevane nosečnice in doječe ženske.
Izvirnost / vrednost: Vpliv študije zadeva libanonsko družbo in je prva takšna vrsta, ki bo odprla temo BIS med različnimi libanonskimi družbenimi skupinami in začela nadaljnje raziskave na tem področju.
Ključne besede: telesna slika, izguba teže, zadovoljstvo, starost, spol, BMI, kognitivno vedenje.
Copyright (c) 2020 Marie-Thérèse KHALIL, Maja MESKO, Joseph MATTA, Annmarie GORENC ZORAN, Milena ALIC
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
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DOI: 10.37886/ip.2020.005
The Theoretical Model of an Inclusive Library for People with Disabilities and its Practical Implementation
Kristina Kulikauskiene* Siauliai University, P. Visinskio str. 25, LT-76351, Siauliai, Lithuania kristinakulikauskiene@gmail.com
Laima Liukineviciene Siauliai University, P. Visinskio str. 25, LT-76351, Siauliai, Lithuania liukinevicienelaima@gmail.com
Abstract:
Purpose and Originality: This study aims to analyse the concept of an inclusive and socially responsible library, to develop the theoretical model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities, and to investigate the practical possibilities for implementing this model in regional libraries in order to reduce social exclusion of people with disabilities and to increase their social inclusion. The paper presents the results of empirical research conducted in two counties of Lithuania. Based on the results of the interviews of heads of libraries and heads of organizations representing people with disabilities, the model of an inclusive library was supplemented and the change management of an inclusive library was actualized.
Method: The methods of this study are based on stakeholder theory (Dangi & Gribb, 2018, pp. 339— 341; Harrison, Freeman & Abreu, 2015, pp. 859-860; Lipinski & Jamro, 2018, p. 225), where the management of stakeholders involves meeting their needs and ensuring their wellbeing. The theoretical part of the research uses the methods of scientific literature analysis, generalization, and systematization, which enabled to theoretically define the concept of an inclusive public library for people with disabilities, substantiate the instrument of the empirical research, and discuss the results of the empirical research. In the empirical part, a qualitative method of e-mail interviews was chosen to conduct the opinion survey of organizations representing people with disabilities and heads of libraries. The obtained results were analysed, then the theoretical model of an inclusive library was supplemented with practical insights of the empirical research.
Results: The results of the research showed that a changing public attitude towards public services and their accessibility (expectation is greater accessibility and diversity) stipulates the change in the roles of budget-based libraries and preconditions the development of an inclusive library for people with disabilities. Based on the theoretical and empirical findings obtained during the research, the model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities was developed and substantiated. Also, it was proved that the development of an inclusive library for people with disabilities requires the change management which involves stakeholders, i.e. representatives of people with disabilities and institutions implementing public policy at the national and local level, into all stages of the transformation process to become an inclusive organization for people with disabilities.
Society: This study highlights the need to increase the social inclusion of libraries to meet the needs of all stakeholders, including people with disabilities. Increasing the social inclusion of libraries can reduce the social exclusion of people with disabilities and promote their inclusion in the community and society
* Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author
Prejeto: 3. oktober 2020; revidirano: 25. november 2020; sprejeto: 26. november 2020. / Received: 3rd October 2020; revised: 25th November 2020; accepted: 26th November 2020.
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in broad terms. An inclusive library creates added value for society and contributes to the implementation of social justice.
Limitations / further research: The empirical research was conducted in two counties of Lithuania (Siauliai and Telsiai), involving 10 libraries. Because budget-based libraries in Lithuania have a similar management structure, operate on the grounds of the same strategic documents of the Republic of Lithuania, have similar opportunities provided by the Government and the Ministry of Culture to engage in innovative activities and address social problems, the results of the empirical research can be applied at the national level, except for the capital region, which should be investigated separately due to the high concentration of specialized libraries and the National Library. It would also be useful to analyse the best practices of other European countries whose libraries have made the largest progress in promoting social inclusion.
Keywords: social inclusion, the model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities, library services for people with disabilities.
1 Introduction
Today's society expects libraries to have greater access to information resources, cultural and educational activities, opportunities for lifelong learning, and the reduction of social exclusion. The changing societal expectations influence the changing role of libraries - libraries become centres of lifelong learning and socialization. The changing role of libraries is a relevant topic for research and has been studied by such authors as Appleton, Hall, Duff & Raeside (2018, pp. 276277), Casselden, Pickard & McLeod (2015, p. 188), Delaney & Bates (2015, pp. 30-31), Johnson (2012, pp. 53-54), Pressley (2017, pp. 62-63), Strover (2019, p. 190 ), Subramaniam, Kodama & Oxley (2013, pp. 1-2 ), Wyatt, Mcquire & Butt (2018, pp. 2935-2936), Yilmaz & Cevher (2015, pp. 336-337), in Lithuania - Juchnevic (2016a, pp. 96-98; 2016b, pp. 159-160) and Peceliunaite (2017, p. 37). Changing requirements oblige libraries to meet the needs of the society and all stakeholders and to contribute to the inclusion of people with disabilities. The services for people with disabilities is not a new area for libraries, but the changing needs of society require a new approach to this group of stakeholders and the appropriate development of services. The significance of social inclusion and libraries as socially inclusive organizations has been analysed by Irwin & Silk (2019, pp. 1-2), Koller, Pouesard & Rummens (2018, pp. 1-2), Kulikauskiene (2019, pp. 73-74), Lloyd (2019, pp. 51-52), Racelis (2018, pp. 2-3), who emphasised that socially inclusive libraries also focus on the needs of stakeholders and society at large. Therefore, library services must be accessible to all individuals, regardless of age, gender, race or disability. People with disabilities have the same rights as other citizens to participate in community life, activities, and events. However, these rights are often not guaranteed to people with disabilities, therefore, they experience social exclusion (Ruskus, 2002, pp. 47-48). Libraries have an extensive network of institutions, a wide range of services and serve individuals of all ages and social groups. In this way, they can act as social justice operators and provide all members of society with access to information resources, and enable them to participate in educational and cultural activities. Libraries have a unique opportunity to reduce social exclusion by becoming inclusive, open and accessible to all people (Kaeding, 2015, p. 13).
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However, despite positive changes in library infrastructure, people with disabilities often face negative public attitudes, inadequate infrastructure, and a lack of specialized equipment and services. This problem is particularly pronounced in smaller towns and villages in Lithuania, where libraries are often not adapted for people with disabilities and a variety of services does not accommodate their needs. This situation can be improved by increasing the role and responsibility of libraries in social inclusion and by expanding a range of services for people with disabilities. Therefore, the problem of the research is how to implement practically these scientific insights and government recommendations for libraries to become socially inclusive?
The scientific problem analysed in this paper can be presented by the following questions: What are the main features of an inclusive library?, What model of a socially inclusive library for people with disabilities is provided by science today?, and What are the possibilities for putting this model into practice? The aim of the research is having conceptualized an inclusive and socially responsible library, to develop the theoretical model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities and to investigate the practical possibilities of its implementation in Lithuanian regional libraries. The objectives of the research: 1) Having analysed the scientific literature on the changing role of libraries and the development of an inclusive organization, to define the concept of the library as a socially responsible and inclusive organization and to improve the theoretical model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities; 2) Based on the empirical research data, to substantiate the practical applicability of the model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities in Lithuanian libraries.
2 Theoretical framework
In the 21st century, the role of libraries is changing - from book lending to community centres with a wide range of goals: teaching of digital literacy, organizing lifelong learning, conducting cultural, informational and educational activities, and reducing social exclusion (Appleton, Hall, Duff & Raeside, 2018, p. 276; Johnson, 2012, p. 54; Peceliunaite, 2017, pp. 37-38; Yilmaz & Cevher, 2015 p. 336). Today, there is a direct connection between the library and society, due to the inseparable nature of its social functions and meeting the needs of society (Juchnevic, 2016 pp. 34-35). The library community consists of the users who differ in their social status, education, mentality, therefore, public libraries' aspiration to be accessible to every member of the community (Peceliunaite, 2017, p. 38) and public pressure on libraries to increase the accessibility of their services affect libraries' activities and roles. The scientific literature identifies the following key roles of the library: informational, educational-cultural, communal, and social.
The informational role means that the library can ensure the access to literature and high-quality information (e.g. books, periodicals, Internet access) and provide services to all social groups (Appleton, Hall, Duff & Raeside, 2018, p. 276; Davey, 2013, p. 4; Kijauskaite & Alebaite, 2016, p. 7;). The educational-cultural role means that the library can offer opportunities for cultural
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leisure (Kijauskaite & Alebaite, 2016, p. 8; Wyatt, Mcquire & Butt, 2018, pp. 2935-2936; Yilmaz & Cevher, 2015, p. 338;), which today is associated with educational and lifelong learning activities. By providing non-formal learning services or organizing non-formal learning activities, libraries train users in information and economic literacy, creativity, foreign languages, etc. This training also develops general competencies that help adapt to the labour market and social life. The communal role means that the library is perceived as a space for communication and community building (Davey, 2013, p. 4; Kijauskaite & Alebaite, 2016, p. 7; Sung, Hepworth & Ragsdell, 2012, pp. 206-207). Today, the effectiveness of the library depends on its cooperation with communities, educational and scientific institutions, non-governmental organizations, cultural, professional and amateur arts organizations, etc., because the library is an accessible place for everybody to create joint projects and communicate. The communal role is closely intertwined with the social role of the library as a space for social interaction. According to this concept, the library is understood as an open space where individuals can realize their ideas through communication, learning, leisure, work, etc. This is of particular relevance for stigmatized and socially excluded groups and their inclusion in social life (Juchnevic, 2016, p. 35). Libraries become the promoters of social justice, by providing everyone with information resources and enabling them to participate in educational and cultural activities (Moisey, 2007, pp. 56-57).
According to Juchnevic (2016, p. 35) and Reid (2019, pp. 2-3), by providing free of charge services and access to modern technologies, libraries provide an opportunity to learn about culture, participate in lifelong learning, are open to various social groups. According to authors, it can be stated that the social role of the library involves all previously mentioned roles and integrates them into a whole - in today's world, libraries through social interaction with individuals, informal communities, institutions, through the involvement into strategic state processes (promotion of lifelong learning, implementation and development of innovations, development of science potential, etc.) become the organizations reducing social exclusion and increasing socialization. Even in the smallest towns and villages, libraries working with people of all ages, become strategically important organizations for implementing social policies, as other public organizations (schools, cultural centres, day-care centres, etc.) do not have such a wide network of organizations and such diversity. Libraries contribute to the reduction of information, digital and social exclusion by providing access to information resources, free internet, by organizing free of charge events and educational activities.
The changing roles of the library precondition the organizational change - to become an inclusive organization that meets not only users' needs but also the growing needs of society. Having the access to the latest information resources, being equipped with the new technologies, libraries can develop the dissemination of innovative products and services, ensure their accessibility to all citizens, anticipate future public needs and prepare for them, and participate in international, national, and inter-organizational projects.
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The concept of a socially inclusive organization is inseparable from the concept of a socially responsible organization. Public sector institutions take responsibility for creating the public wellbeing through the services they provide (Racelis, 2018, p. 2). For libraries, social responsibility and inclusion are, first of all, meeting the needs of stakeholders. According to Racelis (2018, p. 3), the social responsibility of the library comprises four levels: 1) The responsibility for information resources and books stored in the library; 2) The responsibility for the library staff; 3) The responsibility for library users; 4) The responsibility for the society in general. According to this approach, the responsibility of the library transcends the boundaries of an individual organization, therefore, the availability of service becomes an important criterion for developing an inclusive organization.
Therefore, it is possible to state that an inclusive library performs its informational, educational, cultural, communal, and social functions in a socially responsible manner, whose services are accessible to members of diverse communities, which takes care about its employees' wellbeing, development of their competencies, meets consumers' needs, and brings together all individuals, communities, and organizations for joint activities. Such library provides added value to society through social justice and promotes people from socially excluded groups to socialize. The activities of inclusive libraries are in line with the provisions of global and national legal documents to ensure equal opportunities and accessibility; their strategic and key operational documents usually foresee the mission and change of social inclusion. An inclusive library cooperates with a variety of organizations, local communities and publicises information about its services. However, unlike other inclusive public organizations, the concept of inclusive libraries focuses on the diversity of stakeholders, and this suggests the need to constantly research their needs and expectations. The users of library services are of different age groups and come from different social groups: pre-schoolers and their parents, schoolchildren, students, employed persons, unemployed persons, retired persons, persons with various disabilities, etc. Aiming to research and respond to a variety of needs, the collaboration with other organizations that involve learning, employment, and socialization as well as with the organizations and local communities representing and integrating people experiencing social exclusion, becomes significant.
Another aspect is that inclusive libraries need to take into consideration a variety and quality of the services they provide, in order to meet the needs of society, and this requires continuous development of staff competencies. Traditional services and services that enhance socialization and employment today require a range of competencies, including competencies to work with people with disabilities (physical, mental, sensory), people with developmental disorders and to use digital technologies that increase access to library services.
According to Kaunda & Chizwina (2019, pp. 8-9), the main factors promoting people with disabilities to use library services are accessibility of services, qualification of staff, adaptation of
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library environment, material base, equipment and services. Kowalsky & Woodruff (2017, pp. 412), Young (2018, pp. 131-132) underlines that the library, which seeks to serve users with disabilities, has to take care of the universal design, annually review lists of activities, evaluate outcomes of inclusion, facilities and equipment designed for people with disabilities, plan new activities and staff training.
In discussions about libraries that increase the socialization of people with disabilities, researchers have proposed theoretical models of such libraries. Gibson (2006, p. 61) presented a library service model that identifies four key aspects: 1) Compliance of the documents governing the rights of people with disabilities to access to informational, cultural and educational activities with library documents; 2) Adaptation of infrastructure and equipment for people with disabilities, use of assistive technologies; 3) Specific services for people with disabilities; 4) Staff training. Kaeding (2015, p. 21), Kaeding, Velasquez & Price (2017, p. 13) proposed the model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities that highlights seven essential components: governance, programs, physical barriers, training, partnership, marketing, and adapted information resources. All components are interconnected and include activities that make library services and the environment more attractive to people with disabilities.
In the model proposed by Kaeding (2015, pp. 21-23), Kaeding, Velasquez & Price (2017, pp. 1317), the component 'governance' involves the management's approach to the development of the library as an inclusive organization and the inclusion of activities for people with disabilities in the library's plans, as well as the consistency of these plans with national documents. The component 'programs' lists the activities and training that libraries offer to people with disabilities. The component 'physical barriers' includes the accessibility of the library's infrastructure and facilities with the necessary specialized equipment for people with disabilities. The component 'training' includes library staff training in providing services for people with disabilities. The component ' partnership' emphasizes the cooperation of libraries with various organizations and communities of people with disabilities. The component 'marketing' emphasizes the publicity of library services for people with disabilities. The component 'information resources' includes specialized literature resources that are adapted for people with disabilities (e.g. audiobooks, Braille books).
According to the model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities proposed by Gibson (2006, p. 61), Kaeding (2015, p. 21), Kaeding, Velasquez & Price (2017, p. 13) and taking into consideration the factors related to the enhancement of social inclusion of libraries (planning and implementation of activities for people with disabilities, assessment of achieved results), defined by Kaunda & Chizwina (2019, pp. 8-9), Kowalsky & Woodruff (2017, pp. 4-12), Young (2018, pp. 131-132) the following key components can be distinguished: organizational management, adaptation of environment (adapting infrastructure and equipment to ensure accessibility of services), services that meet the needs of people with disabilities (efficient service for people with
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disabilities, adaptation of information resources, cultural, educational and information services), improvement of staff competencies, cooperation (with organizations for people with disabilities, care-homes, special schools, non-governmental organizations, etc.), and publicity of services. Based on this generalization, the theoretical model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities is presented in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1. Theoretical model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities. Adapted from: Improving the Quality of Library Services for Students with Disabilities (p. 61) by A. Gibson, 2006, Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited; "Public Libraries and Access for Children with Disabilities and Their Families: A Proposed Inclusive Library Model", by J. Kaeding, D. L, Velasquez and D. Price, 2017, Journal of the Australian Library and Information Association, 66, p. 13.
In the theoretical model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities, six components are significant for increasing the inclusion of people with disabilities. Management of an organization is a key component that enables the development of other components. Orientation towards the inclusion and improvement of services for people with disabilities should be reflected in libraries' strategic and other documents, thus forming a new organizational culture and developing new traditions. By researching, maintaining and strategizing organizational behaviour, libraries can influence the communities they work with (Koller, Pouesard & Rummens, 2018, p. 2). It includes the change management needed to become an inclusive organization, as well as long-term and short-term plans to create a barrier-free library environment. An inclusive organization can be created by involving activities in strategic plans and other documents, making inclusion as one of
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the organization's goals, securing employees' support and development of their competencies, organizing and implementing the planned activities, monitoring the interim results, evaluating the achieved results, and anticipating opportunities for improvement (Bhatt, 2017, pp. 34-35; Butt, Nawab & Zahid, 2018, pp. 77-79; Jalagat, 2015, pp. 1234-1235; Kennett-Hensel & Payne, 2018, pp. 26-27;).
Through the adaptation of the environment, which includes adapting infrastructure and equipment to the needs of people with disabilities, the accessibility can be understood as reducing disparities between the disabled and non-disabled users to provide equally accessible library environment and services (Kowalsky & Woodruff, 2017, pp. 5-6). Libraries need to put much effort to identify the needs of people with disabilities and develop services and spaces for them. Universal design is important in this area, and its principles must respond to both the library infrastructure and services. Universal design or inclusive design means that the library's material base and a range of services are oriented towards all people, both young and old, disabled and non-disabled (Koller, Pouesard & Rummens, 2018, p. 2). In line with universal design principles, library facilities and buildings should be designed to be accessible to all users, including people with disabilities, children and the elderly (Pionke, 2017, p. 50). These principles also apply to assistive technologies increasing access to information and services (Kaunda & Chizwina, 2019, p. 8).
The services meeting the needs of people with disabilities include the effective provision of services, the adaptation of cultural, educational and information services to people with disabilities. Libraries should make an effort to provide quality service: library staff should be prepared to serve people with different disabilities (physical, mental, visual, hearing) and people with developmental disorders. It is imperative to have a collection of information resources and a range of services accessible to all people regardless of disability (Kaunda & Chizwina, 2019, p. 12). For people with disabilities, libraries can provide informational (e.g. to lend books, provide free internet access, organize educational events, training, etc.), educational (e.g. to organize educational, artistic, therapeutic events), and cultural (e.g. to organize exhibitions of works of people with disabilities, meetings with writers, famous people, etc.) services. It should be noted that the principles of universal design apply not only to the infrastructure of buildings but also to services that must be accessible to everyone and their content must meet the needs of different people (Pionke, 2017, p. 55). In addition to services, library inclusion can be measured by the availability of information resources to all users. Access to information resources can be ensured through assistive technology. The most commonly used aids in libraries include Braille books, audiobooks, computers with special software. The users unable to enter the library should receive books at home, to use electronic library resources, and adapted library website Information resources accessible online enable users to access them independently with specially adapted computer software (Chaputula & Mapulanga, 2017, pp. 2-3). It gives users satisfaction because they have direct and independent access to information (Koh, 2019, p. 33). In this area, organizing
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the conferences, meetings with prominent people with disabilities, training of the public on the peculiarities of disability, etc. in libraries is significant (Kaeding, 2015, p. 54; Kaeding, Velasquez & Price, 2017, pp. 16-17; Poinke, 2017, pp. 5-55).
Staff training includes the development of staff competencies to work with people with disabilities, both in terms of service and knowledge. This component is closely linked to the services for people with disabilities, as only qualified staff can ensure the quality service meeting the needs of people with disabilities. According to Pionke (2017, p. 49), staff training is a significant component of an inclusive library.
The development of collaboration includes cooperation with organizations for people with disabilities, care institutions, centres for social services, special schools, etc. These social partners can ensure the necessary number of program participants and can contribute to librarians' training. Collaboration with partners is essential to increase the library's social inclusion (Adkins & Bushman, 2015, pp. 30-31).
The promotion of services is important in informing people with disabilities and their representatives about library services for them. Very often, people with disabilities do not know what libraries can offer them. Libraries should actively promote services oriented to people with disabilities (Pionke, 2017, pp. 53-54). In addition to publicizing services through various communication channels (Internet, TV, press, etc.), libraries can organize open days for people with disabilities and their representatives to visit and learn about their facilities, information resources, and various activities (Adkins & Bushman, 2015, p. 31; Kaeding, 2015, p. 54; Kaeding, Velasquez & Price, 2017, pp. 16-17;).
All components presented in the model are linked by the social purpose of the library, i.e. to increase the accessibility of services. Focusing on people with disabilities, the specificity of access to all these services is highlighted. Moisey (2007, pp. 57-58) and Vimarlund & Manzoor (2017, pp. 20-22) identified main barriers to the accessibility of libraries and their services: Staff qualification (librarians may not know how to ensure accessibility of services); Infrastructure and services (library buildings and facilities may not be properly adapted, there may be no necessary information resources, people with disabilities may not know what services libraries offer them); Libraries may not have the necessary equipment; Library websites may not be suitable for people with disabilities; Libraries may not have the literature and information resources (e.g. Braille books, audiobooks, e-books). These barriers can be overcome by improving library infrastructure, services, purchasing software and information resources, and by upgrading staff qualifications.
In conclusion, libraries have all possibilities to become inclusive organizations for people with disabilities as well as socially responsible organizations by improving management, periodically
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examining the compliance of environment and services with the needs of people with disabilities, developing staff competencies and cooperation with organizations representing people with disabilities, and actively promoting services for people with disabilities.
3 Method
The methods of this study are based on stakeholder theory (Dangi & Gribb, 2018, pp. 339-341; Harrison, Freeman & Abreu, 2015, pp. 859-860; Lipinski & Jamro, 2018, p. 225), where the management of stakeholders involves meeting their needs and ensuring their wellbeing. A qualitative research method was employed in the research. The qualitative analysis of the latest scientific sources allowed highlighting the tasks which the library has to implement in the context of social policy, discerning the features inherent to an inclusive library, summarizing the researchers' insights on the increasing the socialization of people with disabilities in order to create a theoretical model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities. The empirical research aimed to gain a deeper insight into the situation of libraries in the counties of Lithuania, i.e. the access to services for people with disabilities, and to investigate the feasibility of a theoretical model of an inclusive library.
The method. To investigate the opinion of the heads of organizations and heads of libraries on the services provided for people with disabilities in Siauliai and Telsiai counties, a structured interview method was used for data collection. Instead of face-to-face interviews, email interviews (based on Lokman's (2006, pp. 1284-1286) and Hawkins' (2018, pp. 494-495) insights were chosen because of a wide geographic scope of the investigation and the large number of interviewees (10 heads of libraries and 15 heads of organizations for people with disabilities). This reduced the cost of the investigation and facilitated the transcription of interviews. The methods of grouping, interpretation, and generalization were used for the analysis.
Instrument of the research. The questionnaire sent to heads of organizations representing people with disabilities consisted of 32 open-ended questions structured according to the key elements of a theoretical model of an inclusive library with a focus on the development of services for people with disabilities. The questionnaire sent to heads of libraries was based of the problematic aspects identified by the representatives of people with disabilities and consisted of 24 open-ended questions related to increasing the socialization of people with disabilities through library services.
Reliability and validity of the method, the model of measuring instrument and data. The validity of the research instrument was based on the conceptual theoretical insights about an inclusive library for people with disabilities. These insights presented in the works by Gibson (2006 p. 61), Kaeding (2015, p. 21;), Young (2018, p. 131), Kaunda & Chizwina (2019, p. 8) is the basis for the empirical research instruments. The research methodology is in line with the requirements for structured qualitative interviews (questionnaires consisted of open-ended, fixed-order questions)
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and ethical norms (Lokman, 2006, p. 1285). Conformity of the instrument questions to be implemented in practice was based on the consultation with the heads of libraries and organizations for people with disabilities by involving them in the pilot research. Before the research, the questionnaire in written form was reviewed by a team of researchers at the Institute of Regional Development of Siauliai University. The reliability of the research material based on the questionnaire in written form is also substantiated with interviewees' interest in the research: its results are needed to further investigate the activities related to the integration of people with disabilities. Public presentation of research results is another way to ensure the reliability of the results.
The sample. A total of 25 interviewees from Siauliai and Telsiai counties took part in the research: 15 heads of organizations representing people with disabilities (associations for people with disabilities, care homes, day-care centres, special schools), that involve persons with different disabilities (physical, hearing, visual, mental, etc.) and of different age groups (children and youth, adults and seniors) as well as 10 heads of municipal public libraries.
Research organizing. The research was conducted from September to November 2019. Out of 55 organizations representing people with disabilities in Siauliai and Telsiai counties, 15 organizations responded to the request to participate in the survey. Out of 11 municipal public libraries, 10 heads of libraries agreed to participate in the research. The comprehensive questionnaires were sent to interviewees who agreed to participate in the research.
Research ethics. The information provided by the research participants was kept secure and confidential. Following the requirements for data protection, the interviewees were not requested to provide any additional personal data. It should be noted that participation in the research was voluntary, the purpose of the research, the research promoter and the intended use of the research results were introduced to all interviewees.
Analysis of the results. Analysing the research data, the groups of data reflecting the essential components of the model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities were analysed. They can be treated as theoretical constructs enabling to evaluate the phenomenon under research, conduct a qualitative analysis of the situation, and determine the practical implementation of the theoretical model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities.
4 Results
4.1 Supplemented theoretical model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities
The analysis of the material collected during the empirical study shows that: 1) The necessity of all processes and activities highlighted in the theoretical model of an inclusive library for people
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with disabilities has been confirmed; 2) Other activities that are currently important for the Lithuanian libraries to achieve greater socialization of people with disabilities have been revealed (e.g. public education on the socialization of people with disabilities, project activities); 3) The need for political support for the socialization of people with disabilities through libraries at the national and local level was actualized.
These findings allowed supplementing the theoretical model of an inclusive library with aspects, which can be applied practically. An essential component of the model of an inclusive library is organizational management, which based on the analysis of research data, is actualized as the change management within the organization. Interviewees outlined the things that, on the one hand, show the extensive work of libraries in involving people with disabilities (employment of people with disabilities is increased, adapted spaces are created, facilities are purchased, there is collaboration on library events, information is presented online, etc.), on the other hand, they indicated that libraries lack content awareness, consistency, managerial access, awareness that this is not another library function, and that this change affects the entire organization.
Considering a change as a planned process and transformation (Ballantyne, 2018, p. 333; Bold, 2011, p. 873; Lawrence, 2015, p. 233; etc.) necessary for organizational development (Talmaciu, 2014, p. 78), we discern in the interviewees' statements the lack of change management in the development of an inclusive library. The interviewees' statements reflecting the present situation show efforts and reasons and the lack of their implementation ("people with disabilities are invited to ongoing projects", "exhibitions of works by people with disabilities are often held", "infrastructure is insufficiently adapted due to limited funding", "there is a lack of special equipment", "research on users' opinion about services, without specifically addressing the needs of people with disabilities, is conducted", "competencies in working with people with disabilities are insufficient ", etc.), and the indicated expectations highlight the need for a systemic change ("collaboration could be developed through joint projects", "we could advise libraries about training for us and choosing a topic", "social workers could certainly contribute more in creating educational programs", "training could be broadcast online", "it would be useful to get information to the society's email", "a separate access for people with disabilities on the library portal would be necessary", etc.). The need for integrated access in the development of an inclusive library for people with disabilities is also evidenced by differences in the knowledge of library activities between heads of libraries and heads of organizations for people with disabilities.
Interviewees did not outline that the development of an inclusive library for people with disabilities would have become as one of the organisation's goals, that in the management of this process, starting with initiation, stakeholders would have been involved, and, as it is known, a change requires vision, a deeper analysis of situation, operational consistency, leadership, regular communication, etc. According to researchers, change management involves a lot of management components (Butt, Nawab & Zahid, 2018, p. 82), because it requires a lot of novelty and initiative;
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people, i.e. the implementers of change and the ones who receive benefit, are the main components; the created benefit can also affect the external environment (Bold, 2011, p. 872). Involving people with disabilities in the change management becomes important in developing an inclusive library.
On the basis of the empirical research, we improved the presented above model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities (see Figure 2.1), and designed the model of practical applicability (see Figure 4.1). It should be emphasized that in the strategically planned change from its initiation to consolidation, it is important to involve social stakeholders, especially people with disabilities, to ensure the continuation of activities.
Figure 4.1. Model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities. Adapted from: Improving the Quality of Library Services for Students with Disabilities (p. 61) by A. Gibson, 2006, Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited; The Theory and Practice of Change Management (p. 14) by J. Hayes, 2010, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan; "Public Libraries and Access for Children with Disabilities and Their Families: A Proposed Inclusive Library Model", by J. Kaeding, D. L, Velasquez and D. Price, 2017, Journal of the Australian Library and Information Association, 66, p. 13; empirical research data.
Figure 4.1 shows that the change management in the organization is an essential component of the model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities. Aiming to increase the inclusion of people with disabilities and implement related changes, libraries should take into consideration the key stages of change management: to initiate changes related to services for people with disabilities, substantiate their needs, foresee vision and goals of change, design plans for implementing changes, appoint appropriate staff, and provide an internal communication system. Then it is necessary to implement the changes: the planned activities are conducted, monitoring is
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performed, interim and final results are evaluated. Finally, changes are consolidated, ensuring their further implementation: activities related to services for people with disabilities become a part of the library culture (Bold, 2011, p. 872; Hayes, 2010, p. 14; Jalgat, 2015, pp. 1234-1235; Kaeding, 2015, p. 23; Kaunda & Chizwina, 2019, p. 17). The assessment of the needs of people with disabilities and organizations representing them and their involvement in planning, designing, implementing and evaluating the services are of particular importance in this process. However, the research revealed that in most libraries of Siauliai and Telsiai counties the inclusion of people with disabilities and their representatives in the development and evaluation of library services is insufficient, as well as the surveys on the opinion of people with disabilities are not conducted ("we do not conduct surveys for people with disabilities"). It should be noted that the inclusion of people with disabilities in planning, designing, implementing and evaluating the services as well as conducting research of their needs, more emphasis was placed on the inclusion of people with disabilities in formulating the activities and objectives of libraries to better respond to their needs.
Another component of the model in the context of Lithuania is political support at the national and local (municipal) level. This research showed that individuals representing people with disabilities often miss the legal commitment of libraries to increase the inclusion of people with disabilities, greater funding for adapting library infrastructure and meeting the cultural needs of people with disabilities. Heads of libraries miss clearer legal regulation for the inclusion of people with disabilities and their participation in cultural life, research on the needs of people with disabilities at the national and local level, greater funding for adapting library environment, purchasing of information resources, and development of staff competencies. By designing an inclusive library as an organizational change, already initially, local governments would be involved in the process of planning the change, activities and resources necessary for its implementation. Planning to implement this change by all public regional libraries, it would be necessary to require greater national support.
4.2 The practical implementation of the theoretical model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities
It has already been mentioned that empirical research has confirmed the significance of all components and features highlighted in the theoretical model. Further, we will present the aspects that we have found in each part of the model in the case of Lithuanian libraries. The research revealed that access of people with disabilities to libraries is often limited by both objective (disability nature, inadequate library infrastructure, a lack of information about library services) and subjective (negative public attitude, a lack of motivation of people with disabilities, a lack of competencies of library staff, the discrepancy between library events and the needs of people with disabilities) factors. One of the ways to overcome these obstacles is to increase the inclusion of libraries by improving the library environment, services, staff competencies, developing
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cooperation between organizations for people with disabilities and libraries, publicizing information on library services, organizing public education events, etc.
In the area of adaptation of environment, the research showed that the infrastructure and technological equipment of the libraries of Siauliai and Telsiai counties are insufficiently adapted to people with disabilities, but people with physical disability ("buildings are completely unsuitable for people with orthopaedic impairment", "there are no lifts, there are narrow aisles between shelves") and people with visual disability ("there is a lack of accompanying people", "library stairs and doors should be marked with contrasting bright labels") face this problem the most. This problem is particularly pronounced in libraries in smaller regions, where accessibility to libraries for people with disabilities is restricted not only by the inadequacy of library infrastructure but also by external factors ("people living in smaller towns or villages have difficulty to move due to lack of funds and buses"). A lack of technological equipment is most commonly encountered by visually-impaired people who miss text magnification equipment, audio links, hearing-impaired people miss hearing aids, events are not translated into sign language ("there are no audio links", "there are no text magnifiers", "library events are not translated into sign language"). People with physical disabilities cannot watch events remotely, order books ("events are not broadcast live", "books cannot be pre-ordered"). In this area, there is a need to improve virtual library services by enabling online bookings and live broadcasts of events.
Library services for people with disabilities include the compliance of information resources and events with the needs of people with disabilities. The research revealed that the supply and availability of information resources in many libraries in Siauliai and Telsiai counties is sufficient and meets the needs of people with disabilities. It should be noted that it is essential for libraries to have information resources adapted to people with different disabilities. However, the research revealed that visually impaired people miss audiobooks, books with larger fonts, e-books ("there are no books and other publications are recorded", "more books could be in pdf format"), and people with mental disabilities miss books with adapted content ("people with mental disability need books with simple content, books for colouring, knitting"). According to heads of libraries, to meet the needs of people with disabilities, libraries purchase new publications, borrow books from other libraries (e.g. Lithuanian Library for the Blind), and provide remote delivery of books. However, updating the funds of books is limited by poor availability of publications for people with disabilities at the national level. The research found that people with physical disabilities face the most difficulties to reach information resources: they are unsatisfied with the current situation of book delivery because libraries do not provide access to books for relatives of people with disabilities ("books are not lent them to be delivered to another person"), and information about this service is insufficiently publicized ("there is no information about this service"). In the area of event organization, it was revealed that all events offered by libraries - informational, cultural, and educational activities ("exhibitions of works, educational activities, meetings", "poetry
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evenings, concerts", "reading aloud", "lectures on health, movie screenings") - are relevant for people with disabilities. However, in this area not only a variety of events but also access to them is important: events can be held in libraries or spaces convenient for people with disabilities, broadcast remotely, and translated into sign language.
In the area of staff competencies, the research showed that library staff is helpful but they lack sufficient competence of disability cognition and tolerance ("employees are very poorly prepared", "they do not understand people with disabilities", "they see people with disabilities as different people"). Statements by heads of libraries that staff, according to their abilities, develop their competencies in various events, projects, share best practices with other libraries ("we promote our staff to attend conferences, training, seminars", "we design projects", "we take over experience from other libraries") do not yet demonstrate learning to work with the audience with specific needs. Interviewees revealed that organizations representing people with disabilities would agree to contribute to the development of library staff competencies ("we could advise on staff training, choosing topics", "we could organize joint training").
In the area of cooperation between organizations for people with disabilities and libraries of Šiauliai and Telšiai counties it was found that the main areas where cooperation is ongoing could be developed in future are joint events, educational, cultural and project activities ("joint events are ongoing", "we organise exhibitions, educational activities", "we conduct projects including digital literacy"). It should be noted that heads of organizations for people with disabilities are willing to be involved in the planning and designing of services ("social workers could contribute more to educational, therapeutic activities", "we could organize activities together"), and the measures to develop this cooperation could include the organization of meetings, discussions and the development and implementation of joint activities.
In the area of publicity about services, there was a controversial perception of the adequacy of information on library services for people with disabilities ("information is completely sufficient", "information is completely insufficient"). Representatives of people with disabilities usually find the necessary information on social networks, library websites, learn about it from library staff or receive it by email. The same means of information were mentioned by heads of libraries. It should be noted that the most relevant information for people with disabilities is about library events, new books, and educational activities. Access to information for people with disabilities would be enhanced by information regularly sent via email to organizations for people with disabilities about upcoming events, educational activities, etc., and in this way, the inclusion of organizations representing people with disabilities would be promoted.
The research conducted in Lithuania actualized two other relevant components in designing an inclusive library for people with disabilities - public education and development of project activities. Public education has always been and is one of the missions of the library, but in this
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case, we consider broader public education on the socialization of people with disabilities. According to interviewees, "by organizing such campaigns and events, the public would learn more about the needs of people with disabilities", "there would be more opportunities to see similarities rather than differences." It should be emphasized that these events can have a significant impact on reducing the stigmatisation of disability by broadening the boundaries between public awareness and cognition of disability. Projects, as a management technique to implement innovation, are at the same time state-supported activities to absorb EU funds to modernize the public sector, including the supply of the most modern technology ("we purchase new equipment during projects"), to provide new services ("project activities include people with disabilities who participate in training, workshops"), and to develop staff competencies ("we train staff to implement international qualification projects"). On the other hand, it is an opportunity to cooperate intensively with the organizations interested in the result, take over the best practices of other countries as well as to achieve, analyse, evaluate and publicize the intended outcomes within the stipulated time.
5 Discussion
The services provided for people with disabilities is not a new activity of libraries, however, the changing needs of society require a new approach to this group of stakeholders and the appropriate development of services. Increasing the inclusion of people with disabilities is not a common organizational change, but it is close to the implementation of innovation, as a diversity of disabilities is growing, the needs of socialized individuals, and public expectations for access to services are growing as well. According to Likar & Fatur (2013, pp. 59-60), the implementation of innovations involves the searching, selecting, and implementing new activities and ideas, and the results of this process can lead to new services or new organizational activities. Designing an inclusive library for people with disabilities changes the organization itself, its culture and the services it provides, which become more accessible and responsive to the needs of different members of society. It is, therefore, difficult to manage the process of creating an inclusive organization for people with disabilities. This research revealed that the creation of a socially inclusive library as the change management covers the essential stages - initiating, implementing, and consolidating changes related to library services for people with disabilities. In order to become organizations for people with disabilities, libraries have to initiate the necessary changes by justifying their needs, researching the environment, evaluating ongoing and planning future activities, setting out the goals for changes and the measures needed to implement them. Later, libraries have to implement the changes, to evaluate the achieved results, and to ensure further implementation of the activities (Jalagat, 2015, p. 1235; Kaunda & Chizwina, 2019, p. 17; Kennett-Hensel & Payne, 2018, p. 24). In this way, innovative activities and services related to the enhancement of social inclusion are introduced in the activities of libraries and the library culture is changing as well. Likar & Fatur (2013, p. 59) and Perryman & Jeng (2019, pp. 104-105) argue
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that innovation focuses on problem-solving and activity development. Meanwhile, the implementation of innovation is primarily related to the potential benefits to social stakeholders, so it is important to assess the needs of the environment and stakeholders. Aiming to perform this, libraries should actively involve them in the planning, designing, and implementing the library services. Therefore, the development of an inclusive library focuses on the consistent involvement of representatives of people with disabilities in the change management through the development process: starting with the assessment of the needs of people with disabilities, taking into account a diversity of disabilities, then involving organizations representing people with disabilities in the planning, designing, and implementing the services.
6 Conclusion
This research has revealed that the relevance of an inclusive library can be based on the changing needs of society and library stakeholders, who also determine the role of libraries in emphasizing the importance of the social role. The implementation of the social role promotes the development of the library as an inclusive organization. An inclusive library creates added value for society by contributing to the implementation of social justice and promoting the inclusion of persons belonging to socially excluded groups, including people with disabilities.
Increasing the inclusion of people with disabilities is related to the implementation of changes and innovations, as the documents regulating the activities of libraries only recommend to increase their social role, but do not propose specific models suitable for Lithuanian libraries, leaving it to the libraries themselves. Therefore, the change management, including initiating change, anticipating change goals, activities and intended outcomes, selecting appropriate interventions and factors enabling change, implementing planned activities, monitoring interim results, assessing outcomes, and consolidating change, are important for the development of an inclusive library. The assessment of the needs of people with disabilities and organizations representing them, and their involvement in the planning, designing, implementing, and evaluating the services, are of particular importance.
According to the empirical research, the social inclusion of libraries in Siauliai and Telsiai counties in the area of services for people with disabilities can be increased by institutionalizing the model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities proposed in this research. The research revealed the importance of systematic analysis of the needs of people with disabilities in the organizational change management and their involvement in planning, designing, implementing the services as well as monitoring and evaluating the activities. In the area of adaptation of environment, the consistent upgrading of infrastructure and technological equipment, the development of distant (e.g. delivery of books to convenient places for people with disabilities) and virtual (e.g. live broadcast of events) services are important. In the area of improving the quality of services for people with disabilities, the consistency of library information resources and events with the needs
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of people with disabilities is important, with a focus on regular updating of the funds of books, delivery of books to places convenient for people with disabilities, and the use of e-books. The research showed that people with disabilities are interested in various events held in libraries. However, it is very important to ensure access to events and to enable people with disabilities to participate in these events both directly and watch them in the distance way. In the area of development of staff competencies, continuous development of staff competencies as well as cooperation between organizations for people with disabilities and libraries in organizing staff training is important. In the area of cooperation development, libraries need to develop cooperation with organizations for people with disabilities by involving them in the planning, designing, implementing, and evaluating the services, and by holding more meetings and discussions. In the area of promotion of services, accessibility to information for people with disabilities could be increased by information sent by email to organizations for people with disabilities about library events. In the Lithuanian context, additional components of the model of an inclusive library for people with disabilities were highlighted, such as political support at the national and local (municipal) level as well as the development of project activities and public education.
The empirical research was conducted in two counties of Lithuania (Siauliai and Telsiai). Because budget-based libraries in Lithuania have a similar governance structure, operate according to the same documents, and have similar possibilities provided by the Government and Ministry of Culture to address social issues, the empirical findings presented in this research can be applied at the national level, except for the capital region, which should be investigated separately due to the high concentration of specialized libraries and the National Library. It would also be useful to analyse the best practices of other European countries whose libraries have made the biggest progress in promoting social inclusion.
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***
Kristina Kulikauskiene, MA, graduate of Public Administration programme in Siauliai University (Lithuania), researcher at Siauliai county public library. Scientific interests: change management in public organizations, creation of inclusive organizations, good governance.
***
Laima Liukineviciene, Professor Dr. at Siauliai University, Institute of Regional Development (since 1996). Scientific interests: leadership in public sector, change management, good governance at municipal level.
Povzetek:
Teoretični model inkluzivne knjižnice za invalide in njeno praktično izvajanje
Namen in izvirnost: Cilj te študije je analizirati koncept inkluzivne in družbeno odgovorne knjižnice, razviti teoretični model vključujoče knjižnice za invalide in raziskati praktične možnosti za izvajanje tega modela v regionalnih knjižnicah, da bi zmanjšali socialno izključenost invalidov in povečati njihove socialne vključenosti. V prispevku so predstavljeni rezultati empiričnih raziskav, izvedenih v dveh okrožjih Litve. Na podlagi rezultatov razgovorov vodij knjižnic in vodij organizacij, ki predstavljajo invalide, je bil dopolnjen model vključujoče knjižnice in aktualizirano upravljanje sprememb vključujoče knjižnice.
Metoda: Metode te študije temeljijo na teoriji deležnikov (Dangi & Gribb, 2018, str. 339-341; Harrison, Freeman in Abreu, 2015, str. 859-860; Lipinski in Jamro, 2018, str. 225), kadar upravljanje deležnikov vključuje zadovoljevanje njihovih potreb in zagotavljanje njihovega dobrega počutja. Teoretični del raziskave uporablja metode analize, posploševanja in sistematizacije znanstvene literature, ki so omogočile teoretično opredelitev koncepta inkluzivne javne knjižnice za invalide, utemeljile instrument empiričnega raziskovanja in razpravo o rezultatih empirične raziskave. V empiričnem delu je bila za izvedbo javnomnenjske raziskave organizacij, ki predstavljajo invalide in vodje knjižnic izbrana kvalitativna metoda intervjujev po e-pošti. Dobljene rezultate smo analizirali, nato pa teoretični model inkluzivne knjižnice dopolnili s praktičnimi spoznanji empirične raziskave.
Rezultati: Rezultati raziskave so pokazali, da spreminjajoči se odnos javnosti do javnih storitev in njihove dostopnosti (pričakovana je večja dostopnost in raznolikost) določa spremembo vlog knjižnic, ki temeljijo na proračunu, in predpogoj za razvoj vključujoče knjižnice za invalide. Na podlagi teoretičnih in empiričnih ugotovitev, pridobljenih med raziskavo, je bil razvit in utemeljen model vključujoče knjižnice za invalide. Dokazano je bilo tudi, da razvoj vključujoče knjižnice za invalide zahteva upravljanje sprememb, ki vključuje vse zainteresirane strani, tj. predstavnike invalidov in institucije, ki izvajajo javno politiko na nacionalni in lokalni ravni, v vse faze procesa preoblikovanja v postanejo vključujoča organizacija za invalide.
Družba: Ta študija poudarja potrebo po povečanju socialne vključenosti knjižnic, da bi zadovoljili potrebe vseh zainteresiranih strani, tudi invalidov. Povečanje socialne vključenosti knjižnic lahko
1GG
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zmanjša socialno izključenost invalidov in na splošno spodbudi njihovo vključevanje v skupnost in družbo. Inkluzivna knjižnica ustvarja za družbo dodano vrednost in prispeva k izvajanju socialne pravičnosti.
Omejitve / nadaljnje raziskave: Empirična raziskava je bila izvedena v dveh okrožjih Litve (Šiauliai in Telšiai), v kateri je sodelovalo 10 knjižnic. Ker imajo v Litvi knjižnice podobno upravljavsko strukturo, delujejo na podlagi enakih strateških dokumentov Republike Litve, imajo podobne možnosti, ki jih zagotavljata vlada in ministrstvo za kulturo, da se vključijo v inovativne dejavnosti in rešijo socialne težave. Rezultate empirične raziskave je mogoče uporabiti na nacionalni ravni, razen za prestolnico, ki jo je treba preučiti ločeno, zaradi visoke koncentracije specializiranih knjižnic in nacionalne knjižnice. Koristno bi bilo tudi analizirati najboljše prakse drugih evropskih držav, katerih knjižnice so dosegle največji napredek pri spodbujanju socialne vključenosti.
Ključne besede: socialna vključenost, model inkluzivne knjižnice za invalide, knjižnične storitve za invalide.
Copyright (c) 2020 Kristina KULIKAUSKIENÉ, Laima LIUKINEVIČIENE
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DOI: 10.37886/ip.2020.006
Pomen zadovoljstva otrok in mladostnikov v mladinskem domu
Bojan Macuh*
Fakulteta za komercialne in poslovne vede Celje, Lava 7, 3000 Celje, Slovenija E-naslov: bojan.macuh@guest.arnes.si
Janez Domajnko Mladinski dom Maribor - enota Slivnica, Polanska 6, 2312 Orehova Vas E-naslov: jdomajnko@gmail.com
Povzetek:
Raziskovalno vprašanje: Kakšno je zadovoljstvo otrok in mladostnikov v mladinskem domu v odnosu do vzgojiteljev?
Namen: Ugotoviti želimo, kakšno vlogo imajo vzgojitelji v mladinskem domu pri zagotavljanju zadovoljstva otrok in mladostnikov.
Metoda: Raziskava bo aplikativna, se bo reševal konkreten problem iz prakse. Prispevek bo deskriptiven, saj bo obravnaval ekonomske in sociološke vidike zadovoljstva uporabnikov storitev na primeru Mladinskega doma Maribor.
Rezultati: Mladostniki so v povprečju zadovoljni z likom vzgojitelja in odnosi z njimi v mladinskem domu.
Organizacija: Mladinski dom izvaja veliko aktivnosti, ki zagotavljajo kakovost življenja otrok in mladostnikov v njem, k temu pa veliko pripomorejo tudi vzgojitelji.
Družba: Prispevek je pomemben z vidika razumevanja bivanja otrok v mladinskih domovih in drugih zavodih.
Originalnost: Gre za prvo tako celovito raziskavo, ki je bila izvedena v mladinskih domovih in ugotavlja pomen vzgojiteljev pri zagotavljanju zadovoljstva uporabnikov.
Omejitve raziskave/nadaljnje raziskave: Raziskovali smo občutljivo populacijo -otroke/mladostnike, ki bivajo v Mladinskem domu Maribor. Raziskavo bi bilo smotrno nadgraditi in vanjo bolj neposredno vključiti tudi staršev in njihovo vlogo pri zagotavljanju zadovoljstva otrok in mladostnikov.
Ključne besede: zadovoljstvo, mladostnik, vzgojitelj, starši, dom.
* Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author
Prejeto: 5. februar 2020; revidirano: 19. maj 2020; sprejeto: 23. maj 2020. / Received: 5th February 2020; revised: 19th May 2020; accepted: 23rd May 2020.
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1 Uvod
Doseganje standardov je nedvomno zelo pomembno za prihodnost otrok in mladostnikov, ki bivajo v Mladinskem domu. V mislih imamo odnose, ki se oblikujejo med vzgojitelji, odnosi s sovrstniki, odnosi s starši, delovnimi razmerami in graditvi njihovih vrednot. Ustvarjanje inkluzivnega prostora zahteva premik v smeri strokovne in etične usposobljenosti vseh udeleženih, vzgojiteljev, svetovalnih delavcev, učiteljev.
Zadovoljstvo in pomembnost uporabnikov storitev (mladostnikov) v Mladinskem domu, ki imajo različne individualne, vedenjske, socialnoekonomske, kulturne in ostale značilnosti so povezane predvsem z ustvarjanjem inkluzivne klime na vseh področjih.
Namen raziskave je, da bi prispevala k boljšemu razumevanju pomena zadovoljstva bivanja mladostnikov in otrok v mladinskem domu. Cilj raziskave pa, da predstavimo sodelovanje otrok in mladostnikov ter njihovih vzgojiteljic in vzgojiteljev v procesu vzgoje in izobraževanja in splošno socializacije otrok s čustvenim in duševnim primanjkljajem.
2rr	> • v	• i i *v v
Teoretična izhodišča
Subjektivno zadovoljstvo z življenjem sestavljajo pojmi zadovoljstvo z življenjem, sreča in družbena vključenost ali izključenost, ugotavlja Boehnke (2005). Za subjektivno zaznavo zadovoljstva z življenjem je značilno, da je povezana z različnimi notranjimi in zunanjimi dejavniki. Na eni strani ekonomsko materialni pogoji, ki so v družbi neenakomerno porazdeljeni, na drugi pa gre za izraz subjektivnega zadovoljstva s posameznikovim življenjem, ki je odvisen od vrste osebnih nagnjenj, vrednot, osebnih pričakovanj in psihosociološkega profila posameznika.
V nadaljevanju predstavljamo nekaj ugotovitev v zvezi s pojmoma zadovoljstvo oz. nezadovolj stvo.
Največji napredek pri zadovoljstvu strank so pogojeni s tehnološkim razvojem. Veliki tehnološki preboj se je zgodil, kot posledica vesoljskega programa NASA s pristankom človeka na Luni. Ta program je omogočil na tisoče priložnosti za komercialno izrabo. Vloga marketinga je bila poiskati komercialne aplikacije za tehnologijo. V resnici obstajata dve vrsti raziskav in razvoja: tehnološka podpora in marketinška podpora. Tehnološko podporo razvijajo v znanstvenih parkih in laboratorijih po svetu, od koder prihajajo možnosti za komercialno izrabo (McDonald, 2002, str. 12).
Nezadovoljne stranke predstavljajo številne potencialne probleme za vsako organizacijo. Negativne besede zmanjšujejo verjetnost ponovnega nakupa iste znamke. Vsi ti problemi predstavljajo negativni efekt za podjetje. Zato je pomembno za podjetje, da ugotovi zadovoljstvo stranke in še bolj pomembno, zakaj so nezadovoljne (Baker, 2003, str. 227).
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Vrhunski izvajalci, dobri prostori, literatura in drugo ni dovolj. Končni uspeh zadovoljstva je odvisen od ustreznih odnosov med izvajalci in odjemalci storitev. Izvajalci storitev se morajo prilagoditi spremembam in zahtevam odjemalcev storitev. Od dobrih in negovanih odnosov z odjemalci je odvisen uspeh poslovanja in zadovoljstvo vseh udeležencev storitev. Filozofija in prava praksa marketinga sloni na odnosih med uporabniki storitev in dobavitelji storitev (Devetak, 2007, str. 371, 372).
Zadovoljstvo udeležencev v menjavi, zlasti zadovoljstvo ciljnih skupin v okviru menjalnih procesov je eden izmed temeljnih konceptov v trženju. Zadovoljstvo je posledica potrditve (izpolnitve) pričakovanj ciljne skupine. Končni rezultat je lahko občutek izpolnitve pričakovanj ciljne skupine. Pri tem je potrebno upoštevati, da je ciljna skupina sestavljena iz posameznikov, ki sestavljajo homogene segmente in homogena pričakovanja. Zadovoljstvo ciljne skupine je njeno čustveno in racionalno vrednotenje izkušenj s izdelkom in je prav tako njena sodba, ali je izdelek dosegel pričakovano raven izpolnitve (Snoj in Gabrijan, 2011, str. 30).
Potočnik (2004, str. 12) ugotavlja, da je osnova za uspešno delovanje storitvenega podjetja, da zadovoljuje in navdušuje uporabnike njihovih storitev. Zadovoljstvo se ustvari z vplivanjem na njihove zaznave in pričakovanja na izvajanja storitev. Podjetje, ki ve, katere storitve zadovoljujejo uporabnike, ne da bi to preverilo, se pogosto pokaže za nepravilno in poslovno nevarno. Profesionalne storitvene organizacije mislijo, da so strokovno usposobljene za izvajanje storitev in da uporabniki njihovih storitev pri tem nimajo nobenega vpliva. Zadovoljstvo in navdušenje je mogoče ustvariti z vplivanjem na njihova pričakovanja glede izvajanja storitev. Objektivna pričakovanja so raven pričakovanj večine uporabnikov. Subjektivna pričakovanja izražajo počutje uporabnikov v zvezi s storitvijo.
Storitvena podjetja, ki imajo najboljši ugled in sloves, porabijo največ denarja za preučevanje pričakovanj, da bi svoje storitve oblikovala tako, da bi zadovoljila pričakovanj a ali jih celo presegla (Slika 1). Zadovoljni uporabniki bodo ponovno uporabili to storitev. Sledila bodo priporočila prijateljem, znancem in ostalim zainteresiranim (Potočnik, 2004, str. 128).
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VISOKA
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DEJAVNIKI POČUTJA
KRITIČNI DEJAVNIKI
VERJETNOST RAZOČARANJA
razpoložljivost zanesljivost celovitost
NIZKA
NEVTRALNI DEJAVNIKI
-	udobnost
-	estetičnost
Nizka
-	odzivnost
-	komunikativnost
-	zmožnost
-	funkcionalnost
DEJAVNIKI
POVEČANJA
ZADOVOLJSTVO
-	zavezanost
-	prilagodljivost
-	dostopnost
-	uslužnost
Visoka
VERJETNOST NAVDUŠENJA
Slika 1. Dejavniki ustvarjanja zadovoljstva uporabnikov (Potočnik, 2004, str. 128)
Ne smemo biti zmotno prepričani, da stranka na koncu nima zadnje besede. Vse potrebe stranke imajo mnogo različnih poti do zadovoljstva. Kjer koli imajo ljudje izbiro, bodo izbrali produkt, ki ga zaznajo kot najbolj uporabnega za kakršno koli ceno, ki so jo pripravljeni plačati (McDonald, 2002, str. 8).
Kvaliteta, vrednost in zadovoljstvo so koncepti, ki so se jih managerji morali naučiti, da bi postali usmerjeni k strankam, ugotavljata Gummerus in Koskull (2015, str. 71).
Vučkovič, meni, da si pri obravnavi zadovoljstva strateško pomembnih naročnikov lahko pomagamo z matriko, prikazano na Sliki 2. Zadovoljstvo odjemalcev veliko, njihov pomen velik (paradna stranka), potrebno ohranjati zadovoljstvo. Zadovoljstvo odjemalcev majhno, njihov pomen velik (problematični odjemalci), takoj ukrepati v smeri povečanja zadovoljstva. Zadovoljstvo odjemalcev je veliko, njihov pomen pa majhen (potencialno zanimivi odjemalci). Veliko zadovoljstvo hitro izkoristiti za povečanje prodaje. Zadovoljstvo odjemalcev je majhno, tudi njihov pomen je majhen (občasni odjemalci), povečati je potrebno le zadovoljstvo, če so možnosti za večjo prodajo (Vukovič, 2005, str. 153).
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Zadovoljstvo odjemalca
Majhno
Veliko
P O J
E M
VELIK PROBLEMATIČNI ODJEMALCI PARADNE STRANKE Takoj ukrepati v smeri povečanja Ohraniti zadovoljstvo. zadovolj stva.
O D J
E
M
A
L
C
A
MAJHEN OBČASNI ODJEMALCI
Povečati zadovoljstvo le, če so	Veliko zadovoljstvo hitro
zmožnosti za večjo prodajo.	izkoristiti za povečanje
proizvodnje.
POTENCIALNO ZANIMIVI ODJEMALCI
Slika 2. Prikaz zadovoljstva odjemalcev v povezavi s pomenom odjemalcev (Preissner in Rojšek, 2001; povz. po Vukovič, 2005, str. 154)
Predstavili smo pomen zadovoljstva in nezadovoljstva iz različnih vidikov. Predstavljena vidika sta zelo pomembna pri delu z mladostniki v Mladinskem domu, saj vplivata na dogajanja in celotno klimo vzgojnega dela. Ustrezna podpora z ekonomskega vidika zadovoljstva oz. nezadovoljstva, obravnavanega v naši raziskavi, uravnoveša pričakovanja uporabnikov storitev - mladostnikov v Mladinskem domu Maribor, kjer smo jo izvajali.
V	prispevku smo si zastavili raziskovalno vprašanje, kjer smo ugotavljali, kakšno je zadovoljstvo otrok in mladostnikov v mladinskem domu v odnosu do vzgojiteljev in hipotezi.
V	nadaljevanju smo si zastavili dva hipotezi:
Hipoteze
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H1 - Mladostniki so zadovoljni z likom vzgojitelja.
Pri raziskavi bom uporabil za vrednotenje trditev Likertovo lestvico, za preizkušanje hipotez pa T- test za en vzorec (One Sample T-Test).
H2 - Mladostniki ocenjujejo, da je element »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah.« pomembnejši od elementa »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen.«.
S parnim T-testom (Paired Sampels T- test) bom ugotavljal, kaj je mladostnikom bolj pomembno.
Hipoteza H2 se potrdi, če element »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah.« prevlada element »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen.« na lestvici 1 do 5. Predvidevam, da bo ocena elementa »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah višja od elementa »Vzgojitelj je avtoriteta.«.
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3 Metoda
V Mladinskem domu Maribor je bilo v času raziskave nameščenih 82 mladostnikov, na anketi vprašalnik pa jih je odgovarjalo 70. Od tega je bilo 45 mladostnikov ali 64 % in 25 mladostnic ali 36 % od celotne populacije (Slika 3).
Slika 3. Sestava vzorca glede na spol (Lastni vir)
Slika 4. Sestava vzorca glede na starost (Lastni vir)
57 mladostnikov je bilo starih od 14-18 let, kar je predstavljalo 81,4 %. 7 mladostnikov je bilo staro 19 in več let, kar je predstavljalo 10 %. 6 mladostnikov je bilo starih od 11 do 13 let, kar je predstavljalo 8,6 % od celotne populacije (Slika 4).
4 Rezultati
Analizirali smo naslednja dva kazalnika: lik in strokovnost vzgojitelja. Pri kazalniku »Lik vzgojitelja.« je iz raziskave razvidno, da so mladostniki pri oceni zadovoljstva podali najnižjo povprečno oceno 3,86 pri trditvi »Vzgojitelj začuti vsakega mladostnika.«. Najvišjo povprečno oceno 4,06 so podali pri trditvi, da ima »vzgojitelj občutek za delo z mladostniki.«. Pri oceni pomembnosti so podali najnižjo povprečno oceno 4,10 pri
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trditvi, da je »vzgojitelj dosleden, strog, a korekten.« Največjo povprečno oceno za pomembnost 4,54 so podali za trditev, da ima »vzgojitelj občutek za delo z mladostniki.« (Slika 4). Mladostniki so pokazali, da je za njih najpomembneje in so najbolj zadovoljni, da ima vzgojitelj občutek za delo z njimi. Pomembno je poudariti, da so se vse ocene trditev zadovoljstva in pomembnosti večje od 3,5. Menimo, da so mladostniki v povprečju zadovoljni z likom vzgojitelja in je lik le-tega zanje pomemben.
Slika 5. Ocena zadovoljstva in pomembnosti lika vzgojitelja s strani mladostnikov
(Lastni vir)
Pri kazalniku »Strokovnost vzgojitelja.« (Slika 5) je iz raziskave razvidno, da so mladostniki pri kazalniku »strokovnost vzgojitelja« podali najnižjo oceno zadovoljstva pri trditvi, da je »vzgojitelj pripravljen uvajati novosti« in trditvi, da je »vzgojitelj avtoritativen« Povprečna ocena je 3,86. Najvišjo povprečno oceno zadovoljstva 4,33 so mladostniki podali pri trditvi, da »vzgojitelj skrbi za mladostnike«. Pri oceni pomembnosti zanje so podali najnižjo povprečno oceno 4,20, za trditev, da je »vzgojitelj avtoritativen«. Najvišjo povprečno oceno pomembnosti 4,64 so podali za trditev, da »vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah« (Slika 5). Mladostniki v povprečju niso zadovoljni, da je vzgojitelj avtoritativen in da zanje vzgojiteljeva avtoriteta ni pomembna. V povprečju so mladostniki zadovoljni s strokovnostjo vzgojitelja in strokovnost vzgojitelja je zanje pomembna.
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Slika 6. Ocena zadovoljstva in pomembnosti strokovnosti vzgojitelja s strani mladostnikov
(Lastni vir)
Pri kazalniku »Medsebojni odnosi.« je razvidno, da mladostniki največjo povprečno zadovoljstvo ocenjujejo 4,01 za trditev, da se» s sovrstniki dobro razumejo« in najnižjo povprečno zadovoljstvo ocenijo 3,73 pri trditvi, da »obstaja toleranca vzgojiteljev nad mladostniki«. Najpomembnejša za mladostnike je trditev, da se v MD dobro počutijo«. Povprečno so jo ocenili s 4,56. Za mladostnike je najmanj pomembna trditev, da »obstaja toleranca vzgojiteljev nad posamezniki«. Povprečno so jo ocenili s 4,20. S trditvijo, da »obstaja toleranca vzgojiteljev nad posamezniki«, so mladostniki najmanj zadovoljni in tudi najmanj jim je pomembna (Slika 6). Ocene kazalnika »Medsebojni odnosi« se v povprečju gibljejo okoli 4, zato lahko rečem, da so mladostniki v povprečju zadovoljni z medsebojnimi odnosi in so medsebojni odnosi za njih pomembni.
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Slika 7. Ocena zadovoljstva in pomembnosti medsebojnih odnosov z vzgojitelji s strani mladostnikov (Lastni
vir)
Pri kazalniku »Sodelovanje s starši.« je razvidno, da mladostniki so najbolj zadovoljni s trditvijo, da »vzgojitelji informirajo starše o situaciji«, s povprečno oceno 4,03. Najmanj so zadovoljni s trditvijo, da »vzgojitelji postavljajo meje staršem«, s povprečno oceno 3,75. Ta trditev je zanje tudi najmanj pomembna in jo povprečno ocenjujejo z oceno 3,41. Največjo pomembnost predpisujejo trditvi, da so »mladostniki povezani s starši« z oceno 4,54 (Slika 7). Povprečne ocene zadovoljstva in pomembnosti so večje od 3,5. Iz tega sledi, da so mladostniki v povprečju zadovoljni in jim je sodelovanje s starši pomembno.
5 Razprava
V raziskavi smo si zastavili dve hipotezi.
Pri H1 - Mladostniki so zadovoljni z likom vzgojitelja.
Pri preverjanju hipoteze H1 smo uporabili spremenljivke oz. trditve »lik vzgojitelja«, obravnavane z vidika zadovoljstva. Obravnavali smo vrednosti njihovih povprečnih ocen tako, da smo za testirano vrednost vzeli povprečno oceno 3,5. Pri tem smo se poslužili T-testa za en vzorec. Iz raziskave izhaja, da so vprašani mladostniki podali pri vseh trditvah visoke ocene zadovoljstva, ki so bile podane v razponu od 3,89 do 4,06 (Tabela 1).
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Tabela 1. Deskriptivne statistike spremenljivke oz. trditve s področja »lik vzgojitelja«, obravnavane z vidika zadovoljstva (Lastni vir)
T - test za en vzorec
Št. anketira. Pov.vrednost Standardni odklon Standardna napaka
Vzgojitelj je vzornik - zadovoljstvo.
Vzgojitelj je topel, ljubeč, prijazen -zadovoljstvo.
Vzgojitelj začuti vsakega mladostnika - zadovoljstvo.
Vzgojitelj ima občutek za delo z mladostniki - zadovoljstvo.
Vzgojitelj je dosleden, strog a korekten - zadovoljstvo.
70
70
70
70
70
4,0286
4,0429
3,8857
4,0571
4,0000
1,12895
,95456
1,13626
1,07522
1,16718
,13494
,11409
,13581
,12851
,13951
Najnižjo povprečno oceno so podali pri trditvi »Vzgojitelj začuti vsakega mladostnika -zadovoljstvo.« s povprečno oceno 3,89, najvišjo povprečno oceno 4,06 so podali pri trditvi »Vzgojitelj ima občutek za delo z mladostniki - zadovoljstvo.«
Povprečna ocena na lestvici od 1 do 5 se pri vseh trditvah najbolj približa oceni 4. To pomeni, da so bili mladostniki zadovoljni (Tabela 1).
V nadaljevanju predstavljamo rezultate t-testa za en vzorec.
Iz raziskave izhaja, da znaša povprečna ocena vseh pet trditev več kot 3,5. Vrednost signifikacije je bila pri vseh trditvah manjša od 0,05. To pomeni, da so bile povprečne ocene statistično značilne.
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Tabela 2. T-test za en vzorec pri preverjanju hipoteze H1 (Lastni vir)
T - test za en vzorec
Testna vrednost = 3.5
Povprečje Stopnja Sig. (2-	Srednja
ocen	prostosti stransko)	razlika
95 % Zaupni interval razlike Spodnja	Zgornja
Vzgojitelj je -zadovoljstvo. Vzgojitelj je topel, ljubeč, prijazen - zadovoljstvo. Vzgojitelj začuti vsakega mladostnika - zadovoljstvo. Vzgojitelj ima občutek za delo z mladostniki -zadovoljstvo.
Vzgojitelj je dosleden, strog a korekten - zadovoljstvo.
3,917
4,758
2,840
4,335
3,584
69
69
69
69
69
,000
,000
,006
,000
,001
,52857
,54286
,38571
,55714
,50000
,2594
,3153
,1148
,3008
,2217
,7978
,7705
,6566
,8135
,7783
Na podlagi ugotovitev lahko potrdimo H1, kjer smo ugotavljali, ali so mladostniki v zadovoljni z likom vzgojitelja (Tabela 2).
Pri H2 smo ugotavljali, ali mladostniki ocenjujejo, da je element »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah.« pomembnejši od elementa »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen.«. Pri preverjanju H2 smo uporabili trditev:
•	vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah - pomembnost (Tabela 3);
•	vzgojitelj je avtoritativen - pomembnost (Tabela 4).
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Tabela 3. Frekvence ocen trditve »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah -pomembnost.« (Lastni vir)
Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah - Pomembnost
	Frekvenca	Odstotek
Nepomembno	1	1,4
Srednje pomembno	6	8,6
Pomembno	10	14,3
Zelo pomembno	53	75,7
Skupaj	70	100,0
Tabela 4. Frekvence ocen trditve »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen - pomembnost.« (Lastni vir)
Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen - Pomembnost	Frekvenca	Odstotek
Zelo nepomembno	1	1,4
Nepomembno	3	4,3
Srednje pomembno	14	20,0
Pomembno	15	21,4
Zelo pomembno	37	52,9
Skupaj	70	100,0
Trditev »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah.« je mladostnikom z 75,7 % zelo pomembno in le 1,4 % nepomembna (Tabela 5). Trditev »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen -pomembnost.« je mladostnikom v 52,9 % zelo pomembna in 5,7 % zelo nepomembna za mladostnike (Tabela 4).
V nadaljevanju smo H2 preverjali še na podlagi parnega T-testa.
Poprečna ocena dejavnika »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah.« je znašala 4,64, povprečna ocena pomembnosti spremenljivke »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah.« pa 4,20. Povprečje elementa »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah - pomembnost.« je za 0,4 večje kot povprečje elementa »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen - pomembnost.« (Tabela 5)
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Tabela 5. Deskriptivna trditve »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah.« in »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen.« (Lastni vir)	_
Statistični parni vzorec
Pov. vred. Št. anket. Stand. odklon Stand. napaka
Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen -
4,2000	70	1,00145	,11970
pomembnost. Par 1 Vzgojitelj pomaga
mladostnikom v kritičnih situ - 4,6429	70	,70270	,08399
pomembnost.
Preverili smo korelacijo med trditvijo »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah - pomembnost.« in »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen.«.
Korelacijski koeficient je znašal 0,371, iz česar izhaja, da obstaja med trditvijo pozitivna korelacija (p < 0,02) (Tabela 5).
Tabela 6: Korelacije med trditvijo - pomembnost »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah.« in »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen.« (Lastni vir)
_Korelacijski parni vzorec_
_Št. anket. Korelacija_Sig_
Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen -
pomembnost & vzgojitelj Par 1	70	,371	,002
pomaga mladostnikom v
kritičnih situ - pomembnost.
Izvedli smo test parnih vzorcev (Tabela 7), iz katere je razvidno, da je razlika v ocenah med paroma statistično značilna (p < 0,05). Ocena pomembnosti trditve »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah.« je bila za 0,44 višja, kot je bila ocena pomembnosti dejavnika »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen.«.
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Tabela 7. T - test parnih vzorcev pri preverjanju hipoteze H2 (Lastni vir)
T - test parnih vzorcev
Parna razlika
Pov. Stand. Stand. 95 % Zaupni interval vrednost odklon vrednost	razlike
Spodnji Zgornji
Par 1
Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen -pomembnost -
vzgojitelj pomaga -,44286 ,98739 ,11802 -,67829 -,20742 -3,753 69 ,000 mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah -pomembnost.
Na podlagi ugotovljenega smo H2, kjer smo ugotavljali, ali mladostniki ocenjujejo, da je trditev »Vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah.« pomembnejša od trditve »Vzgojitelj je avtoritativen. «, potrdili.
V	okviru rezultatov glede na »Lik vzgojitelja« - mladostniki so najbolj zadovoljni s trditvijo, da ima »vzgojitelj občutek za delo z mladostniki« in tudi najbolj pomembna je ta. Najmanj so zadovoljni s trditvijo, da »vzgojitelj začuti vsakega mladostnika«, najmanj pa jim je pomembna trditev, da je »vzgojitelj dosleden, strog, a korekten«. V povprečju so vse trditve zadovoljstva in pomembnosti v kazalniku ocenili z več kot 4. To nakazuje, da so mladostniki v povprečju z vsemi trditvami zadovoljni in so jim vse trditve pomembne.
V	okviru rezultatov glede na »Strokovnost vzgojitelja« - mladostniki pa so najbolj zadovoljni s trditvijo, da »vzgojitelj skrbi za mladostnike«. Najpomembnejša zanje je trditev, da »vzgojitelj pomaga mladostnikom v kritičnih situacijah«. Najmanj so zadovoljni s trditvij o, da je »vzgojitelj pripravljen uvajati novosti« in da je »vzgojitelj avtoritativen«. Najmanj jim je pomembna trditev, da je »vzgojitelj avtoritativen«. V povprečju so vse trditve zadovoljstva in pomembnosti v kazalniku ocenili z več kot 4. To nakazuje, da so mladostniki v povprečju zadovoljni z vsemi trditvami in so jim vse le-te pomembne.
Zaključimo lahko, da smo na raziskovalno vprašanje, kjer smo ugotavljali, kakšno je zadovoljstvo otrok in mladostnikov v mladinskem domu v odnosu do vzgojiteljev, ugotovili, da je le-to dobro.
6 Zaključek
Ugotavljamo, da je zadovoljstvo otrok in mladostnikov v mladinskem domu v odnosu do vzgojiteljev dobro.
Sig.
Stopnja (2-stran.) prostosti
T
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Ugotovili smo, da imajo vzgojitelji v mladinskem domu pri zagotavljanju zadovoljstva otrok in mladostnikov pomembno vlogo, ki pa se prepleta tudi z drugimi dejavniki, kot so pogoji za bivanje, njihovi medsebojni odnosi itd.
Raziskava je bila aplikativna, saj je reševala konkreten problem iz prakse, v našem primeru ugotavljanje zadovoljstva otrok in mladostnikov v Mladinskem domu Maribor. Prispevek je tudi deskriptiven, saj je obravnaval ekonomske in sociološke vidike zadovoljstva uporabnikov storitev na primeru omenjenega zavoda.
Mladostniki so lik vzgojitelja ocenili z vidika zadovoljstva in pomembnosti nad povprečjem, nekoliko manj so zadovoljni s trditvijo, da vzgojitelj začuti vsakega mladostnika, vendar jim je ta trditev zelo pomembna. Strokovnost vzgojitelja mladostniki ocenjujejo z vidika zadovoljstva in pomembnosti nad povprečjem. Manj so zadovoljni s trditvijo, da so vzgojitelji pripravljeni uvajati novosti in vzgojitelj je avtoritativen. Medsebojne odnose mladostniki ocenjujejo z vidika zadovoljstva in pomembnosti nad povprečjem. Manjšo zadovoljstvo izražajo pri trditvi, da se v domu dobro počutijo in da se skupno veselijo nad uspehom. Manj jim je pomembno, da korektni odnosi prispevajo k dobri klimi in da obstaja toleranca vzgojiteljev nad posamezniki. Ne glede na starost so mladostniki mnenja, da bodo izkušnje, pridobljene v Mladinskem domu Maribor, pozitivno vplivale na njihovo kasnejšo življenjsko pot. Otrokom in mladostnikom se zdi pomembno, da so vzgojitelji dosledni, strogi in korektni. Najbolj so zadovoljni s tem, da jim vzgojitelj pomaga v kritičnih situacijah, je pripravljen uvajati novosti in je tudi avtoritativen.
Mladinski dom izvaja veliko aktivnosti, ki zagotavljajo kakovost življenja otrok in mladostnikov v njem, k temu pa veliko pripomorejo tudi vzgojitelji in strokovni delavci. Vsi se trudijo za dobrobit otrok in mladostnikov, kar pomembno vpliva pri njihovi socializaciji in pripravi na nadaljnje samostojno življenje.
Prispevek je pomemben z vidika razumevanja bivanja otrok v mladinskih domovih in drugih zavodih, predvsem s stališča videnja odnosa vzgojitelj - otrok in mladostnik.
To je prva tako celovito raziskava, ki je bila izvedena v mladinskih domovih, saj ugotavlja pomen vzgojiteljev pri zagotavljanju zadovoljstva uporabnikov.
Raziskovali smo občutljivo populacijo - otroke/mladostnike, ki bivajo v Mladinskem domu Maribor.
Raziskava je prva tovrstna, ki je bila opravljena v Mladinskem domu Maribor. Smotrno bi jo bilo nadgraditi in vanjo bolj neposredno vključiti tudi pomen staršev in njihovo vlogo pri zagotavljanju zadovoljstva otrok in mladostnikov.
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***
Doc. dr. Bojan Macuh je prof. soc. in slov. Doktorski študij je zaključil na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze na Primorskem, pred tem pa magistrski študij sociologije na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Mariboru. Od leta 2009 je predavatelj na Fakulteti za poslovne in komercialne vede v Celju, kjer predava sociologijo. Na Gea College v Ljubljani občasno predava od leta 2013 poslovno etiko in organizacijsko kulturo. Na Višji šoli za kozmetiko in velnes predava predmet čustvena inteligenca in osebnostni razvoj. Je avtor in soavtor znanstvenih in strokovnih monografij, priročnikov ter več znanstvenih, strokovnih in poljudnih člankov. S svojimi prispevki kot avtor in soavtor je sodeloval na več mednarodnih znanstvenih konferencah. Hkrati je avtor tudi več leposlovnih del za odrasle, mladino in otroke.
***
Janez Domajnko je mag. poslovnih ved. Magistrski študij je zaključil na Fakulteti za komercialne in poslovne vede v Celju. Pred tem je zaključil visoko šolski študij na Fakulteti za organizacijske vede Univerze v Maribor in končal višje šolski študij na Strojni fakulteti Univerze v Mariboru. Od leta 1997 je vzgojitelj v Mladinskem domu Maribor - enota Slivnica. Pridobil je andragoško-pedagoško izobrazbo na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Mariboru in dokvalifikacija za delo z otroki, ki imajo motnje vedenja MVO na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani.
Abstract:
The Importance of Satisfaction of Children and Adolescents in a Juvenile Centre
Research question: What is the satisfaction of children and adolescents in a juvenile centre in relation to educators?
Purpose: We want to find out what role educators play in a juvenile centre in ensuring the satisfaction of children and adolescents.
Methods: The research will be applied, a concrete problem from practice will be solved. The contribution will be descriptive as it will address the economic and sociological aspects of satisfaction of service users in the case of Maribor juvenile centre.
Results: On average, adolescents are satisfied with the character of an educator and their relationships with the educators in the Maribor juvenile centre.
Organisation: The juvenile centre carries out many activities that ensure the quality of life of children and adolescents in it, and much of it is facilitated by educators.
Society: The contribution is important in terms of understanding the residence of children in juvenile centres and other institutions.
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Originality: It is the first such comprehensive research conducted in juvenile centres to identify the importance of educators in ensuring user satisfaction.
Research limitations / further research: We surveyed a sensitive population -children/adolescents living in the Maribor juvenile centre. It would be wise to upgrade the research and more directly involve parents and their role in ensuring the satisfaction of children and adolescents.
Keywords: satisfaction, adolescent, educator, parents, home.
Copyright (c) 2020 Bojan MACUH, Janez DOMAJNKO
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
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DOI: 10.37886/ip.2020.007
Merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij
Alen Lazič*
Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu, Ulica talcev 3, 8000 Novo mesto,
Slovenija alen.lazic@gmail.com
Povzetek:
Raziskovalno vprašanje (RV): Kako naj organizacije, ki uresničujejo družbeno odgovornost, to izmerijo?
Namen: Ugotoviti, kaj je družbena odgovornost organizacij. Določiti kazalnike družbene odgovornosti ter ugotoviti, kako se meri družbena odgovornost organizacij. Metoda: Tematska analiza pregleda znanstvene literature z metodo integrativne tematske analize kvalitativnih podatkov.
Rezultati: Merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij pomeni nabor različnih kazalnikov z različnih področij delovanja organizacije. Enotni kazalnik za merjenje družbene odgovornosti ne obstaja. Obstaja mnogo kazalnikov, ki so lahko med seboj celo neskladni in neprimerljivi. Od deležnikov je odvisno, katerim metodam merjenja in kazalnikom bodo zaupali. Organizacija: V članku predstavljene metode merjenja družbene odgovornosti organizacij omogočajo vodstvu organizacije ustrezno komuniciranje njihove družbene odgovornosti in zadovoljevanje zahtev, potreb in želja različnih deležnikov, kar posledično vodi v finančno uspešnost organizacije.
Družba: Kazalniki, ki merijo družbeno odgovornost, kažejo na vplive te organizacije na okolje, družbo in gospodarstvo.
Originalnost: Predstavitev pregleda načinov merjenja družbene odgovornosti organizacij. Omejitve/nadaljnje raziskovanje: Omejitveni kriteriji iskanja izvirnih in preglednih znanstvenih člankov so bili: obdobje 2005 do 2018, dostopnost celotnega besedila člankov in jezik besedila slovenščina ali angleščina. Raziskava ni bila narejena. V nadaljevanju raziskovanja bi bilo smiselno raziskati dejansko uporabo in razširjenost različnih metod merjenja družbene odgovornosti organizacij v različnih državah ali tržnih gospodarstvih.
Ključne besede: družbena odgovornost organizacij, merjenje, kazalniki.
1 Uvod
Pomen in vloga organizacij v družbi je predmet razprave že nekaj desetletij. Čedalje večji vpliv organizacij na človeštvo in naravno okolje je med ljudmi po celem svetu povzročilo precej zaskrbljenosti. Danes različne interesne skupine v nacionalni in mednarodni skupnosti pričakujejo odgovornejše delovanje in poslovanje organizacij. Družbena odgovornost organizacij predstavlja splošen okvir za povezavo poslovanja organizacije in njegove vključenosti v družbo.
Obsežna literatura na temo družbene odgovornosti organizacij je omogočila jasnejše
razumevanje tega pojma, vendar je še vedno težko določiti splošno sprejeto opredelitev
* Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author	120
Prejeto: 10. marec 2020; revidirano: 20. marec 2020; sprejeto: 24. marec2020. / Received: 10th March2020; revised: 20th March 2020; accepted: 24th March 2020.
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družbene odgovornosti. Dodatna težava je merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij oz. povezave organizacij s svojimi interesnimi skupinami. V literaturi obstaja kar nekaj različnih metod merjenja družbene odgovornosti organizacij, vendar imajo skoraj vse neko omejitev.
2rr	> • v	• i i *v v
Teoretična izhodišča
Matten in Moon (2008, str. 405) sta dobro izpostavila heterogenost definicij družbene odgovornosti organizacij na način, da je družbena odgovornost organizacij krovni izraz, po eni strani za prelivanje z nekaterimi in po drugi strani sinonim za razumevanje odnosov med organizacijo in družbo.
Obstaja veliko uporabnih definicij družbene odgovornosti organizacij, vendar pa ni - in verjetno ne bo - enotne natančne opredelitve družbene odgovornosti, saj se bo njegova vsebina in uporaba od države do države sčasoma spreminjala in se bo med organizacijami tudi razlikovala.
Družbena odgovornost organizacij je rezultat, implicitno ali eksplicitno, razmišljanja o naravi organizacije, njegovi vlogi v družbi in odnosih z njenimi notranjimi in zunanjimi deležniki. Ta razmislek ni samo naloga menedžerjev (in včasih lastnikov), temveč tudi drugih interesnih skupin, ki vplivajo na organizacijo ali obratno. Rezultat je odvisen od zgodovinskih dogodkov, političnih sistemov, ideologije, geografije, družbenih pričakovanj ter svetovnih gospodarskih in finančnih pritiskov. Skupaj to predstavlja okvir, v katerem organizacija posluje, in določa, kako lahko in želi razvijati svojo politiko družbene odgovornosti (Argandona, von Weltzien Hoivik, 2009, str. 229).
V	literaturi se pogosto omenja tudi delitev na implicitno in eksplicitno družbeno odgovornost organizacij. Za implicitno družbeno odgovornost organizacij velja, da se zadeve, za katere organizacija prevzame odgovornost, določajo na podlagi norm, vrednot in pravil, ki veljajo v družbi. Za eksplicitno družbeno odgovornost organizacij so ravno obratno značilne prostovoljne aktivnosti in programi, za katere se organizacija sama odločajo na podlagi svojega interesa. Implicitna družbeno odgovornost organizacij naj bi bila prevladujoča v koordiniranih tržnih ekonomijah (npr. Evropi), eksplicitna pa v liberalnih tržnih ekonomijah (npr. ZDA) (Matten & Moon, 2008, str. 410).
V	literaturi obstaja veliko različnih tipov oz. ravni družbene odgovornosti organizacij. Najbolj splošno sprejet model je Carrollova piramida družbene odgovornosti, ki so jo različni raziskovalci tudi empirično potrdili. Carroll pravi, da obstajajo štiri glavne komponente družbene odgovornosti organizacij oz., da imajo organizacije štiri glavne odgovornosti: ekonomske, zakonske, etične in filantropske odgovornosti (Pinkston & Carroll, 1996, str. 200).
Ekonomska odgovornost pomeni dolžnost organizacije, da je v svojem delovanju uspešno, učinkovito in konkurenčno ter ohranja svoj položaj na trgu. Ta raven je najbolj temeljna odgovornosti organizacije (Carroll, 1991, str. 40 - 42). Organizacija je namreč odgovorna do
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svojih delničarjev, ki so vanjo investirali, do zaposlenih, ki potrebujejo varne in dobro plačane službe ter do potrošnikov, ki pričakujejo kakovostne izdelke in storitve po pošteni ceni. Po Carrollu je ta odgovornost temeljna in iz nje izhajajo vse druge ravni odgovornosti (Matten & Moon, 2005, str. 337).
Zakonske odgovornosti se nanašajo na pričakovanja družbe, da organizacija (kot del družbene pogodbe med organizacijo in družbo) izpolnjuje svoje ekonomske dolžnosti znotraj zakonskega okvirja, ki velja v državi, da deluje skladno z državnimi in lokalnimi regulacijami ter pri proizvodnji izpolnjuje vsaj minimalne zakonske zahteve (Carroll, 1991, str. 41). Zakonske odgovornosti so »kodificirana etika«, saj vključujejo pričakovanja glede poštenega delovanja organizacije (Carroll, 1991, str. 41).
Etične odgovornosti zahtevajo, da organizacija spoštuje in posluje skladno z ustaljenimi standardi in normami o primernem vedenju, da izpolnjuje pričakovanja, ne zapostavlja etičnosti za dosego korporativnih ciljev ter prepoznava nove, razvijajoče se norme v družbi (Carroll, 1991, str. 41). Ta oblika odgovornosti zahteva od organizacij, da delajo to, kar je pravično, pošteno, moralno in etično, tudi če tako vedenje ni predpisano z zakonom. Etične odgovornosti so zato sestavljene iz splošnih pričakovanj ali prepovedi družbe, ki niso vključeni v zakone in so nad ekonomsko in zakonsko ravnijo (Pinkston & Carroll, 1996, str. 200, Matten & Moon, 2005, str. 337).
Filantropske odgovornosti so zadnja raven, ki zajema odgovornost organizacije, da vrača skupnosti in tako sodeluje pri izboljševanju družbe. So prostovoljne dejavnosti, ki niso zakonsko predpisane, ampak jih narekuje in vodi organizacija sama (Carroll, 1991, str. 42). Sem spadajo donacije dobrodelnim ustanovam ter podpiranje raznih projektov za boljše življenje v skupnosti. Po Carrollu so te odgovornosti zaželene, vendar ne pričakovane od organizacij. S tem so manj pomembne kot ostale tri ravni (Carroll, 1991, str. 42, Matten & Moon, 2005, str. 337).
Družbena odgovornost organizacij je pojem, ki je razmeroma težko merljiv, vendar ga mnogi deležniki želijo izmeriti. Chatterji in Levine (2006, str. 31) kot razloge, zakaj meriti družbeno odgovornost, navajata, da naj bi kazalniki družbene uspešnosti organizacije bi rešili dve težavi. Kot prvo najvišjim managerjem, upravnim odborom in drugim interesnim skupinam lahko pomagajo razumeti, ali operativni vodje gradijo kakovostne dolgoročne odnose in uspešno upravljajo sredstva organizacije. Zanašanje samo na kratkoročne finančne metrike pomeni tveganje za izvedbo potencialno nedonosnih poslovnih odločitev in izgubo ključnih prednosti organizacije - to je kompetentnih zaposlenih in/ali zvestih kupcev. Rezultati nefinančnih kazalnikov so lahko ustrezen del t.i. uravnoteženega pregleda, ki pozitivno vpliva na ustvarjanje dolgoročne vrednosti v očeh delničarjev. Drugič, takšne meritve lahko pomagajo različnim deležnikom (kupcem, skupnostim, regulatorjem in potencialnim zaposlenim) pri presoji družbene uspešnosti organizacij. Če nekateri od teh deležnikov dajejo prednost družbeno odgovornim organizacijam in jih lahko nagradijo, lahko poročanje o takšnih meritvah poveča raven družbene uspešnosti, ki poveča dobiček.
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Chatterji in Levine (2006, str. 31) poudarjata, da merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij, ki ni zanesljivo, veljavno ali primerljivo, lahko privede do rezultatov, ki škodijo družbeni uspešnosti organizacij in splošni blaginji. Nekateri kazalniki za merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij niso smiselni. Manj uspešne organizacije si izmišljujejo in sprejemajo nezanesljive, neveljavne in neprimerljive standarde in tako zavajajo svoje interesne skupine, saj le-te težko ločijo, kateri standardi so veljavni.
Nenazadnje, merjenje družbene odgovornosti pomeni za organizacijo stroške, ki pa v primerih nezanesljivih meritev niso upravičeni. Ko se managerji soočijo s prevelikim številom anket in kazalnikov, je njihov naravni odziv, da jih ignorirajo. Posledično številne meritve trpijo zaradi pristranskosti ali nepopolnih odgovorov na anketo, ki otežujejo posplošitev ugotovitev. Vsaka dodatna raziskava poveča stroške, ki nastajajo zaradi usklajevanja z meritvami iz preteklosti in zmanjša vpliv vsake obstoječe meritve. Poleg tega, da služijo kot pokazatelj, da meritve nefinančne družbene odgovornosti še niso dokončne, lahko visoke stopnje neodzivnosti pomenijo pristranskost rezultatov anket. Upoštevajoč dejstvo, da je v številnih anketah odzivnost nižja od 20 odstotkov, ne moremo biti prepričani v natančnost številnih nefinančnih meritev družbene odgovornosti organizacij (Chatterji & Levine, 2006, str. 30).
Na splošno velja, da uvedba vsakega dodatnega kazalnika zmanjšuje pomen vsega, kar je bilo izmerjeno pred tem, zato povečevanje števila kazalnikov v nedogled ni priporočljivo. Širjenje nabora kazalnikov lahko na dva načina koristi organizacijam, ki so v svoji družbeni odgovornosti manj uspešni. Prvič, družbeno manj odgovorne organizacije lahko oblikujejo lastne kazalnike z visoko zvenečimi poimenovanji, dajejo si odlične ocene in zavajajo kupce ali druge interesne skupine. Drugič, širjenje množice kazalnikov zmede številne potrošnike in družbeno odgovorne vlagatelje, kar posledično pomeni, da lahko zmanjšajo pomen kazalnikov z visoko veljavnostjo (Chatterji & Levine, 2006, str. 30).
Model odličnosti EFQM (European Founation for Quality Management - Business Excellence model) je splošen in neobvezujoč okvir, ki temelji na devetih merilih in dvaintridesetih podmerilih. Pet od teh meril predstavlja dejavnike, štiri merila pa rezultate. Dejavniki povedo, kaj organizacija dela, rezultati pa, kaj organizacija dosega. Rezultati so posledica dejavnikov, ki jih izboljšujemo s pomočjo povratnih informacij rezultatov. V modelu EFQM družbeno odgovornostjo organizacij obravnava osmo merilo - rezultati povezani z družbo, ki so definirani kot »odlične organizacije dosegajo in trajno ohranjajo izjemne rezultate, ki zadovoljujejo ali presegajo potrebe in pričakovanja relevantnih deležnikov v družbi« (Slovenska kakovost, 2020).
ISO 26000 je standard družbene odgovornosti, ki daje smernice družbeno odgovornega ravnanja tako organizacijam, ne glede na njihovo področje ali kraj delovanja. Standard je široko zastavljen. Osnovna načela, ki naj bi jih podjetja spoštovala, so v ISO 26000 opredeljena, in sicer so to: odgovornost, transparentnost, etično ravnanje, spoštovanje interesov deležnikov, spoštovanje vladavine prava, spoštovanje mednarodnih norm delovanja, spoštovanje človekovih pravic (Hemphill, 2013, str. 307). V njem so opredeljena naslednja
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področja: organizacijsko upravljanje, človekove pravice, delovne prakse, naravno okolje, poštene poslovne prakse, porabniki, vključevanje v skupnost in njen razvoj. Z vidika splošnega poslovnega upravljanja je mednarodni standard ISO 26000 delno omejen, ker je preobsežen, da bi se uporabljal v specifičnih panogah ali pri malih in srednje velikih podjetjih (Hemphill, 2013, str. 307).
ISO 26001 je mednarodni standard za družbeno odgovornost. ISO 26000 ponuja smernice o tem, kako lahko podjetja in organizacije delujejo na družbeno odgovoren način. To pomeni etično in pregledno delovanje, ki prispeva k zdravju in blaginji družbe. Namen teh smernic je pomagati podjetjem pri prispevanju k trajnostnemu razvoju in jih spodbuditi, da presežejo osnovno dolžnost spoštovanja zakonskih predpisov v socialnih zadevah, ter da dopolnjujejo programe socialne odgovornosti.
V Sloveniji se z družbeno odgovornostjo organizacij ukvarja IRDO - Inštitut za razvoj družbene odgovornosti, ki je bil kot neprofiten zavod ustanovljen leta 2004 z namenom sistematično raziskovati in pospeševati razvoj družbene odgovornosti v Sloveniji in s tem aktivno prispevati k razvoju le-te v Sloveniji in v svetu. V okviru inštituta deluje Znanstvenoraziskovalni center IRDO, ki se raziskovanja tega področja loteva interdisciplinarno in sistematično (IRDO, 2020).
Aktivnosti inštituta IRDO izhajajo iz EU opredelitve družbene odgovornosti. Pri tem Strokovni svet Inštituta IRDO družbeno odgovornost pojmuje še širše, in sicer kot: individualno družbeno odgovornost (posameznikovo), družbeno odgovornost organizacij (podjetij, zavodov, izobraževalnih in raziskovalnih inštitucij, nevladnih organizacij, vladnih organizacij), družbeno odgovornost poklicnih skupin, družbeno odgovornost naroda, države, zveze, a vedno do družbe, to je do ljudi in narave, ne samo do sebe. Njihovi kriteriji za družbeno odgovornost organizacij so naslednji: odgovornost do okolja in trajnostna naravnanost, odgovornost do zaposlenih, odgovornost do skupnosti, odgovornost do kupcev in dobaviteljev, vodenje, vpetost DO v strategijo podjetja in skladnost z mednarodnimi smernicami, vključevanje deležnikov, akcijski načrti in ključni dejavniki uspeha, merjenje učinkov, komuniciranje in poročanje o DO, certifikati, nagrade s področja DO (IRDO, 2020).
Mulej (2018) kot ekonomske kazalce družbene odgovornosti navaja: (1) normalne in redno izplačane bruto plače, (2) normalne investicijske sklade in ukrepe, (3) poslovno odličnost po merilih EFQM, (4) ustrezno visoke direktorske in lastniške prejemke, (5) stalen krog poslovno odličnih in družbeno odgovornih nabavnih in prodajnih poslovnih partnerjev, (6) nič pravno spornih poslov, (7) prevlado dolgoročnih in širokih meril poslovnega uspeha nad kratkoročnimi in ozkosrčnimi, (8) nobenih zlorab vpliva na ljudi in naravne pogoje za obstoj človeštva, vključno z veliko skrbi za preventivne ukrepe za zdravje sodelavcev in drugih ljudi v vsej poslovni verigi, (9) plačevanje vplivnih na dolgoročni podlagi, vključno s plačilom v delnicah, (10) organizacijski in lastniški odnosi, ki so kar najbolj blizu zadružnemu modelu iz Mondragona, (11) kadrovanje na vplivna delovna mesta po modelu dolgoročnih najboljših podjetij sveta, (12) Creechev model petih stebrov popolne kakovosti in sodelavcev, (13)
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metode ustvarjalnega sodelovanja, kot so »6 klobukov razmišljanja«, in (14) prenova poslovanja po modelu iz vprašalnika za Horus, (15) plače po modelu inovativnega poslovanja, (16) država ustvarja in vzdržuje pogoje, da je vabljiva, po modelu 3T, in so regije inovativne.
Bohinc in Mulej (2018) sta v svojem članku opredelila deset temeljnih zahtev za družbeno odgovornost, in sicer so to (1) družbena odgovornost do naravnega okolja, (2) družbena odgovornost do prihodnjih rodov in za razvoj, (3) družbena odgovornost do starejših, invalidov in za zdravje, (4) družbena odgovornost do dela, (5) družbena odgovornost do podjetništva, (6) družbeno odgovorno korporacijsko upravljanje, (7) družbeno odgovorno upravljanje javnega premoženja, (8) družbeno odgovorno javno upravljanje, ( 9) družbena odgovorna zunanja in varnostna politika in (10) družbena odgovornost do zgodovine in kulture.
3 Metoda
V raziskavi je bil uporabljen pregled znanstvene literature s področja merjenja družbene odgovornosti organizacij.
Uporabili smo metodo tematske analize pregleda znanstvene literature z metodo integrativne tematske analize kvalitativnih podatkov. Uporabili smo mednarodne podatkovne baze Research Gate, SpringerLink, Science Direct. Literaturo smo iskali tudi s pomočjo spletnega brskalnika Google (Google učenjak). Ključne iskalne besedne zveze so bile: družbena odgovornost, merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij, kazalniki. Omejitveni kriteriji iskanja so bili: obdobje 2005 do 2018, dostopnost celotnega besedila člankov in jezik besedila slovenščina ali angleščina. V sintezo so bili uvrščeni izvirni in pregledni znanstveni članki. Pregled literature je potekal od 3. 1. do 15. 1. 2020.
Za uvrstitev zadetka v nadaljnjo analizo smo upoštevali vsebinsko ustreznost, vključili smo recenzirane članke. Kakovost virov, ki smo jih uvrstili v končni pregled literature, smo določili s pomočjo Scimago Journal & Country Rank (v nadaljevanju: SJR) indeksa in H indeksa. Rezultati pregleda so prikazani v Tabeli 1, kjer so navedeni izbrani članki, njihovi avtorji in naslovi ter letnica objave, naziv znanstvene revije, kjer so bili objavljeni ter SJR in H indeks. SJR indeks se nanaša na leto izdaje članka, H indeks pa je veljal v obdobju pregledovanja literature.
SJR indeks je kazalnik prestiža, neodvisen od velikosti, ki revije razvršča po »povprečnem prestižu na članek«. Temelji na ideji, da »vsi citati niso ustvarjeni enako«. SJR je merilo znanstvenega vpliva revij, ki predstavlja tako število citatov, ki jih je časopis prejel, kot tudi pomen ali prestiž časopisov, od kod izvirajo takšni citati. Ta meri znanstveni vpliv povprečnega članka v reviji, izraža pa osrednjo vlogo do globalne znanstvene razprave. H indeks pomeni število člankov znanstvene revije, ki je dosegla vsaj toliko citiranj v ostalih znanstvenih člankih (https://www.scimagojr.com/, dostopano dne 1. 2. 2020).
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Tabela 1. Seznam uporabljene literature
Avtor	Naslov	Revija	SJR Index H indeks
Chatterji, A., & Levine, D. (2GG6).	Breaking down the Wall of Codes: Evaluating Non-Financial Performance Measurement.	California Management Review	1,676 118
Du, S., Bhattacharya, C. B., Sen, S. (2G14).	Corporate Social Responsibility, Multi-faceted Job-Products, and Employee Outcomes.	Journal of Business Ethics	3,239 64
Gj0lberg, M. (2GG9).	Measuring the immeasurable? Constructing an index of CSR practices and CSR performance in 20 countries.	Scandinavian Journal of Management	0,376 50
Glavas, A., Kelley, K. (2G14).	The effects of perceived corporate social responsibility on employee attitudes.	Business Ethics Quarterly	3,239 64
Hemphill, T. (2G13).	The ISO 26000 guidance on social responsibility international standard: what are the business governance implications?	Corporate Governance: The International Journal of Business in Society	--
Hopkins, M. (2GG5).	Measurement of corporate social responsibility.	International Journal of Management and Decision Making.	0,104 22
Luo, X, Bhattacharya, C.B. (2GG6).	Corporate Social Responsibility, Customer Satisfaction, and Market Value.	Journal of Marketing	5,193 218
Pérez, A., Rodríguez del Bosque, I. (2G13).	Measuring CSR Image: Three Studies to Develop and to Validate a Reliable Measurement Tool.	Journal of Business Ethics	2,376 64
Stovall, O. S., Neill, J. D., Reid, B. (2GG6).	Institutional Impediments to Voluntary Ethics Measurement Systems.	Journal of Business Ethics	0,903 64
Turker, D. (2GG9).	Measuring corporate social responsibility: a scale development study.	Journal of Business Ethics	0,982 64
Vir: Avtor
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4 Rezultati in razprava
Pregled literature je pokazal, da enotni kazalnik za merjenje družbene odgovornosti ne obstaja. Še več, obstaja mnogo kazalnikov, ki so med seboj neskladni, neprimerljivi, pri nekaterih je celo vprašljiva njihova zanesljivost in veljavnost. Nekateri so mednarodno priznani, drugi so certificirani s strani neodvisnih organizacij, tretji se uporabljajo samo na nacionalnih ravneh itd. Od deležnikov pa je odvisno, katerim metodam merjenja in kazalnikom bodo zaupali in katerim ne.
V tabeli 2 so zbrane ključne ugotovitve avtorjev iz različne pregledane literature na temo različnih načinov merjenja družbene odgovornosti.
Tabela 2. Pregled literature na temo merjenja družbene odgovornosti organizacij
Vir / Literatura
Glavne ugotovitve
Chatterji, A., Levine, D. (2006).
Breaking down the Wall of Codes: Evaluating Non-Financial Performance Measurement.
Razloga za merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij: (1) ali operativni vodje gradijo kakovostne dolgoročne odnose in uspešno upravljajo sredstva organizacije, (2) meritve lahko pomagajo različnim deležnikom (kupcem, skupnostim, regulatorjem in potencialnim zaposlenim) pri presoji družbene uspešnosti organizacij.
Meritve morajo biti zanesljive, skladne in nepristranske. Povečevanje števila kazalnikov pripelje do razvrednotenja in zmanjšanja pomena pravih kazalnikov, ki dejansko merijo družbeno odgovornost. To lahko organizacije z nizko družbeno odgovornost izkoristijo v svoj prid, saj lahko z uvedbo novih kazalnikov pridobijo na svojo stran interesne skupine, katere svoje poslovne odločitve sprejemajo na podlagi družbene odgovornosti organizacij.
Du, S., Bhattacharya, C. B., Sen,
S. (2014). Corporate Social Responsibility, Multi-faceted Job-Products, and Employee Outcomes.
Človeški kapital oz. zaposleni je ključni vir konkurenčne prednosti organizacije. Zato morajo organizacije pri načrtovanju in izvajanju aktivnosti družbene odgovornosti ter pri ocenjevanju poslovnih rezultatov družbene odgovornosti pri organizaciji upoštevati tako specifične dejavnike zaposlenih kot specifične dejavnike organizacije
same.
Gj0lberg, M. (2009). Measuring the immeasurable? Constructing an index of CSR practices and CSR performance in 20 countries.
Indeks družbene odgovornosti organizacij vključuje štiri kategorije kazalnikov: (1) ocene, ki temeljijo na družbeno odgovornih naložbenih merilih (Dow Jones indeks trajnosti, FTSE4Good in seznam »100 najbolj trajnostnih korporacij«), (2) članstvo v skupnostih družbene odgovornosti organizacij (Globalni dogovor Združenih narodov in Svetovni poslovni svet za trajnostni razvoj - WBCSD), (3) prakse poročanja o trajnosti (raziskava o poročanju o trajnostnem razvoju -KPMG in Globalna pobuda za poročanje - GRI) in (4) sheme
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certificiranja (ISO14001)
Glavas, A., Kelley, K. (2014). The
effects of perceived corporate social responsibility on employee attitudes.
Merjenje zaznavanja družbene odgovornosti organizacij s pomočjo lestvice PCSR (Perceived Corporate Social Responsibility oz. zaznane družbene odgovornosti organizacije). Meri dve dimenziji družbene odgovornosti: (1) družbena dimenzija in (2) okolijska vprašanja.
Hopkins, M. (2005). Measurement of corporate social responsibility.
6 glavnih kazalnikov družbene odgovornosti organizacij je: (1) Business in the Community (BiTC), (2) FTSE4good, (3) Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI), (4) Business Ethics 100, (5) AccountAbility (AA) Rating®, (6) Global Reporting Initiative (GRI).
Luo, X, Bhattacharya, C.B.	Kazalnik za merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij je FAMA
(2006). Corporate Social	(Fortune America's Most Admired Corporations), ki je opredeljen kot
Responsibility, Customer	dejavnost organizacija in status, povezan z družbenimi ali deležniškimi
Satisfaction, and Market Value.	obveznostmi.
Pérez, A., Rodríguez del Bosque,	Lestvica za merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij se deli glede na
I. (2013). Measuring CSR Image:	deležnike, ki koristijo rezultate družbene odgovornosti. Podoba družbene
Three Studies to Develop and to	odgovornosti je razdeljena na štiri dimenzije: (1) kupce, (2) delničarje in
Validate a Reliable Measurement	nadzorni odbori, (3) zaposleni in (4) družba. Tool.
Stovall, O. S., Neill, J. D., Reid, B. Merjenje in upoštevanje etike in družbene odgovornosti organizacij se
(2006). Institutional Impediments	spodbuja na dva načina: (1) institucionalna ekonomska teorija kot
to Voluntary Ethics	ogrodje za analizo učinkovitosti, (2) pravna analiza. Measurement Systems.
Turker, D. (2009). Measuring Družbena odgovornost organizacij se meri z načinom, kako organizacija corporate social responsibility: a vpliva na svoje deležnike, to pa so: (1) družba nasploh, (2) zaposleni ter scale development study.	z njimi povezana etiko ter politika, (3) kupci, (4) vlada - plačevanje
davkov in upoštevanje zakonov.
Vir: Avtor
Človeški kapiral oz. zaposleni je ključni vir konkurenčne prednosti organizacije. Schuler in Cording (Du, Bhattacharya & Sen, 2014, str. 13) sta v konceptualnem okviru, ki obravnava povezavo med uspešnostjo družbene odgovornosti organizacije in finančno uspešnostjo organizacije z vidika kupcev, opredelila moralne vrednote (kot dejavnik, ki je specifičen za potrošnika) in intenzivnost informacij (kot dejavnik, ki je specifičen za organizacijo) kot kritične dejavnike, ki vplivajo na trdnost povezave med družbeno odgovornostjo organizacije in finančno uspešnostjo organizacije.
Du, Bhattacharya in Sen (2014, str. 7 - 8) v svoji raziskavi navajajo, da za oceno potrebe zaposlenih po organizacijski družbeni odgovornosti na delovnem mestu uporabljajo dva ločena kazalnika. Prvi kazalnik ocenjuje prepričanje zaposlenih, kako pomembno je, da se organizacija vključi v družbeno odgovornost organizacije. Drugi pa sprašuje zaposlene, koliko od svoje trenutne plače so se pripravljeni odreči, da bi pripomogli, da bo njihova organizacija idealna z vidika družbene odgovornosti? Pomemben je tudi dopolnilni kazalnik
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t.i. znanje o družbeni odgovornosti, ki se nanaša na raven ozaveščenosti zaposlenih in njihovega poznavanja programov družbene odgovornosti organizacije ter njihovo neposredno vključevanje zaposlenih v programih družbene odgovornosti organizacij. Podobno kot pri raziskavi Schulerja in Cordinga, je tudi študija avtorjev Du, Bhattacharya in Sen (2014, str. 13) pokazala, da bi morala organizacije na področju človeškega kapirala pri načrtovanju in izvajanju aktivnosti družbene odgovornosti ter pri ocenjevanju poslovnih rezultatov družbene odgovornosti pri organizaciji upoštevati tako specifične dejavnike zaposlenih kot specifične dejavnike organizacije same. Pri vsem pa je potrebno upoštevati dve omejitvi raziskave; prvi je omejitev vzorca zgolj na ženski spol in kot drugo metodo terenskega raziskovanja oz. vprašljivost nepristranskosti pri izpolnjevanju vprašalnikov.
Katere države imajo največji delež organizacij, ki delujejo na področju družbene odgovornosti organizacij, in kako je mogoče dejavnost družbene odgovornosti izmeriti na nacionalni ravni? Gj0lberg (2009) je v svoji raziskavi poskušala odgovoriti na ti dve vprašanji z razvojem indeksa praks družbene odgovornosti organizacij v 20 državah. Indeks je zasnovala tako, da se najprej ugotovi »državljanstvo« organizacij, ki so sprejela ali se kvalificirala za glavne globalne pobude za družbeno odgovornost organizacij ali bonitetne ocene za družbeno odgovornost organizacij. Rezultati za vsako državo so sestavljeni in tehtani, da se popravijo razlike, ki nastanejo zaradi velikosti gospodarstva teh držav.
Namen indeksa družbene odgovornosti organizacij je izmeriti izvajanje družbene odgovornosti v najširšem smislu in zajemajo poročanje o trajnosti, članstvo v organizacijah in mrežah družbene odgovornosti, prakse standardizacije in različne razvrstitve uspešnosti družbene odgovornosti organizacij po merilu trojnega dobička (Gj0lberg, 2009, str. 12).
Na začetku so vse glavne, svetovne pobude in ocene družbene odgovornosti organizacij veljale za osnovo za določanje kazalnikov za indeks. Končni izbor je temeljil na štirih glavnih merilih. Prvič, kazalnik se mora nanašati na določen vidik družbene odgovornosti organizacij (po možnosti s pristopom trojnega dobička). Drugič, kazalnik mora biti globalno in splošno uporaben. Posledično so bile izključene vse regionalne in nacionalne pobude in ocene, pa tudi sektorske in panožne pobude ter ocene. Tretjič, kazalnik mora vključevati najmanj 100 organizacij. In nenazadnje, na ravni držav morajo biti na voljo zanesljivi in primerljivi podatki. Devet pobud in ocen družbene odgovornosti organizacij je ustrezalo tem kriterijem, dobljeni indeks pa obsega štiri kategorije kazalnikov: (1) ocene, ki temeljijo na družbeno odgovornih naložbenih merilih (Dow Jones indeks trajnosti, FTSE4Good in seznam »100 najbolj trajnostnih korporacij«), (2) članstvo v skupnostih družbene odgovornosti organizacij (Globalni dogovor Združenih narodov in Svetovni poslovni svet za trajnostni razvoj), (3) prakse poročanja o trajnosti (raziskava o poročanju o trajnostnem razvoju KPMG in Globalna pobuda za poročanje) in (4) sheme certificiranja (IS014001) (Gj0lberg, 2009, str. 12). V tabeli 3 so navedeni opisi posameznih kazalnikov družbene odgovornosti organizacij .
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Tabela 3. Spremenljivke v indeksu družbene odgovornosti organizacij
Kazalnik	Opis
Trajnostni	Trajnostni indeks Dow Jones vključuje družbe z najboljšimi praksami družbene
indeks Dow	odgovornosti industrije. Ocena temelji na sodelovanju indeksov Dow Jones, STOXX
Jonesa	Limited in SAM.
FTSE4Good	Serija indeksov FTSE4Good meri uspešnost organizacij, ki izpolnjujejo standarde
globalno priznane družbene odgovornosti organizacije. Upravlja ga Odbor za politiko FTSE4Good, neodvisen organ strokovnjakov za družbeno odgovornost organizacij, akademije, upravljanja skladov in poslovanja.
Globalnih 100 Global 100 je objavljen seznam »100 najbolj trajnostnih korporacij na svetu« na letni ravni na Svetovnem gospodarskem forumu v Davosu. Seznam pripravi kanadska revija »Corporate Knights« v sodelovanju z Innovest Strategic Value Advisors, ki je vodilno raziskovalno podjetje, specializirano za analize t.i. trojnega dobička (triple-bottom-line)
in družbeno odgovorne naložbe.
Globalni	Globalni dogovor ZN je pobuda več interesnih skupin, ki si prizadevajo za napredovanje
dogovor	10 temeljnih načel s področij človekovih pravic, dela, okolja in boja proti korupciji. Gre
Združenih	za neposredno pobudo generalnega sekretarja OZN; mreža je sestavljena iz večjega
narodov	števila organizacij, pa tudi nevladnih organizacij, akademij, organov ZN in sindikatov.
Pobuda je prostovoljna; za članstvo pa ni potrebno izpolnjevati veliko posebnih zahtev.
Svetovni	WBCSD je združenje, ki ga vodi CEO 180 organizacij, ki si prizadevajo za trajnostni
poslovni svet za	razvoj. WBCSD je dejavno pri razvoju politike, zagovarjanju in razvoju najboljših praks trajnostni razvoj poslovnega vodenja na področju družbene odgovornosti. Članstvo je možno samo ob (WBCSD) povabilu in zahteva obsežne naložbe v smislu časa in virov.
Globalna pobuda GRI je standard poročanja za poročanje o trojnem dobičku. Razvit je skupaj z večjem za poročanje številom interesnih skupin, pod vodstvom GRI sekretariata. Pomembno je upoštevati (GRI)	dejstvo, da njihova baza podatkov temelji na samoporočanju, kar pomeni, da
organizacije ne poročajo nujno v skladu s standardom GRI poročanja.
KMPG mednarodna
raziskava poročanja o
družbeni odgovornosti
Raziskava KMPG je najobsežnejša te vrste, ki temelji na raziskavi praks poročanja o
družbeni odgovornosti organizacij v 100 največjih podjetjih v vsaki od 16 držav, sodelujočih v raziskavi. Metodologija zajema vprašanja trojnega dobička, izvaja pa jih KPMG v vsaki od sodelujočih držav.
SustainAbility -seznam 100 najboljših poročil o trajnostnem razvoju
SustainAbility je vodilni center, ki vsako drugo leto izbere najboljše primere dobre poročil o trajnosti. Poročila so razvrščena po številnih kazalnikih izmed 100 najboljših poročil po vsem svetu. Ta poročila organizacije po lasni odločitvi predajo v oceno
organizaciji SustainAbility.
ISO 26000* ISO 26000 je standard družbene odgovornosti, ki daje smernice družbeno odgovornega ravnanja organizacijam, ki ga je pripravila in uveljavila mednarodna organizacija za standardizacijo ISO (International Standardisation Organisation). Je splošno orodje za
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upravljanje, ki se uporablja za vse organizacije. Standard zajema politiko razvoja, načrtovanja, izvajanja, spremljanja in pregledovanja. Potrdilo izda tretja oseba -neodvisna organizacija za certificiranje ISO standardov.
Vir: Gj0lberg, 2009, str. 14, razen *ISO 26000 (dopolnitev avtorja); Gj0lberg je navajala ISO 14000.
Omejitev te raziskave se nanaša na vzorec 20 držav ter vprašljiv metodološki pristop. Avtor vseeno poudarja, da rezultati podajo dovolj zanesljive podatke, da se jih lahko povzame kot dokazane.
Hopkins (2005, str. 213) opredeljuje družbeno odgovornost organizacije kot etično ali družbeno odgovorno ravnanje z deležniki organizacije. Interesne skupine obstajajo tako znotraj organizacije kot zunaj nje. Namen družbene odgovornosti je ustvariti višje in boljše življenjske standarde ob hkratnem ohranjanju donosnosti organizacije za svoje deležnike znotraj in zunaj organizacije. Navaja, da se družbeno odgovornost meri na podlagi treh ravni v organizaciji Hopkins (2005, str. 215 - 216):
Raven 1: načela družbene odgovornosti
Raven uporabe teh načel je institucionalna in temelji na osnovnih obveznostih organizacije kot poslovne organizacije. Njegova vrednost je, da določa institucionalni odnos med organizacijo in družbo ter določa, kaj se pričakuje od vsake organizacije. Vključuje tri glavne elemente:
•	Legitimnost, ki se nanaša na organizacijo kot družbeno institucijo in je okvir analitičnega pogleda na medsebojno povezanost poslovanja in družbe.
•	Javna odgovornost, ki zadeva posamezno organizacijo ter njegove procese in rezultate v okviru njegovih načel glede na to, kaj dejansko počne.
•	Vodstvena diskrecija, pri kateri so managerji in drugi pomembni zaposleni moralni akterji. Znotraj vseh področij družbene odgovornosti organizacij so dolžni ravnati po lastni presoji do družbeno odgovornih rezultatov.
Raven 2: procesi družbene odzivnosti
Družbena odzivnost organizacij je sposobnost organizacije, da se odzove na družbene pritiske. To kaže na sposobnost poslovne organizacije, da preživi s prilagoditvijo na svoje poslovno okolje. Za to mora vedeti čim več o tem poslovnem okolju, biti sposoben analizirati svoje podatke in se odzvati na rezultate te analize. Toda poslovno okolje ni statično; gre za zapleten in vedno spreminjajoč se splet okoliščin. Za uspešno pregledovanje, razumevanje in odzivanje na spremembe v poslovnem okolju so potrebni enako zapleteni mehanizmi. Kot osnovne elemente te ravni modela družbene odgovornosti Hopkins navaja tri elemente:
•	Skeniranje poslovnega okolja, ki kaže na sposobnost zbiranja informacij in prenos zbranih informacij po vsej organizaciji.
•	Upravljanje deležnikov. Interesna skupina je opredeljena kot vsaka skupina ali posameznik, ki lahko vpliva ali nanj vpliva doseganje ciljev organizacije, na primer:
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lastniki, dobavitelji, zaposleni, kupci, konkurenti, domače in tuje vlade, neprofitne organizacije, skupine za varstvo okolja in potrošnikov in drugi. Upravljanje z interesnimi skupinami se nanaša na preslikavo odnosov interesnih skupin do organizacije (in med seboj).
•	Upravljanje z vprašanji. Ko so jasna motivacijska načela organizacije in so določena identiteta, odnosi in moč deležnikov, se je potrebno osredotočiti na glavna vprašanja, ki zadevajo deležnike.
Raven 3: rezultati družbene odgovornosti
Glavni poudarek merjenja je tretja raven modela družbene odgovornosti organizacije. Da bi ugotovili, ali »družbena odgovornost organizacij res naredi razliko«, morajo biti v katerokoli oceno uspešnosti vključene vse ustrezne interesne skupine. Učinki so razvrščeni v tri glavne kategorije:
•	Notranji učinki deležnikov so tisti, ki vplivajo na deležnike v organizaciji. Njihova preučitev pokaže, kako korporativni etični kodeks preko vsakodnevnega odločanja organizacije vpliva na družbeno odgovornost organizacije.
•	Učinki zunanjih deležnikov zadevajo vpliv dejavnosti organizacije na osebe ali skupine zunaj organizacije. To lahko vključuje negativne in pozitivne učinke.
•	Zunanji institucionalni učinki se nanašajo na učinke na večjo poslovno institucijo in ne na katerokoli interesno skupino.
Hopkins (2005, str. 218) je v svoji raziskavi navedel 6 glavnih kazalnikov, ki merijo družbeno odgovornost organizacij; vsak od njih ima svoje prednosti in omejitve. Navedeni in opisani so v Tabeli 4.
Tabela 4. 6 glavnih kazalnikov za merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij
Kazalnik
Opis
Omejitve
Business in the Je prostovoljno samoocenjevanje na letni ravni, ki omogoča Community letno primerjavo med organizacijami, kako upravljajo, merijo (BiTC)	in poročajo o svoji družbeni odgovornosti. Indeks temelji na
okviru štirih komponent: (1) Korporativna strategija (proučuje vpliv narave dejavnosti organizacije na vrednote organizacije), (2) Integracija družbene odgovornosti organizacij (kako organizacije organizirajo, upravljajo in vključujejo družbeno odgovornost v svojem poslovanju), (3) upravljanje družbene odgovornosti organizacij (kako organizacija upravlja odnose s svojimi interesnimi skupinami), (4) uspešnost in učinki (prikazuje uspešnost organizacij na različnih družbenih in okolijskih področjih).
Ni podanih konkretnih podatkov o izmerjenih vrednosti kazalnikov.
FTSE4good Skupina FTSE (Financial Times Stock Exchange) je postavila	Zelo kompliciran model.
mednarodno priznano skupino indeksov FTSE4Good, ki daje	Ni določenih kazalnikov,
vlagateljem priložnost, da vlagajo v organizacije, ki	kako se jih izmeri; bolj izpolnjujejo globalno priznane standarde družbene koncept, kdo je "in" in
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	odgovornosti. Merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij s tremi kazalniki: (1) prizadevanja za okolijsko trajnost, (2) razvijanje pozitivnih odnosov z zainteresiranimi stranmi, (3) podpiranje splošnih človekovih pravic.	kdo je "out".
Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI)	Indekse DJSI upravlja podjetje SAM (Sustainable Asset Management) s sedežem v Zürichu. Ocenjujejo družbeno odgovornost vodilnih trajnostnih organizacij DJSI STOXX za organizacije iz različnih panog. Družbeno odgovornost organizacij merijo z naslednjimi kazalniki: trajnostna poročila, okolijska poročila, poročila o varnosti in zdravju, socialna poročila, letna finančna poročila, posebna poročila, kot so upravljanje intelektualnega kapitala, korporativno upravljanje, raziskave in razvoj, odnosi z zaposlenimi, vsi ostali viri informacij o organizaciji (kot so notranja dokumentacija, brošure in spletna mesta).	Preobsežni vprašalniki in pojasnila. Ni oprijemljivih podatkov, meritev ali kazalnikov.
Business Ethics 100	S pomočjo socialnih ocen, ki jih je sestavil KLD Research & Analytics iz Bostona - skupaj s skupnim donosom delničarjev - razvršča organizacije po storitvah v sedem skupin deležnikov: delničarji, skupnost, manjšine in ženske, zaposleni, okolje, interesne skupine izven ZDA, in kupci. Kazalniki za merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij s petih področij: okolje, odnosi v skupnosti, odnosi z zaposlenimi, raznolikost, odnosi s strankami.	Nima konceptualnega okvirja.
AccountAbility (AA) Rating®	Ocena učenja in inovacij je uporabljena z merjenjem treh notranjih področij strateških namenov, upravljanja in poslovodenje ter treh "zunanjih" področij interesnih skupin oz. njihovo vključevanje, zagotavljanje in javno razkritje.	Metoda in kazalniki niso na voljo brezplačno. Ni konkretnih podatkov o izmerjenih kazalnikih.
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)	Uporablja obsežen nabor kazalcev za merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij in jih razvrsti glede na tri dimenzije trajnosti: gospodarsko, okolijsko in socialno.	Nima konceptualnega okvirja. Ni konkretnih podatkov o izmerjenih kazalnikih.
Vir: Hopkins, 2GG5, str. 218 - 226.
Luo in Bhattacharya (2006, str. 5) kot kazalnik za merjenje družbene odgovornosti uporabljata FAMA (Fortune America's Most Admired Corporations), ki je opredeljen kot dejavnosti organizacije in status, povezan z družbenimi ali deležniškimi obveznostmi. Gre razvrščanje najbolj spoštovanih korporacij v Združenih državah Amerike, na podlagi vsakoletnega anketiranja več kot 10.000 finančnih analitikov, višjih direktorjev in vlagateljev na Wall Streetu iz več kot 580 velikih podjetij. FAMA vsako leto v posamezni organizaciji izbere ocene (rating) družbene odgovornosti organizacije in so narejene v intervalnem merilu od 0 do 10. Najvišja ocena je 10; ocene predstavljajo primerjavo med glavnimi konkurenčnimi organizacijami v dani panogi. Avtorja navajata, da so že drugi avtorji potrdili zadostno zanesljivost in veljavnost tega kazalnika, v ZDA pa velja FAMA za eno najbolj
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obsežnih in široko razširjenih raziskav, ki so na voljo. Kakovost in število anketirancev sta vsaj primerljivi, če ne celo boljši v primerjavi z ostalimi strokovnimi paneli, ki se ustanovijo z namenom merjenja družbene odgovornosti organizacij (Luo & Bhattacharya, 2006, str. 5). Takšen način merjenja je sprejemljiv za organizacije v ZDA, ki kotirajo na newyorški borzi; za ostale ni uporaben.
Perez in Rodríguez del Bosque (2013, str. 269) sta v svoji raziskavi izhajala iz tradicionalnih dimenzij družbene odgovornosti organizacij v različnih teorijah.
Tabela 5. Konceptualizacija družbene odgovornosti organizacije: vidiki in dimenzije
Metodološki vidik	Izbran teoretski pristop	Dimenzije družbene odgovornosti organizacij
Enodimenzionalni pristop	Globalna definicija družbene odgovornosti organizacij	Družbena, okolijska ali filantropska
Večdimenzionalen pristop	Piramidni sistem družbene odgovornosti organizacij	Ekonomska, pravna, etična in filantropska
	Teorija trajnostnega razvoja	Ekonomska, okolijska, družbena
	Teorija upravljanja z deležniki	Deležniki, kupi, zaposleni, družba, ostali
Vir: Perez, Rodríguez del Bosque, 2013, str. 269.
Razvila in potrdila pa sta svoj kazalnik merjenja družbene odgovornosti organizacij, ki je skladen s prejšnjimi študijami, ki so temeljile na različnih teoretičnih okvirih. Ti klasični modeli družbeno odgovornost organizacije obravnavajo kot skupek gospodarskih, pravnih, etičnih in filantropičnih odgovornosti ali kot vsoto gospodarskih, socialnih in okolijskih vprašanj organizacij. Lestvica, potrjena v raziskavi Pereza in Rodruguez del Bosque, deli podobo družbene odgovornosti glede na deležnike, ki koristijo rezultate družbene odgovornosti. Podoba družbene odgovornosti je nato razdeljena na štiri dimenzije: kupce, delničarje in nadzorni odbori, zaposleni in družba. Avtorja sta z oblikovanjem te lestvice prispevala tudi k znanju o podobi družbene odgovornosti organizacij v smislu, da je večina predlogov za merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij razvita na teoretični ravni, medtem ko je le malo raziskav empirično analiziralo dojemanje družbene odgovornosti organizacij s strani deležnikov (Perez, Rodríguez del Bosque, 2013, str. 281). Upoštevati je potrebno še omejitve njune raziskave, in sicer to, da v analizo niso bili vključeni vsi možni deležniki organizacij , temveč samo najpogosteje navedeni (za prihodnje tudi sama avtorja predlagata vključitev tudi dobaviteljev in vlade), ter da je bila izvedena v času mednarodne finančne krize, kar je zagotovo vplivalo na rezultate, tega vpliva pa ni bilo možno izključiti.
Turker (2009, str. 411 - 427) v svoji raziskavi navaja, da se družbeno odgovornost organizacij meri z načinom, kako organizacija vpliva na svoje deležnike. Prvi deležnik je družba nasploh, na primer okolje, prihodnost naslednjih generacij. Drugi deležnik vključuje zaposlene ter z njimi povezano etiko ter politiko, ki jih organizacija izvaja v zvezi z njimi. Tretji deležnik so
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kupci, za katere se oceni družbeno odgovornost organizacij na podlagi njihovega dostojanstva glede spoštovanja cen, kakovosti izdelkov in ustreznih informacij. Zadnja skupina deležnikov je vlada, kjer je pomembna etična komponenta glede plačevanja davkov in upoštevanja zakonov. Omejitev njegove raziskave je v tem, da v njo niso zajeti vsi deležniki, ampak samo glavni štirje in med njimi samo izbrani.
Glavas in Kelley (2014, str. 191) sta v svoji raziskavi vpliva družbene odgovornosti organizacij na zaposlene izmerila zaznavanje udeležencev družbene odgovornosti organizacij s pomočjo lestvice PCSR (Perceived Corporate Social Responsibility oz. zaznane družbene odgovornosti organizacije). Slednja meri dve dimenziji družbene odgovornosti organizacije. Prva je družbena dimenzija, ki jo merijo s prednostno nalogo dobrega počutja deležnikov (zaposlenih, kupcev, dobaviteljev in družba), druga dimenzija pa so okolijska vprašanja kot del strategije in vsakodnevnega delovanja organizacije, izogibanje škodovanju okolju ter doseganje svojih kratkoročnih ciljev ob osredotočenosti na svoj vpliv na okolje.
Družbeno odgovornost in etiko pri vodstvenih odločitvah so raziskovali Stovall, Neill in Reid (2006, str. 174), ki poudarjajo, da se merjenje in upoštevanje etike in družbene odgovornosti organizacij spodbuja na dva načina. Kot prvo so poudarili koristnost uporabe institucionalne ekonomske teorije za analizo učinkovitosti etike in kazalnikov družbene odgovornosti organizacij. Institucionalna ekonomija namreč ponuja teoretični okvir za oceno možnih ovir za široko sprejetje in izvajanje takšnih sistemov. Kot drugo pa pravna analiza, kakršna je bila opravljena v njihovem delu, nudi zagovornikom etičnih in kazalnikov družbene odgovornosti dragocene informacije o praktičnosti njihovih predlogov. Kot glavno omejitev svoje raziskave omenjajo konflikt interesov pri etičnih zadevah - v primerih, ko merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij pokaže za organizacijo manj ugodne rezultate ali celo v nasprotju z etičnimi načeli ali zakoni.
Standard ISO 26000 (ISO 26000:2010, str. 26) definira družbeno odgovornost tako: »Družbena odgovornost je odgovornost organizacije za vplive svojih odločitev in dejavnosti na družbo in okolje, da s preglednim in etičnim ravnanjem prispeva k trajnostnemu razvoju, vključno z zdravjem in blaginjo družbe, upošteva pričakovanja deležnikov, je v skladu z veljavno zakonodajo in mednarodnimi normami delovanja ter je integrirana v celotno organizacijo in jo izvaja v svojih odnosih.«. Vendar pa je merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij izjemno kompleksno področje, ki zahteva veliko časa in denarja zaposlenih v organizaciji, ki so zadolženi za to področje, hkrati pa je nabor možnih kazalnikov zelo širok in v mnogih primerih manj primeren za določene države in organizacije. Večina kazalnikov za merjenje družbene odgovornosti organizacij v analizirali literaturi je primernih in ustreznih za velike multinacionalke na finančno zelo razvitih in stabilnih trgih. Manjša gospodarstva in države bi morale uporabljati merila, kot so ISO 26000, EFQM itd., ki so standardizirana in omogočajo primerljivost med organizacijami.
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5 Zaključek
Družbena odgovornost organizacij je eden najvidnejših konceptov v literaturi in kaže pozitivne vplive organizacij na njihove deležnike. Kljub vse večjemu številu literature o tem konceptu je merjenje še vedno problematično. Čeprav literatura ponuja več metod za merjenje družbenih dejavnosti organizacij, imajo skoraj vse nekatere omejitve.
Družbeno odgovornost organizacij je težko izmeriti, saj pri njem ne gre samo za finančne kazalnike in številčni prikaz uspešnosti. Kljub temu ga mnogi deležniki želijo izmeriti. Razlogi so različni, vsi pa vodijo v povečevanje finančne uspešnosti organizacije.
Pregled literature v tem članku je pokazal, da enotnega kazalnika za merjenje družbene odgovornosti ni. Obstaja mnogo kazalnikov, ki so lahko med seboj neskladni, neprimerljivi, pri nekaterih je celo vprašljiva njihova zanesljivost in veljavnost. Nekateri so mednarodno priznani, drugi so certificirani s strani neodvisnih organizacij, tretji se uporabljajo samo na nacionalnih ravneh itd. Deležniki pa po lastni presoji izbirajo, katerim metodam merjenja in kazalnikom zaupajo in se na podlagi njih odločajo.
Originalnost članka je v predstavitvi pregleda različnih metod merjenja družbene odgovornosti organizacij. Omejitev postavlja omejen in nekoliko zastarel pregled obstoječe literature s področja družbene odgovornosti organizacije in njenega merjenja, saj je pojem trajnostne naravnanosti s časom prevladal nad družbeno odgovornostjo organizacij v evropskem in svetovnem merilu.
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Alen Lazič je leta 2006 diplomiral na Fakulteti za kemijo in kemijsko tehnologijo in pridobil naziv Diplomirani varnostni inženir. Od leta 2014 je zaposlen v podjetju Hidroelektrarne na Spodnji Savi, d.o.o., kjer opravlja delo samostojnega inženirja za varnost in zdravje pri delu ter je imenovani koordinator izgradnje HE Brežice. Od leta 2018 nadaljuje podiplomski študij Menedžmenta kakovosti na Fakulteti za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu.
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Abstract:
Measurement of Corporate Social Responsibility
Research Question (RQ): How should corporate social responsible organizations measure Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)?
Purpose: The purpose of this article is to discuss what Corporate Social Responsibility is and to determine CSR indicators and how they are measured.
Method: Thematic analysis of the scientific literature review by the method of integrative thematic analysis of qualitative data.
Results: Measuring CSR implies a set of different indicators from different areas of business. There is no single indicator for measuring social responsibility. There are many indicators that may even be inconsistent and incomparable. It depends on the stakeholders which measurement methods and indicators they will trust.
Organization: The methods of measuring CSR presented in the article enable management of organizations to properly communicate their social responsibility to satisfy requirements, needs, and wishes of various stakeholders, which in turn also leads to successful financial performance of an organization.
Society: Indicators that measure social responsibility indicate the organization's impact on the environment, society and the economy.
Originality: Presentation of an overview of ways to measure CSR.
Limitations / Further Research: Search criteria limitation for original and reviewed scientific articles were: 2005 to 2018, accessibility of the full text of the articles and language of the text Slovenian or English. No research was done. In the continuation of the research, it is proposed to investigate the actual use and prevalence of different methods of measuring CSR in different countries or market economies.
Keywords: corporate social responsibility (CSR), measurement, indicators.
Copyright (c) 2020 Alen LAZIČ
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
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DOI: 10.37886/ip.2020.008
Vloga žensk v organizaciji
Lidija Bijek*
Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu, Novi trg 5, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija
lidij a.bij ek@gmail.com
Povzetek:
Raziskovalno vprašanje (RV): Ali ženske v organizacijah še vedno nimajo enakih možnosti in se težje dokazujejo kot moški, ter ali morajo biti ženske zelo močne, iznajdljive ter vztrajne, da lahko uskladijo družinsko življenje in kariero.
Namen: Namen članka je raziskati položaj ženske v organizaciji, odkriti težave s katerimi se srečujejo pri svoji poklicni karieri, obrazložiti naravno vlogo žensk in neenakopravnost med spoloma pri usklajevanju s plačanim delom. Zaradi stereotipov prihaja do diskriminacije na delovnem mestu v nekaterih sektorjih pa tudi na področju plač. Cilj je opredeliti pojem organizacije in ženske v njem ter usklajevanje ženske na različnih področjih in kakšna je vloga ženske v primerjavi z moško vlogo.
Metoda: Za raziskavo smo uporabili metodo kvalitativne analize, ki temelji na vsebinski analizi različnih člankov iz obstoječe literature domačih avtorjev. Uporabili smo kvalitativno metodo, metodo kompilacije, s katero smo povzeli rezultate drugih avtorjev na omenjeno tematiko. Rezultati: Ugotovljeni rezultati raziskave kažejo, da se v današnji družbi ženske vse bolj uveljavljajo v organizacijah, prav tako pri napredovanju, saj usklajujejo kariero ter družinsko življenje.
Organizacija: Rezultati raziskave ponujajo različnim organizacijam in drugim ustanovam informacije za delovanje v smeri ravnanja pri odnosih do zaposlenih.
Družba: Ugotovitve raziskave bodo vplivale na trajnostni razvoj družbe iz dveh vidikov in sicer gospodarskega ter družbenega.
Originalnost: V teoretičnem delu raziskave smo na enem mestu strnjeno predstavili raziskovalna in praktična spoznanja o vlogi ženske v organizaciji. Originalnost raziskave je v analizi različnih člankov in literature .
Omejitve/nadaljnje raziskovanje: Kvalitativna raziskava o vlogi žensk v organizaciji ima metodološke in vsebinske omejitve. Podali smo predloge za nadaljnje raziskovanje na področju neenakosti v podjetjih in drugih organizacijah s poudarkom na njihovem upravljanju in zastopanosti v vršnem menedžmentu.
Ključne besede: ženska, javni sektor, vloga, poslovni svet, ekonomski položaj, razlike, kariera, diskriminacija
* Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author
Prejeto: 10. marec 2020; revidirano: 20. marec 2020; sprejeto: 24. marec2020. / Received: 10th March2020; revised: 20th March 2020; accepted: 24th March 2020.
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1 Uvod
Danes, ko se način življenja tako hitro spreminja in odvija, ko se stvari v njem tako hitro spreminjajo skoraj vsakodnevno se tudi vloga ženske spreminja in je drugačna kot je bila nekoč. V tako hitro spreminjajočem se okolju, ki je veliko poudarka le na materialnih dobrinah in želja po čim večjem ugledu, se spreminjajo tudi osnovni vzorci družin in razmerja med žensko in moškim. V prejšnjem stoletju so tradicionalno prevladovali in vladali le moški, ob koncu 20. stoletja pa so prišle v veljavo tudi ženske, kjer so se vse več vključevale v podjetništvo in razvoj ter razvijale kariero. Pregovor pravi za uspešnim moškim stoji uspešna ženska in danes veliko žensk zavzemajo vodilne položaje v podjetjih in navsezadnje tudi v politiki. Se pa moramo strinjati, da ženske v družbi nimajo še enakovredne vloge, statusa in moči. Slovenija sledi v trendu množičnega zaposlovanja drugim državam v svetu. Po zadnjih podatkih so ženske že dohitele moške v izobraževanju, kar je posledično materinstvo postavljeno na poznejši čas. Vzrok so tradicionalna, stereotipna prepričanja o ženski in moški vlogi, razlikah v socializaciji in drugih razlikah med spoloma. Ženske so kategorija prebivalstva, ki jim na področju zaposlovanja posvečamo posebno pozornost. Delodajalci žensko delovno silo večinoma pojmujejo kot manj zanesljivo od moške, kar vodi do slabših delovnih pogojev, manjših možnosti napredovanja in investicij v izobraževanje tega kadra ter do razlik v osebnih dohodkih. Najvišje menedžerske položaje naj bi zasedali dobri menedžerji ne glede na spol, zato se trend vse bolj premika v prid ženskam, ki uspešno usklajujejo družinsko življenje s službo.
Namen članka je raziskati položaj ženske v organizaciji, odkriti težave s katerimi se srečujejo pri svoji poklicni karieri, obrazložiti naravno vlogo žensk in neenakopravnost med spoloma pri usklajevanju s plačanim delom. Zaradi stereotipov prihaja do diskriminacije na delovnem mestu v nekaterih sektorjih pa tudi na področju plač.
Cilj je opredeliti pojem organizacije in ženske v njem ter usklajevanje ženske na različnih področjih in kakšna je vloga ženske v primerjavi z moško vlogo. Vpliv žensk na razvoj podjetništva je precejšen, saj postajajo vir sprememb in inovacij, rešujejo problem brezposelnosti ter prispevajo k razvoju družbe. Kljub temu pa se podjetnice pri ustanavljanju in vodenju podjetja srečujejo z veliko večjimi ovirami in problemi kakor podjetniki. Srečujejo se z ovirami na finančnem področju, s psihološkimi ovirami, kot so pomanjkanje samozavesti in dokazovanje v »moškem svetu«, s konfliktom delo - družina, pomanjkanjem podpornih mehanizmov, kot so vrtci, ter s pomanjkljivim poslovnim znanjem.
Raziskava na področju vloge žensk v organizaciji je že vsa leta pereč problem ne samo v Sloveniji, pač pa tudi po svetu, zato je raziskava pomembna na tem področju pomembna.
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2rr	> • v	• i i *v v
Teoretična izhodišča 2.1 Ženske v organizaciji
Ženske se pojavljajo v literaturi o menedžmentu od 70. let 20. stoletja naprej. Do takrat so teorije o menedžmentu pisali v glavnem moški avtorji za moške bralce. Šele v začetku 70. let prejšnjega stoletja se je predvidevalo, da ženskam zaradi socializacije in slabe izobrazbe primanjkuje sposobnosti in strokovne usposobljenosti za prevzemanje menedžerskih poslov. Že desetletje kasneje pa so se pojavili številni avtorji, ki so poudarjali, da so ženske spretnosti res drugačne od moških, vendar je to za podjetja kvečjemu koristno in da so ženske s svojimi specifičnimi znanji lahko zelo dobre menedžerke (Kanjuo Mrčela 1996, 31). Študije dokazujejo, da bi bila ženska bolj uspešna v vlogi menedžeija kot moški. Zametki ideje so v tem, da je materinska vloga zelo zahtevna in zahteva podobne sposobnosti in veščine kot so menedžerske. Potrebno je organizirati življenje, tempo življenja, reševati konflikte v družini, se učiti, voditi, opazovati in informirati. Že v ranem otroštvu se začnejo pojavljati razlike v vzgoji med spoloma. Za fantke je pomembno predvsem zmagovati (Kanjuo Mrčela 1996, 88). Ženske doživljajo, uporabljajo in gledajo na moč drugače. Enačijo jo z dajanjem in skrbijo za druge, medtem ko jo moški bolj enačijo z napadalnostjo in potrjevanjem samega sebe (Konte 1990, 46 - 47).
»Kar danes poznamo kot tradicionalno delitev dela in tradicionalno določene spolne vloge, se je oblikovalo skupaj s procesi industrializacije. Produkcija se je ločila od potrošnje in delovno mesto od doma. Dom in družina sta dobila oznako »zasebne«, delo in udejstvovanje v življenju izven doma pa »javne« sfere. Prostorska ločitev doma in dela je otežila vključevanje žensk v delovno silo. Vloga ženske je postajala vedno bolj usmerjena na družino, njeno sodelovanje v javni sferi pa izredno omejeno« (Černigoj-Sadar 1991, 53).
»Ne samo menedžerke, ampak vse ženske naletijo na dilemo, čemu se v letih najvišje rodnosti in najvišje ustvarjalnosti odreči, materinstvu ali karieri. Ko se ženska odloči za materinstvo, manj časa in moči usmeri v ustvarjanje kariere (v primeru zaposlenosti), ko pa se ženska odloči na kariero, v času svoje ustvarjalnosti napreduje in ko enkrat doseže stekleni strop in ugotovi, da ni več izzivov, da je dosegla vse, se zave, da je za otroke skoraj prepozno in da že ima drug stil življenja. Posledično temu se leta rojstva prvega otroka višajo« (Kužet 2003, 13).
Vodilna delovna mesta so ena najbolj plačanih delovnih mest v sodobni družbi. Ljudi, ki zasede takšna delovna mesta, je malo. Ženske so v veliki manjšini. Pripadnost spolu ženskam onemogoča ali otežuje doseganje visokih položajev. »Čeprav so ženske vsaj toliko sposobne kot moški, empirični podatki kažejo, da ženske še vedno ne dobivajo najodgovornejših delovnih mest in nalog v podjetju.« (Jaklič, 1999, str. 300) Ženske so zaposlene na nižjih, slabše plačanih delovnih mestih. Opravljajo manj pomembna dela, ki zahtevajo manj odgovornosti in dajejo manj družbene moči in vpliva (Cigale, 1992, str. 40). Za ženske so rezervirane vloge: pasivnost, nežnost, čustvenost, odvisnost in sodelovanje. Moškim pripadajo vloge, ki odražajo samozavest, ambicioznost, dinamičnost, iniciativnost, moč in
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agresivnost. Ženske so potisnjene zaradi biološko reproduktivne vloge v zasebno sfero. Dostop do javne sfere jim je otežen, saj je to področje rezervirano za moške. Število žensk na pomembnih položajih je majhno. Obstaja nevidna pregrada, stekleni strop, ki se nahaja med srednjim in višjim delovnim položajem. Sestavljena je iz prepričanj in tradicij, ki ženskam onemogočijo zasesti najpomembnejša delovna mesta in jim tako otežujejo napredovanje (Abraham, 2005, str. 16).
2.2 Družbena vloga ženske
Dela, ki jih opravljajo ženske, so v družbi slabše ovrednotena, tako da imajo tudi v dimenzije družbene stratifikacije, npr. izobrazbo, poklic, dohodek ali moč, lahko ugotovimo njihovo odvisnost od kulturno določene vloge: moški in ženske nimajo izobrazbe enake vrste (npr. koncentracija moških na tehničnih, žensk pa na humanističnih in družboslovnih fakultetah), prav tako obstajajo poklici, segregirani po spolu, ki jih opravljata spola. Tudi zunaj privatne sfere ženske navadno opravljajo dela, ki so nadaljevanje domačih opravil (skrb za druge, storitvene dejvnosti itd.). Ženske so v glavnem za svoje delo manj plačane in v primerjavi z moškimi imajo manjšo moč (Kanjulo-Mrčela 1996, str. 40).
Ko govorimo o družbeni strukturi, govorimo o družbi, v kateri posamezniki-ce, glede na različne lastnosti, ki jih imajo, zavzemajo različne položaje, opravljajo različne družbene vloge in imajo različen status in moč. Vsak posameznik-ca opravlja določeno število družbenih vlog in si s tem zagotavlja svoje mesto v družbi. Spol, oziroma kulturno opredeljen spol (gender), vpliva na izbiro in opravljanje družbenih vlog posameznikov/posameznic in ju določa. Kultura določene družbe določa, katere vloge so (ne)spremenljive za pripadnike-ce posameznega spola. V moderni družbi so vloge, ki naj bi jih opravljale ženske, povezane z (družbeno nižje ovrednotenim) privatnim življenjem, moški pa naj bi opravljali vloge v javnem. Takšna razdelitev je utemeljena z argumentom o "naravnosti" in naravni, biološko določeni povezanosti žensk z domom, otroki in družino, čeprav številne raziskave dokazujejo, da ženske in moški v različnih družbah/kulturah opravljajo različne vloge (niso povsem "naravno" determinirani za določene vloge) in da v moderni družbi ženske ne živijo samo v sferi privatnosti (konstantna navzočnost žensk v sferi plačanega dela). Tudi če ženska opravlja katerokoli drugo družbeno vlogo, od nje pričakujejo, da bo opravljala tudi svoje "primarne", "naravne" vloge (vlogi matere, gospodinje) (Polenik, 2013, str. 9).
2.3. Neenakost med spoloma
Zaradi neenakosti je, tako ženskam kot moškim, omejen dostop do cele vrste človekovih in družbenih možnosti ter dejavnosti; onemogočeno je spolno uresničevanje njihovih pravic, razvoja njihovih potencialov in opravljanja obveznosti. Zaradi določenih bioloških značilnosti se ženskam pripisujejo tudi določene družbene vloge. Ženske zaradi materinstva in družbenih pričakovanj, glede vloge matere, več časa namenjajo skrbi za dom in družino in so zato pogosto prikrajšane za kariero in uspeh v poklicnem življenju. Zaradi določenih značilnosti in pričakovanj, ki se v družbi bolj pripisujejo moškim, na primer agresivnost, ambicioznost,
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dominantnost, učinkovitost, voditeljsko vedenje, neodvisnost od drugih ljudi, se le-ti težje uveljavljajo in so zato prikrajšani na področjih, povezanih z vzgojo in skrbjo, tako v zasebnem kot poklicnem življenju (Polenik, 2013, str. 10).
2.4. Ženski in moški stil vodenja
Ženske prinašajo v organizacije specifične lastnosti, ki so jih oblikovale od obdobja lovsko-nabiralnih skupnosti, saj so že od takrat navajene delati ponavljajoča se dela in so se naučile uživati v procesu dela. Materinska vloga zahteva zelo podobne spretnosti kot managerska: organizacijo, tempo, uravnovešenje konfliktnih zahtev, učenje, vodenje, usmerjanje, opazovanje, ravnanje z motnjami, informiranje. Vire razlik med spoloma pravzaprav razvijamo že v otroštvu, saj se dečki in deklice igrajo različne igre. Medtem ko je dečkom najpomembneje zmagovati, je deklicam bistveno sodelovati. Tako je za moške značilna hierarhična managerska struktura, za ženske pa struktura pajčevine. Ženski princip opredeljuje management kot krožni proces, pri čemer je managerka v centru, ne pa tako kot pri moških, ko je manager na vrhu, pod njim pa hierarhija. Poznan je tudi stil vodenja, za katerega je značilna kombinacija obeh stilov in se imenuje androgeni stil vodenja. Ker od vsakega stila povzema najboljše lastnosti, bi moral biti najučinkovitejši, saj je bolj prožen in zato ustreznejši za večje število situacij (Kanjulo- Mrčela 1996, str. 88).
Raziskave, s katerimi so primerjali moške in ženske na vodstvenih položajih, so pokazale, da je v menedžerski učinkovitosti in uspešnosti enih in drugih veliko več podobnosti kakor razlik. Kjer pa že obstajajo, se ne kažejo v načinu vodenja, ampak so razlogi zanje naslednji: majhno število žensk na vodilnih položajih, osebnostne poteze, predsodki, diskriminacija, različni življenj ski cikli in dodatne obremenitve menedžerk v primerjavi z njihovimi moškimi kolegi. Številne takšne razlike veljajo za slabosti, zato ovirajo poklicno napredovanje žensk v menedžmentu (Linehan 2001, str. 44).
Linehan-ova navaja tudi druge ovire, ki ženskim menedžerkam preprečujejo napredovanje na visoke položaje v domačem in mednarodnem menedžmentu:
•	odgovornost za usklajevanje domačega življenja in poklicne kariere;
•	izločenost in osamljenost;
•	stalna osveščenost, da si ženska v moškem svetu;
•	nenehno dokazovanje svojih sposobnosti drugim;
•	dejstvo, da mora ženska trše delati in biti boljša od moških kolegov (Linehan 2001,
•	str. 102).
3 Metoda
Za raziskavo smo uporabili metodo kvalitativne analize, ki temelji na vsebinski analizi različnih člankov iz obstoječe literature tujih in domačih avtorjev. Uporabili smo kvalitativno metodo, metodo kompilacije, s katero smo povzeli rezultate drugih avtorjev na omenjeno
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tematiko. Članke smo prebrali in po ključnih besedah analizirali. Gre za integrativni pregled literature .
Na splošno smo opredelili kakšno vlogo imajo ženske v organizaciji, kakšna je razlika med ženskim in moškim načinom vodenja. Iskanje virov za pripravo preglednega članka je potekala z uporabo Google Učenjaka.
Pri iskanju smo uporabili ključne besede ženske v managementu, vloga žensk v organizaciji. Pregled literature temelji na konceptualni strukturi, ki križno preveri na posamezni, skupinski, vodstveni in organizacijski ravni v smislu menedžment delovnega stresa, menedžment dobrega počujta ali kompetence za menedžerje dobrega počutja. Članke, ki smo jih uporabili pri raziskovalnem delu in ki so objavljeni v revijah z faktorjem vpliva so podani v spodnji tabelil:
Tabela 1. Seznam uporabljenih člankov z faktorji vpliva
Avtor	Naslov članka	Faktor vpliva
Terry C. Blum, Dail L. Fields, Jodi S. Goodman (1994)	Organization-level determinants of women in management	/
Bostjancic (2010)	Job satisfaction, life orientation and perception of family role -Comparison between women employed in public sector and in economy	1,02
Kenneth W. Thomas and Gail Fann Thomas (2007)	Conflict styles of men and women at six organization levels	1,0
Felice N. Schwartz (2015)	Management women and the new facts of life	1,0
George e. Stevens (1980)	Women as managers: attitudes and attributions for performance by men and women	/
Aparna Mitra (2003)	Breaking the Glass Ceiling: African-American Women in Management Positions	/
Virginia E. Schein (2007)	Women in management: reflections and projections	/
Puntar A., Markic M. (2018)	Neenakost kakovosti ženskega dela in izzivi za menedžment	/
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4 Razprava
Članki, ki smo jih uporabili pri raziskovalnem delu so v spodnji tabeli 2.
Tabela 2. Seznam uporabljenih člankov
Avtor	Naslov članka
Terry C. Blum, Dail L. Fields, Jodi S. Goodman	Organization-level determinants of women in
(1994)	management
Bostjancic (2010)	Job satisfaction, life orientation and perception
	of family role - Comparison between women
	employed in public sector and in economy
Kenneth W. Thomas and Gail Fann Thomas	Conflict styles of men and women at six
(2007)	organization levels
Felice N. Schwartz (2015)	Management women and the new facts of life
George e. Stevens (1980)	Women as managers: attitudes and attributions
	for performance by men and women
Aparna Mitra (2003)	Breaking the Glass Ceiling: African-American
	Women in Management Positions
Virginia E. Schein (2007)	Women in management: reflections and
	projections
Puntar A., Markic M. (2018)	Neenakost kakovosti ženskega dela in izzivi za
	menedžment
Raziskava je pokazala, se v organizacijah vse bolj izkazujejo ženske na vodilni položajih. Dandanes se na mnogih delovnih mestih srečujemo z različnimi in hitrimi spremembami. Največji vpliv pa ima država z zakoni in določili, delodajalec s politiko na delovnem mestu. Vse več žensk se na delovnih mesti bori za moške poklice. Raziskava pa je pokazala, da je vse več ženske bolj uspešnih od moških.
V delu avtorja Terry C. Blum, Dail L. Fields, Jodi S. Goodman (1994), ki pravi, da vloge žensk v organizaciji vse bolj zapolnjujejo vodstvene položaje. Na primer, podjetja, ki potrebujejo vodje, ki imajo znanje o določenih računalniških aplikacijah, lahko ugotovijo, da ženske prevladujejo pri ponudbi kandidatov z želenimi izkušnjami, čeprav je večina obstoječih direktorjev moški, sem mnenja, da sta danes oba spola upravičena do lastnih želja, interesov in ciljev. Ženske lahko zavrnejo vlogo matere in žene in se preživljajo same. Samostojno se odločajo o tem, kako bodo živele in prihranile denar. Skratka, postajajo neodvisne, kar je ravno nasprotno s tradicionalno vlogo, ko je o njej odločal oče in kasneje mož. Ženske se ne podrejajo več moški spolni prevladi, odločitev o velikosti družine nastaja z dogovorom obeh partnerjev.
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Avtor Mitra v svojem članku pravi, da črnke med nadzorniki s srednješolsko in visokošolsko izobrazbo zaslužijo nižje plače kot črnci, tudi če nadzorujejo podrobnosti, osebnost in človeški kapital. Dodobra pa avtor Linehan v svojem članku opiše delovno silo v Afriki. »V mnogih državah po svetu (afriške države) ženske nimajo pravice do lastništva - torej tudi do podjetja ne, čeprav ga lahko ustanovijo in delajo v tem podjetju. Dejstvo je tudi, da se vlade v mnogih državah ne zavedajo deleža, ki ga lahko prispevajo podjetnice v nacionalnem prihodku. To utemeljuje zahtevo po ustreznih podpornih programih« (Linehan 2001, 77).
Puntar A., Markič M. (2018) v sojem delu trdita, da ženske imajo danes več možnosti glede izobraževanja in usposabljanja ter napredovanja na delovnem mestu, hkrati pa z leti upada tudi plačna vrzel med spoloma. Z avtorjem se strinjam in menim da vse več organizacij izobražuje ženske, jih spodbuja in tudi zaupa vodenje. V večini organizacij je danes skoraj že kar enakopravno med spoloma tako pri plačah, dopusti in vseh stvareh.
Z trditvijo avtorja Virginia E. Schein (2007): Okrepitev sodelovanja žensk v vodilnih vlogah je del boja za izboljšanje pravic, svoboščin in priložnosti vseh žensk na vsem svetu. Moje razmišljanje na trditev avtorja Schein je, da ženske v sodobnem managementu še vedno nimajo enakih možnosti in se težje dokazujejo kot moški. Vedno več žensk se odloča za menedžerske položaje, usklajevanje kariere ter družinskega življenja. Na vodilnih položajih so lahko ženske vsaj enako dobre kot moški, pogosto pa morajo delati več in bolje kot moški kolegi za iste rezultate. Ženske morajo biti zelo močne, iznajdljive ter vztrajne, da lahko uskladijo družinsko življenje in kariero.
Ključne ugotovitve z mojega stališča so, da danes ženskam vse več pomeni položaj na delovnem mestu kot pa družina, saj hoče biti samostojna in neodvisna od moškega in tako dosegajo pomembne spremembe v življenju in karieri.
V spodnji tabeli 3 smo skozi študijo različnih člankov in literature zbrali ključne ugotovitve in različne vidike različnih avtorjev pri razlagi ženske vloge v organizaciji.
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Tabela 3. Sumarna tabela najpomembnejših ugotovitev iz člankov različnih avtorjev. _Avtor_Najpomembnejša ugotovitev
Terry C. Blum, Dail L. Fields, Jodi S. Goodman (1994)
Vloge žensk v organizaciji vse bolj zapolnjujejo vodstvene položaje. Na primer, podjetja, ki potrebujejo vodje, ki imajo znanje o določenih računalniških aplikacijah, lahko ugotovijo, da ženske prevladujejo pri ponudbi kandidatov z želenimi izkušnjami, čeprav je večina obstoječih direktorjev moški._
Boštjančič (2010)
Razlogi za majhen delež žensk v organizaciji so: podcenjevanje ženskega stila upravljanja, nelomljiv stekleni strop, pomanjkanje vzornikov, spolno nadlegovanje, družinske obveznosti, pogosto omejena geografska mobilnost, tradicionalno predsodki, vključno s čustveno nestabilnostjo in absentizmom ipd
Kenneth W. Thomas and Gail Fann Thomas (2007)
Raven in spol sta značilni in vseprisotni značilnosti v organizacijah. Zmerni ali močni učinki na konfliktne sloge bi lahko imeli pomembne posle._
Felice N. Schwartz (2015)
Stopnja prometa na vodstvenih položajih dvakrat in pol krat višja med ženskami z uspešnimi rezultati kot med moškimi._
George e. Stevens (1980)
Ženske se prizadevajo za tradicionalno moških poklicev.
dostop do
Aparna Mitra (2003)
Črnke med nadzorniki s srednješolsko in visokošolsko izobrazbo zaslužijo nižje plače kot črnci, tudi če nadzorujejo podrobnosti, osebnost in človeški kapital._
Virginia E. Schein (2007)
Okrepitev sodelovanja žensk v vodilnih vlogah je del boja za izboljšanje pravic, svoboščin in priložnosti vseh žensk na vsem svetu._
Puntar A., Markič M. (2018)
Ženske imajo danes več možnosti glede izobraževanja in usposabljanja ter napredovanja na delovnem mestu, hkrati pa z leti upada tudi plačna vrzel med spoloma._
5 Zaključek
Stereotipnost spola na vodstvenem položaju spodbuja pristranskost žensk pri odločitvah o izbiri, umestitvi, napredovanju in usposabljanju. Čeprav je delovanje stereotipov o spolih kot ovira za napredek žensk pri upravljanju danes dobro znano, v sedemdesetih letih tega ni bilo. Dejansko je v tistem času večina ljudi verjela, da je omejeno število žensk v menedžmentu "takšno, kot mora biti." Visoko razmerje moških in žensk v menedžmentu je bilo videti kot posledica pomanjkanja kvalifikacij žensk ali njihove nezainteresiranosti na teh položajih. Da se nadarjene ženske niso mogle prijaviti ali se obrniti z vodstvenih položajev zaradi stereotipnih dojemanja njihovih kvalifikacij, ni bilo treba upoštevati.
Neenakost žensk je danes še vedno prisotna na številnih področjih organizacije. Po uvedbi proti diskriminacijske zakonodaje v večini držav po svetu je še vedno ostala neopazna,
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prikrita, ki pa jo je težko izslediti in odpraviti. Kulturne tradicije in norme se oblikujejo počasi, spreminjajo pa se še počasneje. Vztrajanje pri stereotipu, ki management povezuje s pripadnostjo moškemu spolu, je še vedno največja ovira za ženske v večini držav. Ključne ugotovitve so zbrane v spodnji sliki 1:
Moje mnenje je, da ženske na najvišjih položajih povzročajo pomembne spremembe predvsem zavedanje, da smo različni ljudje lahko uspešni. Ta kultura upoštevanja različnosti pa podpira več možnosti ženskam kot vztrajanje pri njihovih specifičnih »ženskih« prednostih. Resničen napredek bo dosežen tedaj, ko ženski v gospodarstvu ne bo treba najprej postati moški, da bi lahko kot ženska preživela. Kljub vsemu lahko še vedno trdimo, da sta znanje in strokovnost še vedno najpomembnejša dejavnika napredovanja tako žensk kot moških.
Pripadnost spolu ženskam onemogoča ali otežuje doseganje visokih položajev. »Čeprav so ženske vsaj toliko sposobne kot moški, raziskave kažejo, da ženske še vedno ne dobivajo najodgovornejših delovnih mest in nalog v podjetju.
Za bolj perspektivno prihodnost žensk v menedžmentu se morajo spremeniti določene možnosti v družbenem okolju, podjetjih in v ženskah samih. Zaradi posledic negativnih stereotipov o ženskah lahko organizacije izgubijo preveč kadrovskih potencialov. Menedžerji v podjetjih bi morali postati pozornejši na menedžerske potenciale pri obeh spolih, ne le pri moških, in hkrati zagotoviti konkretne aktivnosti, da bi te potenciale spodbudili in razvili. Ženske same bi se morale zavedati svojih vrednot in skrbeti, da dosežejo svoje cilje v karieri.
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Lidija Bijek je leta 2013 diplomirala na Fakulteti za Kemijo in kemijsko tehnologijo v Ljubljani. Od leta 2013 je zaposlena v Krki d.d, Novo mesto na področju Kontrole kakovosti. Na Fakulteti za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu nadaljuje podiplomski študij Menedžmenta kakovosti.
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Abstract:
The Role of Women in the Organization
Research Question (RQ): Do women still not have equal opportunities in organizations and prove harder than men, and do women have to be very strong, resourceful and persistent in order to reconcile family life and careers?
Purpose: The purpose of the article is to investigate the position of a woman in an organization, to discover the difficulties they face in their professional careers, to explain the natural role of women and gender inequality in reconciling paid work. Stereotyping leads to discrimination in the workplace in some sectors as well as in the area of wages. The aim is to define the notion of the organization and the women within it, as well as the coordination of the woman in the various fields and what is the role of the woman in relation to the male role.
Method: We used a qualitative analysis method based on a substantive analysis of various articles from the existing literature of domestic authors. We used a qualitative method, a compilation method, to summarize the results of other authors on this topic.
Results: The results of the research show that in today's society, women are increasingly establishing themselves in organizations, as well as in advancement, as they reconcile careers and family life. Organization: The results of the survey provide information to different organizations and other institutions to work towards employee relations.
Society: The findings of the research will influence the sustainable development of the company from two aspects, namely economic and social.
Originality:. In the theoretical part of the research, we summarized in one place the research and practical findings on the role of women in the organization. The originality of the research lies in the analysis of the various articles and literature.
Limitations/Future Research: Qualitative research on the role of women in the organization has methodological and substantive limitations. We have submitted proposals for further research into inequalities in companies and other organizations, with an emphasis on their management and representation in top management.
Keywords: woman, public sector, role, business world, economic status, differences, career, discrimination.
Copyright (c) 2020 Lidija BIJEK
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