English and Italian in the Frame of Genre-based Research and Foreign Language Learning Editor Jasna Potočnik Topler Authors Ivo Fabijanić Mojca Kompara Lukančič Nives Lenassi Sandro Paolucci Tilen Smajla September 2020 Title English and Italian in the Frame of Genre-based Research and Foreign Language Learning Editor Jasna Potočnik Topler (University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism) Authors Ivo Fabijanić (University of Zadar, Department of English Studies) Mojca Kompara Lukančič (University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security) Nives Lenassi (University of Ljubljana, School of Economics and Business) Sandro Paolucci (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts) Tilen Smajla (Pier Paolo Vergerio il Vecchio Primary School) Review Paolo Euron (Italian Ministry of University and Research) Marijana Krešić Vukosav (University of Zadar, Department of Linguistics) Proceedings review Paolo Euron (Italian Ministry of University and Research) Marijana Krešić Vukosav (University of Zadar, Department of Linguistics) Marija Brkić Bakarić (University of Rijeka, Department of Informatics) Cristina Dimulescu (Transailvania University of Brasov, Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics) Paolo Euron (Italian Ministry of University and Research) Finnur Friðriksson (University of Akureyri, School of Humanities and Social Sciences) Irena Marković (University of Zadar, Department of Italian Studies) Vanja Slavuj (University of Rijeka, Department of Informatics) Language editors Dawn Reindl, David Limon & Alexander Guy Bristow Technical editor Jan Perša (University of Maribor, University Press) Cover designer Jan Perša (University of Maribor, University Press) Graphic material Authors Published by / Založnik Co-published by / Izdajatelj University of Maribor University of Maribor University Press Faculty of Arts Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia https://press.um.si, zalozba@um.si https://ff.um.si, dekanat.ff@um.si Edition Izdaja 1st Publication type Vrsta publikacije E-book Available at Dostopno na http://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/485 Published at Izdano Maribor, September 2020 © University of Maribor, University Press Text © Authors & /Univerza v Mariboru, Univerzitetna založba Potočnik Topler, 2020 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. / To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Nekomercialno-Brez predelav 4.0 Mednarodna. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode.sl CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Univerzitetna knjižnica Maribor 811.111:811.131.1ʹ243(082) 37.091.3:981(082) ENGLISH and Italian in the frame of genre-based research and foreign language learning [Elektronski vir] / authors Ivo Fabijanić ... [et al.] ; editor Jasna Potočnik Topler. - 1st ed. - Maribor : Univerzitetna založba Univerze, 2020 Način dostopa (URL): https://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/485 ISBN 978-961-286-376-0 doi: doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-376-0 1. Fabijanić, Ivo COBISS.SI-ID 26636035 ISBN 978-961-286-376-0 (pdf) 978-961-286-377-7 (Trda vezava) DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-376-0 Price Free copy For publisher prof. dr. Zdravko Kačič, Rector of University of Maribor ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING J. Potočnik Topler (ed.) Table of Contents Foreword Jasna Potočnik Topler 1 Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 5 Nives Lenassi LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English Mojca Kompara Lukančič & Ivo Fabijanić 33 The Compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary Mojca Kompara Lukančič 75 Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language 93 Tilen Smajla Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 113 Sandro Paolucci ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING J. Potočnik Topler (ed.) Foreword JASNA POTOČNIK TOPLER The monograph English and Italian in the Frame of Genre-based Research and Foreign Language Learning by scholars Mojca Kompara Lukančič from the University of Maribor, Ivo Fabijanić from the University of Zadar, Nives Lenassi from the University of Ljubljana, Sandro Paolucci from the University of Ljubljana and Tilen Smajla from the Primary School Pier Paolo Vergerio il Vecchio, Koper, brings important insights, along with thorough analyses and surveys on the English and Italian languages in the frame of a very diverse genre-based research and foreign language learning. Five linguists from Italy, Croatia and Slovenia offer five different, but most of al fresh perspectives on foreign languages, their teaching and learning, studying, explaining and translating. Assistant Professor Nives Lenassi’s contribution is titled “Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks”. In her contribution, Lenassi, who includes twelve textbooks for business Italian into her study, discusses the principle of economy in the language usage in business Italian correspondence, and focuses on the similarities and differences in the use of abbreviations, based on an analysis conducted on numerous prototypical models for business correspondence texts, and compares them to authentic digital texts produced in real-life situations. 2 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. In their work entitled “LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English”, Associate Professor Mojca Kompara Lukančič and Associate Professor Ivo Fabijanić provide an overview of this e-language learning tool, which was developed by six institutions within an international project financed by the European Union. “LanGuide” encompasses three levels of difficulty and is also applicable to different fields and to other languages, not only to English. In the contribution, Kompara Lukančič and Fabijanić present some linguistics concepts of language learning, and different approaches to learning and teaching foreign languages, and emphasise the role of language acquisition and multilingualism as significant elements of the EU’s language policy. Kompara Lukančič is also the author of the contribution “The Compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary”. She discusses the micro- and macrostructure of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary, which was a part of the Erasmus plus project - CUSHA (Culture shake) that lasted from 2016 to 2019, and joined project partners from Slovenia, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Sweden. Despite the fact that many dictionaries and/or glossaries on Shakespeare already exist, this dictionary is specific, due to the inclusion of 13 languages. The entries of the dictionary are written in English, and provide a definition, an example of usage from Shakespeare’s play and translations into the following 13 languages: Amharic, Arabic, Czech, French, German, Hebrew, Italian, Macedonian, Persian, Polish, Russian, Spanish and Swedish. The 13 languages included in the dictionary entries are the mother tongues of the participants. Another specific of the described dictionary presents, according to Kompara Lukančič, “the figures included in the dictionary entry for selected terms, and the inclusion of audio files for every single element of the dictionary entry, including the translations.” As the title of his work “Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language” implies, Dr Tilen Smajla, as a primary school teacher, discusses the attitudes of Slovenian language learners to the introduction of the first foreign language. His research, in which 257 second grade pupils from eight Slovenian primary schools participated, looked into differences in attitude of young learners toward the introduction of FL 1 regarding their gender, their age, and the school where FL 1 is taught. Smajla states that the LSD posthoc test showed differences among some primary schools, mostly among those where English was taught according to innovative teaching approaches (CLIL and the J. Potočnik Topler: Foreword 3. similar). Based on his research, Smajla concludes that “foreign language teachers ought to rethink their motivation strategies as wel as teaching methods, and adjust them according to the pupils they are dealing with at any certain point.” The last part of the monograph is dedicated to translation studies. Assistant Professor Sandro Paolucci titled his contribution “Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia”, and writes about his study conducted in 2019 in which he examined source and target-oriented strategies in the translation of legal texts, in particular normative and informative administrative texts for the Italian minority in Slovenia. Paolucci’s study showed that “in translating certain terms, two or three different solutions were offered, sometimes al acceptable; however, by taking this approach it is possible to create difficulties in interpreting these terms and, therefore, the possibility of confusion arises.” Therefore, Paolucci’s survey focused only on the following five Slovenian terms sprejeti/sprejemanje (literally, adoption/to adopt), lokalne volitve (literally, local elections), upravna enota (administrative unit), zdravstveni dom (health centre) and vrtec (nursery school). It should be emphasised that Paolucci confirmed that the translation of a normative text with the purpose of maintaining the normative nature of the text, “should be primarily source-oriented, so as to reflect as much as possible the expressed intention of the legislator, and safeguard the principle of legal certainty, /…/ a given term should be translated unambiguously, avoiding synonyms that could be misleading to text recipients.” The monograph English and Italian in the Frame of Genre-based Research and Foreign Language Learning offers informative reading, and provides the reader with the awareness of diversity of linguistics studies. And, what is most important, the awareness that language, lingua, jezik, språk …is much more than the means of communication. It is, as Kompara Lukančič argues in this very monograph, “our home, our work, our family”. 4 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. ABBREVIATIONS IN A BUSINESS ITALIAN COURSE: PROTOTYPICAL MODELS, AUTHENTIC TEXTS, AND PEDAGOGICAL TASKS NIVES LENASSI University of Ljubljana, School of Economics and Business, Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: nives.lenassi@ef.uni-lj.si Abstract Abbreviated lexical units, whose frequency has intensified significantly in recent decades, have been known and used from ancient times, following the principle of economy in language. A typical area in which shortened word forms appear with some frequency is business Italian correspondence, in which they are used primarily to increase the speed of the text-production process and to follow the established and wel - known communication conventions. Bearing these two main trends in mind, the article focuses on the differences and similarities in the use of abbreviations based on an analysis Keywords: conducted on numerous prototypical models for business abbreviation, business correspondence texts and compares them to authentic digital communication, texts produced in real-life situations. In the final part the article non-native covers how much attention is paid to this linguistic phenomenon speaker, real-life text, in the form of pedagogical tasks in twelve business Italian manual, textbooks. textbook. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-376-0.1 ISBN 978-961-286-376-0 6 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 1 Introduction Abbreviations are often seen as a sign of language economy in various specialized texts (Dvořáková, 1999). They are extensively used as part of the present day’s clear predominance of various formats of digital discourses. Although one might be under the impression that these reduced lexical items are a relatively new phenomenon, which contribute to a concise style in communicative practices (cf. Crystal, 2002), they were also used to a great extent in the past. The reason is evident: communicators tended to reduce the time and costs of carving (Caban, 2015) or simply to avoid excessive effort in written communication whenever possible (Vicentini, 2003). The economy principle in language, or language economy, based on Zipf’s (1949) “Principle of Least Effort” as pointed out by Mattiello (2012, p. 158), is therefore a factor that has played an important role in language development, both from the communication point of view and from the system-dynamics point of view, as underlined by Heusinger (2002). The author specifies that the principle refers to the tendency to use brief, simple forms, precision in use, comprehension, effectiveness, and adequate stylistic forms. These features can be achieved through language reduction, simplification, and condensation, which can be attained in various ways and one of them is the use of abbreviated lexical units. Mattiello (2012, p. 149) draws attention to the fact that the economy principle “is especial y germane to contexts where language users share a specialized jargon al owing one to abbreviate what is accessible to in-group members, because frequently used and easily recoverable.” In addition to playing a significant part in linguistic economy, abbreviated lexical units are important also due to the fact that they are wel -established and known (Bizjak Končar & Dobrovoljc, 2015). With their usage, text producers signal that they are conforming to the conventions of a specialized discourse, but sometimes the shortened terms may simply indicate that the communicators wish to avoid repetition (see also Pop & Sim, 2009). Recognized and general y accepted shortened lexical features have become important language units that enter dictionaries (cf. Kompara Lukančič, 2015), but many of them are innovations, generated on a day-to-day basis. These new word formations appear in al languages and in different genres, which makes them N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 7. difficult to follow (Kompara Lukančič, 2013; Zerkina, Kostina, & Anatol'evna Pitina, 2015). Some of them are therefore ephemeral, occasional, and non-standardized and, as a result, not known to al the communicators. As such they should be avoided because they might be difficult to restore (cf. Ursul, 2014), misinterpreted, or seen as unethical, causing the message recipient to spend working time searching for their meaning (cf. e.g., Marinko, 2014). One of the forms of communication in which abbreviations appear with some frequency is business Italian correspondence. Particularly in formal texts, their use is so characteristic that they need to be included in the Italian teaching materials designed for foreign students. Slovenian students of business Italian that encounter Italian abbreviations for the first time either in teaching materials or in authentic texts offered by the teacher are usual y surprised by the number and variety of abbreviations and their morphological aspects. A typical morphological feature that is usually unknown even to high-proficiency students is the formation of a plural by doubling the last consonant, although such a flectional phenomenon is largely known in English, which is usually the students’ first foreign language. 1 The main reasons for the acceptance and frequent usage of the lexical reduction phenomenon in the form of abbreviations within different languages have already been mentioned, but here one more needs to be added. This is the popularity of English in Italian business communication (cf. De Mauro, 2016): according to Lubello (2014), the increasing use of acronyms, abbreviations, and other forms of clipping such as promo(zione), info(rmazione), demo(nstration), and so on is due to the influence of English on Italian. 2 The linguistic elements selected and adapted for presentation in foreign language courses sometimes differ from actual usage, because it is not possible to carry out extensive research for each element before the authors include it in the teaching materials. Moreover, a textbook that has been printed and prepared for several years of use cannot keep up with the rapid changes in business communication. For this 1 In Slovenian there are also some distinctive morphological forms related to abbreviations, but they are peculiarities and not characteristic features. One example is the accumulation of equivalent abbreviations: instead of dr. dr. ‘dual doctor’ ddr. is preferred. The same applies to dddr. ‘triple doctor’ and mmag. ‘double master’. Another peculiarity is the abbreviated form of gospa ( ga.) ‘Ms.’, which in addition to its nominative form has two more forms to refer to different grammatical cases: the genitive ge. ( gospe) and accusative go. ( gospo). Cf. Verovnik & Dobrovoljc, 2017. 2 For the Slovenian situation cf. Michelizza, 2015, p. 146. 8 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. reason, this study focuses also on abbreviations used in a language-controlled environment; that is, in prototypical models included in selected textbooks, manuals, and on-line available sources, and compares them against the ones retrievable in real-life texts. Since this paper focuses on teaching Italian to non-native speakers; that is, Slovenian business students, it also presents a brief overview of the most frequently used abbreviations in Italian and Slovenian to see the most relevant differences between the two communicative practices. The final part of the paper examines how much attention is actual y paid to this phenomenon in business Italian textbooks in the form of pedagogical tasks3 (“tasks” in further text) that sensitize students to the active reflection and use of the abbreviational aspect of business interactions. This article represents the continuation of a research project started some time ago to test the effectiveness of business Italian teaching materials for Slovenian students, in which various types of prototypical and authentic business correspondence texts were studied at all linguistic levels (cf. Lenassi, 2014). One of the constituents that was often encountered in the Italian texts studied was the frequent use of abbreviations, whose outline in this paper might shed some light on the text production process in the language-controlled writing environment compared to that in the authentic corporate world. 2 Methodology The study included twelve textbooks for business Italian, from which the abbreviations used in prototypical texts were studied and ranked according to the attention paid to tasks whose purpose is to consolidate receptive and productive skills regarding the use of the abbreviated lexical units. 4 The textbooks cover an interesting period of time: the first one was published in 1992 and the last two on the list were published in 2016. As to their Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL) levels, they span from the beginning level (A1– A2) to highly proficient language users (B2–C2), and so different aspect of business language are highlighted in individual sources. However, all of them dedicate some attention to business correspondence and tasks that consolidate comprehension and 3 For the definition of pedagogical task cf. Nunan, 2010, pp. 138-139. 4 Abbreviations are used not only in models and tasks; in individual sources they are usually also presented with both the abbreviated and extended forms in a chapter dealing with a typical business correspondence topic. In such a chapter, the extent to which the abbreviations are presented depends on the students’ level of linguistic proficiency. Due to space limitations, the chapters mentioned are not presented here although they were included in the study. N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 9. production of written business communication. In al the textbooks studied there are 3755 models and 489 tasks intended to develop and consolidate various competences necessary for efficient written interaction between Italian native and non-native speakers (cf. also Lenassi, 2011). Furthermore, the study also covered six business Italian correspondence manuals written between 1974 and 2008, which include 1,242 models. 6 The dates of publication of the first two manuals, published in 1974 and 1975, may seem like a discrepancy in the study, but these texts were selected to find out whether there have been any considerable changes in the use of abbreviations up to the present, testified through internet sources and authentic texts. Considering that with their dates of publication these manuals cover a longer period of time than other texts included in the analysis, some interesting diachronic aspects were revealed. However, they cannot be adequately presented here due to space limitations. As mentioned above, the study also covered some freely available internet sources that offer 46 prototypical models. In addition to models, the same number of Italian and Slovenian business e-mail messages were col ected to find out to what extent the abbreviations are actual y used in both languages. The Italian corpus comprises 300 messages written by Italian communicators to their Slovenian business partners and the Slovenian corpus is composed of 300 e-mail messages written for the Slovenian internal market. For the purpose of analysis al the messages were adequately anonymized7 and studied, leaving out the documentary/peripheral part (time of sending, subject, sender and receiver) in order to guarantee the equal treatment of al the texts (not al the messages contained the documentary part because their producers had deleted it before submitting their texts for this study). The messages in both corpora vary from rather short ones (two words) to relatively long ones (more than 300 words), they cover different types of formality level (from very formal ones to informal texts) and are intended for different numbers of recipients (one vs. many, e.g., in flyers.) 5 Models in individual textbooks: TB1: 33; TB2: 39; TB3: 39; TB4: 27; TB5: 45; TB6: 30; TB7: 19; TB8: 10; TB9: 69; TB11: 14; TB12: 12. 6 Models in individual manuals: M1: 177; M2: 122; M3: 160; M4: 131; M5; 52; M6: 600. 7 For the purpose of anonymization the following symbols were used: A* - first name; A**- last name; A***- brand or company name; A**** - geographical name. 10 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Al the texts were processed using an algorithm for automatic recognition of abbreviations (cf. Kompara Lukančič & Holozan, 2011), the AntConc software tool, and manually. 3 Prototypical Texts Texts from manuals and textbooks created in a language-controlled environment and subject to many revisions by the authors and proofreaders do not show any peculiarities or distinction from generally accepted language rules. The correspondence texts found on the web are also an example of prototypical models, on the basis of which one can produce linguistical y correct and pragmatical y relevant texts. Authentic messages, however, show some interesting phenomena that can be related to the predominant use of e-mail (cf. Section 4). From the word-formation perspective, the following types of abbreviations are found in single lexical units in which shortening is marked by a full stop: initial letter ( n. instead of numero ‘number’, g. instead of giorno ‘day’)8; the first syllable ( art. instead of articolo ‘article’ , sig. instead of signore ‘Mr.’); initial letter and the first following consonant ( ns. instead of nostro ‘our’, vs. instead of vostro ‘your’). Some other relatively common types are longer lexical units abbreviated with an internal full stop, which connects the first and the last syl able ( Spett.le instead of Spet abile ‘Dear’ , Preg.mo instead of Pregiatissimo ‘Dear/Esteemed’ , Il .mo instead of Il ustrissimo ‘Dear/Illustrious’). In the case of established multiword units, single elements are separated by a ful stop. Such abbreviations are composed of the first initial letters (e.g., u. s. instead of ultimo scorso ‘last’; p. v. 9 instead of prossimo venturo ‘next’; c.a. instead of corrente anno ‘current year’); of the first two letters of each element ( Ri.Ba. instead of ricevuta bancaria ‘bank receipt’); or a combination of two types, ( Ns. rif. instead of nostro riferimento ‘ our reference’). 8 Viviani (2011) points out that such “absolute” abbreviations, in which one letter stands for the entire word following the model of a. a. for anno accademico or q. b. for quanto basta are infrequent. The impression is that such abbreviations are found in languages for specific purposes and the proof is their low degree of transparency outside of characteristic professional settings. 9 Antonel i (2007) specifies that this abbreviation has a characteristic bureaucratic flair. Cf. also Fortis (2005). N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 11. The manuals analyzed also feature some acronyms, which some authors classify as a subgroup of abbreviations (cf. Mattiello, 2012), whereas others see them as formations parallel to and of the same relevance as abbreviations (cf. Righini, 2001). In acronyms, the single lexical units are usually not divided by a full stop (e.g., IVA instead of Imposta sul Valore Aggiunto ‘ value added tax’). 10 For a more detailed presentation of a ful stop between individual components of abbreviations and acronyms see Serianni and Castelvecchi (2012). The symbol for the abbreviated unit is a ful stop (however, not always in acronyms, as seen above), although in some rare cases a slash can be used as in n/ for nostro ‘our’; c/c ( conto corrente ‘bank account’), or in c/o, the shortened form of the English phrase care of, widely used in Italian instead of al e cure/at enzioni di. Abbreviations are used to reduce the number of letters and thus to “accelerate the dynamics of writing” (Demartini, 2010), as is the case in Preg.mo for Pregiatissimo or Il .mo for Il ustrissimo, found in two manuals . However, this purpose is entirely absent in Sigg.ri for Signori (e.g., in Gentili Sigg.ri ‘Dear Sirs’). The abbreviation itself and its extension are completely equivalent according to the time spent for its writing and the number of keys pressed on the keyboard. In such cases it is rather obvious that language economy is not the issue: Viviani points out (2011) that it can be assumed that what prevails in some circumstances is the habit of using abbreviations rather than the necessity of saving characters, and specifies that the use of abbreviations is often characteristic of bureaucratic language. 11 As far as word classes are concerned, the manuals offer predominantly abbreviated nouns, whereas abbreviated adjectives are less frequent. They usual y integrate the recipient’s title in the salutation, as for example Gent. for Gentile ‘Dear’ or a more formal Egr. for Egregio. Among adjectives there are also some absolute superlatives, characterized by the suffix -mo/ma for singular male/female and - mi/me for plural 10 This article omits the abbreviations used to indicate legal forms of the companies such as Srl ( società a responsabilità limitata ‘limited liability company’), Spa ( società per azioni ‘joint-stock company’) and others. These forms appear often in messages because they are parts of company names. 11 In Italian, this bureaucratic language is also known as burocratese, which has a negative connotation and denotes a communication style and language used in administration and public institutions that is unnecessarily complex. It refers mainly to written communication related to intermediation between legislative measures, structures responsible for their implementation, and citizens for whom the texts are intended (cf. also Proietti, 2010). 12 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. male/female: besides the already presented Pregiatissimo and Il ustrissimo, the models also offer Stim.mo for Stimatissimo ‘Dear/Highly esteemed’ and Gent.mo for Gentilissimo ‘Dear’ to address individual persons . The pronouns ns. ( nostro ‘our’) and vs. (v ostro ‘your’) are also rather frequently used . Vostro is often capitalized to show respect to the recipient . Last but not least, manuals also offer an abbreviated verb, the past participle F.to ( Firmato ‘Signed’ ) and one textbook contains c apitale sociale i.v. ( capitale sociale interamente versato ‘fully paid-up share capital’). The manuals, whose publication dates range over a period of thirty-three years, offer some interesting diachronic aspects of the linguistic properties observed. The Latin CV ( curriculum vitae), which has entered the process of lexicalization and thus become an autonomous lexical element (cf. Gualdo, 2011, p. 107), is absent in the first models, appearing only in texts produced after 1990. Another interesting diachronic element is the Italian currency lira, abbreviated as L, LIT or Lit., used until 2002 when it was replaced by the euro. Abbreviations reflect changes in social attitudes to forms of address of certain social groups. One such feature is represented by the honorific Sig.na ( Signorina ‘Miss’), found in the first and third manuals (published in 1974 and 1990, respectively), where it probably referred to the marital status of the mentioned person. M3 offers the fol owing example (1) of a certificate of completed work in which this abbreviation is used12: (1) Si certifica che la Sig.na Carla Chiari ha svolto presso la ns. ditta l’incarico di segretaria per sei anni, lasciando il posto di lavoro esclusivamente per motivi personali. (M3, p. 79) Manuals that were published later and models in teaching materials as wel as the ones retrieved online offer only Sig.ra (e.g., in Gentile Sig.ra Bianchi ‘ Dear Ms. Bianchi’). In today’s business culture the substitute Sig.ra does not constitute an element of social asymmetry between men and women and is therefore linguistical y neutral. For a more detailed information of the pragmatic and linguistic aspects of the term see D’Achille (2017). As regards honorifics, Kostina, Zerkina, & Pesina (2015, p. 705) specify that “the abbreviations denoting titles provide a good example 12 Al the abbreviations in the examples provided here were bolded by the author. N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 13. for “cultural memory.” Titles that emerged in ancient times and are free word-groups pass through the abbreviation stage, but completely retain their original meaning in the language, although their social cultural function can be reduced. Some abbreviations and their corresponding expansions have disappeared from use due to the passing of the social, economic, and cultural circumstances in which they previously thrived. Some changes in this respect can also be anticipated in the future: with the increased use of digital forms of communication and various automatically generated sorts of assistance to the producer’s text creation process, some abbreviations from the peripheral parts of messages wil be abandoned. This is, for example, the case of Vs. rif. ( Vostro riferimento ‘ Your reference’), Ns. rif. ( Nostro riferimento ‘Our reference’) which used to be employed to facilitate archiving paper documents. The same can probably be predicted for c. a. ( corrente anno ‘current year’), c. m. ( corrente mese ‘current month’)13. As seen in Appendix 1, which provides a list of abbreviations on web pages, the features mentioned here are stil present in the models, but they are completely absent from authentic e-mail messages (Appendix 2). The models follow the established abbreviation rules found in Italian dictionaries and show no difference from the general y accepted trends in usage. Abbreviations are most often found in the introductory documentary part of the letter, which lists the sender’s and the receiver’s information, including the denomination of their social roles (e.g. al a cortse at enzione del Signor Bianchi ‘to the kind attention of Mr. Bianchi’) and the reference ( Ns. rif., Vs. rif., or its synonymic terms Ns. ref., Vs. ref. as listed in Appendix 1), as wel as in the body of the text (such as the above-mentioned c. a., c. m., etc . ) , whereas some are typical y used almost exclusively in the ending documentary part (e.g., al . for allegato ‘attachment’) . In the vast majority of cases the abbreviations are known and standardized; only a few of them are ad hoc. Their expansions can be understood from the prior textual content (e.g., capo mont. instead of capo montatore ‘chief furniture fitter’ in [2]) or are so unambiguous that they can be understood without any prior mention in the text (e.g., giornata lav. instead of giornata lavorativa ‘working day’): 13 The use of these two abbreviations also depends on the message’s formality level and on the text producer’s stylistic choices. 14 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. (2) /…/ c’è il nostro personale specializzato che presterà la sua manodopera alle seguenti condizioni: − diaria per montaggio al Capo Montatore (giornata lav. di 8 ore): − diaria per il montaggio al Montatore − eventuali ore straordinarie (in più delle 8 ore lavorative), per il Capo Mont. per il Montatore (M2, p. 27) As far as the number of different abbreviations is concerned, the textbooks (Figure 2) display a shorter list than the manuals (Figure 1), because the number of models contained in teaching materials is lower than in manuals. The reason for this difference is understandable: in addition to correspondence, teaching materials cover various other topics, whereas manuals direct attention exclusively to written business communication. Also, as already mentioned in Section 2 (Note 3), the lower number in textbooks can be ascribed to the fact that typical abbreviations are usual y presented within specific chapters or vocabulary characteristic of correspondence, and within tasks (cf. Section 5). 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 Figure 1: Number of different abbreviations in individual manuals N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 15. 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 TB1 TB2 TB3 TB4 TB5 TB6 TB7 TB8 TB9 TB10 TB11 TB12 Figure 2: Number of different abbreviations in individual textbooks The lowest number, displayed in TB7 and in TB11, can be attributed to the fact that these textbooks are intended for beginning levels, whereas the highest number is found in TB9, designed for high-proficiency users (B2–C2). This tendency might suggest the conclusion that the lower the proficiency, the lower the number of abbreviations offered to textbook users and vice versa. Nevertheless, here this is not the case: TB2 and TB4 are also designed for highly-proficient language users, but the number of abbreviations in the models is the same as in TB12, whose CEFRL level is A1–A2. In fact, TB2 presents numerous abbreviations and their extensions on separate pages and TB4 is designed for students who have previously used TB6, which also presents abbreviations in a separate subchapter. Given such a background, it might be superfluous and questionable from a teaching standpoint to include even more abbreviations in the TB2 and TB4 models. The number of different abbreviations in online models is relatively low (cf. Appendix 1), but again: only the central parts of the messages are considered and some web pages with models follow the same approach as textbooks; that is, adequate attention is paid to the reduced forms by presenting the most frequent abbreviations and their extensions separately and as a distinctive business correspondence feature. All the abbreviated units are standardized and known, with no neologisms formed ad hoc. 16 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. To sum up and conclude this overview of abbreviations in models, it can be seen that although a) the models and abbreviations used in them range from the 1970s (manuals) up to the present day (web pages), b) that the abbreviations have undergone some changes as a consequence of altered economic and cultural circumstances over a period of five decades, and c) their number differs in various sources studied, they represent just a smal amount of changes. In other words: in formal texts–which the models undoubtedly are, given their educational and instructional aspect–abbreviations can be seen as elements that are not inclined to change because of their wel -established, habitual, and recognized use by in-group members, who adhere to specific communication conventions (cf. also Bizjak Končar & Dobrovoljc, 2015, p. 266; Mattiello, 2012, p. 149; Viviani, 2011). 4 Abbreviations in Authentic E-mail Messages In authentic messages, often written under time pressure, authors do not always follow word formation rules as do text producers of careful y planned and edited models (Section 3): abbreviations are sometimes written without the final or internal full stop as in Prof ssa for Professoressa ‘Professor’ (female) and there are numerous cases of ad hoc abbreviations. These are sometimes understandable to external observers from the context ( dest. finale for destinazione finale ‘final destination’ ; mtl for materiale ‘material’), but in other cases an external observer not involved in a transaction cannot decode specific shortenings agreed upon by the communicators ( analisi F-DT). Furthermore, some text producers tend to modify standard abbreviations: Gen.ta Signora instead of Gent. ( Gentile) or Gent.ma ( Gentilissima ‘Dear’) or mt instead of the international y accepted symbol of measurement m to indicate the distance in meters. For more cases see Appendix 2. A detailed analysis of models and real-life texts shows that abbreviations are more frequently used in authentic messages than in models, because authentic messages include more ad hoc shortenings. An interesting example from the corporate world is the following communication (3) composed of 153 words, among which eight different abbreviated forms can be found: N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 17. (3) Abbiamo previsto le consegne nei tre p.v. della Slovenia il giorno 11/11 secondo il seguente programma: I montatori saranno presenti a N**** x lo scarico, mentre il sig. D** ha confermato al ns. sig T** (Gestione Cantieri) che lo scarico c/o T**** e K**** sarà a cura del cliente: 1̊ scarico – N**** ORDINE 4902170/2S completamento scaffalatura + 4000705/2b 1 pedana + n. 2 mobili pane (montaggio 11/11) 2̊ scarico – T**** ORDINI 4902166/2S completamento scaffalatura + 4902147/2s top dei b.c. i montatori il 13/11 provvederanno a preparare i top per il reso che sarà effettuato il 16/11 dal mezzo in consegna a P****. (montaggio T**** 13/11) 3̊ scarico – K**** ORDINI 4902168/2S completamento scaffalatura – 4000788/2B X materiale agg. + 400073/2b mobile pane (montaggio 12/11) Il box Z*** x p.v. di V**** sarà consegnato il 16/11 con i b.c. di P**** ord. 4000712/2B Con l’occasione porgiamo cordiali saluti. A* B** (EE 6) Many abbreviations are standardized and known, but some are determined by the text producer’s linguistic choices. In (3) the abbreviation p. v. ( punto vendita ‘point of sale’) is used casually. By contrast, p. v. in formal letters refers to prossimo venturo ‘next’. This type of reduction is an example of a homonym (see also Kostina et al., 2015, p. 706), which can be adequately disambiguated and expanded only within the context, such as punto vendita in (3) and prossimo venturo in (4): (4) /…/ E’ comunque prevista una giornata di verifica, a cui sarà presente il referente D*** /…/ in una data da stabilire intorno al 10 marzo p.v. /…/ (EE 28) 18 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. In (3) there are other established abbreviations, such as: sig. T** ( signor T** ‘Mr. T**’), ns. ( nostro ‘our’), n. ( numero ‘number’), c/o (cf. Section 3), and tel. ( telefono ‘telephone’). Some shortened items are not general y accepted, but are understandable from the context, e.g. ord. ( ordine ‘order’) and agg. ( aggiuntivo ‘additional’), whereas b. c. is intended for and comprehensible only to a narrow range of communication participants. In addition to abbreviations, the message offers two annotation symbols common in the tachygraphic formulae characteristic of the practical language use. These are the signs for addition (+) and multiplication (×). The first character is used to add further information, and the second replaces the preposition per ‘for’. Such types of transcoding have become widespread in Italian communication patterns and are a great success due to their expressive economy. 14 Of course, authentic and prototypical texts often contain symbols for units of measurement, especial y in orders. The prevailing symbols are those for percentages (%) and monetary units (€), and English acronyms such as IBAN and SWIFT15 also occur with some frequency. Because abbreviations represent the predominant focus of this paper, symbols, acronyms, and initialisms are not specifical y addressed and treated here. This study also aims to present quantitative results regarding abbreviations in real situations, so the most frequently used abbreviations are given in Table 2. Because Slovenian non-native speakers of Italian are often surprised by the Italian abbreviations, the Slovenian situation is also presented (Table 1) to show the most relevant tendencies in both languages. The tables include the most frequent abbreviations and the corresponding extensions actual y used. As far as the extended forms are concerned, only those that occur in the same grammatical function as their abbreviated corresponding term were taken into account. For example, the abbreviation art. ( articolo ‘article’) always appears in apposition to the name that 14 Fiorentino (2018), however, finds that abbreviations that appeared in the initial use of text messages and the web, such as cmq instead of comunque ‘anyway’, and transcoding such as dv6 instead of dove sei ‘where are you’ or xkè instead of perché ‘why, because’ have almost disappeared from the language of mobile phones and the web. Now they represent no more than a texting habit of older communicators. 15 Mattiel o (2012) notes that English abbreviated units are often unmodified and untranslated, especially if they are amply accepted at an international level, refer to worldwide concepts, and have acquired the status of words. N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 19. follows, as in (5), so only the extensions of articolo with the same grammatical function as in (6) were considered: (5) Riguardo l’ordine dell’art. X08441 paia 80, possiamo produrre in versione antiolio antistatico solo le misure /…/ (S 129) (6) In allegato la scheda tecnica relativa all’articolo 341WF. (S 107) The same noun in (7) has a completely different function from the ones in (5) and (6); therefore, it was not included in Table 2. (7) /…/ in aggiunta, bisognava che l’articolo ottenuto avesse anche un certo coefficiente di traspirabilità. (S 105) In the Slovenian messages the same word ( artikel) is used only as extension with the function presented in (5), so in this case no corresponding comparison between the abbreviated forms in both languages is possible. The terms gospod ‘Mr.’ and gospa ‘Ms.’ offer a partial comparison. In fact, instead of the opening Spoštovana gospa X ‘Dear Ms. X’ or Spoštovani gospod X ‘Dear Mr. X’ in formal messages, the honorific feature is often omitted, creating a message which opens only with the polite nominalized adjectival form of address Spoštovani ‘Dear’. See also Dobrovoljc (2018, pp. 341-342). Table 1: Abbreviations and expansions in Slovenian e-mail messages Abbreviations N. of English occurrences Expansions N. of occurrences translation g. 9 gospod 8 Mr. ga. 7 gospa 8 Ms. št. 4 številka 6 Number Ok, OK 9 v redu, dobro 8 all right cca., ca. 7 približno 2 approximately oz. 12 oziroma 12 or/rather itd. 3 in tako dalje -- and so on itn. 3 in tako naprej -- and so on L.p., LP, Lp 73 lep pozdrav 65 best wishes Total 126 109 20 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. In Table 1 the most widely used abbreviation is LP, which has become a regular feature in the conclusion of e-mail messages (cf. also Dobrovoljc, 2008, p. 12) and is almost as preferred as its expansion. The next most frequent abbreviation on the list is oz. ( oziroma ‘or/rather’), again almost as frequent as the expansion, and the same goes for the English loan word ok/OK which appears in slightly less formal and informal messages. Frequently used are also g. and ga. , again in clear competition with the expanded equivalent, which might suggest that Slovenian text producers are indecisive as to which form is more polite/appropriate. A rather interesting tendency is the use of the reduced and non-reduced form represented by št. ( numero ‘number’). In al cases this noun is abbreviated when used as a headword fol owed by a postmodifier as in št. pogodbe/naročila/artikla ( številka pogodbe/artikla/naročila ‘number of the contract/article/order’). The analysis shows that the expanded form is much more favored in texts intended for several readers outside a company and not for an in-group, such as in flyers. 16 In this corpus, four of the expanded forms functioning as headwords are used in flyers. As might be expected, there are many more examples of the expanded form številka in the corpus, but they do not have the same function as the abbreviated form (i.e., headword) and are therefore not included in the table. For a more detailed description of various discursive practices of Slovenian communicators cf. Dobrovoljc, 2018. Table 1 gives a rather limited picture of the abbreviatory possibilities in Slovenian. Of course, there are many other abbreviations used in Slovenian, but not al of them refer to business language. See for example ePravopis 2018, which offers a vast col ection of abbreviations and about which it may be said that it is a normative manual with the most extensive set of abbreviations in the Slovenian language (cf. Kompara Lukančič. 2018, p. 31). 17 16 That the number of recipients is an important criterion when it comes to the selection either of an abbreviated or expanded form, is confirmed by the Italian Guide to Drafting Administrative Texts (Alfieri et al., 2011, p. 30) in which it is suggested that “in order for the administrative texts to be clear to all recipients, it is preferable to use abbreviations and acronyms sparingly; if their use is useful to lighten a text making it smoother and eliminating heavy repetitions, it is to remember that the important thing is not to abuse them and to use homogeneous criteria in writing.” 17 For abbreviations in the general Slovenian language see https://fran.si/spt-kategorije?tab=Okrajsave. N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 21. Table 2: Abbreviations and expansions in Italian e-mail messages N. of Abbreviations N. of Expansion English occurrences s occurrence s translation Sig. 33 Signore 6 Mr. Sigg. 1 Signori -- Sirs Sig.ra 15 Signora 14 Ms. Gent.le 1 Gentile 13 Dear (sg., m., f.) Gent.mo 2 Gentilissim o -- Dear (sg., m.) Gent.ma 6 Gentilissim a 3 Dear (sg., f.) Gent.mi 2 Gentilissim i -- Dear (pl., m.) Gent.me 2 Gentilissim e -- Dear (pl., f.) Egr. 9 Egregio 3 Dear (sg., m.) Spett.le 4 Spettabile 1 Dear ns., ns 50 nostro/a/i /e 76 our vs., vs, Vs., Vs 30 vostro/a/i /e 72 your n., N., No, no., num. 62 numero/i 14 number Fatt., FATT. 4 fattura 4 invoice cod. 8 codice 3 code ok, OK, o.k. 8 va bene 4 all right pz., pz, PZ 11 pezzo, pezzi 4 piece, pieces art. 9 articolo 8 article ecc. 3 eccetera -- etc. Total 239 225 Looking at Tables 1 and 2, it is immediately noticeable that the Italian corpus displays a wider variety of abbreviations than the Slovenian one, which supports the observation made above (cf. Section 1) about learners’ reactions to the Italian shortened forms. These are most frequently found in the opening form of address and this corpus (Table 2) reveals that al of them are more favored than the expanded forms. The only exception is represented by the adjective Gentile (cf. also Section 3) which gives 13 expanded occurrences vs. one abbreviation. The reason for the preference of the entirely spel ed-out version is clear: the expansion does not differ from its reduced form in the number of characters, and thus the abbreviation does not help to achieve a higher degree of linguistic economy. 22 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Table 2 also lists the pronouns nostro ‘our’ and vostro ‘your’, which are sometimes reduced, but the expansion is more widely used probably due to the fact that the communicators try to avoid the level of formality suggested by the use of the abbreviated form. An interestingly high number of occurrences is given with the noun numero ‘number’, where the shortened form has a clear prevalence, especial y if compared to the equivalent Slovenian številka (Table 1). The difference between the two languages can be attributed to the fact that in the Italian corpus there are more topics that refer to orders, which are usual y more formal, whereas the Slovenian corpus comprises more flyers in which, as already mentioned (cf. Note 15), the reduced forms tend to be avoided. Such a broad range of abbreviatory possibilities in Italian can undoubtedly be ascribed to the long tradition of businesses activities carried out in Italian-speaking territory. In fact, Gualdo & Telve (2014, p. 362) report that in the High and Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the Italian language of economics had already some connotations of a language for specific purposes. Among other characteristics, it had a coherent system of abbreviations for monetary units such as: f. or fior. for fiorino /fiorini ‘florin/florins’; l. for lire ‘lira’; and for some other terms such as d. for denari ‘money’; r. for rischio or risico ‘risk’, and so on. If is clear that the Slovenian business and official language tradition does not date as far back as the Italian specialized discourse. Research (cf. Birk, 2014) indicates that, with the exception of literary manuscripts, Slovenian business and official technical terms first appeared in written documents of the sixteenth century. The language in these documents is initially represented as a variety of simple forms and records due to the fact that it was designed for simple, often il iterate people and not for businesspersons as in the Italian case. The collected corpus shows that the communicators prefer to use standardized and known abbreviations, but they also introduce innovative linguistic elements whose decoding can sometimes, but not always, be inferred from the context. When it comes to the abbreviations, e-mail users follow in part the prescribed language norms and integrate the established ideal y structured patterns from models by imitating contemporary language patterns, which are general y less formal (Baron, as cited in Dobrovoljc, 2008, p. 13). N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 23. 5 Tasks Intended to Develop and Consolidate the Use of Abbreviated Lexical Units in Business Correspondence As detailed above, Italian abbreviations are often used in business letters, as evidenced by their frequency in business correspondence models available on various web pages (cf. the web pages listed below the article and Appendix 1). They display a great variety of abbreviatory options (cf. also a series of shortened items accessible on-line)18 in prototypical models of textbooks and manuals (cf. Section 3) and in authentic texts (cf. Section 4). Although they may seem to be of minor importance, because their use is not indispensable, they nevertheless stand in for abbreviated words or phrases. Given their frequency and the fact that they replace ful words or phrases, some textbooks pay special attention to them in the form of tasks, in which learners are invited to replace expanded terms with abbreviations and vice versa (see also Lenassi, 2014, pp. 221-222). It is interesting to observe that acronyms do not appear in any of the tasks. Perhaps the reason for their absence is the fact that they are systemically unpredictable; that is, they do not have a standard word-type (see Vidovič Muha, 2007, p. 405). Moreover, they are often replaced by long, complex, and therefore impractical descriptive names of various scientific discoveries, companies, names of organizations, (political) institutions, and services (see also Klinar & Davis, 2001, p. 23; Demartini, 2011), so their shorter versions make a considerable contribution to the economy of the term. At the same time, they may also be closely connected with the changing needs of the economy which means that an organization, institution, or service may cease to exist, rendering a particular abbreviated form obsolete and therefore uninteresting for its inclusion in textbook materials. 18 Cf. the following web pages: http://www.paginainizio.com/service/abbreviazioni.htm http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~ngargano/corsi/corrisp/abbreviazioni.html https://www.scribd.com/document/321515615/Abbreviazioni-commerciali For an overall overview of Italian abbreviations in the general language see https://it.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendice:Abbreviazioni 24 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 TB1 TB2 TB3 TB4 TB5 TB6 TB7 TB8 TB9 TB10 TB11 TB12 Figure 3: Number of tasks focused on abbreviations in individual textbooks As seen in Figure 3, five textbooks do not provide tasks with abbreviations, three of them offer one task each, two textbooks invite students to complete two tasks in each textbook and one provides four tasks. The reasons why certain authors pay more or less attention to these tasks are presented in Section 3, which provides the number of different abbreviations in individual teaching materials. As far as the types of activities are concerned, learners are usually invited to replace abbreviations with expansions or vice versa. The shortened elements tend to be offered within single sentences or as autonomous lexical units with no context. There are actual y only two tasks with abbreviations based on entire messages. In one the students are invited to replace the expansions with abbreviations and the other task provides some shortened terms that need to be expanded. At this point the question arises if it is rewarding and challenging for the students to be offered entire texts with only four basic and typical abbreviations (the aforementioned Spett. for Spet abile ‘Dear’, vs. for vostro ‘your’, ns. for nostro ‘our’ and u. s. for ultimo scorso ‘past’). The scope of such a task and its final effect seem not to be in proportion to the entire text, so it might be more appropriate to set the task at the level of individual sentences, thereby condensing the occurrence of abbreviations. A task with a condensed occurrence of shortened forms might be more chal enging even for high-proficiency students, especial y if they see that interesting abbreviations can occur just in one sentence, as in the following authentic example (8): N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 25. (8) Come concordato i ns. montatori c/o il p.v. di N**** applicheranno i p/cartel i al e pendinature già fissate dal cliente. Cordiali saluti (EE 7) Ex. 8 offers a good il ustration of shortened mechanisms of writing: under the pressure to reply quickly, the text producer uses established abbreviations ( ns. , c/o) and ad hoc word formations that for an external observer can be either easily understood from the context (such as p.v. for punto vendita ‘point of sale’ in Ex. 3) or difficult or even impossible to interpret (such as p/, which might stand for prossimi ‘next’). The textbook tasks with no context usual y appear in these versions: − Full-length terms are to be replaced by appropriate abbreviations. The terms to be abbreviated are titles indicating education attained ( Avvocato ‘Counsel or’ for Avv; Dot ore ‘Doctor’ for Dot ./Dr.) and honorary titles ( Commendatore ‘Commander’ for C omm.). Both groups of titles appear most often in the salutations and thus separately from the rest of the text, so their inclusion in tasks at the level of isolated syntagms, but always within commercial correspondence, is appropriate. − Abbreviations are to be expanded with their equivalents. In some tasks the selection of reduced units is limited to nouns indicating academic degrees ( Ing. for Ingegnere ‘Engineer’, etc.) and general nouns to indicate social roles, such as S ignore, Signora, and Signorina. As mentioned in Section 3, Signorina seems to be rather unusual in textbooks created only a few years ago. If the term Signorina was cultural y and social y acceptable at the time of the creation of the two manuals (M1 and M3) referred above, in the business world of today its use may be less acceptable or even anachronistic. In some textbooks the range of abbreviated terms used in tasks is broader than in others: in addition to the types of addresses mentioned above, there are also geographical locations such as corso ‘promenade’, via ‘street’, piazza ‘square’, legal forms of companies such as società per azioni ‘joint-stock company’ and società a responsabilità limitata ‘limited liability company’, company identification data such as codice fiscale ‘ tax code’, partita Iva ‘VAT number’, and abbreviations used for 26 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. referencing the text recipient, such as al a cortese at enzione ‘for the attention of’. Al these terms usual y appear separately from the body of the message, in the peripheral part, so it is advisable and acceptable that in the tasks they are presented at the syntagmatic level. The set of terms in some textbooks is more consistent with those frequently used in authentic texts (see Appendix 2), which gives practical value to the tasks designed in this manner. Abbreviation-oriented tasks do not occur in al the textbooks analyzed. The reasons for their limited presence or absence have already been mentioned, but here it is also necessary to add that some authors do not attach much importance to abbreviations because their use in writing is not necessary. At the level of comprehension they do not cause difficulties to non-native speakers because, thanks to their unequivocal meaning, it can be quickly determined which unabbreviated features they replace. 6 Conclusion Abbreviations represent an interesting phenomenon that follows the tendencies of changes in society and society-related communication patterns. They are a relatively widely used expedient to increase the dynamics of the text production process and to show adherence to a specific professional group that fol ows general y accepted communication conventions. As such, abbreviated elements are utilized in prototypical (formal) texts in their established and wel -known forms over a longer period of time, which in some rare cases can be accompanied by ad hoc shortened lexical units. If these provisional items are used, their meaning can either be determined from the preceding context, or it is so explicit that it is comprehensible even with no previous indication in the text. Unlike prototypical models, authentic texts reveal a slightly different view of the observed elements. The col ected e-mail messages from the corporate world show that the text producers use standardized and known abbreviations, but they also tend to introduce new reduced units whose expansions cannot always be deduced from the context because they have been agreed upon only by the text producer and the receiver. These ad hoc neologisms cannot be properly interpreted by an external observer without knowing the circumstances in which the shortening word-formation process took place. N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 27. With their linguistic and pragmatic potential, given either by their word-formation process or by their ability to clearly indicate the register level in a business interaction, abbreviations represent a very interesting chapter to be included in tertiary education settings at various levels of student proficiency. They represent a feature of business Italian communication that foreign language learners can acquire at all levels. In beginning courses, a limited number of abbreviated standardized elements can be presented at a productive level, integrated gradual y with more complex and even ad hoc items of real-life communication at the receptive level. In advanced courses, abbreviations can be offered to learners as a curious part of authentic materials which, in combination with other linguistic and pragmatic features, reflect the intricacy and delicacy of written communication in business relations. References Alfieri, G., Biffi, M., Bultrini, A., Caceli, B., Cappeletto, P., Carli, M. … Zuliani, D. (2011). Guida alla redazione degli at i amministrativi. Regole e suggerimenti. Firenze: Gruppo di lavoro promosso da Istituto di teoria e tecniche del ’informazione giuridica (Ittig) del Cnr e Accademia della Crusca. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from http://www.ittig.cnr.it/Ricerca/Testi/ Guida Atti Amministrativi.pdf Antonelli, G. (2007). L'italiano nel a società del a comunicazione. Bologna: Il Mulino. Birk, B. (2014). Zgodovinski razvoj slovenskega poslovno-uradovalnega jezika. IBS poročevalec, 4(2). Retrieved 16 June 2020 from http://porocevalec.ibs.si/sl/component/content/article/54-letnik-4-t-2/192-bina-birk-zgodovinski-razvoj-slovenskega-poslovno-uradovalnega-jezika Bizjak Končar, A., & Dobrovoljc, H. (2015). Okrajšave v slovenščini: pravopisni slovar in pravila. In H. Dobrovoljc, T. Verovnik & Š. Arhar Holdt (Eds.), Pravopisna razpotja: razprave o pravopisnih vprašanjih (pp. 263-279, 338, 350). Ljubljana: Založba ZRC. Caban, P. (2015). The early ancient Christian inscriptions in the Christian epigraphy. European Journal of Science and Theology, 11(3), 21–30. Crystal, D. (2002). The Cambridge encyclopaedia of the English language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. D'Achille, P. (2017). Signora o signorina? Accademia del a Crusca. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from https://accademiadel acrusca.it/it/consulenza/signora-o-signorina/1253 Demartini, S. (2010). Abbreviazioni. In Enciclopedia dell'Italiano. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/abbreviazioni_(Enciclopedia-dell'Italiano)/ Demartini, S. (2011). Sigle. In Enciclopedia dell'Italiano. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/sigle_(Enciclopedia-del 'Italiano)/sigle De Mauro, T. (2016). È irresistibile l’ascesa degli anglismi? Internazionale. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from https://www.internazionale.it/opinione/tul io-de-mauro/2016/07/14/irresistibile-l-ascesa-degli-anglismi Dobrovoljc, H. (2008). Jezik v e-poštnih sporočilih in vprašanja sodobne normativistike. In M. Košuta (Ed.), Slovenščina med kulturami. Zbornik Slavističnega društva Slovenije, 19 (pp. 295–314). Celovec, Ljubljana: Slavistično društvo Slovenije. Dobrovoljc, H. (2018). Spremembe pri pisemskem naslavljanju in poslavljanju v elektronski obliki. In D. Fišer (Ed.), Viri, orodja in metode za analizo spletne slovenščine (pp. 324–354). Ljubljana: 28 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from https://e-knjige.ff.uni-lj.si/znanstvena-zalozba/catalog/view /111/203/2417-1 Dvořáková, M. (1999). Abbreviation – a sign of language economy in foreign language specialist texts. Acta Universitatis Bohemiae Meridionales, 2(1), 25–28. ePravopis 2018. (2019). Ljubljana: ZRC SAZU, Inštitut za slovenski jezik Frana Ramovša. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from https://isjfr.zrc-sazu.si/sl/publikacije/epravopis-2018#v Fiorentino, G. (2018). Scrittura liquida e norma linguistica. Treccani. Lingua Italiana. Retreived 16 June 2020 from http://www.treccani.it/magazine/lingua_italiana/articoli/scritto_e_parlato/Scrittura_liquida. html Fortis, D. (2005.) Il linguaggio amministrativo. Revista de Llengua i Dret, 43, 47–116. Gualdo, R., & Telve, S. (2014). Linguaggi specialistici del 'italiano. Roma: Carocci. Heusinger, S. (2002). Ökonomie und Sprache. Vestnik, 36(1/2), 233–246. Klinar, S., & Davis, M. (2012). English word-formation with exercises (5th ed.). Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, Oddelek za anglistiko in amerikanistiko. Kompara Lukančič, M. (2013). Automatic recognition of abbreviations and abbreviations' expansions in electronic texts–future development. In J. M. Tirkkonen, & E. Anttikoski (Eds.), Proceedings of the 24 Scandinavian Conference of Linguistics (pp. 321–331). Joensuu: University of Eastern Finland. Kompara Lukančič, M. (2015). Compilation of the first Slovene contemporary dictionary of abbreviations. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 212, 266–270. Kompara Lukančič, M. (2018). Sinhrono-diahroni pregled krajšav v slovenskem prostoru in sestava slovarja krajšav. Maribor: Univerzitetna založba Univerze. Kompara Lukančič, M., & Holozan, P. (2011). What is needed for automatic production of simple and complex dictionary entries in the first Slovene online dictionary of abbreviations using Termania website. In I. Kosem, & K. Kosem (Eds.), Electronic lexicography in the 21st century: New applications for new users: Proceedings of eLex 2011, 10– 12 November 2011, Bled, Slovenia (pp. 140– 146). Ljubljana: Trojina, Institute for Applied Slovene Studies. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from http://www.trojina.si/elex2011/elex2011_proceedings.pdf Kostina, N., Zerkina, N., & Pesina, S. (2015). Abbreviational worldview as part of linguistic worldview. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 192, 703–709. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.065 Lenassi, N. (2011). Task types for Italian business correspondence within. In A. Ignjačević, D. Đorović, N. Janković, M. Belanov, & J. Vučo (Eds.), Language for specific purposes: Chal enges and prospects: Book of proceedings (pp. 246–256). Belgrade: Foreign Language and Literature Association of Serbia. Lenassi, N. (2014). Aspetti lessicali e semantici nel Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per le lingue e la loro presenza nell'insegnamento della corrispondenza commerciale italiana. Linguistica, 54, 211–228. doi:10.4312/linguistica.54.1.211-228 Lubello, S. (2014). L'itangliano è ancora lontano? Qualche riflessione sull'influsso dell'inglese. In S. Lubel o (Ed.), Lezioni d'italiano. Riflessioni sul a lingua del nuovo mil ennio (pp. 63–84). Bologna: il Mulino. Marinko, I. (2014). Etika v poslovni komunikaciji. IBS Newslet er Poročevalec, 4(1). Retrieved 16 June 2020 from http://porocevalec. ibs.si/sl/component/content/article/53-letnik-4-t-1/186-dr-irena-marinko-etika-v-poslovni-dokumentaciji Mattiello, E. (2012). Abbreviations in English and Italian scientific discourse. ESP Across Cultures, 9, 149–168. Michelizza, M. (2015). Spletna besedila in jezik na spletu: Primer blogov in wikipedije v slovenščini. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU. doi:10.3986/9789610504108 Nunan, D. (2010) A task-based approach to materials development. Advances in Language and Literary Studies 1(2), 135–160. doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.1n.2p.135 N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 29. Pop, A. M., & Sim, M. A. (2009). The use of acronyms and initialisms in business English. Annals of Faculty of Economics, University of Oradea, Faculty of Economics, 1(1), 557–562. Proietti, D. (2010). Burocratese. In Enciclopedia dell'Italiano. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from http://www.treccani.it/ enciclopedia/burocratese_(Enciclopedia-del 'Italiano)/ Righini, E. (2001). Dizionario di sigle, abbreviazioni e simboli. Bologna: Zanichelli. Serianni, L., & Castelvecchi, A. (2012). Italiano. Milano: Garzanti. Ursul, N. V. (2014). The peculiarities of nonsense at lexemic level. In H. Kratocvílová & R. Kratocvíl (Eds.), Proceedings of IAC-SSaH 2014. International Academic Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities in Prague 2014 (pp. 329–336). Prague: Czech Institute of Academic Education. Verovnik, T., & Dobrovoljc, H. (6. 6. 2017). Krajšave. Lektorsko društvo Slovenije: Od svinčnika do sledenja spremembam. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from https://www.lektorsko-drustvo.si/jezikovni-pogovori/krajave Vicentini, A. (2003). The economy principle in language. Notes and observations from early modern English grammars. Mots Palabras Words, 3, 37–57. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from https://www.mediensprache.net/archiv/pubs/3659.pdf Vidovič-Muha, A. (2007). Izrazno-pomenska tipologija poimenovanj. Slavistična revija: časopis za jezikoslovje in literarne vede, 55(1/2), 399–408. Viviani, A. (2011). Abbreviazioni. Prontuario. Enciclopedia dell'italiano. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/abbreviazioni-prontuario_%28Enciclopedia-dell%27Italiano%29/ Zerkina, N., Kostina, N., & Anatol'evna Pitina, S. (2015.) Abbreviation semantics. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199, 137–142. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.497 Zipf, G. K. (1949). Human behavior and the principle of least Ef ort. Cambridge: Addison-Wesley Press. Sources Manuals for business correspondence M1 Rodriguez, F., & Marchetti, N. (1974). Corrispondenza commerciale italiana. Milano: Edizioni Scolastiche Bruno Mondadori. M2 Patruno, G. (1975). Langenscheidts Musterbriefe. 100 Briefe Italienisch. Für Export und Import. Aus der Praxis für die Praxis. Berlin – München: Langenscheidt. M3 Reale, G. (1990.) La nuova corrispondenza commerciale. Milano: De Vecchi. M4 Chiuchiù, A., & Bernacchi, M. (1993). Manuale di tecnica e corrispondenza commerciale. Perugia: Guerra. M5 Scarpellini, A. P., & Neri, M. (2005.) Manuale pratico di scrit ura. Milano: Hoepli. M6 Albani, L. (2008). Lettere commerciali per corrispondenza tradizionale e via internet. Milano: Edizioni FAG. Textbooks TB1 Cherubini, N. (1992). L'italiano per gli affari. Roma: Bonacci. TB2 Maffei, S., Radicchi, S., & Vetrih, V. (1993.) L'italiano per operatori economici. Ljubljana: Izobraževalni center za tuje jezike in Gospodarski vestnik. TB3 Beretta, N., & Gatti, F. (1997). Italia in affari. Torino: SEI. TB4 Lenassi, N., & Paolucci, S. (2000). Argomenti d'italiano commerciale. Ljubljana: Ekonomska fakulteta. TB5 Pelizza, G., & Mezzadri, M. (2002). L'italiano in azienda. Perugia: Guerra. TB6 Dobnik, N., & Lenassi, N. (2002). Af ari in italiano. Ljubljana: Ekonomska fakulteta. TB7 Gombač, E., & Bajec, C. (2011). Poslovni tuji jezik II. Italijanščina. Ljubljana: 30 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Zavod IRC. Retrieved 16 June 2020 from http://www.impletum.zavod-irc.si /docs/ Skriti_dokumenti/Poslovni_tuji_jezik_2-italijanscina-Gombac_Bajec.pdf TB8 Tata, G., & Donatelli Noble, C. (2011). L'italiano per gli af ari. Corso introdut ivo al mondo aziendale italiano. Firenze: Polistampa. TB9 Cherubini, N. (2012). Convergenze: iperlibro di italiano per affari. Roma: Bonacci. TB10 Pelizza, G., & Mezzadri, M. (2015). Un vero af are! Torino. Loescher. TB11 Pepe, D., & Garelli, G. (2016). Al lavoro! Corso di italiano per stranieri in contesto lavorativo. Torino: Loescher. TB12 Incalcaterra Mcloughlin, L., Ruggiero, A., & Schiavo, G. (2016). Affare fatto! Corso d’italiano aziendale. Roma: Edilingua. Webpages 1. http://www.larapedia.com/lavoro_corrispondenza_commerciale/corrispondenza_commerciale _come_si_scrive_una_lettera_commerciale.html 2. http://www.mauriziocescon.com/wp-content/uploads/esercizi-word/lettera-commerciale.pdf 3. http://www.pm l i.it/economia/lavoro/tutorial/7456/lettere-commerciali-in-word-2007.htm 4. http://www.oneworlditaliano.com/grammatica-italiana/lettere_formali.htm 5. http://doc.studenti.it/appunti/trattamento-testi/lettera-commerciale-stile-classico.html 6. http://11marketing.it/email-commerciale-esempio/ 7. http://www.dee-world.com/come-scrivere-unemail-di-presentazione-commerciale 8. https://www.monster.it/consigli-di-lavoro/articolo/lettera-presentazione-cambiare-lavoro 9. http://www.cvlavoro.com/esempi-italiano/168-lettera-di-presentazione-in-italiano-candidatura- spontanea.html 10. https://www.joblers.net/it/lettera-di-presentazione/esempi/ 11. http://www.model ocurriculum.com/lettera-di-presentazione-per-autocandidarsi-esempio-reale.html N. Lenassi: Abbreviations in a Business Italian Course: Prototypical Models, Authentic Texts, and Pedagogical Tasks 31. Appendix 1: Abbreviations on web pages Al a c.a. (9, 10) N° (1) art. (1) ns (2) c. m. (5, 7) Ogg. (5) C.so (5) Prot. N. (1) C.V. (10) ref. ns. (1) Dip. Risorse Umane (8) rif. ns. (1) D.Lgs (3) RIF. Vs. (4) Dott. (3, 4, 6, 9) Sig. (3, 9) Dott.ssa (8, 10) Sig.ra (3, 4) Dr.ssa (9) sig.ra (2) Egr. (6, 9) Spett. (5, 7, 9) F.lli (4) Spett.le (3, 4, 8) Gent.ma (8) u.s. (5) Ing. (6, 9) vs. (1) n° (1) vs. ref. cat. (1) 32 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Appendix 2: Abbreviations in authentic e-mail messages Al a c.a. m/ agg. Mag. Amministraz. min. arch. mod. art. mt. artt. mtl b.c. M/V c/ n., N., No, no., num. C. A. ns., ns ca. ok, OK, o.k. cad. ord., Od Cap. Soc. p/ cc pal ., plt cell. PEC CMR PDF, pdf c/o P.I. cod. P. IVA/V.A.T. comm/le pom. Ddt, ddt pp. DDU Prof. dest. Prof.ssa, Prof ssa D. Lgs., Dlgs p.v. 1 Dott. p.v. 2 Dott.ssa pz., pz, PZ ecc. RAL Egr. R.E.A fatt., FATT. Reg. Imp. F-DT Resp. F.lli rip. Gent.le RSVP Gent.mo RT Gent.ma Sig., sig. Gent.mi Sigg. Gent.me Sig.ra Gen.ta Spett.le IBAN SWIFT imp. Tel. Ing. Uff. i.v. vs., vs, Vs., Vs IVA, I.V.A., I.v.A., iva VF loc. Vol 1 prossimo venturo 2 punto vendita LANGUIDE – A TOOL FOR LEARNING ENGLISH MOJCA KOMPARA LUKANČIČ1,2 & IVO FABIJANIĆ3 1 University of Maribur, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia. E-mail: mojca.kompara@um.si 2 University of Maribur, Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: mojca.kompara@um.si 3 University of Zadar, Department of English Studies, Zadar, Croatia. E-mail: ivo.fabijanic@unizd.hr Abstract Language is more than just exchanging words and thoughts with another person, language is our home, our work, our family, it is about conveying ideas between people. In this article we explore the fascinating world of languages, from language learning to language acquisition, from old-fashioned style of learning to modern e-learning and m-learning, and we focus to the newly developed tool for language learning – the “LanGuide”. “LanGuide” is an e-language learning tool developed by six institutions within an international project financed by the European Union. We are wel aware that the web offers numerous e-learning language tools, such as Duolingo, “LanGuide” is, nevertheless, special as it encompasses not only three levels of difficulty but is also applicable to different fields. Keywords: As such, it enables users to improve their knowledge of English English, in the language for special purposes (LSP) context. Another e-learning, language for speciality of the tool is its applicability to other languages, not specific only to English. In the article we clarify some linguistics concepts purposes – LSP, of language learning, present different approaches to learning language learning, and teaching foreign languages, focusing mainly on e-learning foreign and giving the reader an overview of “LanGuide” language tool. language. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-376-0.2 ISBN 978-961-286-376-0 34 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 1 Introduction In line with the EU language policy (EU, 2019), its efforts to promote international mobility (Schnek & Schmidt, 2018; Standeley, 2015) and intercultural understanding, language acquisition and multilingualism represent important elements of the EU’s language policy in promoting the knowledge of two languages in addition to their mother tongue (Jaekel, Schurig, Florian, & Ritter, 2017; Romaine, 2013). According to the linguistic background of the EU policy and promotion of language acquisition (EU, 2019), the “LanGuide” project is focused on internationalised education, growing use of digital learning, and supporting the creation of flexible learning pathways in line with users’ needs and objectives. In reference to this, the objectives of the “LanGuide” project are to build an open access guidance tool for improving language knowledge and supporting the acquisition of language knowledge centred on students, teachers and administrative staff. In the project we promote the internationalisation of higher education programmes and the use of up-to-date IT technologies. The scope of the article is to present, promote and give an overview of language learning through the newly developed “LanGuide” language tool. In the present article we present the frame of language knowledge, explained in detail in the following paragraphs, among the three groups of respondents, namely students, university professors and administrative staff at tertiary level educational institutions, and the concept of “LanGuide”. Within the article linguistic concepts are clarified and followed by the presentation of different approaches to learning and teaching foreign languages, focusing mainly on e-learning and giving the reader an overview of “LanGuide”. In the article the characteristics of the “LanGuide” language tool, which was developed in view of the results of a survey on the needs analysis conducted in 2019 at two universities, are presented. 2 Basic theoretical frameworks When discussing language learning, linguistic concepts may be defined in various ways. The definitions provided are relevant for the conception and understanding of the “LanGuide” e-learning tool, as the tool represents a mixture of the concepts addressed. In the present study we use the fol owing concepts (Gass & Selinker, 2008): M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 35. − Native Language (NL) is the first language a child learns, and it is also known as the primary language, the mother tongue, or the L1; − Target Language (TL) is the language that is being learned; − Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the process of learning another language after learning the native language, but it can encompass the learning of a third or fourth, or more non-native language. The second language is commonly referred to as L2, which is any language learned after learning the L1, regardless of being the second, the third, or the fourth. SLA refers to both the acquisition of a second language in classroom and also in an exposed situation; − Foreign language learning is the learning of a non-native language in the environment of the learner’s native language (e.g. Slovene speakers learning English in Slovenia). The learning process is commonly performed in a classroom; and we add two more concepts; − Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) is defined as the teaching of a language in relation to the communicative needs of speakers as a second or foreign language (Garcia Laborda, 2011) in facing a specific work-oriented context and a limited range of communicative events (Basturkmen & Elder, 2004); and − Third or Additional Language Acquisition (De Angelis, 2007) addresses the role being played by prior linguistic knowledge and experience when learning a third language. It is advisable to make the distinction between SLA and foreign language learning. SLA general y refers to the learning of a non-native language in the environment in which that language is spoken (e.g. Slovene speakers learning French in France). The learning process in SLA may or may not take place in classrooms. However, the main distinction with Foreign language learning is that the learning process in SLA takes place with access to speakers of the language being learned. To the definitions above we add the concepts of language learning and language acquisition. Sankar, Soundararajan and Suresh Kumar (2016) define language acquisition as the process of perceiving and comprehending the language, as wel as producing and using words and sentences to communicate. The process of language acquisition is very similar to the process children use to acquire their first and second languages. In this frame, the speakers’ concerns are oriented towards the message 36 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. they convey and the concept of understanding. For language acquisition the correction of errors and explicit teaching of rules do not represent the relevant concepts (Brown, Cazden, & Bellugi, 1973; Brown & Hanlon, 1970), but we still have to bear in mind that conscious language learning is said to be helped a great deal by error correction and the presentation of rules (Krashen & Seliger, 1975). According to VanPatten and Benati (2015), SLA is defined as a field of research focusing on learners and learning, and not on teachers and teaching. Whereas, according to Saville-Troike and Barto (2017), SLA refers to the study of individuals and groups, learning another language after the one learnt as young children, but the concept also refers to the process of learning a second language (L2), which may also be the third, fourth or fifth acquired. SLA as defined by Gass, Behney and Plonsky (2013), represents a study of a new language system created by the learners and is primarily oriented on how learners create a such system, and it is focused on what is learnt and what is not learnt. Many prominent authors (Doughty & Long, 2003; Gass & Selinker, 2008; Ortega, 2015; VanPatten, 2003; VanPatten & Benati, 2015; VanPatten & Williams, 2015; White, 2003) define SLA using similar concepts, overviews and discussions. According to VanPatten and Benati (2015) a distinction of foreign language learning, referring to language learning in context where the language is not spoken outside the classroom, i.e. Slovene speakers learning French in Slovenia, and SLA where we refer to contexts where a language is spoken outside the classroom, i.e. Slovene speakers learning English in the UK, is common. As stated by Gass and Selinker (2008), SLA represents a relatively new field that has developed significantly in the past 50 years and is oriented towards the acquisition of a non-primary language, or in other words a language different from the native language. The study goes further and focuses on how learners create new language systems with a limited exposure to the second language. SLA focuses on what is learned and what is not, and also why only some learners achieve native-like proficiency in more than one language (Gass & Selinker, 2008). Moeller and Catalano (2015) argue that we consider a language being foreign if it is learned largely in the classroom and it is not spoken in the society where the teaching occurs. According to the authors (Moeller & Catalano, 2015), language acquisition is the process of learning first and second languages without formal instruction, but language learning is the formal study of second or foreign languages in a classroom setting. “Language is the vehicle required for effective human-to-human interactions M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 37. and yields a better understanding of one’s own language and culture” argue Moeller and Catalano (2015, 327). Studying a language gives the learner the opportunity to obtain linguistic and social knowledge, but it also gives access into a perspective other than one’s own, and it increases the ability to see connections across content areas. In addition, studying a language promotes an interdisciplinary perspective and intercultural understandings and allows the learner to communicate effectively and to participate in real-life situations (Moeller & Catalano, 2015). The users of the “LanGuide” e-learning tool are individuals involved in the tertiary level of education (students, administrative staff and university professors), who will use it to learn, improve and assess their knowledge of L2 (the English language). The tool as such is oriented toward SLA and Foreign language learning and involves LSP for the fields that are described in the following paragraphs. The methodology of the tool is prepared in a way that can also be adapted in the future for the acquisition of languages other than English. An attempt to show this can be seen in the preparation of a short version of the materials for the languages of the project partners, but the aim of “LanGuide” at the present stage is not to learn a third or additional languages. 3 Ways of learning and improving foreign language acquisition Being aware of the numerous approaches used in learning and teaching a foreign language through time, in the following paragraphs an overview of the learning approaches is presented. The approaches presented go from “mimetic activities” (Moeller & Catalano, 2015) to the present concept of language learning beyond the classroom (Nunan, 2014) and e-learning. The approaches used through time in language learning and teaching and the experience gained lead us to the development of e-learning and the preparation of the “LanGuide” language tool. 3.1 An overview of learning and teaching approaches Moeller and Catalano (2015) call it “mimetic activity” – an embodied, analogue, and primordial mode of representation or a traditional way of language learning where students involved repeat or imitate new information. Donald (2011) argues that there are three behavioural manifestations; the rehearsal of skil , where the speaker imagines and reproduces previous performances with a view to improving them; re- 38 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. enactive mime, where patterns of action are reproduced in the context of play or fantasy; and non-linguistic gesture, where an action communicates an intention through resemblance. In the 1950s the audio-lingual method (ALM) was a popular method of language teaching (Alemi & Tavaloki, 2016; Chastain, 1970; Moeller & Catalano, 2015; Valdman, 1970). The method promoted imitation and practice approach in language learning. Within the process in the ALM classroom the main figure is the instructor who plays the role of expert and authority. With the ALM concept, students practiced patterns by imitating them. Following the concepts of Skinner’s (1957) verbal behaviour, Chomsky (1959) starts looking at languages as a rule-governed activity and not as a set of habits and is strictly opposed to Skinner’s view. According to Chomsky (1959, 328) “stimulus–response psychology could not adequately account for creativity involved in generating novel utterances using internalized rules”. From this perspective he argues that the creative aspect of language behaviour implies the involvement of the human mind in deep meaning processing rather than in memorising responses. In line with that (1959, 328) “Chomsky’s view of language and cognitive psychology, dubbed generative transformational grammar, regarded language acquisition as an internal thinking– learning process”. The author further adds that children are biological y programmed for language and they have an innate ability to discover individually the underlying rules of a language system. The idea led to the occurrence of an alternative theoretical position that focused on the role of linguistic environment combined with the child’s innate capacities in acquiring language. From this perspective language was viewed as “a complex interplay between innate language capacities of the learner and the learner’s environment” (1959, 328). In a more recent frame nine contemporary language learning theories, even if there is a fairly broad range of perspectives of language learning, are identified: Universal Grammar, Autonomous Induction, Associative-Cognitive CREED, Skill Acquisition, Input Processing, Processability, Concept-Oriented Approach, Interaction Framework, and Vygotskian Sociocultural Theory (VanPatten & Williams, 2008). According to Moeller and Catalano (2015) the knowledge of language structures that was demonstrated on discrete point tests did not ensure communicative ability when the measure of language knowledge was one of more spontaneous language use. There is also little connection between the rules being taught to learners and their developing knowledge of the second language. M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 39. Moel er and Catalano (2015) argue that language teaching experienced numerous curricular innovations for providing students with opportunities to acquire and practice foreign languages within contextualised and meaningful language communicative tasks at all stages of the second or foreign language acquisition process. In view of that, the term Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), emerged as a relevant approach for universal resonance and support in theory and application in many contexts and across disciplines (i.e. linguists, methodologists and curriculum developers). In line with the development of CLT we are aware that linguistic competence does not, on its own, achieve communicative competence (Canale & Swain, 1980) and in this perspective the language used, in a meaningful and authentic context, is acquired easily. “Pair work, group work, cooperative/collaborative learning settings, authentic materials, culturally integrated lesson content, and interactive tasks focused on the cognitive and affective domains were integrated into foreign language classrooms” (Canale & Swain, 1980, 330). If we take as an example a present multilingual classroom, we should understand that translation (i.e. from L2 to L1) has no place in the teaching of language or literacy, for that reason instruction should be carried out only in the target language without leaning on the students’ L1. As argued by Cummins (2010) L1 and L2 should be kept apart. Observing language learning in a synchronic and diachronic frame, we came to the question that until recently was fairly “exotic” to think of, namely as stated by Nunan (2014), the opportunity for language learning beyond the classroom. Nowadays the largely developed field of language technology brought vast opportunities for individuals, regardless of the language being learnt, to connect and interact with other speakers of those languages (Nunan, 2014) and the development of e-learning, such as Duolingo (Munday, 2016). Some of the concepts of the presented language learning approaches, e.g. “mimetic activity”, audio-lingual method (ALM) seem distant to the present realities, where the learning process goes beyond the classroom, but we believed such steps were necessary and helped develop new concepts, such as e-learning. Thanks to such relevant approaches our language tool “LanGuide” wil also be developed. 40 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 3.2 E-learning Thanks to the development of new technologies, e-learning has spread toward the field of language learning. E-learning had developed significantly in the past 30 years (Farr & Murray, 2016) when this term appeared (Garrison, 2011) and was also applied to language learning. E-learning is defined as the usage of new technology necessary for learning and supporting students in the acquisition process (Brodnik, Ciglarič, Krevl, & Rugelj, 2011). It is common in e-learning that computers play an important role in the acquisition of knowledge. Farr and Murray (2016) argue that computers wil not replace teachers, but teachers who use computers wil replace or discriminate against those who do not use them. According to Laurillard (2005) technology significantly effects the way of learning, the speed, the simplicity and pleasure of learning. Yuyun (2013) states that e-learning language programmes are popular and commonly used, especial y for teaching English, and are also commonly used in other areas of education. As stated by Brodnik et al. (2011) e-learning has good economic effects, as the access to web resources represents an alternative in terms of space and time, and significantly diminishes the need for expensive classrooms as wel as costs of access to distant sources. Yuyun (2013) agrees that educational institutions implement e-language learning programmes in order to support students' language learning effectiveness. Language teachers wil stil be needed (Farr and Murray, 2016) and language learning will not lose its importance, as at present in Slovenia, where the knowledge of one foreign language apart from English is required by employers, as wel as the European Union promoting language learning through exchanges and projects (Stepien Deschner, Kompara, & Merta-Staszczak, 2013). E-learning is understood as a learning process that occurs out of the usual educational environment (Stepien et al., 2013). E-learning consists of online and blended learning; where online represents a concept of distant education but is different from the traditional one due to its interactive nature. Garrison (2011) argues that blended learning, the combination of e-learning and traditional classroom learning, is the most prevalent form of e-learning and as a result e-learning is becoming a widely accepted method of learning (Farooq & Javid, 2012) due to its innate versatility of tools and methods used. E-learning plays an important role in M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 41. language learning as it provides language skill activities in an innovative and motivating manner and has made the student/teacher relationship less personal (Stepien et al., 2013), as a technological tool comes between the teacher and the student. There are numerous online, freely accessible, tools for learning languages (Stepien et al., 2013), or at least a freely accessible demonstration version of the language course, like Duolingo (Munday, 2016) available for several languages, but not Slovene. After completing the demonstration lesson the whole course is usual y offered to the potential student for a fee, i.e. Babel and Rosetta Stone, where knowledge of English, as a base language for learning a new language, is compulsory. According to the survey, in which Babel and Rosetta Stone were compared, Stepien et al. (2013) argues that Babel combines educational methodology and state-of-the-art technology and makes learning languages easy. It offers lively and funny multi-media courses and exercises. Babel enables learners to study almost anywhere, as it is accessed from computers, tablets and smart phones. Babel offers a selection of courses appropriate for different abilities and interests, from beginners to special in-depth courses and provides freely available demonstration versions of language courses in English, German, Spanish, Italian, etc., with demonstration versions for the beginner and advanced language courses. Rosetta Stone teaches languages in a fun, easy and effective way and uses a natural method for teaching new languages directly, without reference to translations (Stepien et al., 2013), as it aims at learning a language naturally, without repetitive translation or monotonous drills. Rosetta Stone enables users with motivational activities by promoting interactivity and thanks to speech recognition technologies it develops conversational abilities and makes you speak confidently (Stepien et al., 2013). A popular language tool used nowadays is Duolingo, which offers an extensive range of languages. However, a number of languages are missing, including Slovene. As argued by Munday (2016), most students have smartphones. Among the numerous applications offered by smartphones, there are also an increasing number of applications created with the objective of learning a foreign language, i.e. Lingua.Ly (to increase reading comprehension), Hel oTalk (to find people to practice languages), Memrise (for vocabulary acquisition) and Duolingo (Munday, 2016). In view of the transfer of language from classroom to e-learning, according to Montoya (2009), mobile language learning may be a direct descendant of e-learning and as such represents any type of learning supported by electronic tools and resources. Mobile language learning or m-learning uses online resources that can be accessed 42 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. through a mobile device and al ows students to increase and enrich the classroom learning experience by providing a flexible type of mobile learning. Sharples (2005) argues that m-learning is a process of coming to know, where students col aborate with their peers and instructors and build knowledge together. Crompton (2013) states that m-learning represents the learning process across multiple contexts using electronic devices. In line with e-learning and m-learning, we present “LanGuide” as an online language tool for language learning and assessment comprising different thematic fields, including mathematics, history, etc. The aim of this paper is not to present the advantages and disadvantage of the language learning tools listed, but to take them as examples of good practice in the preparation of the “LanGuide” e-learning tool. 4 A general overview of the “LanGuide” e-learning tool Gathering six project partners from six universities, coming from five linguistic and geographical parts of Europe, out of which four universities specialise in language learning and two in software development, “LanGuide” is an Erasmus plus project, funded by the European Commission, that started in 2019 and wil last for three years. The project partners include the University of Zadar, Croatia (Sveučilište u Zadru), the Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania (Universitatea Transilvania din Brasov), the University of Maelardalens, Sweden (Maelardalens Hoegskola), the University of Rijeka, Croatia (Sveučilište u Rijeci), the University of Castilla – La Mancha, Spain (Universidad de Castilla – La Mancha) and the University of Primorska, Slovenia (Univerza na Primorskem). In the project activities a common methodology for the preparation of guidelines focused on language for specific purposes (LSP) wil be jointly developed. The developed methodology is implemented in the preparation of language resources, covering three levels of difficulty for preselected LSP fields for English. The developed resources are included in the language guidance tool software and mobile app that at present are stil under construction. In the final part of the project, resources for preselected LSP fields for the languages of the project partners are included in the software and mobile app. The methodology used in carrying out the project is divided into the realisation of the project activities and is mainly focused on the preparation of a common methodology that is used for the preparation of guidelines focused on the acquisition of LSP for different fields, difficulty levels and languages. M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 43. 4.1 The Scope of “LanGuide” “LanGuide” is intended to promote and reward excel ence in teaching and skil s development, but, above al , it aims at promoting internationalisation by supporting individuals in acquiring and developing basic skills and key competences. The project aims at supporting individuals in the vertical frame of higher education environments, focusing on students, teachers and administrative staff. In the project, target groups acquire and develop basic skills and key competences in language guidance using the language guidance tool that promotes language acquisition and knowledge, they also acquire and develop IT and digital skills, and increase the motivation for language learning through innovative methods. “LanGuide” aims at promoting the basic and transversal skills, such as foreign language acquisition, inclusive education and excellence in teaching. It offers a tool for language guidance that is intended to promote the usage of and development of the digital technology skills. Language learning will positively influence teaching excellence as it will represent a modern IT technology for language guidance in the process of language acquisition. “LanGuide” aims to promote internationalisation by gathering an international team of project partners as wel as by promoting the vertical higher education framework and the EU language policy, social and cultural inclusion as basic priorities. Thanks to the requirement analysis carried out by all participating institutions, we jointly agree that, at tertiary level, the main problem is a generic lack of language knowledge and language skil s, accompanied by low motivation and a need to improve language skills. 4.2 Project objective and results The project results are intended to be used throughout the whole of the EU, for that reason they have to be presented in a way to show the diversity of European educational systems. To achieve this, international cooperation is needed. The developed concepts of “LanGuide” are transferrable to any other language or specific field, which means, at the very least, the languages of the partner institutions, for the purpose of the project. In the project the focus is put on the preparation of the intellectual outputs for English language, the language that allows the inclusion of all three target groups, but within the higher education framework, it is oriented 44 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. toward internationalisation and promotion of linguistic diversity. Shorter versions of the language guidance tool in the languages of the participating partner countries have been prepared, in order to promote internationalisation and language acquisition. As such, “LanGuide” aims to support the European objectives of promoting interculturality, multilingualism and digital learning. The expected results of the project are the preparation of a website where intel ectual outputs are available to the public, the testing phase where the software is tested by the students, the usage of IT technologies, and multilingualism is promoted by the usage of the languages of the project partners. In the project objectives, four intellectual outputs are prepared and released on the website of the project, six multiplier events are carried out, open access material is developed and uploaded on free of charge platforms, the software for testing language knowledge and the guide to improve language knowledge are opened to the public. “LanGuide” is an innovative approach to language guidance that gathers a diverse international team specialised in different fields (e.g. mathematics) to generate the language guidance tool for improving language knowledge. The tool advises its users (teachers, students and administrative staff) on how to improve their language knowledge in different fields. Our tool is designed and developed in a way to guide the users towards the crucial and important fields of language knowledge for the purpose of improving their language knowledge. The language guidance tool is placed in the framework of the acquisition of language for specific purposes (LSP). 4.3 Project implementation and its participants “LanGuide”, apart from being a language guidance tool that improves basic, intermediate and advanced language knowledge, is intended as an LSP tool oriented toward the acquisition and improvement of specialised language fields, e.g. mathematics, economics, history, etc. It is also intended to be applicable to other languages, not only English, as proved by the inclusion of the languages of the project participants. “LanGuide” adds with its results and intellectual outputs an innovative impulse to language guidance, language assessment, language acquisition, the improvement of language knowledge, LSP and digital technology. They are selected proportional y for every participating group and every country. Approximately 20 representatives of administrative staff, 30 university teachers (at M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 45. different levels) and 50 students at different levels (undergraduate and postgraduate) are planned to participate. The participants are intended to be selected by the project heads of the six institutions involved in the project and participate in the testing process of the language guidance tool twice. The first time when the materials of the guidance tool for basic, intermediate and advanced level of language knowledge for LSP in English are prepared, the second time when involved in the testing of the language guidance tool for the languages of the project partners. Feedback, comments and outcomes of both testing processes wil be applied to the guidance tool. Approximately 100 participants for every participating country are selected by the project heads of each participating organization. The administrative staff and teachers are selected so that they represent different age groups, e.g. junior teachers, senior teacher, administrative assistants, assistants, HR, international office assistants, etc. The students are selected from the groups of students attending lectures of the heads of the participating organization. After presenting the project to the students during lectures, they are proportional y selected from undergraduate and postgraduate students in order to have a varied age group of participants. Al three groups of participants cooperate in the two testing phases of the guidance tool. 4.4 Project results To evaluate the project results and objectives, different activities are assessed to compare the actual performance with the planned performance and ensure best use of the resources and software. We measure quality of the project results by involving participants after using the guidance tool and a control group of participants not using the guidance tool. Both groups fill in a questionnaire that measures the language knowledge obtained. The questionnaire is prepared so that it measures the level of guidance and knowledge obtained. Participants using the language guidance tool express their opinion on the quality of the tool, guidance obtained, knowledge obtained and further guidelines for further knowledge improvement. This questionnaire involves the usage of the guidance tool for all project languages. The project results are measured through multiple events (where participants have the opportunity to test the tool) and within dissemination events (e.g. conferences) where the tool is presented and tested. In both cases the feedback of the audience is assessed by a questionnaire to measure the quality, usability and sustainability of the 46 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. tool. The objectives of the project are achieved with the implementation of four different intellectual outputs, including different activities. All four intellectual outputs are presented below. Intellectual output 1 (IO1) Intellectual output 1 involves all project partners and is oriented towards the preparation of a common methodology that is used for the preparation of guidelines focused on language for specific purposes (LSP) for different fields and languages. The activities in IO1 involve background research, data collection, feedback collection, research and assessment of available methodologies, and preparation of the first part of the method guide. Intellectual output 2 (IO2) Intellectual output 2 involves the following project partners: the University of Zadar, Croatia (Sveučilište u Zadru), the Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania (Universitatea Transilvania din Brasov), the University of Rijeka, Croatia (Sveučilište u Rijeci), the University of Castilla – La Mancha, Spain (Universidad de Castilla – La Mancha) and the University of Primorska, Slovenia (Univerza na Primorskem), who are oriented towards using the methodology from IO1 for the preparation of resources for the language guidance tool for LSP. The fields involved are; mathematics, economics, history, and information technology. The project partners are involved in methodology testing and the preparation of materials for the English language. Intellectual output 3 (IO3) Intellectual output 3 involves the University of Rijeka, Croatia (Sveučilište u Rijeci), the University of Castilla – La Mancha, Spain (Universidad de Castilla – La Mancha) and the University of Maelardalens, Sweden (Maelardalens Hoegskola), in the preparation of the digital technology and mobile app, and al other partners in the preparation of the testing phase. The activities in IO3 are background IT research, IT data collection, IT research on usage of available methodologies, preparation of digital technology, preparation of the mobile app, mid-project feedback from the project team, stakeholder feedback, sample testing of project members, feedback M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 47. collection and application of changes, stakeholder quality control, preparation of the method guide and publication. Intellectual output 4 (IO4) Intellectual output 4 involves all project partners who use the developed IT technology and methodology developed for the preparation of the language guidance tool for LSP and prepare sample materials for the project languages, e.g. Slovene, Croatian, Swedish, Romanian and Spanish for the same substantive fields. The activities in IO4 are the usage of existing IT technology developed under IO3, usage of existing methodology developed under IO1, usage of existing LSP fields presented in IO2, preparation of materials, proof reading, mid-project feedback from project team, stakeholder feedback, sample testing, preparation of the method guide, stakeholder quality control, completion of the method guide and publication. 5 Survey on the need analysis for “LanGuide” for English 5.1 Survey scope and methodology In the survey conducted from May to August 2019 we wanted to verify the opinion of students, university professors and administrative staff on the usage, assessment and improvement of language competences. The survey was carried out at the University of Primorska and the Transilvania University of Brasov. 441 respondents participated in the survey, but only 201 respondents completed the whole questionnaire that was composed of 17 questions. A bigger proportion responded from the Transilvania University of Brasov (78%) compared to the University of Primorska (23%). The survey aimed to present the position of language competences among the three groups involved in tertiary education, namely the students, university professors and administrative staff. The questionnaire used the online survey platform www.1.ka.si, which is freely available upon registration. The online survey was distributed by the university administration to students, university teachers and administrative staff. The questionnaire is composed of 14 topic-related questions that follow and are oriented to the position of language knowledge among the respondents. 48 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 5.2 Survey results The survey was completely by a total of 206 valid responders, out of which 160 (78%) were from the Transilvania University of Brasov, 42 (20%) from the University of Primorska and 4 (2%) from the University of Maribor. 140 of respondents (68%) were female and only 64 (31%) male, with 2 respondents not answering this question. The age structure of the respondents is presented in Figure 1, with the average age of 33.2. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0-7 8-14 15-21 22-28 29-35 36-42 43-49 50-56 57-63 64-67 Figure 1: Respondents by age bracket Source: own analysis. The majority of respondents were students (59%) fol owed by university teachers (30%) and administrative staff (13%). Among the students the average age was 25.4, among the university professors 44.9 and among the administrative staff 42.0. M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 49. 5.2.1 Question 4 - from question 4a (Q4a) to question 4g (Q4g) – Grade from 1 (not important) to 5 (very important) the fol owing questions. Answers to the questions from Q4a to Q4g are provided according to the level of importance, from 1 (not important) to 5 (very important). Question Q4a How important is language knowledge for you? was answered by the majority of the respondents (81%) as very important (5) or important (4) (17%). Just 1% answered it as not important (1) or less important (2) and neither important and nor unimportant (3). As shown in table 1 we encounter high values in all three categories, i.e. students, university professors and administrative staff. Among the students 81% see language knowledge as very important (5), 16% as important (4). 83% of university professors see language knowledge as very important (5) and 13% as important (4). 74% of administrative staff see language knowledge as very important (5) and 26% as important (4). Unsurprisingly, the one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is much higher than 0.05). Table 1: Q4a - How important is language knowledge for you? How important is language knowl edge for Answers Mean Standard deviation you? 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 1 1 1 18 89 110 4.75 0.61 1 % 1 % 1 % 16 % 81 % Professor 1 0 1 7 45 54 4.76 0.67 2 % 0 % 2 % 13 % 83 % Administrative 0 0 0 6 17 23 support staff 4.74 0.45 0 % 0 % 0 % 26 % 74 % TOTAL 2 1 2 31 151 187 4.75 0.61 1 % 1 % 1 % 17 % 81 % F test 0.01 P-value 0.99 Source: own analysis. 50 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. We expected a very positive answer from the respondents concerning the importance for language knowledge, because in the past few years the University of Primorska has been especial y active in the preparation of study programmes with English as language of instruction. The answers of the respondents to the question Q4b How important is the knowledge of English for your personal life? can be seen in table 2. 52% of respondents answered it as very important (5), following by 28% as important (4), 15% as neither important and nor unimportant (3), 3% as less important (2) and 2% as not important (1). According to the position of the importance of English knowledge for personal life the highest level of importance (5) was given by the university professors with 57%, followed by the students 54% and administrative staff 35%. 33% of students, 30% of administrative staff and 19% of teachers see language knowledge for personal life as important (4), 21% of teachers, 30% of administrative staff and only 8% of students as neither important nor unimportant (3). The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is higher than 0.05). Table 2: Q4b – How important is the knowledge of English for your personal life? How important is the knowledge of English for your Answers Mean Standard deviation professional life? 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 3 3 9 36 59 110 4.32 0.94 3 % 3 % 8 % 33 % 54 % Professor 0 2 11 10 30 53 4.28 0.93 0 % 4 % 21 % 19 % 57 % Administrative 1 0 7 7 8 23 support staff 3.91 1.04 4 % 0 % 30 % 30 % 35 % TOTAL 4 5 27 53 97 186 4.26 0.95 2 % 3 % 15 % 28 % 52 % F test 1.76 P-value 0.17 Source: own analysis. Respondents were asked to provide the answers to the question Q4c How important is English for your professional life? As seen from table 3, 74% of the respondents answered it as very important (5), followed by 18% as important (4), 3% as neither important nor unimportant (3), 4% as less important (2), and 1% as M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 51. not important (1). The biggest proportion of very important (5) scores (87%) can be seen among university professors, followed by students with 69% and administrative staff with 64%. However, at the same time we can observe a significant number of students (13%) marking the importance of English in their professional life with a score of less than (3). Based on the one-way ANOVA test, we can see that at least one of the three score means is statistical y significantly different from the other two (P-value is equal or lower than 0.05). Table 3: Q4c - How important is English for your professional life? How important is English for your Answers Mean Standard perssional life? deviation 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 3 3 9 36 59 110 4.75 0.61 3 % 3 % 8 % 33 % 54 % Professor 0 2 11 10 30 53 4.76 0.67 0 % 4 % 21 % 19 % 57 % Administrative 1 0 7 7 8 23 support staff 4.74 0.45 4 % 0 % 30 % 30 % 35 % TOTAL 4 5 27 53 97 186 4.75 0.61 2 % 3 % 15 % 28 % 52 % F test 0.01 P-value 0.99 Source: own analysis. To the question Q4d How important is English for your personal development and future career? 77% of the respondents answered it is very important (5), followed by 15% as important (4), 6% as neither important nor unimportant (3), and 1% as less and not important (2) (1). As seen from table 4 the highest level of importance (5) is seen among the university professors with 85%, followed by the students with 76% and administrative staff with 65%. A significant drop is seen among the university professors, as just 11% answered it as important (4), followed by 13% of administrative staff and 16% of students. A relatively high level of administrative staff (22%) answered it as neither important and nor unimportant (3). Lower levels of importance than (3) can be seen in table 4. The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is higher than 0.05). 52 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Table 4: Q4d - How important is English for your personal development and future career? How important is English for your personal Answers Mean Standard development and deviation future career? 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 1 1 6 18 84 110 4.66 0.71 1 % 1 % 5 % 16 % 76 % Professor 1 0 1 6 45 53 4.77 0.67 2 % 0 % 2 % 11 % 85 % Administrative 0 0 5 3 15 23 support staff 4.43 0.84 0 % 0 % 22 % 13 % 65 % TOTAL 2 1 12 27 144 186 4.67 0.72 1 % 1 % 6 % 15 % 77, F test 1.80 P-value 0.17 Source: own analysis. According to questions from Q4a to Q4d the majority of the respondents answered that the importance of language knowledge was very high, but a significant drop can be seen in question Q4e where they were asked How important is for you to assess/test your language knowledge? Among the respondents just 39% answered it as very important (5), fol owed by 36% as important (4), 19% answered it as neither important and nor unimportant (3), 3% answered it as less important (2), and 2% as not important (1). As seen from table 5 a relatively high importance for assessment and testing is given by students, as 45% answered it as very important (5). A majority of the professors 37% and administrative staff 39% answered it as important (4). Lower scores of importance than (3) can be seen in table 5. The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is much higher than 0.05). M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 53. Table 5: Q4e - How important is for you to assess/test your language knowledge? How important is for you to assess/test your Answers Mean Standard language deviation knowledge? 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 2 5 15 39 49 110 4.16 0.95 2 % 5 % 14 % 35 % 45 % Professor 1 1 14 19 17 52 3.96 0.93 2 % 2 % 27 % 37 % 33 % Administrative 0 0 7 9 7 23 support staff 4.00 0.80 0 % 0 % 30 % 39 % 30 % TOTAL 3 6 36 67 73 185 4.09 0.93 2 % 3 % 19 % 36 % 39 % F test 1.80 P-value 0.17 Source: own analysis. To the question Q4f How would you rate the importance of language knowledge at work? 58% of the respondents answered it as very important (5), followed by 31% as important (4), 7% answered it as neither important and nor unimportant (3), 4% answered it as less important (2), and 1% answered it as not important (1). As seen from table 6, 65% of teachers, 55% of students and 55% of administrative staff answered it as very important (5), followed by 36% of administrative staff, 33% of students and 25% of teachers as important (4). Only 9% of administrative staff, and 6% of teachers and students answered it as neither important and nor unimportant (3). Lower scores of importance than (3) can be seen in table 6. The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is much higher than 0.05). 54 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Table 6: Q4f - How would you rate the importance of language knowledge at work? How would you rate the importance of language Answers Mean Standard deviation knowledge at work? 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 1 6 7 36 60 110 4.35 0.89 1 % 5 % 6 % 33 % 55 % Professor 0 2 3 13 34 52 4.52 0.78 0 % 4 % 6 % 25 % 65 % Administrative 0 0 2 8 12 22 support staff 4.45 0.67 0 % 0 % 9 % 36 % 55 % TOTAL 1 8 12 57 106 184 4.41 0.84 1 % 4 % 7 % 31 % 58 % F test 0.80 P-value 0.45 Source: own analysis. To the question Q4g How would you rate the importance of language knowledge at work in the future? 77% answered it as very important (5), followed by 17% as important (4), 3% as neither important and nor unimportant (3), 1% as less important, and 1% as not important. As seen from table 7 the main importance is given by teachers with 81%, fol owed by students with 77%, and administrative staff with 70%. 22% of administrative staff, 17% of teachers and 16% of students answered it as important (4). Only 9% of administrative staff and 4% of students answered it as neither important and nor unimportant (3). Lower scores of importance than (3) can be seen in table 7. The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is much higher than 0.05). M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 55. Table 7: Q4g - How would you rate the importance of language knowledge at work in the future? How would you rate the importance of language Answers Mean Standard deviation knowledge at work? 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 1 2 4 18 85 110 4.67 0.72 1 % 2 % 4 % 16 % 77 % Professor 1 0 0 9 42 52 4.75 0.65 2 % 0 % 0 % 17 % 81 % Administrative 0 0 2 5 16 23 support staff 4.61 0.66 0 % 0 % 9 % 22 % 70 % TOTAL 2 2 6 32 143 185 4.69 0.69 1 % 1 % 3 % 17 % 77 % F test 0.38 P-value 0.68 Source: own analysis. 5.2.2 Question 5 – How many languages do you speak? Respondents were asked to provide the number of languages they speak. From the data obtained we see that on average they speak 3 languages, according to the data minimum 1 and maximum 7 languages. As seen from table 8, students mainly speak 3 languages (40%) or 2 languages (37%), university professors 3 languages (54%) and administrative staff 3 languages (48%). Just 5% of students and 6% of university professors speak more than 5 languages, and 17% of administrative staff speak more than 5 languages, which is an impressive result and would need further investigation. With the one-way ANOVA test, we can see that at least one of the three score means is statistical y significantly different from the other two (P-value is equal or lower than 0.05). 56 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Table 8: How many languages do you speak? How many Answers languages do you Mean Standard speak? deviation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Student 2 41 44 18 5 0 0 110 2.85 0.88 2 % 37 % 40 % 16 % 5 % 0 % 0 % Professor 0 10 28 11 2 0 1 52 3.17 0.92 0 % 19 % 54 % 21 % 4 % 0 % 2 % Administrative 0 5 11 3 1 1 2 23 support staff 3.48 1.47 0 % 22 % 48 % 13 % 4 % 4 % 9 % TOTAL 2 56 83 32 8 1 3 185 3.02 1.00 1 % 30 % 45 % 17 % 4 % 1 % 2 % F test 4.87 P-value 0.01 Source: own analysis. M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 57. 5.2.3 Question 6 – How many languages do you speak actively? When talking about language knowledge linguist like to focus on active and passive language knowledge. According to the answers of the respondents they speak on average 2.1 languages actively and 1.5 languages passively. As seen from table 9, 54% of students speak 2 languages actively, followed by 27% who speak 1 language and 16% who speak 3 languages. 2% speak more than 4 languages actively. Among the university professors 39% speak 2 languages actively, 29% 3 languages and 20% 1 language. 12% speak more than 4 languages actively. As seen from table 9, 30% of administrative staff speak 2 languages actively, 35% 3 languages, 17% 1 language and 17% more than 4 languages. With the one-way ANOVA test, we can see that at least one of the three score means is statistical y significantly different from the other two (P-value is equal or lower than 0.05). 58 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Table 9: How many languages do you speak actively? How many languages do you Answers Mean Standard speak actively? deviation 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Student 2 29 59 17 1 0 109 1.90 0.78 2 % 27 % 54 % 16 % 1 % 0 % Professor 0 10 20 15 4 0 51 2.37 1.02 0 % 20 % 39 % 29 % 8 % 0 % Administrative 0 4 7 8 1 1 23 support staff 2.70 1.33 0 % 17 % 30 % 35 % 4 % 4 % TOTAL 2 43 86 40 6 1 183 2.13 0.97 1 % 23 % 47 % 22 % 3 % 1 % F test 9.29 P-value 0.00 Source: own analysis. M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 59. 5.2.4 Question 7 – How many languages do you speak passively? As seen from table 10, 53% of students speak 1 language passively, followed by 23% who speak 2 languages and 9% who speak 3 languages. 7% speak more than 4 languages passively and 8% do not have the passive knowledge of any language. Among the university professors 58% speak 1 language passively, 21% 2 languages and 2% 3 languages. 8% speak more than 4 languages passively and 10% do not have the passive knowledge of any language. As seen from the table 52% of administrative staff speak 1 language passively, 13% 2 languages and 13% 3 languages, 8% more than 4 languages. 13% do not have the passive knowledge of any language. The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is much higher than 0.05) 60 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Table 10: How many languages do you speak passively? How many Answers languages do you Mean Standard speak passively? deviation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total 9 57 25 10 5 2 0 108 Student 1.55 1.05 8 % 53 % 23 % 9 % 5 % 2 % 0 % 5 28 10 1 2 0 2 48 Professor 1.48 1.27 10 % 58 % 21 % 2 % 4 % 0 % 4 % Administrative 3 12 3 3 1 0 0 23 support staff 1.65 1.56 13 % 52 % 13 % 13 % 4 % 0 % 0 % 17 97 38 14 8 2 2 179 TOTAL 1.54 1.18 9 % 54 % 21 % 8 % 4 % 1 % 1 % F test 0.17 P-value 0.85 Source: own analysis. M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 61. 5.2.5 Question 8 – How many years have you been studying English? On average the respondents have been studying English for 12.0 years. The average is highest among the professors with 14.1 years of studying English, followed by students with 11.6 and administrative staff with 9.2. The one-way ANOVA shows that the differences among the groups are statistical y significant (P-value is 0.02). Table 11: How long have you been studying English? How long have you been studying English? Mean Standard deviation Student 11.64 5.41 Professor 14.14 10.62 Administrative support staff 9.22 5.32 TOTAL 12.03 7.36 F test 4.01 P-value 0.02 Source: own analysis. 5.2.6 Question 9a – How would you rate your knowledge of English? Within question Q9 the respondents were asked to rate their knowledge of English. As seen from table 12 the respondents had to rate their knowledge according to a scale from 1 (very bad) to 5 (very good). According to the question How would you rate your knowledge of English? the majority (51%) rated it with (4), fol owed by 29% (3), 17% (5), and 3% (2). 55% of students and 47% of university teachers and 43% of administrative staff rated their knowledge with (4), fol owed by (3) which was selected by 43% of administrative staff, 31% of teachers and 25% of students, and (5) selected by 20% of teachers, 18% of students and 9% of administrative staff. 62 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Just 4% of administrative staff, 3% of students and 1% of teachers rated their knowledge with (2). There were no lower rates than (2) selected by the respondents. The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is higher than 0.05). Table 12: Rate your knowledge of English. How would you rate your knowledge of Answers Mean Standard deviation English? 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 0 3 27 59 19 108 3.87 0.72 0 % 3 % 25 % 55 % 18 % Professor 0 1 16 24 10 51 3.84 0.76 0 % 2 % 31 % 47 % 20 % Administrative 0 1 10 10 2 23 support staff 3.57 0.73 0 % 4 % 43 % 43 % 9 % TOTAL 0 5 53 93 31 182 3.82 0.74 0 % 3 % 29 % 51 % 17 % F test 1.66 P-value 0.19 Source: own analysis. 5.2.7 Question 9b – How would you rate your knowledge of English at ¸ work? As seen from table 13 according to the question Rate your language knowledge of English at work? the majority of the respondents (45%) rated it with (4), followed by 31% with (3), 20% with (5), and 4% with (2). As seen from table 13, the majority of the respondents rated it with (4), 45% of students, 47% of teachers and 36% of administrative staff. Another 45% of administrative staff rated it with (3), followed by 30% of students and 27% of professors. 22% of professors, 20% of students and 14% of administrative staff rated it with (5), and only 5% of administrative staff, 5% of students and 4% of teachers rated it with the lowest grade selected, namely (2). The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is much higher than 0.05). M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 63. Table 13: Rate your knowledge of English at work. Rate your language knowledge in Answers Mean Standard deviation English at work. 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 0 5 33 49 22 109 3.81 0.81 0 % 5 % 30 % 45 % 20 % Professor 0 2 14 24 11 51 3.86 0.80 0 % 4 % 27 % 47 % 22 % Administrative 0 1 10 8 3 22 support staff 3.59 0.80 0 % 5 % 45 % 36 % 14 % TOTAL 0 8 57 81 36 182 3.80 0.81 0 % 4 % 31 % 45 % 20 % F test 1.66 P-value 0.19 Source: own analysis. 5.2.8 Question 9c – Rate your ability to use English in your field of expertise. As seen from table 14, to the question Rate your ability to use English in your field of expertise the majority (46%) selected (4), fol owed by (3) selected by 27%, (5) selected by 18%, (2) by 9% and (1) by 0%. As seen from table 14, the majority of the respondents rated their ability to use English in their field of expertise with (4). 48% of administrative staff, 47% of professors and 45% of students rated it with (4), followed by (3) selected by 35% of administrative staff, 30% of students and 18% of professors, fol owed by (5), selected by 27% of professors, 17% of students and 4% of administrative staff, followed by (2), selected by 13% of administrative staff, 8% of professors and 8% of students. The one-way ANOVA test shows that at least one of the three score means is statistical y significantly different from the other two (P-value is equal or lower than 0.05). 64 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Table 14: Rate your ability to use English in your work of expertise. Rate your ability to use English in your field of Answers Mean Standard deviation expertise. 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 0 9 33 49 18 109 3.70 0.84 0 % 8 % 30 % 45 % 17 % Professor 0 4 9 24 14 51 3.94 0.88 0 % 8 % 18 % 47 % 27 % Administrative 0 3 8 11 1 23 support staff 3.43 0.79 0 % 13 % 35 % 48 % 4 % TOTAL 0 16 50 84 33 183 3.73 0.86 0 % 9 % 27 % 46 % 18 % F test 3.05 P-value 0.05 Source: own analysis. 5.2.9 Question 10 – Do you enjoy learning languages? To question 10 Do you enjoy learning languages? 91% answered that they do (1) and only 9% answered they do not (2). As seen from table 15 the major category of respondents who enjoy language learning is represented by students (94%), followed by professors (88%) and administrative staff (83%). The highest values among those not enjoying language learning is seen among the administrative staff (17%), followed by professors (12%) and students (6%). The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is higher than 0.05). M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 65. Table 15: Do you enjoy learning languages? Do you enjoy learning languages? Answers Mean Standard deviation 1 2 Total Student 103 6 109 1.06 0.23 94 % 6 % Professor 45 6 51 1.12 0.33 88 % 12 % Administrative 19 4 23 support staff 1.17 0.39 83 % 17% TOTAL 167 16 183 1.09 0.28 91 % 9 % F test 2.10 P-value 0.13 Source: own analysis. 5.2.10 Question 11 – Has your knowledge of English ever been assessed? To the question Has your knowledge of English ever been assessed? 85% of responded answered yes (1) and 15% no (2). As seen from table 16 among the positive answers the majority group is represented by students (88%), followed by teachers (84%) and administrative support (74%). The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is higher than 0.05). Table 16: Has your knowledge of English ever been assessed? Has your knowledge of English ever been Answers Mean Standard deviation assessed? 1 2 Total Student 94 13 107 1.12 0.33 88 % 12 % Professor 43 8 51 1.16 0.37 84 % 16 % Administrative 17 6 23 support staff 1.26 0.45 74 % 26 % TOTAL 154 27 181 1.15 0.36 85 % 15 % F test 1.46 P-value 0.23 Source: own analysis. 66 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 5.2.11 Question 12 – Did the assessed results give you any feedback? According to question 12 Did the assessed results give you any feedback? 75% responded yes (1) and 25% no (2). As seen from table 17 the assessment of language knowledge gave feedback to 80% of professors, 75% of students and 64% of administrative staff. The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistically significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is much higher than 0.05). Table 17: Did the assessed results give you any feedback? Did the assessed results give you any Answers Mean Standard feedback? deviation 1 2 Total Student 80 27 107 1.25 0.44 75 % 25 % Professor 39 10 49 1.20 0.41 80 % 20 % Administrative 14 8 22 support staff 1.36 0.49 64 % 36 % TOTAL 133 45 178 1.25 0.44 75 % 25 % F test 1.02 P-value 0.36 Source: own analysis. 5.2.12 Question 13 – Were you instructed after being assessed on how to improve language knowledge? In question 13 the respondents were asked Were you instructed after being assessed on how to improve language knowledge? 36% answered yes (1), among them are 41% of professors, 36% of students and 23% of administrative staff. 64% answered no (2), among them are 77% of administrative staff, 64% of students and 59% of professors. The results can be seen in table 18. The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is much higher than 0.05). M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 67. Table 18: Were you instructed after being assessed on how to improve language knowledge? Were you instructed after being assessed on how to improve Answers Mean Standard your language deviation knowledge? 1 2 Total Student 38 68 106 1.64 0.48 36 % 64 % Professor 20 29 49 1.59 0.50 41 % 59 % Administrative 5 17 22 support staff 1.77 0.43 23 % 77 % TOTAL 63 114 177 1.64 0.48 36 % 64 % F test 1.08 P-value 0.34 Source: own analysis. 5.2.13 Question 14 – How important is for you to be oriented towards methods for improving your language knowledge? The respondents were asked How important is for you to be oriented towards methods for improving your language knowledge? According to the data seen in table 19, for 47% of the respondents it was very important (5), 30% answered it was important (4), 17% answered it as neither important and nor unimportant (3), 5% answered it as less important, and 1% not important. 54% of students and 41% of professors answered it as very important (5). 30% of administrative staff answered it as very important (5) and important (4). For the majority of the administrative staff (35%) it was neither important and nor unimportant (3). The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is higher than 0.05). 68 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Table 19: How important is for you to be oriented towards methods for improving your language knowledge? How important is for you to be oriented towards methods for Answers Mean Standard improving your deviation language knowledge? 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 1 7 12 29 57 106 4.26 0.97 1 % 7 % 11 % 27 % 54 % Professor 0 1 11 17 20 49 4.14 0.84 0 % 2 % 22 % 35 % 41 % Administrative 0 1 8 7 7 23 support staff 3.87 0.92 0 % 4 % 35 % 30 % 30 % TOTAL 1 9 31 53 84 178 4.18 0.93 1 % 5 % 17 % 30 % 47 % F test 3.05 P-value 0.05 Source: own analysis. 5.2.14 Question 15 – Would you use a linguistic tool for assessing your language knowledge and orienting you on how to improve your language knowledge? Within the survey the respondents were asked Would you use a linguistic tool for assessing your language knowledge and orienting you on how to improve your language knowledge? According to the respondents 88% would use them (1), 12% would not (2). The highest target audience of users are professors with 94%, followed by administrative staff 87% and students 86%. The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is much higher than 0.05). M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 69. Table 20: Would you use a linguistic tool for assessing your language knowledge and orienting you on how to improve your language knowledge? Would you use a linguistic tool for assessing your language knowledge and Answers Mean Standard orienting you on deviation how to improve your language knowledge? 1 2 Total Student 90 15 105 1.14 0.35 86 % 14 % Professor 47 3 50 1.06 0.24 94 % 6 % Administrative 20 3 23 support staff 1.13 0.34 87 % 13 % TOTAL 157 21 178 1.12 0.32 88 % 12 % F test 1.13 P-value 0.32 Source: own analysis. 5.2.15 Question 16 – How frequently would you use the linguistic tool to improve your language knowledge? According to the high values the respondents presented in using the linguistic tool we expected a higher percentage of them to answer positively when asking them How frequently would you use the linguistic tool to improve your language knowledge? According to their answers, the majority (40%) answered with (3) as level of frequency. As seen from table 21 the majority of al three categories of respondents, namely 55% of administrative staff, 40% of professors and 36% of students answered the frequency of usage of the linguistic tool is (3). The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is much higher than 0.05). 70 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Table 21: How frequently would you use the linguistic tool to improve your language knowledge? How frequently would you use the linguistic tool to improve your Answers Mean Standard deviation language knowledge. 1 2 3 4 5 Total Student 9 16 37 29 11 102 3.17 1.10 9 % 16 % 36 % 28 % 11 % Professor 3 6 20 11 10 50 3.38 1.12 6 % 12 % 40 % 22 % 20 % Administrative 0 2 11 3 4 20 support staff 3.45 0.94 0 % 10 % 55 % 15 % 20 % TOTAL 12 24 68 43 25 172 3.26 1.09 7 % 14 % 40 % 25 % 15 % F test 0.98 P-value 0.38 Source: own analysis. 5.2.16 Question 17 – Did you have problems in answering the questions in English? For the very last question we asked the respondents Did you have problems in responding to the questionnaire in English? According to their answers, as seen in table 22, only 7% of the respondents had problems (1) in answering in English, compared to 93% who did not have problems (2). The main group encountering problems were administrative staff with 13%, the least was represented by professors with 2%. The one-way ANOVA test shows us that there are no statistical y significant differences in the mean scores among the three groups of respondents (P-value is higher than 0.05). M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 71. Table 22: Did you have problems in answering the questions in English? Did you have problems in answering the Answers Mean Standard questions in deviation English? 1 2 Total Student 9 96 105 1.91 0.28 9 % 91 % Professor 1 49 50 1.98 0.14 2 % 98 % Administrative 3 20 23 support staff 1.87 0.34 13 % 87 % TOTAL 13 165 178 1.93 0.26 7 % 93 % F test 1.73 P-value 0.18 Source: own analysis. 6 Discussion As seen from the results of the survey, language stil plays an important role no matter the age span, position, academic title, or work environment. Language is more than just exchanging words with other people and the knowledge of foreign languages, in this case English, is still highly important for the respondents. As seen from the results, respondents jointly see the knowledge of English as important for them. The importance of English also ranks high in their professional and private life and in a future context. The knowledge of languages other than English is important for the respondents who speak on average three languages, but there are also cases where a respondent may speak up to seven languages. When talking about language fluency the question of passive and active language knowledge is often exposed by linguists. According to the survey, respondents are active in 2.1 languages on average and express passive knowledge of 1.5 languages. On average, they have been studying English for approximately 10 years, and the majority rank their general knowledge of English as good (4). The same rank is also selected for their knowledge of English at work and in their field of expertise. General y speaking, almost al respondents enjoy learning languages and their knowledge has already been formal y assessed. When asked about the assessment 72 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. feedback we notice a slight decline, as 75% of respondents were given a feedback on the assessed results, but only 36% answered they were instructed on how to improve their language knowledge after being assessed, which was graded as important according to the respondents. In view of using an assessment tool for assessing language knowledge and their orientation towards the strategies of language improvement, respondents showed a positive perspective, but they were not very much in favour of using linguistic tools as a majority of them responded with a level (3) in terms of frequency of usage of a language tool to improve language knowledge. According to the results of the needs analysis survey we believe that “LanGuide” - a tool that encompasses three difficulty levels and is prepared in the LSP frame - wil contribute to the improvement of language learning and language knowledge among the individuals involved in higher education. 7 Conclusion The web is ful of e-learning language tools for a varied number of languages and levels, but “LanGuide” is not just another e-learning language tool present on the web, it is much more than that. “LanGuide”, in addition to the three levels of difficulty, it offers the possibility to learn a language, in our case English, in an LSP frame. Among the LSP fields mathematics, history, economics and information technology are available. “LanGuide” is an e-learning and m-learning language tool prepared mainly for learning, assessing and improving English, but it is also applicable to other languages. Its applicability to other languages is demonstrated with the inclusion of the languages of the project partners, namely Slovenian, Romanian and Spanish. The language tool offers to the potential user a brief insight into the basics of a language other than English. In view of the present trends in language learning, which are in favour of e-learning and m-learning, and the language policy of the EU, the “LanGuide” language tool enables users to learn a language without time and space limitation in a linguistically diverse frame. References Alemi, A., & Tavakoli E. (2016). Audio lingual method. Paper presented at the 3rd International Conference on Applied Research in Language Studies. Retrieved 3 November 2019 from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maedeh_Alemi/publication/293731529_Audio_Ling ual_Method/links/59c643de458515548f3268ec/Audio-Lingual-Method.pdf Basturkmen, H., & Elder, C. (2004). The practice of LSP. In A. Davies, & C. Elder (Eds.), The Handbook of Applied Linguistics (pp. 672–694). Malden, Oxford, Victoria: Blackwell Publishing. M. Kompara Lukančič & I. Fabijanić: LanGuide – A Tool for Learning English 73. Brodnik, A., Ciglarič, M., Krevl, A., & Rugelj, J. (2011). Okolje za konstruktivistično sodelovalno učenje z rabo infrastrukture v oblaku, Sirikt 2011. In A. Bačnik, B. Trstenjak, K. Blagus, & M. Kosta (Eds.), Mednarodna konferenca Splet izobraževanja in raziskovanja z IKT – SIRIKT 2011 (pp. 85–94). Kranjska Gora: Miška d.o.o. Brown, R., & Hanlon, C. (1970). Derivational complexity and order of acquisition in child speech. In J. Hayes (Ed.), Cognition and the development of language (pp. 155–207). New York: Wiley. Brown, R., Cazden, C., & Bel ugi, U. (1973). The child’s grammar from I to III. In C. Ferguson, & D. Slobin (Eds.), Studies of child language development (pp. 295–333). New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1–47. Chomsky, N. (1959). A review of B. F. Skinner's verbal behavior. Language, 35(1), 26–58. Chastain, K. D. (1970). A methodological study comparing the audio-lingual habit theory and the cognitive code-learning theory – A continuation. The Modern Language Journal, 54(4), 257–266. Retrieved 3 November 2019 from https://www.jstor.org/stable/323100?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Crompton, H. (2013). A historical overview of mobile learning: Toward learner-centered education . Handbook of mobile learning, 1, 3–14. Cummins, J. (2010). Language support for pupils from families with migration background: Chal enging monolingual instructional assumption. In C. Benholz, G. Kniffka, & E. Winters-Ohle (Eds.), Academic and language promotion of pupils with immigrant background (pp. 13–23), Munster: Waxmann. De Angelis, G. (2007). Third or additional language acquisition. Cleveland, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Donald, M. (2011). The mimetic origins of language. In K. R. Gibson, & M. Tallerman (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of language evolution (pp. 180–184). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 3 November 2019 from https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199541119.001.0001/ox fordhb-9780199541119-e-17 Doughty, C. J., & Long, M. H. (Eds.). (2003). The handbook of second language acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell. European Union (2019). Language policy. Retrieved 3 November 2019 from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/142/language-policy Farr, F., & Murray, L. (Eds.). (2016). The Routledge handbook of language learning and technology. New York: Routledge. Farooq, U., & Javid, C. (2012). Impact of e-learning on English language learning at undergraduate level at Taif University (Ksa), In L. Gómez Chova, I. Candel Torres, & A. López Martínez (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies (pp. 6961–6969). Barcelona: International Association of Technology, Education and Development (IATED). Garcia Laborda, J. (2011). Revising materials for teaching languages for specific purposes. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 17(1), 102–112. Garrison, D. R. (2011). E-learning in the 21st century: A frame for research and practice (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Gass, S. M., & Selinker L. (2008). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (3rd ed.). London, New York: Routledge. Gass, S. M., Behney, J., & Plonsky, L. (2013). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (4th ed). New York: Routledge. Jaekel, N., Schurig, M., Florian, M., & Ritter, M. (2017). From early starters to late finishers? A longitudinal study of early foreign language learning in school. Language Learning, 67(3), 631– 664. Krashen, S., & Seliger, H. (1975). The essential contributions of formal instruction in adult second language learning. TESOL Quarterly, (9), 173–183. 74 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Laurillard, D. (2005). E-learning in higher education. In P. Ashwin (Ed.), Changing higher education: The development of learning and teaching (pp. 71–84). London, New York: Routledge. Moel er, A. K., & Catalano, T. (2015). Foreign language teaching and learning. V J. D. Wright (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed., Vol. 9, pp. 327–332). Oxford: Elsevier. Montoya, M. S. (2009). Recursos tecnológicos para el aprendizaje móvil (mlearning) y su relación con los ambientes de educación a distancia: implementaciones e investigaciones. RIED Revista iberoamericana de educación a distancia, 12(2), 57–82. Munday, P. (2016). The case for using DUOLINGO as part of the language classroom experience. RIED Revista iberoamericana de educación a distancia, 19(1), 83–101. Nunan, D. (2014). Beyond the classroom: A case for out-of-class language learning. Retrieved 3 November 2019 from https://nsjle.org.au/nsjle/media/2014-NSJLE-05-DAVID-NUNAN.pdf Ortega, L. (2015). Understanding second language acquisition. London: Routledge. Romaine, S. (2013). Politics and policies of promoting multilingualism in the European Union. Language Policy, 12(2), 115–137. Sankar, G., Soundararajan R., & Suresh Kumar S. P. (2016). Language learning and language acquisition: What do the learners prefer?. Studies in Literature and Language, 13(2), 15–25. Saville-Troike, M., & Barto, K. (2017). Introducing second language acquisition (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schenk, A., & Schmidt, S. K. (2018). Failing on the social dimension: Judicial law-making and student mobility in the EU. Journal on European Public Policy, 25(10), 1522–1540. Sharples, M. (2005). Learning as conversation: Transforming education in the mobile age. In Proceedings of Conference on Seeing, Understanding, Learning in the Mobile Age (pp. 147–152). Budapest: Academic Press. Skinner, B. F. (1975). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Centruy-Crofts. Standley, H. J. (2015). International mobility placements enable students and staff in higher education to enhance transversal and employability-related skills. FEMS Microbiology Let ers, 362. Retrieved 3 November 2019 from https://academic.oup.com/femsle/article/362/19/fnv157/496364 Stepien, T., Deschner, A., Kompara, M., & Merta-Staszczak, A. (2013). Spatialisation of education: Migrating languages – cultural encounters –technological turn. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Valdman, A. (1970). Toward a better implementation of the audio-lingual approach. The Modern Language Journal, 54(5), 309–319. VanPatten, B. (2003). From input to output: A teacher’s guide to second language acquisition. New York: McGraw-Hill. VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015). Key terms in second language acquisition. London, New York: Bloomsbury. VanPatten, B., & Wil iams, J. (Eds.). (2008). Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction. London; New York: Routledge. VanPatten, B., & Wil iams, J. (Eds.). (2015). Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (2nd ed.) London; New York: Routledge. White, L. (2003). Second language acquisition and universal grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Yuyun, I. (2013). E-language learning program: Problems and chal enges. V M. Budiman, & M. Fauziah (Eds.), 60th TEFLIN International Conference: Achieving International Standards in Teacher Education, [Depok, Universitas Indonesia], 27-29 August 2013: Proceeding. Retrieved 3 November 2019 from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260991567_E-Language_Learning_Program_Problems_and_Chal enges THE COMPILATION OF THE SHAKESPEARE’S DICTIONARY MOJCA KOMPARA LUKANČIČ1,2 1 University of Maribur, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia. E-mail: mojca.kompara@um.si 2 University of Maribur, Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: mojca.kompara@um.si Abstract The Shakespeare’s Dictionary was a part of the Erasmus plus project - CUSHA (Culture shake) that lasted from 2016 up until 2019 and joined four project partners. The compilation of the dictionary of Shakespeare’s terminology and the preparation of a manual or dictionary-style guide (Kompara, 2019) with instructions for a dictionary compilation are among the project products. In the paper the compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary, its micro- and macrostructure structure, are presented. Specific characteristics of compiling general and terminological dictionaries (Atkins & Rundell, 2008; Fuertes-Olivera & Tarp, 2014) are presented, as wel as the extraction of terms from Shakespeare’s plays “The Tempest” and “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”. The dictionary entries are written in English and provide a definition, an example of usage from the play and translations into 13 languages. The languages included in the dictionary entries, are the mother tongues of the participating students; thus, it enables us to promote multilingualism and language acquisitions. Another specific Keywords: characteristic of the dictionary are the figures included in the terminology, dictionary entry for selected terms and the inclusion of audio files Shakespeare, lexicography, for every single element of the dictionary entry, including the English, translations. multilingualism. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-376-0.3 ISBN 978-961-286-376-0 76 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 1 Introduction In the paper the Shakespeare’s Dictionary, which is a product of the Erasmus plus project CUSHA (Culture Shake), is presented. Furthermore, the micro- and macrostructure of the dictionary and the process of compilation of dictionary entries are discussed. Within the project lexicography is brought closer to the students by involving them in the process of dictionary compilation and editing. In the lexicographic perspective we are talking of a specialised learners’ dictionary (Binon & Verlinde, 1999; Bogaards, 2002; Frawley, 1988; Fuertes-Olivera, 2005; Moulin, 1983; Tarp, 2005). The Shakespeare’s Dictionary was compiled by students for students in a linguistically and culturally diverse framework. Specific characteristics of compiling general and terminological dictionaries (Atkins & Rundell, 2008; Fuertes-Olivera & Tarp, 2014) are presented, as wel as the extraction of terms from Shakespeare’s plays “The Tempest” and “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”. Despite the fact that the dictionary was compiled by students for students, the Shakespeare's Dictionary is also specific due to the extended inclusion of languages and translations of terms into thirteen languages. The meta language is English, and the dictionary entry is written in English and provides a definition, an example of usage from the play in English, and translations in thirteen languages. Within the project, multilingualism and language acquisition especial y by including all 13 languages that are the mother tongues of the participating students are promoted. In the dictionary entry, pictures of some selected terms as wel as audio files for some elements of the dictionary entry, including translations, are included. 2 Specialised dictionaries According to Bergenholtz and Tarp (1995) specialised LSP (Language for Specific Purposes) dictionaries focus on a specific subject field and are made for users who are specialists in a subject field. Humbley (2017) defines specialised dictionaries by the specialised nature of the subjects and fields they treat. Specialised dictionaries focus on specific fields and professional practices with the aim of helping the user in acquiring specialised language knowledge. Among the specialised dictionaries we find LSP dictionaries or special-purpose dictionaries (Humbley 2017; Nielsen, 1994), although some authors (Sager, Dungworth, & McDonald, 1980) argue that the definition of LSP is too broad or as stated by Humbley (2017) subject to variations on the national level, as the segment of specialised dictionaries does not include M. Kompara Lukančič: The Compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary 77. language specific issues, such as pronunciation. Humbley (2017) argues that there is a clear distinction between dictionaries and encyclopaedias, as dictionaries aim at the language of specialised fields, encyclopaedias are oriented towards the extra-linguistics elements. Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp (2014) define dictionaries, encyclopaedias, lexica, glossaries and vocabularies as information tools that are outside the general cultural knowledge. According to Dancette and Réthoré (1997) linguistic and encyclopaedic methods complement one another in the compilation of specialised dictionaries. Nielsen (2018) argues that LSP lexicography covers a varied number of subject fields that are treated by different types of dictionaries and based on various theoretical and methodical approaches. The aim of LSP lexicography is to provide lexicographical tools that function as utility products and provide specific types of help to user in one or more subject fields. The objective of LSP lexicography is to develop principles and guidelines that help lexicographers design, evaluate, make and use lexicographical tools that fulfil specific needs. In view of this, an appropriate approach to LSP lexicography and specialised dictionaries is oriented towards lexicographical functions, e.g. communicative and cognitive functions. Specialised dictionaries or LSP dictionaries are designed for users with specific needs, e.g. specialists in the field, translators of a specialised text, etc., and are called by Nielsen (2018) user situations or extrinsic lexicographical phenomena that are not related to lexicography but arise in the extra-lexicographical environment. Nielsen (2018) argues that dictionaries function as intrinsic lexicographical phenomena and are, as such, directly related to helping in various situations, e.g. translation. According to Nielsen (2018) specialised dictionaries have existed for thousands of years, but the theoretical branch of LSP lexicography is a relatively new branch of lexicography. Cabré Castelví (1999) stated that the modern theory of terminology started in 1930, but the lexicographic community did not give LSP lexicography significant attention up until the last half of the twentieth century, when final y, linguists began studying specialised dictionaries. The first theoretical approach aiming at establishing a theoretical framework for specialised dictionaries was made in the 1980s (Frawly, 1988). The framework was oriented exclusively to printed monolingual dictionaries and was based exclusively on linguistic and text-linguistic principles. Only in 1990 did lexicographers move to bilingual dictionaries, focusing on equivalence and equivalents. Prominent researchers in the field of lexicography (Bergenholtz & Tarp, 1995; Nielsen, 1994) extended the scope of LSP lexicography 78 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. to include an analysis of dictionaries in the framework of complex units dealing with more than only linguistic concepts and terms. Several lexicographers (Fuertes-Olivera, 2009; Fuertes-Olivera & Tarp, 2014; Nielsen, 2010; Nielsen, 2015; Nielsen & Mourier, 2005; Tarp, 2000) argue that practical and theoretical LSP lexicography shifted its focus from documentation, description and analysis to the development of relevant principles and guidelines for compiling dictionaries that aim at helping users in solving specific issues in specific situations, e.g. translation problems. At present LSP lexicography is oriented towards analysing users’ needs in specific situations and offering ways in which specialised dictionaries, both printed and online, can help and satisfy the needs of the users. 2.1 Specialised learner’s dictionaries Tarp (2005) argues that the concept of a specialised learners’ dictionary can only be defined by determining its lexicographic functions and point to the issue of the modest theoretical literature dedicated to these kinds of dictionaries. According to Tarp (2005) a specialised learners’ dictionary is oriented towards assisting the learning of a specialised language and not considering other possible functions. The same definition is also shared by other authors (Binon & Verlinde, 1999; Bogaards, 2002; Frawley, 1988; Fuertes-Olivera, 2005; Moulin, 1983;). The term specialised learners’ dictionary equates to the more general y used term of learners’ dictionary which refers to dictionaries compiled for language learners of a second or foreign language. According to Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp (2011) the concept of learners could be subdivided into those learning skills and those acquiring knowledge, but bearing in mind that modern educational methods combine the learning of skil s with the acquisition of related knowledge. For modern lexicography the distinction between skil s and knowledge is important because it helps to focus on the different roles the dictionaries play in the learning process (Tarp, 2010). Taking into consideration Tarp’s (2010) very broad sense of the concept of learners’ dictionaries – where users consult a dictionary in order to learn something and get information, he argues that in this perspective al dictionaries could be characterised as learners’ dictionaries. In order to avoid a misinterpretation, a distinction between dictionaries compiled to assist a learning process and those compiled to satisfy users’ needs with no relation to a learning process, should be made. Tarp (2011) argues that only the former type of dictionary should be considered a learners’ dictionary in its narrow sense. Learners’ dictionaries are as such defined as dictionaries compiled with the M. Kompara Lukančič: The Compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary 79. aim of assisting users engaged in a learning process but taking into consideration various types of learning processes and types of learners. Consequently, the learners’ dictionaries comprise different types of dictionaries with different functions focused on fulfil ing the needs of the learners. When talking about different functions Tarp (2011) focuses on four basic elements; satisfaction (e.g. a dictionary’s assistance for a potential user), the specific types of lexicographical y relevant need that may arise (e.g. what a dictionary can be used for), a specific type of potential user (e.g. who may benefit from using a dictionary), and a specific type of extra-lexicographical situation (e.g. when a dictionary can be used). Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp (2011) argue that it is important to bear in mind that dictionaries do not contain information, but careful y selected lexicographical data, and users, when consulting a dictionary seek quick and easy access to the lexicographical data. The lexicographic data an LSP learner needs depends on whether the LSP to be learned is part of his or her native language or a foreign language, and whether the language is learnt in order to engage in normal communication, text production and reception or for translations. As it is stated by Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp (2011) dictionaries cannot directly assist the development of LSP skills, but help users indirectly, providing solutions occurring in LSP communication. In the first place LSP learners need information on vocabulary and grammar, as wel as some stylistic characteristics, and their needs are very similar to the needs of learners of Languages for General Purposes (LPG). There is one big difference between the two groups - no meaningful LSP communication occurs without a minimum of subject field knowledge. The issue is not problematic for the subject field experts but represents a problem for the layman, whose lack of subject-field knowledge may lead to important communication problems. In this perspective laymen and students need specialised encyclopaedic data from which they retrieve the subject field information they need. The lack of specialised encyclopaedic data in the majority of the specialised dictionaries is the reason why they are considered only to be half-way solutions to the users’ needs in terms of LSP communication and learning (Fuertes-Olivera & Tarp, 2011). 80 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 3 Characteristics of LSP Dictionaries The concept of terminological or LSP dictionaries differs from the concept of the general dictionaries (Atkins & Rundell, 2008), especially in terms of micro and macrostructure of the dictionary and the compilation of the dictionary article, their number, structure and typology, e.g. monolingual, bilingual or multilingual. LSP dictionaries are important works especially intended for users of specialised languages and translators. Bilingual LSP dictionaries represent an important niche in the contemporary lexicography as such works often solve conceptual problems not present in both languages, e.g. different legal terms and concepts in two different countries. Bilingual specialised lexicography aims at facilitating communication in specialised domains and bilingual terminology aims at recording, structuring and analysing terms, and describing differences and similarities among the involved language communities (Fuertes-Olivera & Nielsen, 2012). In the case of Slovenia, most LSP dictionaries are compiled by the Terminological section of the Fran Ramovš Institute of the Slovenian Language (ZRC SAZU). The terminological section is specialised in various fields, and it has also been dealing with terminological consultancy and has published countless terminological dictionaries in recent years; such as urban planning, automatism, botany, pharmacy, etc. The LSP dictionaries are mainly monolingual and are often accompanied by translations into English and other languages. 3.1 The Analysis of Terminological Dictionaries When observing the macro- and microstructure of LSP dictionaries, we are aware that it differs from general dictionaries and depends on the needs of users and decisions of terminologists and lexicographers. As an example, we can take the dictionary of abbreviations, which can be classified as an LSP dictionary, even if some abbreviations can belong to general language. From a broader European linguistic concept, they vary with regard to the number of abbreviations they include, starting from an average of 10,000 entries in the case of the Italian Dictionary of Abbreviation DidiSi (Righini, 2001) and reaching 50,000 entries in the case of the German Dictionary of Abbreviations (Steinhauer, 2005). In connection to the microstructure, we have to mention the compilation of the dictionary entry, which is mainly ordered alphabetical y and the characteristics of the dictionary entry, which in DidiSi (Righini, 2001) is strictly accompanied by language, field qualifier and M. Kompara Lukančič: The Compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary 81. translation, in contrast to the German dictionary (Steinhauer, 2005) where for FIAT language, field qualifier and translation are not provided in the dictionary entry. In the German dictionary, the omission of this type of data is present in countless entries. In this respect, we have to specify that the characteristics of LSP dictionaries are specific and varied and are based on the needs of different users, and the lexicographer's obligation is to think about them in the preparation and compilation of the dictionary (Atkins & Rundell, 2008). Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp (2011) argue that the concept of an LSP dictionary can be defined through the possible lexicographic functions it possesses, e.g. the assistance it offers for the lexicographical needs the users have in specific social situations. Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp (2011) state that dictionaries, also those of specialised languages, are not books that need to be read from one end to the other but are rather tools for consultation, and that the basic essence of dictionaries is to contain data that can be accessed quickly and easily. This is the data from which the user can acquire information that can be used in countless contexts. In this sense, it is important to determine how dictionaries of specialised languages can intervene and help in the learning process in a specific field. In the framework of the compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary we are compiling an LSP dictionary that focuses on Shakespeare’s vocabulary, but it is also a learners’ dictionary aiming at bringing Shakespeare into the classroom of the 21st century. In addition, with reference to the Shakespeare’s Dictionary we are talking of a multilingual dictionary that needs a different compilation procedure (Atkins & Rundell, 2008) compared to monolingual or bilingual dictionaries. Multilingual dictionaries are needed in various applications, from cross-lingual information retrieval to machine translation (Boguslavsky, Cardeñosa, & Gallardo, 2008). As the name – multilingual dictionary – implies, such works include a variety of languages and are often oriented toward an audience of specialised users. As an example, we can take the Kulinarični slovar v šestih jezikih (Neiger, 1993), that includes translations of gastronomic terms in six languages. The dictionary is a translated multilingual dictionary that as a pivot language uses English. As stated by Acs (2014) dictionary compilation with a pivot (usually English) has only been used for a small number of scattered languages pairs. The main problem with such a compilation is confusion due to polysemy (Acs, 2014; Tanaka & Umemura, 1994). Tanaka and Umemura (1994), who first addressed this issue presented a method cal ed Inverse Consultation (IC), that was applied to Japanese–English–French. The aim of the method is to extend the number of pivot languages, from one to 53 pivots. Some prominent scientists have dealt with a similar 82 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. method (Kaji, Tamamura, & Erdenebat, 2008; Saralegi, Manterola, & Vicente, 2011; Soderland, Etzioni, Weld, Skinner, & Bilmes, 2009). In the case of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary we are talking of multilingual students oriented toward the acquisition of Shakespeare’s terminology and using English as pivot language. 4 The CUSHA Project and the Preparation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary Culture Shake CUSHA (2017) was an Erasmus plus project joining five partners from four European countries; Germany, Sweden, Slovenia and the United Kingdom. The main objective of the project was to build a bridge between theory and practice in teaching and to bring Shakespeare into the classroom of the 21st century. The project promoted multilingualism and multiculturalism thanks to the international meetings of the German and Swedish participants, but it also promoted intercultural inclusions as there were refugee students from war-torn areas, such as Syria, actively involved in the project. From 2016 to 2019, the project took place in three European locations; Germany, Sweden and the UK. Within the project, students from the Friedrich-Wöhler Gymnasium in Singen and the English School of Göteborg met during the international exchange weeks in Germany, Sweden and the UK and jointly worked on the project activities, e.g. among the activities was also the compilation of the CUSHA Dictionary or Shakespeare's Dictionary. Among the participating partners who prepared the learning activities for the students and teaching materials were the University of Educational Studies in Karlsruhe, the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust in Stratford-upon-Avon, and the University of Primorska from Slovenia. The project promoted Shakespeare's works (“The Tempest” and “A Midsummer Night's Dream”) and brought them to the students in an innovative way. 4.1 General Overview of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary (CUSHA Dictionary) Culture Shake features numerous project products, among which is the compilation of the Shakespeare's Dictionary (CUSHA Dictionary) (Termania, 2018). Termania is an online freely accessible portal for registered users, designed primarily for searching lexical databases, but it also offers users the possibility to compile dictionaries. The purpose of the portal is to become the central platform where M. Kompara Lukančič: The Compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary 83. terminology data related to lexicography is concentrated, firstly for Slovenian language, and secondly for other languages. The advantage of the Termania platform is that a wide variety of freely available dictionaries are concentrated in a single place. These dictionaries differ in type and structure. The Termania platform is available for research and compilation of dictionaries, and it offers basic and advanced research as wel as data on each published dictionary (e.g. number of entries, languages included). Upon free registration, users have the possibility to use several dictionary editing masks (e.g. monolingual, bilingual, multilingual dictionaries) for compiling dictionaries. The mask could be modified according to the needs of the user and the structure of the dictionary article. The Shakespeare’s Dictionary was compiled via the freely available online platform Termania. The CUSHA Dictionary is a multilingual dictionary that includes English as the main or pivot language. The dictionary entry consists of the definition and an example of language usage taken from the plays, first in English and then followed by the translations in 13 different languages. Among the translations we find Amharic, Arabic, Czech, French, German, Hebrew, Italian, Macedonian, Persian, Polish, Russian, Spanish and Swedish. The 13 languages included in the dictionary entry are the mother tongues of the participants. The dictionary mask used for compiling the dictionary entries was adapted by the Termania IT technologists, and audio and photographic materials were added to the dictionary entries. Audio materials were added to some definitions, examples and translations; photographic materials were added only for some definitions. Compiling the CUSHA Dictionary promotes literacy among students and language acquisition as well as multilingualism. In the context of the translation workshops, students are familiarised with Shakespeare through their mother tongue by including translations. In this perspective, students had the opportunity to establish communication channels with students from different environments and develop critical thinking. By September 2018, students jointly compiled approximately 200 dictionary entries within three weeks of the student exchange. 5 Methodology There are many different dictionaries and/or glossaries on Shakespeare available online, e.g. Glossary-Shakespeare’s Words (n. d.), Shakespeare Dictionary (n. d.), Shakespeare Translator (n. d.) and A Dictionary of Shakespeare (Wells, 1998). The Shakespeare’s Dictionary presented in the paper is a dissemination product of the 84 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. European Erasmus plus project CUSHA compiled in the freely available Termania platform (2018) and compiled by two groups of students, from the Friedrich-Wöhler Gymnasium in Singen and the English School of Göteborg. Both groups of students worked jointly in the project on the compilation of the dictionary within the exchange weeks in Singen, Stratford-upon-Avon, and Göteborg. There were approximately 30 students working on the dictionary’s compilation. Within the first exchange week in May 2017 in Singen, the basic concepts of lexicography and the dictionary compilation were explained to the students. Later, the students registered on the Termania platform and were added by the administrator to the compilation team. The purpose of the compilation was to bring Shakespeare to the classroom of the 21st century in an innovative way and to learn about Shakespeare’s terminology and dictionary compilation. From the methodological point of view, the dictionary was compiled in three consecutive weeks of exchange, from May 2017 to September 2018. After an introductory phase, concerning the characteristics and compilation of dictionaries, the terms were extracted by the project partner who is an expert in lexicography and also the administrator of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary. The terms were extracted manual y, based on their occurrence, from two short versions of the plays, “The Tempest” and “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”. After the extraction, each student received ten terms to be included as separate dictionary entries into the Termania platform. During the exchange weeks in May 2017, students familiarised themselves with the concepts of dictionary compilation and inclusion of the terms from “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”. In September 2017, students added translations and audio recordings to the dictionary entries as wel as some photos of the terms. In September 2018, students included the terms from “The Tempest”. Within the first week of student exchange in Singen in May 2017, the students familiarised themselves with the basic concepts of lexicography and dictionary compilation and later registered on the freely available web platform Termania. On the Web, there are numerous dictionary portals, but a significant advantage of Termania compared to other dictionary portals is that it al ows the users to both browse and edit dictionaries by using the same interface. The lexicographer involved in the project had the function of an administrator and was responsible for dictionary compilation and editing. Upon registration on the Termania web page, students were approved by the administrator and added to the team of editors of the Shakespeare's Dictionary, named the CUSHA Dictionary for short. After being approved and added to the team of editors, students were given the terms to be included into the dictionary mask. Each student was given approximately ten terms to be included M. Kompara Lukančič: The Compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary 85. into the dictionary mask. The terms were given to the students on flashcards, ten terms per card. Al students were also given a copy of the short version of Shakespeare's play, “A Midsummer Night's Dream”. Within the compilation process, students used the English interface of the dictionary mask. 6 Characteristics of the CUSHA Dictionary In figure 1, the characteristics of an empty dictionary entry are seen. As seen from the figure, the dictionary entry is composed of the headword, distributed to the students by the administrator and the definition, composed by the students upon using several online references, e.g. the above-mentioned dictionaries related to Shakespeare, the monolingual dictionaries, e.g. The Free Dictionary (2020) and bilingual dictionaries, etc. and the example of usage, extracted manual y by the students from the given short version of Shakespeare's play, “A Midsummer Night's Dream”, and later in September 2017, “The Tempest”. The headword, definition and example of usage are all in English and are followed by the translations in 13 languages. The translations were added to the dictionary article during the second week of the exchange, in September 2017 in Stratford-upon-Avon. Figure 1: Dictionary mask Termania – example of empty dictionary entry Source: Termania, 2018. 86 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Within the second exchange week in Stratford-upon-Avon in September 2017, students had the possibility to work at the Shakespeare's archives with authentic translations from the play “A Midsummer Night's Dream” and included the translations into 13 different languages into the dictionary. The languages into which the terms were translated are the mother tongues of the participating students. In order to provide the translations, students worked in smal groups. The groups were composed of students who speak the same language; e.g. French. Students worked with flashcards given by the administrator. On one side of the flashcard, there were the terms that had to be translated, on the other side of the flashcard; there were the languages in which the terms had to be translated. Students of one linguistic group, e.g. French crossed out the language on the flashcard when they finished al translations in French and passed the card to the other linguistic groups e.g. Russian. This method was used in order not to confuse the students and double the translation work. Within the project goals language acquisitions and multilingualism, by including a variety of different languages; e.g. Arabic and Hebrew, and thus promoting students' interest in learning new vocabulary and cooperating in translating the terms included in the dictionary, were promoted. Within the workshop at the archives, the students cooperated and jointly worked with each other on the translations. In order to provide translations into 13 languages, the dictionary editing mask had to be adjusted to support a variety of foreign languages scripts, e.g. Arabic, Hebrew etc. Thus, the software was upgraded in order to enable the students to use the appropriate script when translating. In figure 2, we can see an example of dictionary entry for the term ‘Fairy Queen’. M. Kompara Lukančič: The Compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary 87. Figure 2: Dictionary mask Termania – example of the dictionary article Source: Termania, 2018. As seen from figure 2, the headword was included from the list of terms manual y extracted by the administrator of the dictionary. The headword is followed by the definition “A figure from english folklore who was believed to rule the faries” (also known as Titania from Shakespearès "A Midsummer Night`s Dream") (Source:encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/fairy+quee). The definition is composed by students upon using different dictionaries, listed above and in reference to the term extracted from the play. As seen from the definition, students first included a generic definition “A figure from english folklore who was believed to rule the faries” but added in brackets a reference to the play (also known as Titania from Shakespearès "A Midsummer Night`s Dream"). The source is also added at the end. In figure 2 we see a dictionary entry in progress, as it is not ful y completed and proofread, that is why some minor mistakes are visible in the dictionary articles, e.g. english, faries. In the dictionary article, the definition is fol owed by the example of usage extracted manual y by the students from the play. During the second exchange week in Stratford-upon-Avon in September 2017, within the compilation of the dictionary articles, the students also included some photos and audio recordings. The photos were pre-selected by the administrator according to the necessity and possibility of providing them, e.g. students were asked to take photos at the Shakespeare’s garden or simply draw a figure. Students were asked to 88 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. provide photos of selected terms. Terms, such as thy, thou, etc., were not included, because it would be difficult to picture them or translate their meaning into a picture. Students took photos with their phones and uploaded them into a cloud prepared by the software company Amebis. Students were also asked to provide audio recordings of some selected terms. They were asked to prepare recordings of the headwords, definitions and examples of usage in English and the translations. Al recordings were stored in the cloud. The cloud is visible in figure 3. As seen from figure 3, there are folders for translations in every single language and folders for the English headword, definition and example in the cloud for audio recordings. This method was used in order to prevent confusion. Every single recording was saved by students under the English name of the word. Thus, the IT specialist had no problems in inserting the correct audio under the correct word. Students were asked to store audio recordings and pictures in the cloud. After the last week of exchange in Göteborg in September 2018, the IT specialist included them into the dictionary mask. This was agreed by the administrator as it would be too complex for the students to include audio files and photos on their own into the dictionary mask. Figure 3: The OwnCloud for audio recordings Source: Amebis, 2018. During the exchange week in Göteborg in September 2018, students included the terms from “The Tempest” and compiled the dictionary entries concerning the terms from “The Tempest”. The method of the compilation of the dictionary entry of the terms related to The Tempest was the same as the one related to “A Midsummer Night's Dream”. Students had to include the headword, definition M. Kompara Lukančič: The Compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary 89. compiled from various online sources and the example of usage, taken from a short version of the play and also included the translations. They worked in groups as in the previous exchange weeks and added some pictures and audio recordings to the selected dictionary entries. After the last week of exchange, the IT specialist from Amebis included selected photos and audio recording to some selected dictionary entries into the dictionary mask. This was followed by proofreading of the English elements and some translations by the administrator. At the end of the project, more precisely in spring 2020, the dictionary was released to the public on the platform Termania and Slovarji.si (2020). A guide for compiling dictionaries (Kompara, 2019) was prepared in order to bring closer not only Shakespeare's terminology but also lexicography and the possibility for teachers and students of al school levels to work with the freely available online dictionary mask. 6.1 Availability of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary on the platform Slovarji.si In this paragraph the issue of releasing digitalized dictionaries and the preparation of the platform Slovarji.si is addressed. As an example of good practice, we took into consideration the Slovenian lexicographic environment where we have encountered some changes in the past few years. Online dictionaries are often scattered on the Web and when searching for them, especial y in the sense of terminological dictionaries we often loose time in finding the right dictionary and many times the websites where the dictionaries once “used to be” are not available anymore. As an example, we can take the website Spletni slovarji (2019) which is a good start for someone looking for an LSP dictionary, but unfortunately has not been updated for long time and as a consequence some dictionary websites are not available anymore. In addition, the list of lexicographic sources is long and confusingly organised among subfields, e.g. finance, languages, medicine, etc. and due to such type of organisation some dictionaries could fal under more than one subfield, e.g. abbreviations, could be found under general dictionaries as well as within the subcategory languages. As a response to the outdated website in 2018 and 2019 the Slovenian Ministry of Culture financed the project called Digitalization and Accessibility of Dictionary Resources, the project partners, the University of Primorska (Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technology) and Slovenia’s leading language software company Amebis developed the platform Slovarji.si. The platform is an organised list of online dictionaries that contains the Slovenian language as one of the languages and offers to the users over 300 freely 90 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. accessible dictionaries, from monolingual, to bilingual and multilingual, general and specialised. As seen from figure 4 the user may search for a dictionary using a filter that enables to search by author, field or language. An added value is an extensive number of dictionaries that has never been published in Slovenian before and wil be freely available on the platform, among them is the Shakespeare’s Dictionary that has been available since 2020. The inclusion of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary into the Slovarji.si platform is a promotion of the dictionary and the compilation of LSP dictionaries. Figure 4: Platform Slovarji.si Source: Slovarji.si, 2019. 7 Conclusion Despite the fact that we are living in an era of digital reality, a good old dictionary, especial y the one covering a specific area of language, remains and wil remain an indispensable tool in the life of language users. We believe that it is essential to make young people understand the importance of compiling dictionaries and terminology dictionaries and also encourage them to compile them at an early age, because thanks to this type of approach they wil not only learn the foundations of lexicography and the main compilation techniques, but above all they will develop a more critical approach to language and its meaning, especial y in a specialised context such as Shakespeare’s terminology. Within the project the students actually learnt the basics M. Kompara Lukančič: The Compilation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary 91. of lexicography and above al that the dictionary-making process in the digital era is much more complex than just writing definitions and translating them into different languages. It demands specialised knowledge from the different linguistic fields, natural language processing and web design at least. Compiling a dictionary is not just writing meanings and translations, but it is much more, it is a piece of teamwork that requires dedication and it frequently makes us work alongside individuals belonging to other linguistic and cultural backgrounds. These were the elements that embraced the project of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary (CUSHA Dictionary) which has been running since 2016 and included students from different cultural and linguistic realities. References Acs, J. (2014). Pivot-based multilingual dictionary building using Wiktionary. In Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14) (pp. 1938–1942). Reykjavik: European Language Research association. Atkins, B. T. S., & Rundell, M. (2008). The Oxford guide to practical lexicography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bergenholtz, H., & Tarp, S. (1995). Manual of specialised lexicography. The preparation of specialised dictionaries. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Binon, J., & Verlinde, S. (1999). La contribution de la lexicographie pédagogique à l’apprentissage et à l’enseignement d’une langue étrangère ou seconde. Etudes de linguistiqueappliquée, (116), 453–468. Bogaards, P. (2003). Uses and users of dictionaries. In P. van Sterkenburg (Ed.), A practical guide to lexicography (pp. 26–33). Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Boguslavsky, I., Cardeñosa, J., & Gallardo, C. (2008). A novel approach to creating disambiguated multilingual dictionaries. Applied Linguistics, 30(1), 70–92. Cabré, Castelví, M. T. (1999). Terminology: Theory, methods and applications. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins. CUSHA – Culture Shake. (n. d.). Retrieved 25 October 2019 from https://cultureshake.ph-karlsruhe.de/cusha/en/ Dancette, J., & Réthoré, C. (1997). Élaboration du dictionnaire bilingue de la distribution: entre dictionnaire de langue et dictionnaire encyclopédique. Méta, 42(2), 229–243. Frawley, W. (1988). New forms of specialized dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography, 1(3), 189– 213. Fuertes Olivera, P. A. (2005). Specialized communication and English studies: Research proposals on specialized lexicography and English for specific purposes. Atlantis, 27(2), 41–55. Fuertes Olivera, P. A. (2009). The function theory of lexicography and electronic dictionaries: Wiktionary as prototype of collective multiple-language internet dictionary. In H. Bergenholtz, S. Nielsen, & S. Tarp (Eds.), Lexicography at a crossroads: Dictionaries and encyclopedias today, lexicographic tools tomorrow (pp. 99–134). Bern: Peter Lang. Fuertes-Olivera, P. A., & Nielsen, S. (2012). Online dictionaries for assisting translators of LSP texts: The accounting dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography, 25(2), 191–215. Fuertes-Olivera, P. A., & Tarp S. (2011). Lexicography for the third mil ennium: Cognitive-oriented specialised dictionaries for learners. Ibérica, (21), 141–161. Fuertes-Olivera, P., & Tarp, S. (2014). Theory and practice of specialised online dictionaries: Lexicography versus terminography. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. 92 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Glossary – Shakespeare’s Words. (n. d.). Retrieved 4 May 2020 from https://www.shakespeareswords.com/Public/Glossary.aspx. Humbley, J. (2017). Specialised dictionaries. In P. A. Fuertes-Olivera (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of lexicography (pp. 205–217). Abingdon: Routledge. Kaji, H., Tamamura, S., & Erdenebat, D. (2008). Automatic construction of a Japanese-Chinese dictionary via English. In Proceedings of the LREC conference (pp. 699–706). Marrakesh: ELRA. Kompara, M. (2019). Guidelines for Compilation on the Shakespeare Terminological Dictionary – CUSHA Dictionary. Koper: Primorska University. Retrieved 4 May 2020 from https://cultureshake.ph-karlsruhe.de/wordpress/wp-content/IOs/IO2_English-FINAL.pdf Moulin, A. (1983). LSP dictionaries for EFL learners. In R. R. K. Hartmann (Ed.), Lexicography: Principles and Practice (pp. 144–152). London: Academic Press. Neiger, E. (1997). Kulinarični slovar v šestih jezikih. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. Nielsen, S. (1994). The bilingual LSP dictionary: Principles and practice for legal language. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Nielsen, S., & Mourier, L. (2005). Internet accounting dictionaries: Present solutions and future opportunities. Hermes: Journal of Linguistics, 18(34), 83–116. Nielsen, S. (2010). Specialised translation dictionaries for learners. In P. A. Fuertes-Olivera (Ed.), Lexicographica (pp. 69–82). Berlin: De Gruyter. Nielsen, S. (2015). Legal lexicography in theory and practice. Estudios de lexicografia, (4), 111–120. Retrieved 25 October 2019 from http://cc.au.dk/fileadmin/08._Legal_Lexicography_in_Theory_and_Practice.pdf Nielsen, S. (2018). LSP lexicography and typology of specialized dictionaries. In J. Humbley, G. Budin, & C. Laurén (Eds.), Languages for special purposes: An international handbook (pp. 71–95). Berlin: De Gruyter. Righini, E. (2001). DidiSi: Dizionario di sigle abbreviazioni e simboli. Milano: Zanichelli. Sager, J, C., Dungworth, D., & McDondald, P. F. (1980). English special languages: Principles and practice in science and technology. Wiesbaden: Bandstetter. Saralegi, X., Manterola, I., & Vicente, I. S. (2011). Analyzing methods for improving precision of pivot based bilingual dictionaries. In Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (pp. 846–856). Edinburgh: Association for Computational Linguistics. Shakespeare Dictionary. (n. d.). Retrieved 4 May 2020 from https://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/resources/shakespeare-dictionary/ Shakespeare Translator. (n. d.). Retrieved 4 May 2020 from https://reference.yourdictionary.com/translation/shakespeare-translator.html Slovarji.si. (n. d.). Retrieved 25 October 2019 from https://www.slovarji.si/ Soderland, S., Etzioni, O., Weld, D. S., Skinner, M., & Bilmes, J. (2009). Compiling a massive, multilingual dictionary via probabilistic inference. In Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the 47th Annual Meeting of the ACL and the 4th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing of the AFNLP (pp. 262–270). Singapore: Association for Computational Linguistics. Spletni slovarji. (n. d.). Retrieved 25 October 2019 from https://evroterm.vlada.si/slovar/ Steinhauer, A. (2005). Das Wörterbuch der Abkürzungen. Mannheim: Duden. Tanaka, K., & Umemura, K. (1994). Construction of a bilingual dictionary intermediated by a third language. In Proceedings of the 15th conference on Computational linguistics (pp. 297–303). Stroudsburg: Association for Computational Linguistics. Tarp, S. (2000). Theoretical challenges to practical specialized lexicography. Lexikos, 10, 189–208. Tarp, S. (2005). The pedagogical dimension of the wel -conceived specialised dictionary. Ibérica, 10, 7– 21. Tarp, S. (2010). Functions of specialized learners’ dictionaries. In P. A. Fuertes-Olivera (Ed.), Specialised dictionaries for learners (pp. 39–53). Berlin, New York: De Gruyter. Termania. (n. d.). Retrieved 25 October 2019 from http://www.termania.net/ The Free Dictionary. (n. d.). Retrieved 25 October 2019 from https://www.thefreedictionary.com/ Wells, S. (1998). A dictionary of Shakespeare. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ATTITUDES OF YOUNG SLOVENIAN LANGUAGE LEARNERS REGARDING THE INTRODUCTION OF THE FIRST FOREIGN LANGUAGE TILEN SMAJLA Pier Paolo Vergerio il Vecchio Primary School, Koper, Slovenia. E-mail: tilen.smajla@guest.arnes.si Abstract The fol owing paper presents the results of a research into the attitude of young learners toward the introduction of the first foreign language (FL 1) into the second grade of one third of Slovenian state schools. We were interested whether there are statistically significant differences in attitude of young learners toward the introduction of FL 1 regarding their gender, their age, and the school where FL 1 is taught. Eight primary schools participated in our research with a research sample of 257 second grade pupils. A quantitative paradigm has been implemented to carry out the research with the fol owing results: we could almost entirely confirm two hypotheses (RH 1 and RH 3) and only partly RH 2. As far as RH3 is concerned, the Bonferroni posthoc test Keywords: showed differences among some primary schools, mostly among age, those where English was, and stil is, taught according to gender, primary school, innovative teaching approaches (CLIL and the similar). Judging attitudes of from the results obtained we can state that both the age and young gender of young foreign language learners are important factors, learners, the first but so too is the school where a foreign language is taught, since foreign it sets an appropriate learning setting. language. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-376-0.4 ISBN 978-961-286-376-0 94 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 1 Introduction Foreign language teaching has received considerable attention due to its implications in the forming of attitudes towards foreign language learning. The topic has already been dealt with as early as in the late 1960s and 1970s (cf. Jakobovits, 1970; Lambert, 1972; Rivers, 1965) and more recently, Pinter (2006, 2011). Cameron (2001) claimed that teaching a foreign language to young foreign language learners, as in the case of this paper with 7 or 8-year-olds, is different from teaching adults or adolescents. Young learners are, for example, more enthusiastic and lively. Often they will have a go at an activity even if they do not quite understand the goals, and they are keener on pleasing the teacher rather than their peers. Moreover, young learners “rely on fewer resources compared to adults and are less able to analyse the language in an abstract way” (Pinter, 2006, p. 17). Thus, “young learners are not as capable of freely hypothesising about the features of another language, as adult learners are” (Pinter, 2006, p. 18). Teaching a foreign language at an early age is a complex psychological-pedagogical phenomenon, for it encompasses many factors towards a positive learning outcome, including the learner’s motivation (Brumen, Kolbl Invanjšič, & Pšunder, 2015). Jazbec, Čagran, & Lipavic Oštir (2016, p. 126) go even further by stating that “motivation is a factor that greatly influences all forms of learning”. Another equally important factor is rich, plentiful and continued exposure to the language (Muñoz, 2016). This is especially important in the first cycle of the primary school (grades 1 to 3, meaning children of 6 to 8 years old) due to the perception that children tend to lack metalinguistic awareness when compared to adults. Besides, they possess natural abilities that help them learn in general and that boost the process of FL 1 learning to which they have already formed an attitude (Moon, 2005). Furthermore, MacIntyre, Baker, Clément, & Donovan (2002, as cited in Mihaljević Djigunović, 2012, p. 57) believe that “young learners vary significantly in their motivation, their positive attitude, as well as in the presence or absence of learning difficulties”. It is characteristic of young learners in primary school, that they are keen on learning a foreign language (FL) and that they are able to achieve good results if the learning takes place in an adequately intensive foreign language environment. From a very early age onwards, they are confronted with their peers or older pupils who may originate from various linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Furthermore, they live in T. Smajla: Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language 95. an environment with a high language input from different media (Ministrstvo za izobraževanje, znanost, kulturo in šport, 2012). There are some factors to be considered in early language learning, namely” the context, the socio-political rationale, and the teacher’s expertise” (Enever, 2016, p. 355). Thus, “contexts vary from extracurricular private language schools to state school classrooms” (Enever, 2016, p. 353). Pedagogical approaches vary accordingly and therefore produce different outcomes. Where English is used as the medium of instruction (EMI), the language input is evenly intense throughout the core curriculum. In essence, this is similar to the immersion approach used in the former colonial context of the British and French empires (ibid.). There is another reason why English has taken such a hold in the world, namely, as Graddol puts it (2006, p. 8891) “English is not just an educational project, but also a political and economic one”, meaning governments in non-English speaking countries strive to linguistically equip its nations in order to be competitive on the global market. Beside the above-mentioned factors, there are other important factors that we need to bear in mind, namely the individual factors (Richards and Rodgers, 2014). They include learning style preferences, affective factors, motivation and learning strategies (ibid.). Although the above-mentioned issues deserve to be dealt with and shal be dealt with in some other research paper, the focus of this paper is the attitudes of young learners as described in the Problem section of the paper below. 1.1 Problem of the research In the 2014/2015 school year, the first foreign language (FL 1) was introduced into the second grade of one third of Slovenian state primary schools. The trial phase would last until the 2016/2017 school year, when all Slovenian primary schools joined in. No research into the attitudes of young learners aged from 7 to 8 toward the learning of FL 1 has been carried out on a national scale up until now. It was therefore our intention to investigate the learners' perspective of foreign language learning. The young age of the participants has made the research a chal enging one, as there are many opinions on how to best motivate young learners. According to some research (Enever, 2011) young learners come into the foreign language class with a certain attitude toward that language. That attitude is at times hard to change, since that is in the nature of attitude formation (Nastran Ule, 1997; Ule, 2005; Wesely, 2012). Due to the changing character of attitudes, we have decided to sample 96 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. twice, at the end of the winter term and once more at the end of the school year, hence the reader wil see different values from the first period and the second period of sampling. 1.2 Research focus and research hypotheses The research focused on eight state primary schools across Slovenia in order to test the following research hypotheses: RH 1: There are statistically significant differences in attitude of young learners towards the learning of FL 1 regarding their gender, RH 2: There are statistically significant differences in attitude of young learners towards the learning of FL 1 regarding their age, and RH 3: There are statistically significant differences in attitude of young learners towards the learning of FL 1 regarding the school where FL 1 is taught. 2 Research methodology 2.1 Research paradigm Research has been carried out in accordance with the guidelines of descriptive and causal, non-experimental quantitative research paradigm of pedagogical research. Results are presented using tables. 2.2 Research sample The 61 Slovenian state primary schools that were chosen by the Ministry of Education, Science and Sport (Pravilnik o postopnem uvajanju prvega tujega jezika v 2. razred osnovne šole, 2014) to participate in the first round of the trial introduction of FL 1 into the second grade were contacted by mail. It transpired that only 59 primary schools out of the 61 contacted primary schools (96. 7 %) decided to carry out the project, eight of them (13. 5 %) agreed to accept our invitation to participate in the research. Printed materials (letters for parental consent and questionnaires for the second grade children) were sent out in January - February 2015 and in June 2015. The return rate in March 2015 was 257 second grade pupils, which was somewhat higher than the return rate in June 2015, which was 230 pupils. T. Smajla: Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language 97. Table 1 below presents the sample according to gender and according to the period of sampling. Gender First period of sampling Second period of sampling N f % N f % Male 149 58 143 62.1 Female 108 42 87 37.9 Total 257 100 230 100 Table 1 shows a somewhat higher number female participants, or 108, compared to 149 male participants in the first period of sampling (January-February 2005). The number of participants is a bit lower in the second period of sampling (June 2015), which may be caused by a number of reasons, ranging from sick leave, vacation leave or unwil ingness of some parents to provide consent, hence making participation in the research impossible. 2.3 Research instrument As the research instrument the AMTB – Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (Gardner, 2004) was used. The original instrument has already been translated into various languages and applied in numerous researches in Brazil, Croatia, Japan, Poland, Romania and Spain. It consists of 104 items on a 7-point Likert scale. The participants responded by choosing 1, as I definitely do not agree to 7, as I absolutely agree and thus expressed their attitude toward an object/situation. AMTB has already been standardised, but considering the age of our respondents (second grade pupils are mostly 7 years old) only a part of the instrument has been used, the part that met the aims of our research. In the follow up, the instrument was adapted, translated into Slovene and applied in the research. As a result of the adaptation an 11-item instrument was drawn up, which was tested for validity using factor analysis and reliability using the Cronbach alpha coefficient (α = 0.719), which is good according to Field (2013). 98 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 2.4 Data Analysis Data were processed by using SPSS IBM version 22 and 23. Two variables, Age and Gender were considered as numerical variables. Assumptions of normality and homogeneity were tested using the Kurtosis and Skewness factors. Further, a t-test, an analysis of variance, and, in case statistically significant differences showed up in the analysis of variance, a post hoc test was performed for the school variable. 3 Results Eleven items were encountered in the analysis. The beginning of the empirical part of the research presented in this paper shows the descriptive statistics, shown in the Appendix. The Table in the Appendix shows that al participants share a positive attitude towards the learning of FL 1. Judging from the Mean values of the first period of sampling the participants agreed most with the item “Learning English is a good thing.” ( x = 6. 3307). Furthermore, the participants showed a high degree of agreement with the item “I am learning a foreign language in order to be able to communicate with others who use this language.” ( x = 6. 3152). The participants also quite agreed with the item “I learn a lot during my English class.” ( x = 6. 1128). High Mean values (between 5. 2 and 5. 9) can further be seen with the other items, which again confirms the positive attitudes towards the FL 1 learning, the exception being the item “I am not afraid of using English during class.” ( x = 4. 7813), which implies a somewhat lower agreement with the item. The same item also shows a high s value (2. 53). The second period of sampling on the other hand shows lower Mean values in seven items out of the eleven, with the exception of the following items, the Mean value of which has risen compared to the first period of sampling: “I learn a lot during my English class.”, “Learning English is a good thing.”, “I am not afraid of using English outside class.”, and “I am not afraid of using English during class”. In the follow-up, we focused on an analysis of the kurtosis and skewness coefficients. Our aim was to eliminate those coefficients, which represent an anomaly to the normal distribution. The results of the kurtosis and skewness coefficients analysis based on the sample of 257 pupils show an uneven distribution in five items, the values of which are significantly above |2|, hence, these items were T. Smajla: Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language 99. not included in further analyses. The items are as follows: “I am learning a foreign language in order to be able to communicate with others who use this language.” (KURT: 5.217, SKEW: -2.393), “English is interesting.” (KURT: 2.981), “My attitude toward the learning of English is positive.” (KURT: 3.173), “I learn a lot during my English class.” (KURT: 3.189), and “Learning English is a good thing.” (KURT: 5.246, SKEW: -2.511). The results of the kurtosis and skewness coefficients analysis based on the sample of 230 pupils show an uneven distribution in three items, which were consequently not included in further analyses. The items are as follows: “I am learning a foreign language in order to be able to communicate with others who use this language.” (KURT: 4.089, SKEW: -2.100) “I learn a lot during my English class.” (KURT: 4.378, SKEW: -2.165, and “Learning English is a good thing” (KURT: 7.177, SKEW: -2.731). The fol owing part of the paper is dedicated to the presentation of the results regarding the attitudes of primary school pupils to the introduction of FL 1. Our aim was to establish eventual statistically significant differences in the attitudes of primary school pupils to the introduction of FL 1 regarding their gender. A t-test was performed in an attempt to confirm this hypothesis. Statistical y significant differences are highlighted in bold. Results of the analysis for the first period of sampling are presented in Table 2 below. Table 2: Differences in primary school pupils' attitudes to FL 1 introduction with regard to their gender (first period of sampling) Items x F P t 2P My attitude to people speaking females 5.75 English is good. 1.729 0.290 -1.253 0.212 males 5.47 Learning English is a good thing. females 6.49 4,184 0.042 0.972 0.330 males 6.21 I am not afraid of using English females 4.60 outside class. 1,348 0.247 0.977 0.334 males 4.91 My English class is/my English females 6.21 teacher is interesting. 13,025 0.000 -0.317 0.016 males 5.68 I am not afraid of using English females 5.22 during class. 0,885 0.348 0.383 0.706 males 5.33 Learning English makes my parents happy. females 5.53 0,003 0.956 0.225 0.799 100 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. The results presented in Table 2 show only one statistical y significant difference in primary school pupils' attitudes towards the introduction of FL 1 regarding the gender variable in the first period pf sampling (January-February 2015). Statistically significant difference with the degree lower than 0. 05% was established with the item “My English class is/my English teacher is interesting.” (p=0.016). We can therefore confirm Hypothesis 1 with one of the eleven items. We can also claim that the female pupils have a more positive attitude towards FL lessons. The results of the t-test for the second period of sampling are presented in Table 3 below. Table 3: Differences in primary school pupils' attitudes to FL 1 introduction with regard to their gender (second period of sampling) Items x F P t 2P My attitude to people speaking females 5.98 English is good. 17.176 0.000 -2.568 0.007 males 5.33 English is interesting. females 6.06 10.462 0.001 -2.177 0.023 males 5.54 I want to learn English. females 6.05 5.146 0.024 -2.132 0.034 males 5.55 My attitude toward the learning of females 6.12 English is positive. 10.127 0.002 -2.375 0.018 males 5.58 My English class is/my English females 5.94 teacher is interesting. 12.061 0.001 2.358 0.019 males 5.33 I am not afraid of using English females 5.10 during class. 5.425 0.021 1.832 0.069 males 5.68 Learning English makes my parents happy. females 5.48 2.385 0.124 -0.522 0.602 The results presented in Table 3 are as fol ows: the second period of sampling (June 2015) produced five statistically significant differences in primary school pupils' attitudes towards FL 1 introduction regarding the gender variable. Items “My attitude to people speaking English is good.” (p=0,007), “English is interesting.” (p=0.023), “I want to learn English.” (p=0.034), “My attitude toward the learning of English is positive.” (p=0.018), as well as “My English class is/my English teacher is interesting.” (p=0.019) are highlighted as those, the degree of statistical significance is lower than 0. 05%. Once we compare the two periods of sampling an obviously more positive attitude towards FL 1 learning can be found with female pupils, which ought to send an important message to FL 1 teachers, policy makers T. Smajla: Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language 101. and school authorities alike. Hence, we can confirm Hypothesis 1 in the case of five items out of the eleven. The following part of the paper is focused on the analysis of the primary school pupils' attitudes towards FL 1 introduction regarding their age. Result of the t-tests are presented in Table 4 below. 102 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Table 4: T test results for both periods of sampling with regard to the variable age First period of sampling Items F P t df 2P I am learning a foreign Equal variances language in order to be assumed 0.158 0.692 -0.356 255 0.722 able to communicate with others who use Equal variances -0.360 166.040 0.720 this language. not assumed My attitude to people Equal variances speaking English is assumed 0.075 0.785 -0.901 255 0.369 good. Equal variances not assumed -0.891 156.996 0.374 English is interesting. Equal variances assumed 0.380 0.538 -0.285 255 0.776 Equal variances I want to learn assumed 0.184 0.668 -0.525 255 0.600 English. Equal variances not assumed -0.526 162.451 0.600 My attitude toward the Equal variances learning of English is assumed 3.873 0.050 0.804 255 0.422 positive. Equal variances not assumed 0.739 132.029 0.461 Equal variances I learn a lot during my assumed 0.881 0.349 0.288 255 0.774 English class. Equal variances not assumed 0.280 150.369 0.780 Equal variances Learning English is a assumed 0.530 0.467 0.295 255 0.769 good thing. Equal variances not assumed 0.286 150.202 0.775 I am not afraid of Equal variances using English outside assumed 4.169 0.042 -2.076 254 0.039 class. Equal variances not assumed -2.131 172.962 0.035 My English class Equal variances is/my English teacher assumed 0.454 0.501 0.384 255 0.701 is interesting. Equal variances not assumed 0.375 151.738 0.708 I am not afraid of Equal variances using English during assumed 0.013 0.909 0.051 255 0.960 class. Equal variances not assumed 0.050 158.594 0.960 Learning English Equal variances makes my parents assumed 0.267 0.606 0.060 254 0.953 happy. Equal variances not assumed 0.058 152.109 0.954 T. Smajla: Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language 103. Second period of sampling Items F P t df 2P I am learning a Equal foreign language in variances 3.579 0.060 1.855 228 0.065 order to be able to assumed communicate with Equal others who use this variances not 1.874 226.125 0.062 language. assumed Equal My attitude to variances 3.398 0.067 1.071 228 0.285 people speaking assumed English is good. Equal variances not 1.080 227.378 0.281 assumed English is Equal 228 0,.033 interesting. variances 10.874 0.001 2.147 assumed 2.180 220.458 0.030 Equal variances 5.360 0.021 1.071 228 I want to learn assumed 0.285 English. Equal variances not 1.080 226.991 0.281 assumed Equal My attitude toward variances 4.107 0.044 0.943 228 0.347 the learning of assumed English is positive. Equal variances not 0.951 227.144 0.343 assumed Equal variances 0.517 0.473 - I learn a lot during assumed 0.409 228 0.683 my English class. Equal variances not - assumed 0.408 223.026 0.684 Equal variances 0.169 0.681 0.086 228 0,931 0.086 225.923 0.931 Learning English is assumed a good thing. Equal - variances not 0.037 0.847 0.172 228 0.863 assumed - 221.957 0.864 0.172 104 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Equal I am not afraid of variances 0.169 0.681 0.086 228 0.931 using English assumed outside class. Equal variances not 0.086 225.923 0.931 assumed Equal My English class variances 3.680 0.056 0.672 228 0.502 is/my English assumed teacher is Equal interesting. variances not 0.678 227.246 0.499 assumed Equal I am not afraid of variances 0.895 0.345 - 0.941 227 0.348 using English assumed during class. Equal variances not - assumed 0.939 222.506 0.349 Equal Learning English variances 5.779 0.017 0.851 228 0.395 makes my parents assumed happy. Equal variances not 0.857 227.827 0.392 assumed The results of the t-test for both periods of sampling show only one statistically significant difference in primary school pupils’ attitudes towards the introduction of FL 1 with regard to the pupils’ age in each period. The reason behind this is that some primary school pupils were 7 years old at the beginning of the research and turned 8 during the process. The item in question with the degree of statistical agreement lower than 0. 05 in the first period of sampling was “I am not afraid of using English outside class.” (p=0.035), whereas the result of the t-test in the second period of sampling being somewhat different. The item that I question is in this case “English is interesting.” (p=0.030). Considering the aforementioned results we can accept Hypothesis 2 with only two items. The following part of the paper focuses on the analysis of the primary school pupils' attitudes towards FL 1 introduction regarding the school where FL 1 is taught. Result of the ANOVA for both periods of sampling are presented in Table 5 below. The statistically significant differences are highlighted in bold. T. Smajla: Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language 105. Table 5: Result of the analysis of variance of the pupils’ attitude toward FL 1 introduction regarding the school, where FL 1 is taught First period Second period of of sampling sampling Items F P F P I am learning a foreign language in order to be able to 1.865 communicate with others who use this language. 0.076 4,893 0,000 My attitude to people speaking English is good. 1.694 0.111 1,526 0,170 English is interesting. 1.475 0.177 1,432 0,203 I want to learn English. 1.586 0.140 2,582 0,019 My attitude toward the learning of English is positive. 0.979 0.447 1,456 0,194 I learn a lot during my English class. 1.893 0.071 2,600 0,019 Learning English is a good thing. 0.636 0.726 2,023 0,064 I am not afraid of using English outside class. 2.911 0.006 1,992 0,068 My English class is/my English teacher is interesting. 0.642 0.721 2,356 0,021 I am not afraid of using English during class. 2.990 0.005 2,276 0,038 Learning English makes my parents happy. 4.406 0.000 2,902 0,010 The results of the ANOVA for both of the periods of sampling show statistical y significant differences in primary school pupils' attitudes towards the introduction of FL 1 regarding the school where FL 1 is taught in the case of items 8 (I am not afraid of using English outside class.) in the first period of sampling), 9 (My English class is/my English teacher is interesting.) in the second period of sampling, 10 (I am not afraid of using English during class.) and 11 (Learning English makes my parents happy.) Statistically significant differences in primary school pupils' attitudes were found with item 8 (I am not afraid of using English outside class.). Items 1 (I am learning a foreign language in order to be able to communicate with others who use this language.), 3 (English is interesting.), 4 (I want to learn English.), 5 (My attitude toward the learning of English is positive.), 6 (I learn a lot during my English class.) and 7 (Learning English is a good thing.) could not be included in the analysis based on their high values of kurtosis and skewness coefficients (see Appendix 1), though the majority of statistical y significant differences among the various elementary school ranging from p<0.01 to p=0.021 were mostly with item 4 (see above). The LSD post hoc tests came up with the fol owing results: in the first period of sampling the analysis highlighted three items with statistically significant differences between primary schools: item 8 (I am not afraid of using English outside 106 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. class.) (Primary School Solkan compared to Primary School Anton Ukmar Koper p=0,002), item 10 (I am not afraid of using English during class.) (Primary School Solkan compared to Primary School Anton Ukmar Koper p=0,001), and item 11 (Learning English makes my parents happy.) (Primary School Anton Ukmar Koper compared to Primary School Solkan p=0,004, and Primary School Voličina compared to Primary School Solkan p=0,009). The LSD post hoc test for the second period of sampling came up with a different set of statistical y significant differences between schools, although the items were the same two (item 8 - I am not afraid of using English outside class. and 10 - I am not afraid of using English during class.) that appeared among the statistical y significant ones from the first period of sampling. Since we could not include items 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 due to skewness and kurtosis coefficients, the analysis focused on the remaining items, namely item 2 (My attitude to people speaking English is good.), item 8 (I am not afraid of using English outside class.), item 10 (I am not afraid of using English during class.) and item 11 (Learning English makes my parents happy.). A thorough analysis of the values for item 2 does not show a very large statistical y significant difference between primary schools, for they range from p=0.017, which is the highest value (in case of Primary School ‘Prva osnovna šola’ Slovenj Gradec compared to Primary School Solkan) to the lowest value p=0.044 (in case of Primary School Anton Ukmar Koper compared to Primary School Ivana Roba Šempeter). As far as item 10 (I am not afraid of using English during class.) is concerned, a thorough analysis shows a much broader range of values, ranging from very high statistically significant values p=0.000 in the case of Primary School Anton Ukmar Koper compared to Primary School Solkan to p=0.050 in the case of Primary School Solkan compared to Primary School Dragotin Kette Ilirska Bistrica. Hence, we can partly confirm Hypothesis 3. 4 Discussion The purpose of our research was to find out whether the attitude of primary school pupils towards FL 1 significantly changed regarding their gender, age and the school where FL 1 is taught. Judging from results of statistical analyses, attitudes play an important role in the learning process. Nastran Ule maintains (1997) that the formation of attitudes can never be looked upon as an out-of-context phenomenon. She also claims that we constantly compare, negotiate and construct our reality, our motifs and feelings with regard to other people (ibid.). Ule (2005, p. 116) also claims attitudes to be “an important psychological phenomenon due to the fact, according T. Smajla: Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language 107. to which they represent and comprise the complex interdependentness of human psyche and his/her social behaviour”. Gardner and Lambert (1972) claim that research in attitude towards the learning of foreign languages is nowadays considered as an important factor in successful language teaching. The previously mentioned authors emphasised an important link between language production on one hand and a positive attitude, as wel as motivation on the other hand (ibid.). Another important result is that male students were more inclined to FL 1 learning compared to female students which can be seen in tables 2 and 3. Besides, the results also highlight the differences between the first and the second period of sampling, the reason probably being the initial y positive attitude of students with the beginning of the new school year and the entire process of knowledge assessment, fatigue due to long hours of lessons, lesson plans and the like. The results of our research also show that students were less keen on learning FL 1 towards the end of the school year, although the attitude of students did not change for the worse. One must bear in mind that one of the characteristics of young learners is the desire to be liked by their teachers and not so much by their peers, which is characteristics of older students. Young learners would not have any issues having a go at activities they are not completely familiar with if they have learned to trust their teacher. As a result, significant differences in younger learners’ attitudes towards the introduction of FL 1 and towards the CLIL approach did not come up. The results of our research have further shown statistical y significant differences between young learners regarding their gender but not regarding their age or the period of sampling. Differences were due to external factors (the school where FL 1 is taught and the FL teacher’s influence) as wel as due to internal factors (students’ gender). It can thus be suggested that it is the FL teachers who to some extent influence the forming of the students’ attitudes towards FL learning, hence external factors are those that would need more attention. Teachers can provide for a suitable learning environment, so is not surprising that large differences in students’ attitudes were reported in this area, mostly reflected in items related to the attitude towards the FL teacher and the learning environment (items “My attitude to people speaking English is good.”, “My attitude to people speaking English is good.”, and “My English class is/my English teacher is interesting.”). 108 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 5 Conclusions We had not assumed any differences in primary school pupils’ attitudes towards the FL 1 introduction regarding their gender, yet the analyses proved otherwise. Gender obviously plays an important role in FL 1 learning and as it turned out it was the female pupils whose attitudes towards the FL 1 introduction varied least in the course of the first year. Consequently, FL 1 teachers wil need to put in more effort into the FL classes in order to maintain the level of learning motivation evenly high during the entire school year, with emphasis on the male pupils who tend to be less motivated. Moreover, we were not surprised with the results of the research into the pupils’ age and its influence upon FL 1 learning. Some pupils turned 8 towards the end of the school year, but the difference in age seemed not to have had a major impact on the attitude change. What actually did have a significant influence upon the pupils’ attitudes towards FL 1 learning is the school where FL 1 was taught, in the case of which we ought to bear in mind that it is the whole school setting, not only the FL 1 teacher, that makes the difference. The issue to be dealt with after this research is that the very same students who participated in the gradual introduction of FL 1 in the period between 2014/2015 have been enrolled into grade 4 in the 2018/2019 school year and in some schools have been taught by specialist teachers. These teachers have not received additional training in early language didactics, hence teachers who work in grades 4 and 5 would also need additional training in early English teaching methodology, since the dynamics of English teaching and learning is significantly different from that in grades 6 to 9 (Slovene primary schools have 9 years). Such training would allow teachers adopt suitable teaching approaches and hence make language learning easier for young language learners. The findings of our research can therefore be implemented in further research in the field of early foreign language learning and teaching as well as in forming guidelines for successful foreign language teaching throughout the entire school year. What is obviously of greater importance for a young foreign language learner is whether or not the teaching approach or teaching methods cater for the young foreign language learner’s needs, whether or not a young foreign language learner feels appreciated in the learning environment, and whether or not a young foreign language learner has the feeling of accomplishment after a FL class. Consequently, T. Smajla: Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language 109. foreign language teachers ought to rethink their motivation strategies as wel as teaching methods and adjust them according to the pupils they are dealing with at any certain point. References Brumen, M., Kolbl Ivanjšič P., & Pšunder, M. (2015). "Pedagoški vidiki poučevanja nejezikovnih predmetov v tujem jeziku". Revija za elementarno izobraževanje, 8(1/2), 27–42. Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching languages to young learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Enever, J. (Ed.) (2011). ELLiE: Early language learning in Europe. London: The British Council. Retrieved 17 June 2020 https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/B309%20ELLiE%20Book%20201 1%20FINAL.pdf Enever, J. (2016) Primary ELT: issues and trends. In G. Hal (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of English language teaching (pp. 353–364). New York: Routledge Handbooks. Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using SPSS. (4th ed.). London: Sage Publications Ltd. Gardner, R. C. (2004). The attitude/motivation test battery: International AMTB research project. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from http://publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs/englishamtb.pdf Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley: Newbury House. Graddol, D. (2006). English next. United Kingdom: British Council. Jakobovits, L. A. (1969). Measuring foreign language aptitude and attitude. Hawaii: University of Hawaii. Jazbec, S., Čagran, B., & Lipavic Oštir, A. (2016). Early foreign language learning from the children’s perspective. The New Educational Review, 45(3), 124–136. Retrieved from http://www.educationalrev.us.edu.pl/dok/volumes/tner_3_2016.pdf Lambert, W. E. (1972). Language, psychology, and culture (Vol. 5). Stanford University Press. Lipavic Oštir, A., & Jazbec, S. (n. d.) Zgodnje učenje tujega jezika z vidika nekaterih teorij. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from http://www.zrss.si/projektiess/skladisce/sporazumevanje_v_tujih_jezikih/tuj%20jezik%20v %20prvem%20triletju/Strokovni%20%C4%8Dlanki%20in%20prevodi/zgodnje_ucenje_tuje ga_jezika_z_vidika_razlicnih_teorij_lipavic_ostir.pdf MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clément, R., & Donovan, I. A. (2002). Sex and age effects on wil ingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning, 52(3), 537–564. Mihaljević Djigunović, J. (2012). Odnos in motiviranost mlajših učencev do učenja tujega jezika. CEPS Journal, 2(3), 56–72. Ministrstvo za izobraževanje, znanost, kulturo in šport. (2012 ). Učni načrt za tuji jezik v prvem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju osnovne šole. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from http://www.mizs.gov.si/fileadmin/mizs.gov.si/pageuploads/podrocje/os/prenovljeni_UN/ Tuji_jezij_v_prvem_VI_obdobju.pdf Ministrstvo za kulturo Republike Slovenije. (2013). Resolucija o nacionalnem programu za jezikovno politiko 2014–2018. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from http://www.mk.gov.si/fileadmin/mk.gov.si/pageuploads/Ministrstvo/Zakonodaja/2013/R esolucija_-_sprejeto_besedilo__15.7.2013_.pdf Moon, J. (2005). Children learning English: A guidebook for English language teachers. Oxford: Macmillan. Muñoz, C. (2016). What is the best age to learn a second/foreign language? Canadian Modern Language Review. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from http://www.utpjournals.press/journals/cmlr/Munoz Nastran-Ule, M. (1997). Temelji socialne psihologije. Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče. Pinter, A. (2006). Teaching young language learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pinter, A. (2011). Children learning second languages. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 110 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Pravilnik o postopnem uvajanju prvega tujega jezika v 2. razred osnovne šole. (2014). Uradni list RS, (20/14). Retrieved 17 June 2020 from http://pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=PRAV11951 Richards, J. S., & Rodgers, T. S. (Eds.) (2014). The nature of approaches and methods in language teaching. In J. C. Richards, & T. S. Rodgers, (Eds.), Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (3rd ed., pp. 28–44). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rivers, W. M. (1965). The psychologist and the foreign-language teacher. British Journal of Educational Studies, 12(2), 228–229. Ule, M. (2005). Socialna psihologija. Ljubljana: Fakulteta z družbene vede. Wesely, P. M. (2012). Learner attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs in language learning. Foreign Language Annals, 45, 98–117. T. Smajla: Attitudes of Young Slovenian Language Learners Regarding the Introduction of the First Foreign Language 111. Appendix 1: Table 6: Descriptive statistics January/February 2015 Item x s KURT SKEW n I am learning a foreign language in order to be able to communicate with 6.315 1.438 5.217 -2.393 257 others who use this language. My attitude to people speaking English is 5.591 1.763 0.707 -1.253 257 good. English is interesting. 6.077 1.654 2.981 -1.952 257 I want to learn English. 5.976 1.760 2.196 -1.807 257 My attitude toward the learning of 6.015 1.541 3.173 -1.885 257 English is positive. I learn a lot during my English class. 6.112 1.555 3.189 -1.977 257 Learning English is a good thing. 6.330 1.559 5.246 -2,511 257 I am not afraid of using English outside 4.781 2.534 -1.459 -0.533 256 class. My English class is/my English teacher 5.906 1.819 1.838 -1.730 257 is interesting. I am not afraid of using English during 5.287 2.368 -0.840 -0.923 257 class. Learning English makes my parents 5.578 2.203 0.057 -1.297 256 happy. 112 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. June 2015 Item x s KURT SKEW n I am learning a foreign language in order to be able to communicate 6.160 1.464 4.089 -2.100 230 with others who use this language. My attitude to people speaking English is 5.582 1.910 0.468 -1.288 230 good. English is interesting. 5.743 1.795 1.159 -1.469 230 I want to learn English. 5.747 1.787 1.100 -1.449 230 My attitude toward the learning of English is 5.791 1.785 1.043 -1.474 230 positive. I learn a lot during my English class. 6.373 1.211 4.378 -2.165 230 Learning English is a good thing. 6.473 1.266 7.177 -2.731 230 I am not afraid of using English outside class. 5.004 2.335 -1.103 -0.707 230 My English class is/my English teacher is 5.565 2.039 0.308 -1.310 230 interesting. I am not afraid of using English during class. 5.462 2.312 -0.466 -1.122 229 Learning English makes my parents 5.391 2.224 -0.296 -1.141 230 happy. x - Mean, s – standard deviation, CURT – coefficient of kurtosis, SKEW – coefficient of skewness, n - sample SOURCE AND TARGET-ORIENTED STRATEGIES IN TRANSLATING ADMINISTRATIVE TEXTS FOR THE ITALIAN MINORITY IN SLOVENIA SANDRO PAOLUCCI University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: sandro.paolucci@ff.uni-lj.si Abstract In translating texts and more specifically administrative texts for a minority, in this specific case the Italian minority in Slovenia, a series of (rather) complex questions must be addressed: firstly, that of terminology and secondly the translation strategies to be adopted. This article examines source and target-oriented strategies in the translation of legal texts in general and administrative texts for the Italian minority in Keywords: Slovenia in particular. After the results of a survey conducted in administrative texts, 2019 among legal translators, who were asked to translate from source-oriented Slovene into Italian some administrative terms contained in translation normative legal texts for the Italian minority in Slovenia and also strategies, target-oriented translate the same terms for informative function, there is a translation discussion of a proposed methodology, supported by specific strategies, examples in which the translator should use a source-oriented legal languages, translation strategy and cases where a target-oriented translation legal is more suitable or effective. translation. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-376-0.5 ISBN 978-961-286-376-0 114 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 1 Introduction National minorities represent an absolute value and generate historical, social and cultural enrichment for the whole country. Today the constitutions of democratic countries provide fundamental norms/rules aimed at the effective protection of minorities. Among other regulations on the subject in Slovenia, since 1998 the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities has been in force, established within the framework of the Council of Europe. Moreover, Articles 5, 61, 62 and 64 of the Slovenian Constitution expressly recognise the rights of the Italian and Hungarian national communities. In Slovenia the rights of minorities and bilingualism are implemented - in the north-eastern areas on the border with Hungary and in the south-west in the four municipalities of the Slovenian coast (Koper, Piran, Izola and Ankaran) - also through the translation of legal and administrative acts concerning citizens residing in these areas. 1 One question is how to translate these texts with maximum effect and thus better guarantee these rights of the minority. This is the main theme of this contribution. How to offer a terminology that is as relevant and unambiguous and also how and when to apply source-oriented or target-oriented translation strategies. The translator needs certainty when translating legal or administrative texts. Research takes time and does not always help overcome insecurity when choosing solutions. An administrative text is not only a technical-legal act, but also a communicative act through which the public administration must make itself understood to citizens. If the documents are drafted or translated according to rules that increase their homogeneity and ensure terminological uniformity they will certainly be more understandable (Istituto di teoria e tecniche dell’informazione giuridica (Ittig) del Cnr , & Accademia del a Crusca, 2011). For these reasons it would be useful to constitute committees of experts to create or translate the various terms in a uniform manner. In this way there would be greater clarity, transparency and a better safeguard of the principle of legal certainty. There are numerous examples of bodies established for this purpose, such as the Commission de terminologie et de néologie in France (Megale, 2008) or the office recently established in Friuli Venezia Giulia. The latter, in particular, has the function of managing and coordinating the activities related to the use of the Slovenian language in the public administration, 1 Primarily administrative texts are translated from the majority language to the minority language for political and legislative reasons (Borin, 1999). S. Paolucci: Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 115. ensuring a translation and interpreting service for the institutional purposes of the regional body, and taking care of the standardisation of legal-administrative terminology in Friuli Venezia Giulia (2018). In translating certain terms, two or more options are sometimes possible, i.e. acceptable, thus creating problems of consistency and terminological uniformity (Paolucci, 2013b). In particular, the same term can be translated differently depending on whether a foreignising (source-oriented) or domesticating (target-oriented) strategy is used (Venuti, 1995); example: zdravstveni dom = health centre or clinic or medical clinic. An examination of various legislative and administrative texts (statutes, regulations, decrees) translated for the Italian minority in Slovenia found little consistency and terminological uniformity in translations of certain particularly important terms such as Upravna enota or Lokalne volitve. In particular, it emerged that within the four bilingual municipalities of the Littoral Region, more solutions are often provided, often acceptable, but they create terminological inconsistency and can be misleading for citizens. As wil be seen, in the discussion unambiguous choices are suggested. 2 A coherent and uniform terminology is specifically required in normative texts, i.e. in texts containing binding provisions for the recipients (municipal statutes, regulations, decrees and other administrative measures). As explained below, in such cases it would be preferable to apply source-oriented strategies. When, on the other hand, legal texts are translated for informative purposes, i.e. for the purpose of dissemination, of spreading certain content or documents - not binding for the recipients - target-oriented strategies aimed at being better perceived at a wider audience are preferable. The dichotomy between source-oriented and target-oriented translation has a long history (reflection on a particularly literal translation or a free translation was lively as early as in ancient Rome), however the first to address this issue was the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In particular, in his lecture of 1813, Über die verschiedenen Methoden des Übersetzens (On the different methods of translating), Schleiermacher (1813) proposed two alternative approaches to 2 Terminology work is an interdisciplinary activity, especially in the domain of law and administration, where the cooperation of terminologists, language experts and legal experts is extremely important, due to the many particular features of this domain (Chiocchetti, Heinisch-Obermoser, Löckinger, Lusicky, Ralli, Stanizzi, & Wissik, 2013). 116 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. translation: either to leave the author in peace, as much as possible, and move the reader towards him, or to leave the reader in peace, as much as possible, and move the author towards him; between the two, he continued, he much preferred the first option. At the end of the last century, the American theorist Lawrence Venuti further explored Schleiermacher’s distinction, describing the two strategies in the broad sense. While a “domesticating” translation implies adherence to the literary, linguistic, and genre conventions of the target culture and moves the translated text towards the reader, he argued, a “foreignising” translation moves the reader towards the cultural “other” of the translated text, in which the “foreign” elements are not removed or normalised, but rather explicitly manifested. Like Schleiermacher, albeit for different reasons, Venuti strongly favoured a foreignising translation strategy, particularly in his book The Translator’s Invisibility (1995), which is basically an accusation against what he calls the “fluent strategy” (cf. also Venuti, 1998), which prevailed in contemporary American translations. Other eminent scholars also dealt with the issue, at least incidentally, including Nida (1964), Snell-Hornby (1995), Toury (1995), Eco (2003), and Ožbot (2000, 2016). Although I agree with Venuti’s focus on ethical, political, cultural and social issues of significant importance, I aim to go further and to identify cases in which a domesticating i.e. a source-oriented translation may be more appropriate or even necessary. In line with an earlier paper (Paolucci, 2017b), I believe that a foreignising translation sheds greater light on the particularities of the source language and culture, and on the perceptions, feelings or intentions of the author, as it is the only strategy that can real y enrich the target language. It could be argued that, in preserving the otherness of the original, foreignising translation has an enriching function in the target language and culture, while domesticating translation has a normalising, when not neutralising, function in favour of the target language and culture. For example, translating the Italian term carabiniere (police officer) into English either with the calque carabineer or the loan carabiniere introduces an element of foreignness, i.e. a member of the armed forces of the Italian system, in this case. By contrast, this would not be the case if the same term was translated with a domesticating – hence, normalising – equivalent such as police of icer or Italian police of icer. S. Paolucci: Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 117. 2 Methodology From an examination of numerous legal, administrative texts in particular, translated for the Italian minority in Slovenia, a very heterogeneous terminological picture emerged. In particular it was shown that in translating certain terms two or three different solutions were offered, sometimes al acceptable; however, by taking this approach it is possible to create difficulties in interpreting these terms and therefore the possibility of confusion arises. For this reason a survey was conducted among some legal translators that deal with the translation of legal texts of the Italian minority. More specifical y, the survey focussed on the five Slovenian terms sprejeti/sprejemanje (literal y, adoption/to adopt), lokalne volitve (literally, local elections), upravna enota (administrative unit), zdravstveni dom (health centre) and vrtec (nursery school). A corpus of different types of legal texts containing the five terms was compiled, including normative texts (i.e. the article of laws, regulations etc.) and informative texts (i.e. the titles or texts of a newspaper article). The translators – the majority with Slovenian as L1 (many of whom from the Slovenian coast, who are probably more familiar with the two legal systems and the reality of bilingual areas in particular, and others from the rest of the country) and a minority with Italian as L1 (from Friuli Venezia Giulia, a region neighbouring Slovenia, and from other Italian regions) – working for various institutions and organizations were then asked to translate these short sentences from Slovenian into Italian. The results of the survey are analysed in the discussion. 3 Results of a survey on this proposal In 2019 a survey was conducted among some legal translators that deal with the translation of legal texts. More specifically, the survey focussed on translation of five Slovenian terms listed above. A corpus of different types of legal texts containing the five terms was compiled, including normative texts and informative texts. Translators working for various institutions and organizations were then asked to translate these short sentences from Slovenian into Italian for normative and informative functions. Each translator was asked to give only one solution for the specific term. The fol owing sentences were used: 118 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Normative texts − Občinski svet sprejema občinski proračun … – The municipal council adopts the municipal budget … (17. čl., Statut Občine Piran, Uradni list RS, 5/14;43/18) − Zakon o lokalnih volitvah – Local Elections Act (Uradni list RS, 94/07; 68/17) − Ministrstvo, pristojno za upravo, nadzoruje organizacijo dela in učinkovitost upravne enote – The Ministry of Administration supervises the organization of work and the efficiency of the administrative unit (Zakon o državni upravi, čl. 53, Uradni list RS, 51/16) − Zdravstveni dom Izola – Izola Health Centre (Uradne objave Občine Izola 13.12.2019) − Pravilnik o sprejemu otrok v vrtec – Rules on the admission of children to nursery school (Občina Koper št.: 600-11/2010). Of the translators contacted, 22 completed the translations. The following renderings were identified. S. Paolucci: Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 119. Table 1: Results for normative texts: Slovenian Italian Italian Italian Italian term translation translation translation translation I.t.5 1 2 3 4 Sprejeti (adopt/ado Approvare Adottare Accogliere ption) 12 9 1 / / Lokalne Elezioni volitve Elezioni amministrat Elezioni (local locali ive comunali / / elections) 11 6 5 Upravna Unità Distretto Divisione Circoscrizio enota amministrat amministrat amministrat ne (administrat iva ivo iva amministrat / ive unit) 16 4 1 iva 1 Zdravstveni dom Casa del a Casa del a Centro (di) Centro (health sanità salute salute sanitario Oth. 2 centre) 10 4 4 2 Vrtec Asilo Scuola Scuola Centro per (nursery) 12 materna dell'infanzia l'infanzia / 6 3 1 As these were normative texts binding on the recipients, the majority of the translators opted for two or three terminological renderings. The translators mainly opted for a source-oriented solution such as Asilo, Casa del a Sanità, Unità amministrativa or Elezioni locali. Informative texts The fol owing sentences were used: − Vsako leto Občinski svet sprejema občinski proračun – Every year the municipal council adopts the municipal budget … (Proračunski priročnik za pripravo proračunov občine za leti 2019 in 2020). − V Sloveniji so včeraj potekale lokalne volitve, sedme v zgodovini – Local elections took place yesterday in Slovenia, the seventh in history (Dnevnik, 19. 11. 2018) 120 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. − Potem ko so v upravni enoti februarja že izdali uporabno dovoljenje za del nove stavbe uprave za pomorstvo v Marini Koper … – After the administrative unit issued in February an operating permit for the new building of the Maritime Administration in Koper Marina … (Primorske novice, 26. 6. 2019) − Štirje družinski zdravniki in dva pediatra so nedavno okrepili koprski zdravstveni dom – Four family doctors and two paediatricians recently strengthened the Koper Health Centre (Primorske novice, 12. 6. 2019) − Novost ob vpisu v vrtce v prihodnjem šolskem letu je tudi … – A new feature of enrolment in nursery school in the upcoming school year is . . (Delo, 12. 6. 2018). Table 2: Results for informative texts: Slovenian Italian Italian Italian Italian I.t.5 term translation translation translation translation 1 2 3 4 Sprejeti (adopt/adop Approvare Adottare Accogliere tion) 12 9 1 / / Lokalne Elezioni Elezioni volitve amministrati Elezioni amministrati Elezioni (local ve in comunali ve locali / elections) Slovenia 10 6 5 1 Upravna Unità enota Distretto amministrati Divisione Unità (administrati amministrati va territoriale amministrati amministrati / ve unit) vo 9 5 va 5 va 3 Zdravstveni Oth. 3 dom(health Poliambulato Centro Centro (di) Centro centre) rio 6 sanitario 5 salute 5 medico 3 Vrtec Scuola Scuola (nursery) materna 12 Asilo 8 dell'infanzia / / 2 As these were texts of an informative nature, targeting as wide an audience as possible, including non-experts, the translators almost always chose rather general, mostly target-oriented solutions, such as Elezioni amministrative, Scuola materna, Distret o amministrativo or Poliambulatorio. S. Paolucci: Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 121. 4 Discussion Like any translator, the legal translator must either opt for a primarily foreignising translation strategy, i.e. source-oriented, aimed at maintaining as much as possible the language, as well as the legal system and culture of the original, or to favour a mostly domesticating strategy, i.e. target-oriented, aimed at rephrasing the message and content of the original, taking into account the legal, linguistic and cultural specifics of the target language (Paolucci, 2017b). Before further examination, it should be noted that, also with reference to legal translation, the debate on the adoption of either a source-oriented or target-oriented strategy, has always been lively, especially since the early 1980s, including scholars such as Šarčević (1997), Cao (2007), de Groot (2000), Biel (2009), Prieto Ramos (2011), Pontrandolfo (2012), Cheng and Sin (2008), Bajčić (2017), and Leung and Durant (2018). To get to the heart of the matter, some highly relevant factors must be considered here, which inevitably contribute to the strategic decisions of the legal translator, as discussed in the following sections. 4.1 Differences between legal systems A crucial element for the legal translator is the difference between legal systems. Every legal system is original and therefore different from any other. Even when two systems belong to the same legal family (e.g. Italian and Slovenian law) or when one was particularly inspired by another (e.g. Italian and French law), a number of differences – which are the expression of the sovereignty of each state – inevitably exist, thus requiring the translator to work as a comparatist. Globally, the law is fragmented into a multiplicity of legal systems, whose mutual differences are often accentuated by the diversity of the languages used in each system. The current processes of supranational integration and the efforts towards legal harmonisation at both the EU and global level are slowly minimising the differences between these systems, also thanks to the predominant role of the English language and culture. Nevertheless, these efforts still advance at a slow pace, as legal systems are general y rather rigid and resistant to innovation (cf. de Groot, 2000). 122 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. However, while these differences might pose difficulties of a special nature for translators and interpreters, they must certainly be regarded as a veritable treasure for the whole of society. If only two or three legal systems existed across the planet, an immeasurable and unjustifiable impoverishment of legal science and of the law in general would occur. These differences are rather the expression of the legal sovereignty of each legal system, as manifested independently in the law, developed by doctrine, and interpreted and applied in case law, thus contributing to the legal, social, material, and spiritual development of a given society (Paolucci, 2013a, 2017a). 4.2 The specific nature of legal language Legal language is generally regarded as a technical, formalised and complex language, dependent on its legal system. In the strict sense, it could be defined as a language by means of which legal norms are formulated. Nevertheless, in the broad sense, it could be defined as a language by means of which al legal matters are formulated. In particular, legal language is a tool by means of which a legislator communicates precepts, judges deliver sentences, lawyers debate and argue, and lecturers organise and propose solutions for interpretations. Legal language should therefore more appropriately be referred to in the plural; that is, legal languages (Caterina & Rossi, 2008, cited in Pozzo & Timoteo, 2008; Pezzin, 1996; Pavčnik, 1997). A common definition sees legal language as a language that is only partially ‘technicalised’. That is to say, it mainly contains terms belonging to natural language, and only a few terms are technical and specifically legal (Ajani, 2006). 3 Of particular relevance in the adoption of either a source-oriented or a target-oriented translation strategy is that legal language depends not only on the language in which it is expressed, but also on the individual legal system to which it is related. There is thus not only one legal language for each language, but there are as many legal languages as there are existing legal systems (Sacco, 2000). For example, in the case of the Italian, there is a legal Italian for the legal system of Italy, a legal Italian for the Swiss system, a legal Italian for the EU legal system etc. (Paolucci, 2017b). 3 Language and law are deeply interconnected: law expresses itself through language. More precisely, the law is actually made of language (cf. Cortel azzo, 1999). S. Paolucci: Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 123. 4.3 Equivalence The subject of continuous discussion and a frequent source of controversy, the concept of equivalence is still a central topic in legal translation studies. The solution to any translation problem obviously goes far beyond the mere transposition of a source text into a target language; particularly when translating legal texts, specialists in comparative law and legal translators continuously strive to find the closest equivalent term or concept in the target language. Some theorists such as Šarčević (1997) distinguish between near equivalence, partial equivalence, functional equivalence and non-equivalence; others, such as de Groot (2000), divide them into ful equivalent, closest approximate equivalent ( acceptable equivalent) and partial equivalent; Ajani (2006) and Megale (2008) distinguish between equivalenza completa (complete equivalence) or quasi completa (almost complete equivalence), equivalenza parziale (partial equivalence) and equivalenza funzionale (functional equivalence). Others, such as Beaupré (1986), Sager (1993), Caponi (2006) and Garzone (2007), talk about legal equivalence. The issue of equivalence in legal translation has been addressed by many scholars, including, to mention but a few, Harvey (2000), Martin Ruano (2005), Holl (2012), Peruzzo (2012). I propose the following classification of equivalence (Paolucci, 2011, 2017b): – Formal and substantial equivalence; when an institution or a body has a formal y equivalent denomination (due to the literal translation of a neologism or a calque) and similar assignments and functions in the respective legal orders, e.g. občinski svetnik and Consigliere comunale (city councillor); Ministero degli Af ari Esteri and Ministrstvo za zunanje zadeve (Ministry of Foreign Affairs). – More formal than substantial equivalence; when the translation of certain legal institutes, names of institutions, offices, bodies or other terms is equivalent in the form, but not completely in the content or substance, e.g. Presidente del a Repubblica, President de la Republique, and Predsednik Republike (State President) . 124 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. – Merely substantial equivalence; when two institutions or bodies, although having similar assignments and functions, have a nomen iuris that does not correspond in the form. For example, the Slovenian zdravstveni dom is a substantial equivalent of the Italian Poliambulatorio (health centre); or the Italian Cancel iere (a clerk of the court assisting the judge in al acts and activities that have to be documented in minutes etc.) corresponds to gref ier in French or sodni tajnjk in Slovenian (literally, judicial secretary, who has similar functions in the Slovenian system), court clerk, clerk of the court or registrar in the UK. In light of this, it can be argued that, if we apply a source-oriented strategy, then we opt for formal equivalence, such as a literal translation or a calque, whereas if we adopt a target-oriented strategy, then we choose a substantial or a functional equivalent (Šarčević, 1997) to transfer in the most appropriate way a concept or term in the target culture. Clearly, this should only be considered a general trend, which remains open to other cases and, as a result, other strategies, at times even opposing those outlined in this paper. 4.4 Text types Text types also have crucial importance in this context. Text type taxonomies have been proposed by many scholars, including Sabatini (1990, 1998, 2006), who identified three broad categories, as follows: 1) very binding texts, including normative documents (laws, regulations and other legal sources); 2) averagely binding texts, including expository texts (textbooks, encyclopaedias, essays, political speeches, conferences, lectures and others) and informative texts (informational and promotional texts, journalistic texts and, we might add, those legal texts of an informative nature which are not intended to produce any legal effects); 3) non-binding texts, including artistic (i.e. literary) texts, which are not relevant in this context. S. Paolucci: Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 125. Strictly focusing on the legal context, the issue of text types has also been addressed by, among others, Madsen (1997) and Šarčević (2000), who basically distinguished between performative legal texts (e.g. laws, decrees and other legal sources having a prescriptive function and therefore being compulsory and binding) and non-performative (other texts or parts of them having an argumentative or informational function and whose content is not compulsory and binding). Text types are thus of crucial importance in choosing the most appropriate translation strategy. The classification proposed below is primarily inspired by Sabatini’s, but only considers legal texts, which will be classified as either binding or non-binding on the recipients. The following classification is thus obtained: − normative texts, i.e. acts binding on the recipient (laws, decrees, regulations, international treaties, agreements, etc.); − expository texts, i.e. not very binding or non-binding texts, with an explanatory-argumentative function, aimed at experts in the legal field (legal manuals, essays, scientific articles, doctoral theses, lectures, conferences, etc.); − informative texts, i.e. non-binding texts, usually legal texts of a general, non-technical nature, aimed at any type of recipient (e.g. articles on internal or foreign policy and news reports published in newspapers, magazines or websites, informational and promotional texts and materials on legal matters) (Paolucci, 2013b, 2017b). However, it should be noted that Sabatini, Madsen and al the other scholars who have investigated text types unanimously agree that, in the same way as general texts are almost always ‘mixed texts’ consisting of narrative, descriptive, normative, expository, and informational parts, so are legal texts. In this respect, a perfect example is the text type ‘judgements’, in which the operative part is normative, the statement of reasons usually includes normative and argumentative parts, and the statement of facts mostly contains expository, argumentative and informative parts (cf. also Di Benedetto, 2003; Megale, 2012). 126 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. 4.5 Function Also highly relevant for choosing the appropriate translation strategy is the identification of the text function (cf. Nord, 1991, 1997; Reiss, 1989; Vermeer, 1982, 1996) in both the source and target language and culture. In some cases, a text can be translated for a purpose, i.e. function, different from that of the source text. A typical example would be the case of the translation of a law with a normative function in the source language and an informative function in the target language. In such cases, a Funktionsveränderung, i.e. a functional shift as termed by German functionalists, occurs. In other words, in passing from a source language to a target language, the text function may change depending on the purpose. As clearly shown by many theorists such as Cao (2007), Sandrini (1999), Garzone (2007), Kocbek (2009) and Biel (2009), in the case of a functional shift the translation strategy also changes (Paolucci, 2017a). By way of example, if one of the parties involved in a criminal proceeding in Italy speaks French, the judgment issued by the court in Italian must be formal y translated into French to have binding legal effect. The situation changes, though, if the same judgement or parts of it are translated into French to be discussed in a research paper or a legal essay, or simply to be published for information purposes in a French newspaper, magazine, or website. Hence, while the former case requires a formal translation for normative purposes (i.e. as will be discussed below, preferably source-oriented ), in the latter a technical-legal translation wil be needed for expository-argumentative purposes, or as transparent a translation as possible for information purposes (i.e. target-oriented ). Furthermore, taking into account the needs of the recipient, i.e. of the receiving culture, is just as important in this context. Three possible scenarios may occur: (1) the intended recipients are inclined to accept a source-oriented translation aimed to highlight the specific features of the source legal system, the intentions of the legislator, the needs of the source culture – as is the case, e.g., for the name of the constitutional bodies of some EU countries, which are translated into Italian either with calques, such as Presidente del Governo (President of the Government ) in Slovenia, Consiglio costituzionale (Constitutional Council) in France, Camera dei Comuni (House of Commons) in Great Britain, or even with loans, such as Bundestag in Germany, and Sabor in Croatia; S. Paolucci: Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 127. (2) the recipients wish and find it more appropriate or even necessary that the specific features of the source legal text (stemming from the source legal system) be transferred into the target text using more neutral terms or expressions, such as Parlamento (Parliament), Capo di Stato (Head/Chief of State), Primo Ministro (Prime Minister), Corte Suprema (Supreme Court); (3) for certain purposes – as is the case with the translation of informative legal texts aimed at a wider audience, often not specialised – the recipients prefer domesticating terms or expressions, such as, in the case of Italian, Camera dei Deputati (Chamber of Deputies), Presidente del a Repubblica (President of the Republic), Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri (President of the Council of Ministers), Corte di Cassazione (Court of Cassation) (Paolucci, 2017b). 4.6 The fundamental importance of the source legal system Another very relevant factor in the translation of legal texts, especialy those of a normative nature, is the fundamental role of the source legal system, that is to say the legal system to which the source text belongs. In an age when increasing attention is paid to the translation strategies aimed at favouring the target text and the needs of the receiving culture, the fact that the true protagonist of legal translation is the source text is often forgotten; hence, the linguistic peculiarities and, more significantly, the legal features of the source legal system cannot be ignored. The source legal system is in fact the reference system for the legislator and clearly for al other parties involved in the development and drafting of legal texts. For this reason, as wil be discussed below, when translating a legal text for normative purposes, source-oriented strategies are preferable, such as calques, neologisms and even loans, so as to transfer and reproduce the peculiarities of the source legal system in the target language, e.g. terms, institutes or institutions typical of common law such as equity, tort, estoppel, trustee, which have no equivalent in civil law systems. Perhaps, also for this reason, a more widespread (though not excessive) use of loans may now be accepted in legal translation. Given the above, let us briefly analyse the results of the research. Concerning the translation of normative texts, as these were texts binding on the recipients, the majority of translators opted for two or three terminological renderings. As can be seen, most of the translators opted for a source-oriented solution such as Asilo, Casa 128 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. del a Sanità, Unità amministrativa or Elezioni locali. Essential y, they chose the literal translation or the calque. By contrast, regarding the terms contained in the informative texts, as these were texts of an informative nature, targeting as wide an audience as possible – not only Italians of the minority in Slovenia, but also Italians living in Italy or in other countries – the translators almost always chose rather general, mostly target-oriented solutions, such as Elezioni amministrative, Scuola materna, Distret o amministrativo or Poliambulatorio. In particular, they opted for the equivalent terms, or as 'equivalent' as possible, in the Italian system, probably considering such terms more accessible to recipients who do not know the Slovenian system. In light of the above, let us now attempt to identify specific cases where a source-oriented translation strategy is preferable and sometimes necessary, and others where a target-oriented strategy is more appropriate or effective. The translation of a normative text aimed to maintain the same normative, binding effects in the target text should be primarily source-oriented to reflect as much as possible the expressed intention of the legislator. In such cases, translators – however competent and authoritative – may not be able to interpret the text authentical y to the same extent as the author; hence, they must fol ow as closely, formally and even literally as possible the source text (cf. also Šarčević, 1997), which is an expression of the original intention of the legislator. A foreignising strategy is therefore desirable for technical and legal reasons – i.e. depending on the intended function of the target text, as wel as on the legal system of origin – and to safeguard the principle of legal certainty. In other words, the translation of a normative text for normative purposes should avoid domesticating strategies. In the case of expository-argumentative texts, i.e. texts aimed at legal experts, not very binding or non-binding texts with no legal effect, the preferable translation strategy is again primarily source-oriented ; more specifical y, the most frequent solutions are non-translations or loans, literal translations or calques, and neologisms. In comparing (and often translating) a term, comparatists wil not be inclined to overlook the specificities of the source legal system and to normalise substantial, conceptual differences between the two systems involved; usual y, they rather tend to protect the concept behind the term even at the denotative level. By S. Paolucci: Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 129. way of example, a comparatist would not translate Soviet or Duma, or Bundestag, but would rather leave them unaltered (Sacco, 1992), so that they maintain all their peculiarities, legal intensity and integrity (Paolucci, 2013a). If, however, a legal text has a purely informative function, is not binding and is aimed at an audience as wide as possible, it wil be more appropriate to adopt a target-oriented approach. Now the question of how to translate certain terms present in Slovenian administrative texts for the Italian minority. I propose that the translation into Italian – e.g. in a text to be read by people living in Slovenia – of the Slovenian term Lokalne volitve in a normative document binding on the intended recipients is/should the calque with source-oriented function Elezioni locali. Since it is a normative text, only one solution is desirable, avoiding synonyms that can be misleading to the recipients (Sabatini, 1990; Paolucci, 2013b). In the case of expository-argumentative texts, i.e. texts aimed at legal experts, such as in a scientific article or a judgement, it will be translated either with the calque Elezioni locali or the translation with equivalent function Elezioni amministrative or even with a paraphrase such as Elezioni per il rinnovo dei Consigli comunali. However, if the term appears in an informative text with no binding legal effect on the recipients – e.g. a judicial article published on a newspaper or magazine, or an informational or promotional brochure – the functional equivalent in Italian law, Elezioni amministrative or Elezioni comunali, will be used to be more easily understood by an audience as broad and generalised as possible. In this case, as these are texts with no binding legal effect, the use of synonyms is al owed and is often useful in avoiding redundant repetitions that can make the informative text less fluent. 5 Conclusions When transferring a legal text from one language into another, the translator is faced with the very important choice as to whether to highlight the particularities of the source language and legal system – as wel as the intention of the legislator, in the case of normative texts – or to adopt an approach more in line with the target language and the needs of the target culture. As discussed above, many elements and factors may in one way or another influence the translator’s choice. 130 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. The discussion showed that in some specific cases a source-oriented translation is preferable and sometimes necessary, and in others cases a target-oriented strategy is more appropriate or effective. More specifical y, as was also confirmed by the survey presented in this paper, the translation of a normative text with the purpose of maintaining the normative, binding effects of the original should be primarily source-oriented, so as to reflect as much as possible the expressed intention of the legislator and safeguard the principle of legal certainty. To this end a given term should be translated unambiguously, avoiding synonyms that could be misleading to text recipients. In this way we can achieve uniformity and terminological coherence as hoped for by jurists, translators, interpreters and above al by citizens. If, however, a legal text has a purely informative function, is not binding and is aimed at as wide an audience as possible, a target-oriented approach becomes more appropriate. In this case very often more options –synonyms including - are possible and can be used: translating a given term differently, sometimes in order to avoid repetitions or to make the text more engaging for readers. Of course, this is just a first step on a long path. Although the results of this research indicate a quite clear trend, more extensive and in-depth research is required to obtain even more detailed data and to be able to suggest even better solutions, aimed at offering more coherent, clear and accessible texts. References Ajani, G. (2006). Sistemi giuridici comparati. Lezioni e materiali. Torino: Giappichelli. Bajčić, M. (2017). New insights into the semantics of legal concepts and the legal dictionary. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Beaupré, M. (1986). Interpreting bilingual legislation. Toronto: Carswell. Biel, Ł. (2009). Organization of background knowledge structures in legal language and related translation problems. Comparative Legilinguistics: International Journal for Legal Communication, 1, 176–189. Borin, L. (Ed.). (2002). Parallel corpora, parallel worlds: Selected papers from a symposium on parallel and comparable corpora at Uppsala University, Sweden, 22-23 April, 1999. Leiden: Brill. Cao, D. (2007). Translating Law. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Caponi, R. (2006). “Interpretazione, traduzione e comparazione.” Rivista trimestrale di dirit o e procedura civile, 1, 131–141. Caterina, R., & Rossi, P. (2008). L’italiano giuridico. In B. Pozzo & M. Timoteo (Eds.), Europa e linguaggi giuridici (pp. 185–208). Milano: Giuffrè. Cheng, L., & Sin, K. K. (2008). Terminological equivalence in legal translation – A semiotic approach. Semiotica, 172, 33–45. S. Paolucci: Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 131. Chiocchetti, E., Heinisch-Obermoser, B., Löckinger, G., Lusicky, V., Rali, N., Stanizzi, I., & Wissik, T. (2013). Guidelines for col aborative legal/administrative terminology work. Bolzano/Bozen: Eurac Research. Retrived 17 June 2020 from https://cordis.europa.eu/docs/projects/cnect/7/270917/080/deliverables/001-D33Guidelinesforcollaborativelegaladministrativeterminologywork.pdf Cortelazzo, M. A. (1998). La semplificazione del linguaggio amministrativo e il regolamento dell'Università degli Studi di Padova. In Atti del a 1a Conferenza organizzativa degli archivi delle università italiane: Titulus 97: Verso la creazione di un sistema archivistico universitario nazionale. (pp. 215–228). Padova: CLEUP. De Groot, G. R. (2000). La traduzione di informazioni giuridiche. Ars interpretandi. Annuario di ermeneutica giuridica. 135–154. Di Benedetto, G. (2003). La motivazione del a sentenza. Paper presented at Incontro di studi “Il punto sul rito civile”, Consiglio superiore della magistratura, 13–15 novembre 2003. Eco, U. (2003). Dire quasi la stessa cosa. Esperienze di traduzione. Milano: Bompiani. Garzone, G. (2007). Osservazioni sulla didattica della traduzione giuridica. In P. Mazzotta, & L. Salmon (Eds.), Tradurre le microlingue scientifico-professionali: Riflessioni teoriche e proposte didat iche (pp. 194– 238). Torino: UTET. Harvey, M. (2000). A beginner’s course in legal translation: The case of culture-bound terms. In La traduction juridique: Histoire, théorie(s) et pratique, Legal translation: History, theory/ies, practice (357– 369). Bern; Geneva: ASTTI/ETII. Holl, I. (2012). Técnicas para la traducción jurídica: Revisión de diferentes propuestas, últimas tendencias. Hermēneus: Revista de Traducción e Interpretación, 14, 1–17. Istituto di teoria e tecniche del ’informazione giuridica (Ittig) del Cnr , & Accademia del a Crusca. (2011) . Guida al a redazione degli at i amministrativi: Regole e suggerimenti. Firenze: Istituto di teoria e tecniche dell’informazione giuridica (Ittig) del Cnr. Kocbek, A. (2009). A targeted approach to legal translation. In S. Šarčević, Susan (Ed.), Legal language in action: Translation, terminology, drafting and procedural issues (pp. 43–62). Zagreb: Nakladni zavod Globus. Leung, J. H. C., & Durant, A. (Eds.). (2018). Meaning and power in the language of law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Madsen, D. (1997). Towards a description of communication in the legal universe: Translation of legal texts and the skopos theory. Fachsprache, 19(1-2), 17–27. Martín Ruano, M. R. (2005). “La transmisión de la cultura en traducción jurídica: nuevas estrategias, éticas alternativas”. In M. G. Torres and M. A. Bugnot (Eds.), Traducción y cultura. El referente cultural en la comunicación especializada (pp. 165–204). Málaga: Encasa. Megale, F. (2008). Teorie della traduzione giuridica fra dirit o comparato e «translation studies». Napoli: Editoriale Scientifica. Megale, F. (2011). Lo stile delle sentenze francesi e angloamericane: Analisi delle variabili e strategie di traduzione. inTRAlinea.online translation journal, (Special Issue: Specialised Translation II). Retrieved 17 June 2020 from http://www.intralinea.org/specials/article/1802 Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a science of translating. With special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Leiden: E. J. Bril . Nord, C. (1991). Skopos, loyalty, and translational conventions. Target 3(1), 91–109. Nord, C. (1997). Translating as a purposeful activity: Functionalist approaches explained. Manchester: St. Jerome. Ožbot, M. (2000). Slovene literature in Italian translation: Facts, fiction and beyond. In M. Grosman, M. Kadric, I. Kovačič, & M. Snel -Hornby (Eds.), Translation into non-mother tongues: in professional practice and training (pp. 81–89). Tübingen: Stauffenburg. Ožbot, M. (2016). O drugačnosti prevodov in drugačnosti njihovega sodobnega raziskovanja. In A. Zupan Sosič, & D. Limon (Eds.), Drugačnost v slovenskem jeziku, literaturi in kulturi: 52. seminar slovenskega jezika, literature in kulture (pp. 28–37). Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. Paolucci, S. (2011). The problem of equivalence in translating legal texts. Lebende Sprachen, 56(1), 87– 99. 132 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Paolucci, S. (2013a). Strategia estraniante e strategia addomesticante nella traduzione dei testi giuridici. Linguistica, 53(2), 73–89. Paolucci, S. (2013b). Prevajanje poimenovanj slovenskih državnih organov v pravnih besedilih: Primer prevoda Ustave Republike Slovenije v italijanščino. (Doctoral thesis). Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta. Paolucci, S. (2017a). Translating names of constitutional bodies in legal texts: Italian translation of names of Slovenian constitutional bodies in different types of legal texts. The Journal of Specialised Translation, 27(1), 75–103. Paolucci, S. (2017b). Foreignising and domesticating strategies in translating legal texts. International journal of legal discourse, 2(2), 243–263. Pavčnik, M. (1997). Teorija prava. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba. Peruzzo, K. (2012). Terminological equivalence in European, British and Italian criminal law texts: a case study on victims of crime. RITT – Rivista Internazionale di Tecnica della Traduzione: International Journal of Translation, 14, 159–170, Retrieved 17 June 2020 from http://www.openstarts.units.it/dspace/handle/10077/9786. Pezzin, C. (1996). La metafora nel ’argomentazione retorico-giuridica. Verona: Cierre Edizioni. Potrandolfo, G. (2012). Terminologia giudiziaria e traduzione letteraria: Il caso di Testimone inconsapevole di G. Carofiglio in inglese e spagnolo. inTRAlinea.online translation journal, 14. Retrived from http://www.intralinea.org/archive/article/1883 Pozzo, B., & M. Timoteo (Eds.). (2008). Europa e linguaggi giuridici. Milano: Giuffrè. Pravilnik o sprejemu otrok v vrtec. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://www.koper.si/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/04-Pravilnik-o-sprejemu-otrok-v-vrtec-predlog.pdf Prieto Ramos, F. (2011). Developing legal translation competence: An integrative process-oriented approach. Comparative Legilinguistics: International Journal for Legal Communication, 5, 7–21. Reiss, K. (1989). Text Types, Translation Types and Translation Assessment. In A. Chesterman (Ed.), Readings in Translation Theory (pp. 105–115) . Helsinki: Oy Finn Lectura Ab. Sabatini, F. (1990). Analisi del linguaggio giuridico. Il testo normativo in una tipologia generale dei testi. In M. D’Antonio (Ed.), Corso di studi superiori legislativi 1988–1989 (pp. 675–724). Padova: Cedam. Sabatini, F. (1998). Funzioni del linguaggio e testo normativo giuridico. In I. Domenighetti (Ed.), Con felice esattezza. Economia e diritto fra lingua e letteratura (pp. 125–137). Bellinzona: Casagrande. Sabatini, F. (2006). I testi normativi giuridici: un uso prototipico della lingua. In S. Traversa (Ed.), Scienza e tecnica del a legislazione. Lezioni. Quaderni del a Rassegna Parlamentare (pp. 491–500). Napoli: Jovene. Sacco, R. (1992). La traduzione giuridica. In U. Scarpel i & P. Di Lucia (Eds.), Il linguaggio del diritto (pp. 475–490). Milano: LED. Sacco, R. (2000). Traduzione giuridica. Digesto del e discipline privatistiche: Sezione civile: Aggiornamento I. Torino: UTET, 722–735. Sager, J. C. (1993). Language engineering and translation – Consequences of automation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Sandrini, P. (Ed.). (1999). TKE’99 – Terminology and knowledge engineering: Proceedings: The 5th International Congress on Terminology and Knowledge Engineering. Vienna: TermNet. Scheiermacher, F. (1813). Über die verschiedenen Methoden des Übersetzens. Sämtliche Werke, Drit e Abteilung: Zur Philosophie, 2, 207–245. Snell-Hornby, M. (1995). Translation studies: An integrated approach (Revised edition). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Šarčević, S. (1997). New approach to legal translation. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. Šarčević, S. (2000). Legal Translation and Translation Theory: A Receiver-oriented Approach. In J. C. Gémar (Ed.), La traduction juridique, Histoire, téorie(s) et pratique (pp. 329–347). Berne; Genève: ASTTI/ETI. Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive translation studies – and beyond. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Venuti, L. (1995). The translator’s invisibility: A history of translation. London: Routledge. Venuti, L. (1998). The scandals of translation: Toward an ethics of dif erence. London: Routledge. Vermeer, H. J. (1982). Translation als Informationsangebot . Lebende Sprachen, 27(2), 97–101. S. Paolucci: Source and Target-oriented Strategies in Translating Administrative Texts for the Italian Minority in Slovenia 133. Vermeer, H. J. (1996). A skopos theory of translation: Some arguments for and against. Heidelberg: TEXTconTEXT. Sources Delo. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://www.delo.si/lokalno/ljubljana-in-okolica/na-vrtec-caka-seststo-otrok-60242.html Dnevnik. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://www.dnevnik.si/search-V-Sloveniji-so-vceraj-potekale-lokalne-volitve-sedme-v-zgodovini. Pravilnik o sprejemu otrok v vrtec. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://www.koper.si/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/04-Pravilnik-o-sprejemu-otrok-v-vrtec-predlog.pdf Primorske novice. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://www.primorske.si/2019/06/12/koprski-zdravstveni-dom-sest-novih-zdravnikov-dve Primorske novice. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://www.primorske.si/2019/06/25/razveljavili-uporabno-dovoljenje-za-upravo-za-pomo Proračunski priročnik za pripravo proračunov občine za leti 2019 in 2020. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://skupnostobcin.si/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/pror-prir-obcine-19-20.pdf Regione Autonoma Friuli Venezia Giulia. Uf icio Centrale per la Lingua Slovena. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://www.regione.fvg.it/rafvg/cms/RAFVG/cultura-sport/patrimonio-culturale/comunita-linguistiche/FOGLIA25 Statut Občine Piran, Uradni list RS. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://www.uradni-list.si/glasilo-uradni-list-rs/vsebina?urlurid=2014110 Zakon o državni upravi, Uradni list RS. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://www.uradni-list.si/glasilo-uradni-list-rs/vsebina/2016-01-2246?sop=2016-01-2246 Zakon o lokalnih volitvah, Uradni list RS. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://www.uradni-list.si/glasilo-uradni-list-rs/vsebina/2017-01-3192?sop=2017-01-3192 Zdravstveni dom Izola. Retrieved 17 June 2020 from https://izola.si/wp- content/uploads/2019/12/URADNE-OBJAVE-31_2019.pdf 134 ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. ENGLISH AND ITALIAN IN THE FRAME OF GENRE-BASED RESEARCH AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING JASNA POTOČNIK TOPLER University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia. E-mail: jasna.potocnik@um.si Abstract The publication focuses on English and Italian in the context of genre-based research in foreign language learning, with five contributions focusing on language, namely the position of abbreviations in the Italian business context, the English language in tertiary education using the LanGuide platform, the compilation of the Shakespeare's Dictionary, the attitude of young learners towards the introduction of the first foreign language and the strategies used in translating administrative texts into a minority language. In her contribution, Lenassi discusses the principle of economy in the language usage in business Italian correspondence, and focuses on the similarities and differences in the use of abbreviations. Kompara Lukančič and Fabijanić present a different approach to learning and teaching foreign languages, and they emphasise the role of language acquisition and multilingualism. Kompara Lukančič Keywords: also discusses the micro- and macrostructure of the language Shakespeare’s Dictionary. In his contribution, Smajla discusses learning, the attitudes of Slovenian language learners to the introduction first foreign of the first foreign language. In the last part of the monograph language, Paolucci writes about his study from 2019 in which he examined legal source and target-oriented strategies in the translation of languages, business normative and informative administrative texts for the Italian communication, minority in Slovenia. lexicography. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-376-0 ISBN 978-961-286-376-0 ANGLEŠČINA IN ITALIJANŠČINA V OKVIRU ŽANRSKEGA RAZISKOVANJA IN UČENJA TUJIH JEZIKOV JASNA POTOČNIK TOPLER Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za turizem, Brežice, Slovenija. E-pošta: jasna.potocnik@um.si Povzetek Monografija se osredinja na angleški in italijanski jezik, in sicer v okviru petih zvrstno bogatih in jezikovno prepletenih vsebin. Te se nanašajo na položaj krajšav v italijanskem poslovnem kontekstu, angleški jezik v terciarnem izobraževanju, in sicer ob uporabi platforme LanGuide, sestavno Shakespearjevega slovarja, odnos učencev do uvedbe prvega tujega jezika ter na strategije, ki jih uporabljamo pri prevajanju administrativnih besedil v manjšinskem jeziku. Lenassi se v svojem prispevku opira na načelo ekonomičnosti v italijanski poslovni korespondenci in se usmeri na podobnosti in razlike v rabi krajšav. Kompara Lukančič in Fabijanić predstavita drugačen pristop k učenju in poučevanju tujih jezikov ter Ključne besede: poudarjata vlogo jezikovnega usvajanja in večjezičnosti. učenje Kompara Lukančič predstavi tudi mikro- in makro strukturo jezika, prvi Shakespearjevega slovarja. Smajla v svojem prispevku razpravlja tuj o odnosu slovenskih učencev do uvedbe prvega tujega jezika. V jezik, pravni zadnjem delu monografije Paolucci predstavi svojo študijo iz leta jeziki, 2019, v okviru katere preučuje izvorne in ciljne strategije poslovno prevajanja normativnih in informativnih upravnih besedil za komuniciranje, slovaropisje. italijansko manjšino v Sloveniji. https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-376-0 DOI 978-961-286-376-0 ISBN Document Outline Pop, A. M., & Sim, M. A. (2009). The use of acronyms and initialisms in business English. Annals of Faculty of Economics, University of Oradea, Faculty of Economics, 1(1), 557–562. Ursul, N. V. (2014). The peculiarities of nonsense at lexemic level. In H. Kratocvílová & R. Kratocvíl (Eds.), Proceedings of IAC-SSaH 2014. International Academic Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities in Prague 2014 (pp. 329–336). Prague: Czec... 2 Basic theoretical frameworks 3 Ways of learning and improving foreign language acquisition 3.1 An overview of learning and teaching approaches 3.2 E-learning 4 A general overview of the “LanGuide” e-learning tool 4.1 The Scope of “LanGuide” 4.2 Project objective and results 4.3 Project implementation and its participants 4.4 Project results 5 Survey on the need analysis for “LanGuide” for English 5.1 Survey scope and methodology 5.2 Survey results 5.2.1 Question 4 - from question 4a (Q4a) to question 4g (Q4g) – Grade from 1 (not important) to 5 (very important) the following questions. 5.2.2 Question 5 – How many languages do you speak? 5.2.4 Question 7 – How many languages do you speak passively? 6 Discussion 7 Conclusion Crompton, H. (2013). A historical overview of mobile learning: Toward learner-centered education. Handbook of mobile learning, 1, 3–14. Donald, M. (2011). The mimetic origins of language. In K. R. Gibson, & M. Tallerman (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of language evolution (pp. 180–184). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 3 November 2019 from https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/1... Farr, F., & Murray, L. (Eds.). (2016). The Routledge handbook of language learning and technology. New York: Routledge. Garrison, D. R. (2011). E-learning in the 21st century: A frame for research and practice (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Saville-Troike, M., & Barto, K. (2017). Introducing second language acquisition (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. VanPatten, B. (2003). From input to output: A teacher’s guide to second language acquisition. New York: McGraw-Hill. VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015). Key terms in second language acquisition. London, New York: Bloomsbury. VanPatten, B., & Williams, J. (Eds.). (2008). Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction. London; New York: Routledge. Yuyun, I. (2013). E-language learning program: Problems and challenges. V M. Budiman, & M. Fauziah (Eds.), 60th TEFLIN International Conference: Achieving International Standards in Teacher Education, [Depok, Universitas Indonesia], 27-29 August 2013:... 2 Specialised dictionaries 2.1 Specialised learner’s dictionaries 3 Characteristics of LSP Dictionaries 3.1 The Analysis of Terminological Dictionaries 4 The CUSHA Project and the Preparation of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary 4.1 General Overview of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary (CUSHA Dictionary) 5 Methodology 6 Characteristics of the CUSHA Dictionary 6.1 Availability of the Shakespeare’s Dictionary on the platform Slovarji.si 7 Conclusion Atkins, B. T. S., & Rundell, M. (2008). The Oxford guide to practical lexicography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fuertes-Olivera, P., & Tarp, S. (2014). Theory and practice of specialised online dictionaries: Lexicography versus terminography. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. Tarp, S. (2005). The pedagogical dimension of the well-conceived specialised dictionary. Ibérica, 10, 7–21. 3 Results of a survey on this proposal 4 Discussion Peruzzo, K. (2012). Terminological equivalence in European, British and Italian criminal law texts: a case study on victims of crime. RITT – Rivista Internazionale di Tecnica della Traduzione: International Journal of Translation, 14, 159–170, Retriev... Blank Page Blank Page