420
Documenta Praehistorica XLVII (2020)
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements
and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia)
in the 4th millennium cal BC
Maja Andri;
Institute of Archaeology, ZRC SAZU, Ljubljana, SI
maja.andric@zrc-sazu.si
ABSTRACT – ABSTRACT – In the 4th millennium cal BC the hinterlands of Ljubljansko barje basin
were covered by beech-fir (Abies-Fagus) and mixed oak (Quercus) forests. People of several Eneoli-
thic cultural groups were cutting/burning forests to open the landscape for fields and pastures. This
paper focuses on high-resolution palynological analyses of pile-dwelling settlements Maharski prekop,
Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica to investigate human impact on the vegetation, and to compare
past economy and vegetation history in various parts of Ljubljansko barje. The results revealed that
there were no major changes of vegetation throughout the 4th millennium cal. BC, neither were there
any major differences between vegetation of the selected study sites. Cultural layers from archaeolo-
gical sites (in larger quantities than off-site cores) contain pollen of plants that were brought to the
settlement by people: cereals and other cultivars (Cereal t., Linum), weeds (Centaurea), grazing indi-
cators (Plantago lanceolata, Campanula, Ranunculaceae), ruderal taxa (Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia),
(gathered) shrubs (Corylus) and herbs. Traces of anthropogenic impacts from older settlements were
detected in sediments below archaeological cultural layers at all study sites.
IZVLE∞EK – V 4. tiso≠letju pr. n. ∏t. so na ∏ir∏em obmo≠ju Ljubljanskega barja uspevali prete∫no
bukovo-jelovi in hrastovi gozdovi. Ljudje razli≠nih arheolo∏kih kulturnih skupin so te gozdove ob-
≠asno izsekavali, da so si odprli povr∏ine za potrebe poljedelstva in pa∏e. Raziskava, ki jo predstav-
ljamo v tem ≠lanku, se je usmerila na prou≠evanje palinolo∏kega zapisa na eneolitskih koli∏≠ih Ma-
harski prekop, Stare gmajne in Blatna Brezovica, da bi prou≠ili ≠lovekov vpliv na rastlinstvo in pri-
merjali razvoj vegetacije in nekdanje gospodarstvo na razli≠nih delih Ljubljanskega barja. Rezulta-
ti visokoresolucijskih palinolo∏kih raziskav so pokazali, da v 4. tiso≠letju pr. n. ∏t. ni pri∏lo do ve≠jih
sprememb vegetacije, prav tako pa nismo zaznali razlik med vegetacijo v okolici posameznih koli∏≠,
ki le∫ijo na razli≠nih delih Ljubljanskega barja. Kulturne plasti z arheolo∏kih najdi∏≠ (v ve≠ji meri
kot so≠asne plasti v vrtinah izven najdi∏≠) vsebujejo pelod rastlin, ki so jih v naselje prinesli ljudje:
∫ita (Cereal t.) in druge kultivirane rastline (npr. Linum), pleveli (Centaurea), pa∏ni indikatorji (Plan-
tago lanceolata, Campanula, Ranunculaceae), ruderalni taksoni (Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia), neka-
teri grmi (Corylus) in zeli. Na vseh najdi∏≠ih smo v plasteh pod arheolo∏ko kulturno plastjo odkrili
tudi sledove ≠lovekovega vpliva na vegetacijo v ≠asu (domnevnih) starej∏ih naselbin v okolici.
KEY WORDS – Ljubljansko barje; Stare gmajne; palynology; vegetation history; Eneolithic pile-dwelling
sites
Naselja in vegetacija na Maharskem prekopu, Starih gmajnah
in Blatni Brezovici na Ljubljanskem barju v 4. tiso;letju pr. n. [t.
DOI> 10.4312\dp.47.24
KLJU∞NE BESEDE – Ljubljansko barje; Stare gmajne; palinologija; zgodovina vegetacije; eneolitska
koli∏≠a
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia)...
421
from three dendrochronologically dated (∞ufar et
al. 2010; 2015) archaeological sites Maharski prekop
(3489±10 cal BC), Stare gmajne (older settlement:
3332±10 cal BC; and younger settlement: 3109±10
cal BC) and Blatna Brezovica (3071±14 cal BC) will
be compared to address the questions of: (1) whe-
ther the environment of archaeological study sites
located in various parts of Ljubljansko barje varied
significantly; (2) were there any major changes of
vegetation and human impacts on the 4th millenni-
um cal BC environment and (3) how do the environ-
mental changes at Ljubljansko barje resemble/differ
from contemporary and similar landscapes in Europe
(e.g., Swiss pile-dwelling sites)?
Methods
Samples for palynological research (four sedimen-
tary columns) were collected at three archaeological
settlements (Fig. 1, black dots) during the archaeo-
logical excavations of a research team of the Insti-
tute of Archaeology, ZRC SAZU (led by Anton Velu∏-
≠ek): Maharski prekop (excavations 2005), Stare
gmajne (excavations 2006 and 2007) and Blatna
Brezovica (excavations 2003). The sediment was col-
lected using metal boxes (c. 7 x 7 x 50cm) from one
profile of each archaeological trench, wrapped in
cling film, aluminium foil and thick plastic sheeting
and stored in a cold store at +4°C. The following
analyses were carried out for all four sedimentary
columns: sediment description and loss-on-ignition
analysis, radiocarbon dating, pollen and microchar-
coal analysis.
Introduction
Palaeoecological research at Ljubljansko barje has a
very long tradition. After the first archaeological,
archaeobotanical and palynological research in the
19th and 20th centuries (Deschmann 1875; see πer-
celj 1996.9), palynological research in the 1960s
focused on studies of Late Glacial and Holocene ve-
getation history, economy, and the impact of local
Neolithic/Eneolithic populations on the environment.
The results of research to date suggest that in the 4th
millennium cal BC the landscape at Ljubljansko bar-
je and its surroundings was forested with predomi-
nantly beech-fir and oak forests. The impact of Neo-
lithic/Eneolithic farmers on the vegetation was pro-
nounced: the inhabitants of Ljubljansko barje were
cutting forest to open the landscape for agricultural
fields and pastures (e.g., πercelj 1966; Culiberg, πer-
celj 1978; πercelj 1996 and references cited there,
Jeraj 2002; Jeraj et al. 2009; Andri≠ et al. 2008; To-
lar et al. 2011). Furthermore, forest cutting and graz-
ing presumably also led to more subtle changes in
vegetation composition. For example, it was suggest-
ed that due to small-scale forest clearances and thin-
ning of canopy, forest composition shifted from be-
ech-fir forest towards more open vegetation with
more shade-intolerant taxa, such as hazel, oak and
hornbeam (πercelj 1988; 1996; Gardner 1999).
However, despite widespread archaeological and pa-
lynological research, many archaeological study sites
excavated before the 1990s lacked high resolution
palynological sampling and good chronological con-
trol.
With the beginning of dendro-
chronological research in the
1990s, the chronology of ar-
chaeological sites improved
significantly, suggesting that
individual sites were settled
only for short time periods,
often a few decades (∞ufar et
al. 2010 and references cited
there). Therefore, together
with archaeological re-excava-
tions and new excavations,
the need arose to take sam-
ples for high-resolution, pol-
len analysis with chronologi-
cal control, comparable to the
work done at newly dated ar-
chaeological sites. In this pa-
per the palynological record
of four sedimentary columns
Fig. 1. Ljubljansko barje study area with the archaeological and palaeo-
ecological study sites mentioned in the text. Black dots indicate archaeo-
logical sites with palynological results presented in this paper.
Maja Andri;
422
The percentage of organic material, carbonates and
the remaining inorganic material in the sediment
was determined by loss-on-ignition analysis at 550°C
and 950°C (Bengtsson, Ennell 1986). The sediment
description (Tab. 1) follows Jørgen Troels-Smith
(1955).
The age of the sequence was determined by AMS ra-
diocarbon dating of: (a) organic carbon extracted
from the sediment (Blatna Brezovica, Stare gmajne
2006, Maharski prekop); (b) plant macrofossils (Sta-
re gmajne 2007); or (c) unidentified plant material
(Stare gmajne 2006, Maharski prekop). Laboratory
pretreatment for radiocarbon dating varied accord-
ing to the type of material which was dated: for sam-
ples with bigger plant remains (Beta-229152, Beta-
229153, Beta-241776, Beta-269683 and Beta-242461)
acid/alkali/acid washes were used, whereas organ-
ic carbon was extracted from bulk sediment using
acid washes (Beta-210387, Beta-241777, Poz-36293,
Poz-36292, Beta-202705 and Beta-192538). The con-
ventional radiocarbon ages were calibrated using CA-
LIB Rev 5.0.1 (CALIB 5.0 Website; Stuiver, Reimer
1993) on the IntCal 04 calibration dataset (Reimer
et al. 2004). On study sites with several radiocarbon
dates and relatively narrow two sigma ranges (e.g.,
Maharski prekop and Stare gmajne 2006), the age of
the entire sequence was estimated by using linear
interpolation between median values (Telford et al.
2004) of radiocarbon dates (Tab. 2) and the dendro-
MAHARSKI PREKOP 2005
Depth Troels-Smith symbol Colour (Munsell soil chart)
0–16cm Sh4 (organic sediment) 10 YR 2\1 (black)
16–27cm Sh3 As1 (organic clay) marbled> 10YR 2\1 (black) and 10YR 4\1 (dark grey)
27–40cm Sh1 As3 (organic clay) marbled> 10YR 2\1 (black) and 10YR 4\1 (dark grey)
40–58cm Sh3 Ag1 (organic clay) 10YR 2\2 (very dark brown)
58–63cm Sh1 Ga1 Ag1 As1 (organic silty and sandy clay) 10YR 4\1 (dark grey)
63–99cm Sh2 Ag1 Dh1 (organic silty clay) 10YR 2\1 (black)
99–111cm Sh1 Ag1 Dh1 Lc1 (organic silty clay) 10YR 4\1 (dark grey)
111–130cm Sh1 As1 Lc2 (organic silty clay) 2.5Y 4\2 (dark greyish brown)
130–145cm Sh1 Lc3 (organic silty clay) 2.5Y 5\2 (greyish brown)
145–160cm Lc4 (silty clay) 2.5Y 5\3 (light olive brown)
STARE GMAJNE 2006
0–18cm Sh3 As1 (organic clay) 2.5 Y 2.5\1 (black)
18–28cm Sh2 As2 (organic clay) 2.5 Y 3\1 (very dark grey)
28–45cm Sh1 As1 Ag2 (organic silty clay) 2.5 Y 4\3 (olive brown)
45–90cm Sh1 As1 Tl1 Th1 (organic clay) 2.5 Y 3\2 (very dark greyish brown)
90–103cm Sh2 Tl1 Th1 (organic sediment) 2.5 Y 2.5\1 (black)
103–107cm Sh1 As1 Tl1 Th1 (organic clay) 2.5 Y 3\1 (very dark grey)
107–117cm Sh1 As2 Ag1 (organic silty clay) 2.5 Y 4\2 (very dark greyish brown)
117–130cm Sh2 As1 Th1 (organic clay) 2.5 Y 3\1 (very dark grey)
STARE GMAJNE 2007
0–5cm Sh2 Th1 Tl1 (organic sediment) 10 YR 2\1 (black)
5–30cm Sh1 As3 (organic clay) 2.5 Y 3\2 (very dark greyish brown)
30–38cm Sh2 As2 (organic clay) 2.5 Y 3\1 (very dark grey)
38–62cm Sh1 As 3 (organic clay) 2.5 Y 3\2 (very dark greyish brown)
62–80cm Sh2 Tl1 As1 (organic clay) 2.5 Y 3\1 (very dark grey)
80–90cm Sh3 As1 (organic clay) 2.5 Y 2.5\1 (black)
90–130cm Sh2 As1 Ag1 (organic, silty clay) 2.5 Y 3\2 (very dark greyish brown)
BLATNA BREZOVICA 2003
0–20cm Sh 4 (organic sediment) 7.5 YR 2.5\1 (black)
20–50cm Sh2 As2 (organic clay) 7.5 YR 3\1 (very dark grey)
50–60cm
Sh2 As1 Ld13 (organic, silty clay,
7.5 YR 3\1 (very dark grey)rich in wood detritus)
60–110cm
Sh2 Ag1 Ld13(organic, silty clay,
10 YR 3\1 (very dark grey)rich in wood detritus)
110–130cm Sh1 Ag2 As1 (silty clay) 10 YR 4\2 (dark greyish brown)
Tab. 1. Troels-Smith (1955) description of the sediment: Maharski prekop (western cross-section of trench
2), Stare gmajne 2006 (southern cross-section of trench 2), Stare gmajne 2007 (southern cross-section of
trench 3) and Blatna Brezovica 2003 (southwestern cross-section of trench 2).
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia) ...
423
grains of terrestrial taxa and spores (= pollen sum)
were counted in each sample, with the exception of
silty and sandy layers with very low pollen concen-
trations at some study sites (e.g., at Blatna Brezovi-
ca), where the pollen sum was lower. The concentra-
tion of microscopic charcoal was established using
two methods: microscopic charcoal (in two size clas-
ses, <40μm and >40μm) was counted along with
pollen and, in addition to this, Clark’s (1982) point
count method was used. The pollen and ‘loss-on-ig-
nition’ data were analysed and plotted using PSIM-
POLL 3.00 software (Bennett 1998; PSIMPOLL web-
site). All pollen diagrams were divided into statisti-
cally significant zones using binary splitting by sum
of squares. Values lower than 0.5 are marked with a
solid dot. The archaeological cultural layer is marked
by a shaded bar.
Results
The results of sediment description and radiocarbon
dating are presented in Tables 1 and 2, the results
of loss-on-ignition analyses in Figures 2, 5, 7 and 9,
and the results of pollen and microcharcoal analysis
in Figures 3, 6, 8 and 10.
Radiocarbon dating and age-depth modelling
The results of radiocarbon dating (Tab. 2) are in ac-
cordance with the results of previous, dendrochro-
nological research (∞ufar et al. 2010), indicating
chronological age of the cultural layer at each ar-
chaeological site (∞ufar et al. 2010).
At Maharski prekop sample Beta-229153 (80cm)
was omitted from the age-depth model due to age
reversal and incompatibility with dendrochronolo-
gical dating (∞ufar et al. 2010). At Stare gmajne
2006 two types of material from the same level
(126cm) were dated in order to test the suitability
of plant macrofossils and organic sediment for ra-
diocarbon dating (Tab. 2; Beta-241777 and Beta-
242461). Two sigma ranges of radiocarbon dates
partly overlap, suggesting that both types of mate-
rial are reliable for dating and the organic sediment
is not (significantly) older than the plant macrofossils.
For pollen analysis, 1cm3 of sediment was subsam-
pled with a 4cm resolution throughout most of the
profile, i.e. 35 samples at Maharski prekop, 26 sam-
ples at Blatna Brezovica, and 33 and 32 samples at
Stare gmajne 2007 and 2006 profiles, respectively. A
standard laboratory procedure was used (HCl, NaOH,
HF, acetolysis, staining with safranine, mounting in
silicone oil, Bennett, Willis 2002) and pollen concen-
tration was determined by adding Lycopodium spo-
res (Stockmarr 1971). Pollen was identified using
a Nikon Eclipse E400 light microscope at 400x mag-
nification, reference collection at the Institute of Ar-
chaeology ZRC SAZU and pollen keys (Reille 1992;
1995; Moore et al. 1991). A minimum of 500 pollen
MAHARSKI PREKOP 2005
Sample Depth Material dated Conventional 13C\12C ratio 2σ calibrated Median
number radiocarbon age result ∂cal BC] ∂cal BC]
Beta-229152 44cm Charred material 4730±50 BP –24.6 o\oo 3636–3494 3522
Beta-229153 80cm Unidentified plant material 3910±50 BP –28.2 o\oo 2564–2209 2390
Beta-210387 124cm Organic sediment 5560±40 BP –30.0 o\oo 4461–4338 4401
STARE GMAJNE 2006
Beta-241776 40cm Peat 3610±40 BP –27.1 o\oo 2131–1881 1970
Beta-269683 96cm Unidentified plant material 4480±40 BP –28.2 o\oo 3348–3026 3210
Beta-241777 126cm Organic sediment 5210±40 BP –30.4 o\oo 4226–3954 4016
Beta-242461 126cm Peat 5170±40 BP –29.3 o\oo 4049–3809 3980
STARE GMAJNE 2007
Poz-36293 70–71cm Stachys sp.
4560±60 BP
\ 3501–3030 32440.21mg C
Poz-36292 90–91cm Linum u.
4580±60 BP
\ 3516–3096 33130.17mg C
BLATNA BREZOVICA 2003
Beta-202705 48cm Organic sediment 4450 ± 40 BP –28.7 o\oo 3338–2933 3151
Beta-192538 80cm Organic sediment 4730±40 BP –28.2 o\oo 3635–3376 3526
Tab. 2. Radiocarbon dates: Maharski prekop (western cross-section of trench 2), Stare gmajne 2006
(southern cross-section of trench 2), Stare gmajne 2007 (southern cross-section of trench 3) and Blatna
Brezovica 2003 (southwestern cross-section of trench 2).
Maja Andri;
424
that the final phase of each archaeological settle-
ment (presumably settled for a few decades only) is
dated to: Maharski prekop: 3489±10 cal BC, Stare
gmajne: 3332±10 cal BC (older phase) and 3109±
14 cal BC (younger phase), and Blatna Brezovica:
3071±14 cal BC. However, due to long two sigma
ranges and fast changes in sedimentation rates, the
chronological precision of palynological sequences is
lower in comparison with dendrochronology. There-
fore, an attempt to estimate the sedimentation rate
and produce an age-depth model was carried out
only on longer sequences with a higher number of
radiocarbon dates (for Maharski prekop and Stare
gmajne 2006).
The sedimentary record on study sites covers the
time periods between c. 5000–2000 cal BC at Ma-
harski prekop and c. 4000–2000 cal BC at Stare
gmajne and Blatna Brezovica. Before archaeological
occupation, the sedimentation rate at Maharski pre-
kop between 5000–3400 cal BC was c. 0.05cm/yr,
which is comparable with that at Stare gmajne 2006
(0.04 cm/yr between c. 4000 and 3200 cal BC). The
sedimentation rate in the archaeological cultural la-
yers of all study sites was presumably much faster,
for example, c. 0.29cm/yr at Stare gmajne 2007, due
to the higher input of organic material (e.g., wood,
plants, bones, artefacts) which was brought to the
settlement by people. Sediment younger than c.
2500–2000 cal BC seems to be missing on all study
sites: it was probably removed during peat cutting in
the 18th and 19th centuries AD (Melik 1927), and
possibly also by Late Bronze Age flood erosion at c.
1700 cal BC (Andri≠ et al. in preparation).
Sediment description, loss-on-ignition and pol-
len analysis
Maharski prekop
The pollen column which was collected in 2005 from
the western profile of archaeological trench 2 (for
archaeological excavations see Velu∏≠ek, ∞ufar 2008)
is 160cm long. The archaeological cultural layer is
located at c. 86–48cm.
Sediment at the bottom of the profile (160–114cm)
is calcareous silty clay (Tab. 1), with a very low per-
centage of organic material (c. 5–15%) and 25–40%
of carbonates, whereas the percentage of remaining
inorganic material without carbonates is more than
50% of sediment dry weight (Fig. 2). At 114–62cm
the amount of organic material
increases to c. 10–31% (highest
in the archaeological cultural la-
yer at 80–68cm), whereas carbo-
nates decrease to 1–22% of sed-
iment dry weight. The percent-
age of carbonates also remains
low at the top of the profile (62–
0cm), whereas the amount of or-
ganic material decreases and the
remaining inorganic material in-
creases, especially at 62–32cm.
In the pollen zone M–1 (160–
114cm, c. 5000–4200 cal BC;
Fig. 3) tree and shrub pollen do-
minates with 77–93%. The main
tree/shrub pollen taxa are Co-
rylus (19–42%), Alnus (9–24%),
Quercus (8–18%) and Fagus (9–
12%, 25% only at 156cm), whe-
reas Abies is present with very
low values (0.1–2%). The percen-
tage of herb pollen is low (c.
10%), but increases towards the
top of the zone. The main herb
taxa present are Cyperaceae
(0.5–5%), Poaceae (1–3%), and
anthropogenic indicator taxa
Fig. 2. Maharski prekop, ‘loss-on-ignition’ diagram. The grey shaded
bar at 48–86cm marks the position of the archaeological cultural
layer. Arrows on Figs. 2, 3, 5–10 mark flood layers.
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia) ...
425
(e.g., Cereal type, Secale, Chenopodiaceae, Artemi-
sia, Plantago lanceloata, each c. 0–2%). Microscopic
charcoal and Pediastrum algae are also present in
this pollen zone.
In the pollen zone M–2 (144–62cm, c. 4200–3500
cal BC) the vegetation composition changes signifi-
cantly. The percentages of Fagus and Abies increase
(to c. 14–31% and 4–14% respectively), whereas
those of Alnus (6–15%) and Corylus (12–26%) de-
cline. In the archaeological cultural layer towards
the top of the zone (86–62cm), the percentage of
tree pollen (especially Abies and Fagus) starts to de-
cline, whereas anthropogenic indicator taxa (e.g.,
Cereal t., Chenopodiaceae) increase.
The main characteristic of the pollen zone M–3 (62–
0cm, after c. 3500 cal BC) is the change in forest
composition: Picea and Pinus increase to 4–28%
and 2–12% respectively, whereas Abies, Fagus, Quer-
cus, and Corylus decline. The tree pollen sum de-
clines and there is an increase in herbs (Cyperaceae,
Poaceae, Cichoriaceae) and monolete fern spores
(Filicales). The percentage of degraded pollen grains
increases to c. 2–10%.
Stare gmajne 2006
The pollen column which was collected in 2006 from
the southern cross-section of archaeological trench 2
(for archaeological excavations see Velu∏≠ek 2009a)
is 130cm long. The archaeological cultural layer is
located at c. 90–43cm.
The sedimentary composition of the column is very
heterogenous (Tab. 1 and Fig. 5). Sediment at 130–
116cm is mineral with 14–21% of carbonates, 11–
23% of organic material and 63–71% of remaining in-
organic material. Further up the profile (116– 108cm)
the amount of organic material drops to 3–4%, whe-
reas the remaining inorganic material increases. A
major change in sediment composition occurs when
the percentage of carbonates (106cm) and inorga-
nic material (102cm) declines; the organic material
increases to 23–90% of sediment dry weight. At 90–
43cm the percentage of carbonates remains low (1–
5%), whereas the percentage of organic material (14–
59%) and the remaining inorganic matter (37–84%)
fluctuates. Above 43cm the percentage of inorganic
material is high (74–91%), the amount of organic
material is similar to that seen at the bottom of the
profile, but with a lower percentage of carbonates.
In the pollen zone S–1 (130–90cm, c. 4100–3200
cal BC; Fig. 6), the percentage of tree and shrub pol-
len is high (53–92%), the main taxa are Fagus (7–
21%), Quercus (7–21%), Abies (0–12%), Picea (3–
9%), Alnus (0.5–13%) and Corylus (9–25%). Herb
taxa include Cyperaceae (0–12%), Poaceae (1–5%)
and occasional occurrence of anthropogenic indica-
tor taxa (e.g., Cereal t., Secale, Chenopodiaceae, Ar-
temisia). The pollen concentration is c. 3500–9000
pollen grains per 1cm3, and in mineral part of the
profile at 108–116cm it was very low (c. 400–1100
pollen grains/1cm3) and thus not possible to count
a statistically significant pollen sum (>300). Towards
the top of the zone the percentage of tree pollen de-
clines, whereas the percentage of monolete fern spo-
res (Filicales) and Thelypteris palustris increases.
The main characteristic of pollen zone S–2 (90–
58cm, c. 3150–3100 cal BC) is the lower percentage
of tree pollen (40–84%): all tree taxa decline, whe-
reas Corylus slightly increases and fluctuates be-
tween 17 and 51%. Herbs increase to 13–58%. The
percentage of anthropogenic indicator taxa (e.g., Ce-
real t. 1–10%, Secale c. 0.5%, Chenopodiaceae up to
40%, Artemisia 0.5–1%) and microscopic charcoal
(0.1–0.7cm2cm–3) is high.
The pollen composition in zone S–3 (58–43cm; c.
3100–2500 cal BC) is similar to that in S–2, but to-
wards the top of the zone, immediately above the
archaeological cultural layer, Pinus and Picea in-
crease to c. 2–13%. The percentage of degraded pol-
len is higher than in previous zones, with a very
low pollen concentration (c. 300–650 grains/1cm3)
and highest percentage of degraded pollen grains
(27%) at the transition between zones S–3 and S–4.
The percentage of tree taxa stays low in the pollen
zone S–4 (43–0cm, after c. 2500 cal BC). The concen-
tration of microscopic charcoal decreases, whereas
Alnus, Filicales, Trilete spores and Cichoriaceae in-
crease.
Stare gmajne 2007
The pollen column which was collected in 2007
from the southern cross-section of archaeological
trench 3 (for archaeological excavations see Velu∏-
≠ek 2009a) is 130cm long. The archaeological cultu-
ral layers are located at c. 95–85cm (older phase)
and c. 85–70cm (younger phase).
The sediment below the archaeological cultural lay-
ers (130–95cm) is calcareous silty clay (Tab. 1), with
a very low percentage of organic material (c. 9–17%)
and 10–21% of carbonates, whereas the percentage
of remaining inorganic material is 69–72% of sedi-
Maja Andri;
426
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia) ...
427
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Maja Andri;
428
ment dry weight (130–95cm, Fig. 7). Further up the
profile the percentage of organic material in the ar-
chaeological cultural layers increases to 19–33%,
whereas carbonates decline to c. 1–4%. At 70–38cm
the percentage of organic material decreases again
to c. 10% and inorganic material increases to c. 85%.
At the top of the profile (38–0cm) there is 15–27%
of organic material, the percentage of carbonates re-
mains low (2–4%), and the remaining inorganic ma-
terial is between 68 and 82%.
There are only two statistically significant pollen
zones (Fig. 8): S–1 (130–37cm) and S–2 (37–0cm).
In zone S–1 the percentage of tree and shrub taxa
is relatively high (70–94%), but declines in archaeo-
logical cultural layers (66–82%) and towards the top
of the zone (only 44%). The main tree taxa are Fa-
gus (11–20%), Quercus (18–24%), Alnus (5–14%)
and Corylus (11–20%). The main herb taxa are Cy-
peraceae and Poaceae, Cichoriaceae, Apiaceae, Ce-
real t., Linum, Plantago lanceolata, Chenopodiaceae
and Ranunculus a. The sediment also contains mi-
croscopic charcoal. In the older archaeological cultu-
ral layer (95–85cm) the percentage of Fagus and
Quercus declines to c. 5% and 10%, respectively,
whereas Corylus, Cereal t. and microscopic charcoal
increase. In the younger archaeological cultural la-
yer (85–70cm) Fagus and Quercus increase again,
whereas anthropogenic indicator taxa and microsco-
pic charcoal decrease. At 68cm Pinus, Picea, Abies
and herb taxa (e.g., Cypearceae, Poaceae, Filicales,
Sparganium) increase, whereas other tree taxa de-
cline.
The main characteristic of the pollen record in zone
S–1 (38–0cm) is the low percentage of tree pollen
(29–49%; only Alnus increases to 7–37%), and in-
crease in Filicales (19–57%) and Trilete spores (4–
10%).
Blatna Brezovica
The pollen column which was collected in 2003
from the southwestern cross-section of archaeolog-
ical trench 2 (for archaeological excavations see Ve-
lu∏≠ek 2009c) is 130cm long. The archaeological cul-
tural layer is located at c. 77–57cm depth.
Silty clay at 128cm contains only 7% of organic ma-
terial, 25% of carbonates and 68% of remaining in-
organic material. Up the profile the percentage of
carbonates gradually decreases to c. 2–5%, whereas
the organic material at 56cm increases to 30%. The
main characteristic of sediment between 54 and
34cm is the higher percentage of organic material
(28– 32%) with wood remains, whereas the percen-
tage of inorganic material decreases to 62–70%. Se-
diment above 34cm is similar, but with less organic
material (25–30%).
In pollen zone B–1 (128–77cm; Fig. 10) the percen-
tage of trees and shrubs at 110–128cm is 85–94%,
with the following main tree taxa: Quercus (19–
33%), Fagus (17–22%), Corylus (12–20%), Abies (4–
9%) and Picea (4–8%). The pollen concentration is
very low (1300–1800 pollen grains per 1cm3). At
105cm tree taxa (especially Fagus and Quercus) de-
crease, whereas herbs including anthropogenic in-
dicator taxa (such as Cereal t., Chenopodiaceae, Ar-
temisia), Poacae, Filicales, trilete spores and micro-
scopic charcoal concentration, start to increase. In
zone B–2 (54–34cm) trees (e.g., Fagus, Quercus and
Corylus) decrease, but there is a short term increase
in Abies, Cypearaceae, Equisetum and Filicales. The
pollen concentration increases to c. 9000–35000
grains per 1cm3, but decreases again in zone B–3.
The main taxa in zone B–3 (34–0cm) are Picea (11–
30%), Alnus (5–23%) and Filicales (2–15%).
Discussion
Taphonomy and palaeohydrological condi-
tions before, during and after archaeological
settlement 
The sediment composition was affected by palaeo-
hydrological conditions and human activities. In the
first half of the 4th millennium cal BC, before the
establishment of archaeological settlements, the per-
centage of carbonates is higher at all study sites (15–
Fig. 4. Plan of Stare gmajne with irrigation ditches,
grey areas marking the western and eastern parts
of the settlement, after Velu∏≠ek 2009a.Sl. 1.3 and
1.4.
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia) ...
429
20% of sediment dry weight; Figs. 2, 5, 7 and 9). At
Maharski prekop the sediment contains c. 20–40%
of carbonates and Pediastrum algae, suggesting high
CaCO3 precipitation in lake deposits between c.
5000–4100 cal BC. Later the percentage of carbon-
ates declines to 20% of sediment dry weight (which
is comparable with pre-settlement layers of Stare
gmajne and Blatna Brezovica), and Pediastrum al-
gae are no longer present. Sedimentological research
at Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica (Turk, Horvat
2009) demonstrated that sediment below the archa-
eological cultural layer contains ostracode valves
and oogonia of Characeae, diatoms and fine grain
carbonate aggregates (with 60–80% of carbonates in
<0.2mm fraction), which presumably deposited in a
shallow lake to marshy environment. At the current
state of research it is difficult to estimate whether all
carbonates in pollen profiles were authigenic, or
some were also brought to the basin by river trans-
port.
In the archaeological cultural layers of all study sites
the proportion of mineral grains increased, whereas
the proportion of carbonates is low, suggesting a
marsh environment (Turk, Horvat 2009). Similarly,
the results of archaeobotanical research at Maharski
prekop indicate that the settlement was presumably
located near water, probably lakeshore and/or wet-
land, which were occasionally
flooded (Tolar 2018). Pollen of
water plants is, in small quanti-
ties, present at all study sites
and throughout all sequences
(Figs. 3, 6, 8 and 9), but does
not show any patterns (e.g., hy-
droseral succession). On-site ta-
phonomic processes were also
affected by people. Both loss-on-
ignition (this study; Figs. 2, 5, 7
and 9) and sedimentological re-
search (Turk, Horvat 2009)
have shown an increased per-
centage of organic matter. A fast-
er sedimentation rate and con-
sequently lower pollen concen-
tration at some sites were also
detected as a result of human ac-
tivity, and possibly also changed
hydrological conditions (lower
CaCO3 precipitation).
The sediment above archaeolo-
gical cultural layers contains mo-
stly organic material (this study;
Figs. 2, 5, 7 and 9), quartz grains and an increasing
percentage of clay towards the top of the profile
which deposited on the floodplain (Turk, Horvat
2009). The percentage of degraded pollen increases
in the top part (= above c. 60–50cm) of all analysed
profiles (Figs. 3, 6, 8 and 9) because of drier condi-
tions due to (present-day) draining activities, farm-
ing, and dry and warm summers, which endanger
the preservation of the palaeoecological and archa-
eological record in the area.
Flood events and local vs. regional variability
Several layers containing more quartz (Turk, Hor-
vat 2009) and remaining inorganic material, lower
pollen concentration and more degraded pollen (this
study; Figs. 2–10, layers marked with arrows) were
discovered at all study sites. It is assumed that they
formed during flood events, however the subsequent
results are only preliminary and further, more de-
tailed geological research (sedimentological, mine-
ralogical and geochemical analysis) is needed to ad-
dress this topic in more depth.
No clear regional pattern with distinct, synchronous
flood events was reconstructed. Due to unprecise
chronology (no annually laminated sediment) it is
difficult to pinpoint individual flood events. Traces
of flooding in the first half of the 4th millennium
Fig. 5. Stare gmajne, trench 2006, ‘loss-on-ignition’ diagram.
Maja Andri;
430
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia) ...
431
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432
cal BC (c. 3750–3450 cal BC and 3200–3100 cal BC)
are more apparent and better dated on some (e.g.,
Stare gmajne 2006) than other study sites. They can
be correlated with the 3700–3250 cal BC phase of
higher lake levels (Magny 2004; with tripartite flood-
ing in the Alps at c. 3650–3370 cal BC, Magny et al.
2006) and CE cold phase 5 (c. 4200–3650 cal BC,
Haas et al. 1998). The 3200–3100 cal BC flooding
event partly coincides with the 3332–3160 cal BC
‘dendrochronological occupational hiatus’ when no
archaeological sites were discovered at Ljubljansko
barje (∞ufar et al. 2010). The only flooding event
that clearly appears on all study sites is located
above archaeological cultural layers and coincides
with an increase of Picea, Pinus and Abies and de-
cline of other tree taxa (e.g., Fagus, Quercus). A cold
(wet) climate favours the spread of needle-leaved
taxa (Ellenberg 1988), whereas an increase of Pinus
can also be associated with forest regrowth after the
abandonment of the settlements and/or metallurgi-
cal activities at the beginning of 3rd millennium cal
BC (Velu∏≠ek 2004b).
The visibility and extent of (short-term, annual/de-
cadal?) floods was presumably affected by the (local)
topography, hydrological network and other factors.
Even in sedimentary profiles, lo-
cated just few hundred metres
apart, differences in sediment
composition can be significant,
illustrating how local variability
vs. regional events shaped the
landscape.
These differences are clearly seen
in the Stare gmajne 2006/2007
profiles. In the western part of
the settlement (Stare gmajne
2007; see Figs. 4, 7), changes ap-
pear to be more gradual and
more similar to the Maharski pre-
kop and Blatna Brezovica study
sites, whereas in the east (Stare
gmajne 2006; Fig. 5) the sedi-
ment composition changes more.
Here a high concentration of or-
ganic material was found imme-
diately below the archaeological
cultural layer (Fig. 5, 100–92cm),
suggesting that before archaeo-
logical settlement the hydrologi-
cal conditions probably became
drier (but still waterlogged), with
a slower sedimentation rate and
thus slightly higher pollen concentration (Fig. 6).
The sediment in a very thin layer at 96cm contained
so much organic material (unidentified plant mate-
rial, Fig. 11) that the pollen concentration was too
low to yield pollen results. The sediment immedi-
ately below and above this layer contained an in-
creased percentage of monolete fern spores, espe-
cially Thelypteris palustris (the marsh fern growing
in sunny wetland areas, e.g., at the edges of marshes
and bogs), which presumably started to grow in situ
after the hydrological conditions became drier. Alnus
tree stumps were also found below the archaeolo-
gical cultural layer (Velu∏≠ek 2009b). A rapid tran-
sition between a lake-marsh and organic, humous la-
yer was detected also by sedimentological research
(Turk, Horvat 2009) in drainage ditch 6 (profile
SG6), located c. 100m west of the palynological se-
quence. This rapid transition is in contrast with the
gradual lake-marsh to humous sediment transition
found in the western part of the settlement (profile
SG12, Turk, Horvat 2009). In contrast to Janez Turk
and Aleksander Horvat (2009), who suggested that
the lack of a gradual transition in profile SG6 was
either because the sediment was decomposed or did
not form at all (due to sedimentological or erosion-
al gaps), palynological research, presented in this
Fig. 7. Stare gmajne, trench 2007, ‘loss-on-ignition’ diagram.
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia) ...
433
paper (at least in archaeological trench 2) indicates
that there seems to be no hiatus at the transition be-
tween the lake-marsh sediment and organic layer at
c. 102cm (Fig. 5), neither were there any traces of
intensive peat degradation (e.g., corroded or de-
graded pollen; Fig. 6). To summarize, it appears that
the eastern part of Stare gmajne (2006) settlement
was located in a topographically slightly different
environment to the other study sites, possibly in the
vicinity of a tributary to the Bistra river feeding the
lake, which probably affected the sedimentological
processes.
Vegetation history and human impact on the
environment of Ljubljansko barje
In this chapter the vegetation composition and sed-
imentological characteristics at each individual study
site, before, during and after archaeological settle-
ment, will be analysed in order to better understand
the short-term environmental changes and human
impact, and to compare study sites located in diffe-
rent parts of Ljubljansko barje.
Maharski prekop
At c. 5000–4100 cal BC the landscape around Mahar-
ski prekop was predominantly forested. The main
tree taxa were Fagus and Quercus (Fig. 3), which
is comparable with previous research at a study site
(πercelj 1975) and on the pollen record of a ‘Na
mahu’ core (Andri≠ et al. 2008; Andri≠ 2009), which
is located c. 1km north of Maharski prekop (Fig. 1).
Alnus pollen, together with Cyperaceae, Pediastrum
algae and a relatively high percentage of carbonates
(Fig. 2), suggests freshwater (lake-wetland) hydrolo-
gical conditions. The landscape around Maharski pre-
kop was not completely forested. Anthropogenic in-
dicator taxa of cereals and weeds (e.g., Cereal type
pollen, Secale, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia) occur as
early as c. 5000 cal BC, with a peak at c. 4400 cal
BC. They can be associated with the farming activi-
ties of people living at the Resnikov prekop site (lo-
cated c. 1.5km southeast of the study site, Fig. 1),
which is dated to c. 4500 cal BC (Velu∏≠ek 2006;
∞ufar, Koren≠i≠ 2006). Unfortunately, these activi-
ties were not studied in detail in situ since part of
the sedimentary sequence at the Resnikov prekop
settlement (including pollen and plant macrofossils)
was removed by water (Andri≠ 2006; Culiberg 2006).
After c. 4100 cal BC the forest composition at Mahar-
ski prekop changed: the percentage of Abies and Fa-
gus pollen increased, whereas Poaceae and Cypera-
ceae declined. A similar change was detected also in
the ‘Na mahu’ core, where an increase of Fagus (and
later Abies) after c. 4000 cal BC was associated with
a wetter climate (Andri≠ et al. 2008). Abies and Fa-
gus thrive well in a humid climate and are suscep-
tible to human impact (Ellenberg 1988). Abies in
particular, which needs plenty of rain, is sensitive to
fire and grazing (Tinner et al. 1999). Therefore, this
change of regional forest composition at the begin-
ning of the 4th millennium cal BC (which was less
clearly seen in other regions of Slovenia, e.g., Bela
krajina, Andri≠ 2007), can be associated with a glo-
bally colder and wetter climate (e.g., Mayewski et al.
2004; Magny 2004; Denton, Karlén 1973; Seppä,
Birks 2001; O’Brien et al. 1995).
Despite generally more forested landscape, people
were still cutting/burning smaller surfaces of forest
for fields (cereal peak at c. 3900 cal BC) and grazing
(Plantago lanceolata pollen). To date no archaeo-
logical sites unambiguously dated to 3900 cal BC
have been discovered at Ljubljansko barje, with the
exception of ∞rnelnik, and possibly Gornje mosti∏≠e
(Velu∏≠ek et al. 2018). On the basis of archaeologi-
cal typology (pottery with stab-and-drag incisions)
and dendrochronological research, Maharski prekop
settlement was dated to c. 3500–3400 cal BC (3489±
10 cal BC, Velu∏≠ek, ∞ufar 2008; ∞ufar et al. 2015;
To∏kan et al. in press, see also paragraph below),
which is c. 400 years younger than the traces of
weak human impact detected on the pollen diagram.
Additionally, a new series of radiocarbon dates for
samples of animal bones, wood, charcoal and food
residue on pottery from Maharski prekop were ob-
tained by researchers of the University of Ljubljana
(Mleku∫ et al. 2012.Tab. 1). At least 14 of these new
dates (mostly carbonized food/organic residues on
pottery) and two wooden piles fall into the period
between 4400 and 4000 cal BC, which is signifi-
cantly older than dendrochronological dating. On
the basis of this data a much longer settling period
of Maharski prekop was suggested, with intensive
occupation between 4400 and 3550 cal BC and two
peaks (4400–4000 and 3800–3550 cal BC) (Mleku∫
et al. 2012).
Archaeobotanical research also indicates early farm-
ing activities, dated at the transition between the
5th and 4th millennium cal BC. At the Strojanova
vode site, located c. 200m southeast of Maharski pre-
kop, plant macrofossil remains of crushed red dog-
wood seeds (Cornus sanguinea) and cereal remains
(Hordeum and Hordeum/Triticum) indicate human
activities (c. 4225–3948 cal BC), which are older
than dendrochronologically dated remains of wood-
en piles at Strojanova voda (3586 cal BC = young-
Maja Andri;
434
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia) ...
435
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Maja Andri;
436
est date, oldest c. 3700 cal BC, ∞ufar et al. 2015; To-
lar 2018). Both palynological and archaeobotanical
research therefore suggest early farming activities in
a wider Maharski prekop region. People were present
in the landscape, but at the current state of research
it is not possible to suggest the exact location of this
older settlement (there is no dendrochronological
data or Lasinja pottery dated to 4350–3900 cal BC to
support this assumption about older settlement, Ve-
lu∏≠ek pers. comm.). The main reasons for the cur-
rent state of research are very complex palaeohydro-
logical conditions and taphonomic processes in this
part of Ljubljansko barje. The LIDAR record shows
traces of past fluvial activity (Budja, Mleku∫ 2008;
2010; Mleku∫ et al. 2012). At Resnikov prekop part of
the sequence was removed by water (Andri≠ 2006),
and thus water erosion and displacement of arte-
facts and sediment (including plant micro and macro-
remains) is possible. The archaeological and palaeo-
ecological record were shaped by taphonomic pro-
cesses, and further research is needed in the area.
The base of the archaeological cultural layer in the
pollen profile at Maharski prekop is not reliably da-
ted. Due to age reversal, the 14C date of unidentified
plant material at 80cm (Tab. 2,
Beta-229153) was omitted from
the age model (Fig. 3). It is pos-
sible that roots of younger
plants growing on the site af-
ter the abandonment of the set-
tlement were dated, or sedi-
ment was redeposited by water.
On the other hand, horizontal
mobility of animal finds at Ma-
harski prekop seems to be lim-
ited and bones were not affect-
ed by water erosion (To∏kan et
al., in press). A cultural layer,
dendrochronologically dated to
c. 3500 cal BC, is clearly seen
in the pollen diagram (Fig. 3):
there is a decline in tree pollen
(Fagus, later also Abies and
Quercus) and increase in cere-
als, weeds (e.g., Centaurea,
Chenopodiaceae), other herbs
(e.g., Poaceae, Lamiaceae, Apia-
ceae, Filipendula) and micro-
scopic charcoal concentration.
The taxonomic precision of ar-
chaeobotanical research is bet-
ter than for pollen, and macro-
remains of the following culti-
vated plants were discovered in the cultural layer:
Hordeum vulgare, Triticum monococcum, Triti-
cum dicoccum (in the pollen record shown as Ce-
real type), Brassica rapa (Cruciferae pollen) and Pi-
sum sp. (Fabaceae pollen) (Tolar 2018).
After the abandonment of Maharski prekop at c.
3500 cal BC (end date 3489±10 cal BC; ∞ufar et al.
2015) the forest composition changed again. Picea
and Pinus spread, whereas other tree taxa decline.
A similar vegetation change was detected at other
study sites (Stare gmajne, Blatna Brezovica, ‘Na ma-
hu’), which might be associated with a colder cli-
mate (Haas et al. 1998) and/or forest regrowth after
the abandonment of the settlement.
Stare gmajne 2006
At c. 4100 cal BC the landscape around Stare gmaj-
ne was (similar to at Maharski prekop) surrounded
by beech-fir and mixed oak forests. Traces of human
presence in the landscape are already visible in the
pollen record (Cereal t., Secale, Artemisia), although
to date no archaeological sites dated to c. 4100 cal
BC have been discovered in the western part of Ljub-
ljansko barje. A low presence of Cereal t. and other
Fig. 9. Blatna Brezovica, ‘loss-on-ignition’ diagram.
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia) ...
437
anthropogenic indicator pollen below the archaeo-
logical cultural layer was also detected in the pollen
diagram from Ho≠evarica, located 250m northwest
of Stare gmajne (Fig. 1; Jeraj 2002.280, Fig. 2; Jeraj
et al. 2009.286–287, Fig. 7).
Human impact on the environment in the vicinity of
the Stare gmajne site increased again at c. 3500–
3400 cal BC, when small-scale forest clearance oc-
curred (decline of Abies, Fagus, Alnus, Tilia), with
an increase in herb pollen (Cereal t., Chenopodia-
ceae, Ranunculaceae) indicating farming activities,
which can be associated with the Ho≠evarica archa-
eological site (Velu∏≠ek 2004a; end date: 3547±10
cal BC, ∞ufar et al. 2010). Archaeobotanical and pa-
lynological research at Ho≠evarica (Jeraj 2004) sug-
gest significant human impact on the surrounding
landscape, especially in the reduction of nearby fo-
rest and usage of cleared land for farming. Pile-dwel-
lers from Ho≠evarica were cultivating barley and
wheat (Jeraj 2002; 2004; Jeraj et al. 2009) and kept
domesticated animals (pigs, sheep, goat and cattle,
To∏kan, Dirjec 2004), which is also visible in the
pollen record of Stare gmajne.
In archaeological trench 2, excavated at Stare gmajne
in 2006, only a younger archaeological layer, dated
to c. 3109±14 cal BC (Velu∏≠ek 2009b; ∞ufar et al.
2010) was discovered. The pollen record from the
cultural layer (90–43cm, Fig. 8) shows a pronounced
decline in tree pollen (apart from Corylus and Tilia)
and an increase in anthropogenic indicator taxa (sen-
su Behre 1981; e.g., Cereal t., Secale, Chenopodia-
ceae, Artemisia, Centaurea) suggests intensive farm-
ing. After the settlement was abandoned, Pinus, Be-
tula, Picea (and later Alnus) spread, whereas other
tree taxa (e.g., Fagus, Tilia) decreased.
Stare gmajne 2007
Archaeological trench 3 was excavated just c. 270m
west of trench 2 (see Fig. 4), therefore both pollen
diagrams from Stare gmajne (Figs. 6 and 8) are very
similar, which is not unusual considering that they
were (partly) surrounded by the same vegetation.
The main difference between study sites is that in
the western part of Stare gmajne an older cultural
layer (3332±10 cal BC) was also discovered in addi-
tion to the younger one (3109±10 cal BC, Velu∏≠ek
2009a). Both cultural layers are visible on the pol-
len diagram (Fig. 8), but human impact in the time
of the older phase is more pronounced, which is in
accordance with the results of archaeobotanical (To-
lar et al. 2011) research. During the older settlement
phase at about 3300 cal BC people were cutting fo-
rest (decline of Fagus, Abies, Quercus and Tilia)
and there is an increase in cultural plants (Cereal t.,
Linum), Chenopodiaceae and microscopic charcoal.
Plant macrofossils analysis demonstrated that the
main cultivars at Stare gmajne were Triticum dicoc-
cum, Triticum monococcum, Hordeum vulgare,
Papaver somniferum, Linum usitatissimum and
Pisum sativum (Tolar et al. 2011). In the younger
cultural layer at about 3100 cal BC, human impact is
less pronounced and pollen of some tree taxa (Fa-
gus, Tilia, Quercus) increases again.
Blatna Brezovica
A complete pollen diagram is presented in this chap-
ter while in a previous paper (Golyeva, Andri≠ 2013)
only selected data were published. Prior to archaeo-
logical settlement, which is dated to c. 3071±14 cal
BC (∞ufar et al. 2010), forest of Fagus, Abies and
Quercus grew in the area. The first traces of human
impact on the environment (forest clearance and an-
thropogenic indicator taxa at c. 112–80cm) could be
connected with the activities of people living in older
archaeological settlements at Ho≠evarica (c. 3650–
3550 cal BC) and Stare gmajne (c. 3300 and 3100
cal BC), located just across the Ljubljanica river.
During the archaeological settlement the landscape
became more open due to forest clearance of Fagus
and Quercus, with the latter needed for building ma-
terial (Koro∏ec 1963; πercelj 1981–82; ∞ufar et al.
2010). Similar to at other study sites, an increased
percentage of Corylus and herbs (e.g., Cereal t., Che-
nopodiaceae, Poaceae) was found in the archaeolo-
gical cultural layer. People living at Blatna Brezovi-
ca were cultivating barley (Golyeva, Andri≠ 2014),
and possibly also other cereals. The results of phyto-
lith analysis also suggested that Poaceae pollen from
the cultural layer could (partly) belong to Phragmi-
tes. Phytoliths of young Phragmites plants that were
found in the archaeological cultural layer suggest that
they were probably used for roofing or other pur-
poses, e.g., bedding, walls (Golyeva, Andri≠ 2014),
or boats (Karg, Weber 2019).
After the settlement was abandoned, Abies spread,
but the landscape remained relatively open. Pollen
of Cyperaceae and Equisetum suggests marsh hydro-
logical conditions.
Comparison of study sites: vegetation history
and human impact on the environment
In the 4th millennium cal BC the vegetation growing
around the study sites, which were located in diffe-
rent parts of Ljubljansko barje (Fig. 1), was very si-
Maja Andri;
438
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia) ...
439
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Maja Andri;
440
milar. No major dissimilarities in forest
composition were detected, and the
main difference between archaeologi-
cal sites is associated with the fact that
each was inhabited in slightly different
time periods, which affected the strati-
graphic position and thickness of ar-
chaeological cultural layers. Pollen of
‘anthropogenic indicator taxa’ (sensu
Behre 1981) such as cultivated plants,
weeds and grazing indicators, as well
as microscopic charcoal, was found in
the cultural layers of all study sites,
whereas tree pollen is present in lower
percentages.
The cultural layers of all study sites con-
tain pollen of cultivars: c. 0.5–10% of
Cereal type pollen, 0–0.5% of Secale,
whereas only one Linum pollen grain
(flax is self-pollinated and produces only a little
pollen) was found in the cultural layer of Stare gma-
jne (2007). To date no Secale plant macrofossils
have been discovered at Ljubljansko barje (Tolar et
al. 2011; Tolar 2018), and it is assumed that in pre-
history it was a weed growing on cereal fields
(Marinova 2006; Maier, Schlichterle 2011). Faba-
ceae pollen and plant macrofossils (Pisum sativum;
Tolar et al. 2011) are also rarely found at Stare gmaj-
ne. Fabaceae are insect-pollinated and do not pro-
duce much pollen, whereas seeds are rarely pre-
served due to taphonomic reasons (Jacomet 2009).
Ruderal plants and weeds (Chenopodiaceae, Artemi-
sia and Centaurea) probably came to the settle-
ments together with crops, although they were pos-
sibly also growing in the settlement, along footpaths
and riverbanks. Chenopodiaceae pollen in particular
is abundant at Stare gmajne 2006 (up to 40%) and
Blatna Brezovica (up to 10%), whereas seeds of Che-
nopodium album were found in large quantities and
it is assumed that they could have been gathered as
well (Tolar et al. 2011). In contrast to this, Vitis pol-
len is not very abundant, although numerous grape
pips were discovered (Tolar et al. 2008).
The increased percentage of Corylus and Hedera
pollen in archaeological cultural layers can be a con-
sequence of more open landscape and therefore
more widespread flowering of these two taxa, or
plants were brought to the settlement by people as
winter/spring fodder for domestic animals. Hazelnuts
were found in considerable numbers at Stare gmajne
(Tolar et al. 2011) and Ho≠evarica (Jeraj 2004),
whereas to date no Hedera macroremains have been
found. Hedera pollen was also found at Italian (Palù
di Livenza, Pini 2004) and Swiss pile-dwelling sites,
where it is assumed that the plant was used for ani-
mal fodder (Arbon Bleiche 3, Brombacher, Hadorn
2004; Kühm, Hadorn 2004).
Pollen of plants characteristic of meadows and pas-
tures was also discovered. The increased percentage
of Poaceae pollen in cultural layers can be a conse-
quence of forest clearance and thus more open land-
scape with grasslands, although not many grassland
plant macrofossils were discovered at Stare gmajne
(Tolar et al. 2011). Combined pollen-phytolith re-
search at Blatna Brezovica (Golyeva, Andri≠ 2014)
suggested that Poaceae pollen grains can also belong
to (young) Phragmites plants, which were brought
to the settlement by people. Pollen of Apiaceae, La-
miaceae, Plantago lanceolata, Ranunculus, Caryo-
phyllaceae, Campanula, Cichoriaceae, Asteraceae
and Filipendula is often present in the cultural lay-
ers of all studied sites, but due to palynological ta-
phonomic imprecision it is difficult to identify them
at the species level, which would help us to recon-
struct environmental conditions. Possibly some of
these plants (e.g., Mentha sp. and Thymus sp. which
belong to Lamiaceae family) were gathered for uses
as spices or for medicinal purposes (Tolar et al.
2011). Plantago lanceolata is a meadow and foot-
path plant, and a characteristic grazing indicator as-
sociated with the impact of domesticated animals
(sheep, goat and cattle; To∏kan, Dirjec 2004).
The above review and comparison of pollen with
macrofossil and phytolith plant remains indicates
Fig. 11. Stare gmajne 2006, unidentified plant material at
96cm, 400x magnification. Photo Igor Lapajne.
Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica settlements and the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje (Slovenia) ...
441
that some (cultivated) plants are more visible/abun-
dant than the others. The visibility of plants varies
due to: (a) the amount of pollen produced (insect vs.
wind pollinated taxa), (b) the distance between fields
and the settlement, (c) taphonomic processes on site
(e.g. plants brought to the site by people), and (d)
the taxonomic precision with which pollen can be
identified.
Differences between the pollen record of (off-site)
palynological cores and (on-site) archaeological pro-
files are associated with taphonomy. Pollen that de-
posited at off-site palaeoecological sites was predo-
minantly transported by wind and water, whereas at
archaeological sites it was also brought to the settle-
ment by people. Pollen samples, collected at archa-
eological sites, therefore contain more anthropoge-
nic indicator taxa (e.g., Cereal type pollen) than pa-
lynological cores. The ‘Na mahu’ palynological core,
for example, contains only up to c. 0.5% of Cereal
type pollen and c. 0.5% of Chenopodiaceae (Andri≠
et al. 2008), whereas in the cultural layers of archa-
eological sites this percentage is much higher (0.5–
10% and 2–40% respectively; Figs. 3, 6, 8 and 10).
Cereals Triticum, Hordeum and Linum (with the
exception of Secale, which is allogamous) produce
only a little pollen which stays in chaff and is re-
leased only during harvesting and threshing (Vuo-
rela 1973), therefore the majority of Cereal t. pollen
grains arrived at the settlements together with
plants. At all study sites, Cereal t. pollen, which was
also found below the archaeological cultural layers,
can be associated with older archaeological sites in
the vicinity. The percentages of Cereal t. pollen in
these layers are usually lower than in the archaeolo-
gical cultural layer, but often bigger than in off-site
cores, probably due to the vicinity of economic acti-
vity areas and/or fields of near-by settlements.
The environmental conditions and human impact on
the vegetation of Ljubljansko barje can be compared
with contemporary study sites in the Swiss Alps, e.g.,
Arbon Bleiche 3 (Bodensee, 3384–3370 cal BC; Ja-
comet et al. 2004). The Arbon Bleiche 3 pollen re-
cord suggests a wooded landscape (Fagus, Quercus,
Abies) with traces of forest clearances and more
open landscape in the vicinity of the archaeological
sites. Although Abies pollen at Arbon Bleiche is not
as abundant as at Ljubljansko barje (c. 5% in both
regions), its wood was more often used as a build-
ing material. Cereal t. and Linum pollen was found
in the archaeological cultural layers of both regions,
whereas Chenopodiaceae pollen (< 5%) and seeds
(rarely found) at Arbon Bleiche are less abundant
than at Ljubljansko barje (Brombacher, Hadorn
2004; Haas, Magny 2004; Jacomet et al. 2004). In
both study regions pollen of Corylus and Hedera
was found in archaeological cultural layers. At Arbon
Bleiche 3 pollen of winter flowering plants (includ-
ing Corylus and Hedera) was also found in rumi-
nant coprolites, and it was suggested that they de-
rive from leafy hay that was used for winter fodder
(Brombacher, Hadorn 2004; Kühm, Hadorn 2004).
Conclusions
A comparison of pollen diagrams from four archaeo-
logical settlements (Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne
(both settlements) and Blatna Brezovica) confirmed
that in the second half of the 4th millennium cal BC
all study sites were surrounded by predominantly
wooded landscape. Hilly, hydrologically drier areas
further away from the settlements were presumably
covered by Fagus-Abies forests, which were in the
4th millennium cal BC more widespread than in the
5th millennium BC (presumably due to climatic rea-
sons; Andri≠ et al. 2008). Mixed Quercus woodland,
shaped by anthropogenic activities and hydrological
conditions, was probably growing closer to the set-
tlements. No major differences between the vegeta-
tion of different parts of Ljubljansko barje were de-
tected, and there seems to be no major change in ve-
getation composition throughout the 4th millennium
cal BC.
Due to human impact (agriculture, grazing, metal-
lurgy), smaller surfaces covered by forest were cut,
and the vegetation became more open. Although
late-successional, shade-tolerant plants like Fagus
and Abies are most susceptible to human impact,
the decline of Quercus (and to lesser extent Fraxi-
nus), which was cut for building material (piles), was
also detected.
The pollen record was shaped by taphonomic pro-
cesses, specific to the archaeological sites and asso-
ciated with economic activities. The sediment of the
cultural layers contains more pollen of plants that
were brought to the settlement by people: pollen of
crops (e.g., cereals), weeds (Centaurea), grazing in-
dicators (Plantago lanceolata, Campanula, Ranun-
culaceae), ruderal taxa (Chenopodieceae, Artemi-
sia), gathered shrubs/nuts (Corylus) and herbs.
In the 4th millennium cal BC people living at Ljub-
ljansko barje were also affected by floods, which
were significant part of their lives.
Maja Andri;
442
I would like to express my gratitude to the archaeological team lead by Anton Velu∏≠ek for help with palynolo-
gical sampling. Tja∏a Tolar identified plant macrofossils for radiocarbon dating at the Stare gmajne 2007 site.
I would also like to thank Drago Valoh and Tamara Koro∏ec, who prepared all the figures, and Maja Zupanc for
her help with laboratory preparation of the pollen samples. The critical comments on the first draft of this paper
by Tja∏a Tolar, Anton Velu∏≠ek and Nina Caf are gratefully acknowledged. I am also very grateful to the review-
er, Anna Maria Mercuri, for her comments that helped to improve the paper. This research was funded by Slove-
nian Research Agency: projects (J6-6348-0618-04, L6-0137, L6-4157, J7-6857) and programme (P6-0064).
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