Precarious Work and Mental Health among YoungAdults:AViciousCircle? AnjaUmičević University of Primorska,Slovenia anja.umicevic@gmail.com AnaArzenšek University of Primorska,Slovenia ana.arzensek@fm-kp.si Valentina Franca University of Ljubljana,Slovenia valentina.franca@fu.uni-lj.si Anincreasingnumberofstudiesandpracticalexperienceconfirmthatem- ploymentqualityandsecurityaffectthementalandphysicalwellbeingof workers.Thisappliesevenmoretothosewhoareincludedinprecarious typesofwork,asthesearemarkedbyworkprocessinclusionuncertainty andlowerqualityinseveraldimensionsofworkperformance.Thepurpose ofthisarticleis,therefore,toanalysementalhealthself-perceptioninin- dividualswhohavedescribedtheirworkasprecarious.Thestudyinvolved 201participantsaged18to40yearsoldworkinginSlovenia.Thisisoneof thefirststudiesfocusingonthistopiconaSloveniansample.Resultsev- idencethatthoseperformingprecariousworkreportlowlifesatisfaction, includinghigherdepression,anxietyandemotionalexhaustionsymptom incidence,confirmingthatperformingprecariousworkisconnectedwith pooreremotionalhealthindicatorsinyoungadults. Key Words:mentalhealth,precariouswork,youngadults,Slovenia jel Classification: i18,j79 Received:1April2021·Accepted:22May2021·Publishedonline:8September2021 https://doi.org/10.26493/1854-6935.19.227-247 Introduction Asmostpeoplespendalargepartoftheirlifeatwork,thismaysignifi- cantlyaffecttheirhealthandwellbeing.Workplacescanbeanimportant protectivefactorwithregardtomentalhealth(JeričekKlanšček,Hribar, andBajt2017),andsupportingmentalhealthatworkplacesbeneficially affects worker productivity,and the economicgrowth and global com- petitiveness of organisations and society. In recent years, we have wit- nessedanincreaseinmentalillnessamongyoungindividualsdoingin- secure types of work (Julia et al. 2017; Jonsson et al. 2020; Vancea and Managing Global Transitions19(3):227–247 228 AnjaUmičevič, AnaArzenšek, andValentina Franca Utzet2017).Unemployment,lowpay,dangerousworkingconditions,in- secureemploymenttypes,fixed-termcontractsandpart-timeworkhave been increasing among young adults with various levels of education (Toivanenetal.2020;MrozowickiandTrappman2021;Domadeniketal. 2020). Precariousnessispresentinvarioustypesofworkwherethereisaten- dencytoreducecosts(FordeandSlater2006;Močnik2010)andbetter enableemploymentflexibility(Debels2008).Precariousnesstakesmany forms,includinglowerjobsecurity,lowerpay,lowersocialsecurityand poorerworkingconditions,andstudiesconfirmthattheseareharmful forindividuals’mentalhealth(Vivesetal.2011),whichisthefocusof ourresearchwork.Manystudieshighlightthatwork-relatedstressand healthissuesarecausedbyprecariouswork(Gash,Mertens,andGordo 2007; Quinlan, Mayhew, and Bohle 2001). Likewise, numerous studies have demonstrated the link between non-standard forms of work and poorworkingconditions(Eurofound1998;EichhorstandTobsch2017); additionally,precariousnessandperceivedjobinsecurityhavebeenasso- ciated with several adverse health (Quinlan, Mayhew, and Bohle 2001; Employment Conditions Knowledge Network 2007) and occupational safetyconsequences(Quinlan,Mayhew,andBohle2001).Thelistofneg- ativehealthoutcomesisvariedandincludesanincreaseinmentalhealth problems,includingclinicaldepression,healthself-assessmentdeterio- rationandsleepdisorders(Mai,Jacobs,andSchieman2019),andanin- creaseintheuseofpsychotropicdrugs(Glavin2013;Lam,Fan,andMoen 2014;Moscone,Tosetti,andVittadini2016;Virtanen,Janlert,andHam- marström2011). Althoughtheuseoftheterm precarious workhasbeenincreasingin- ternationally,thedefinitionofprecariousnessismultifacetedandremains unclear.Thesituationisfurthercomplicatedbythefactthatprecarious- nessisdefineddifferently,dependingonthestate,region,economicand socialstructureofpoliticalsystemsandlabourmarket(Utzetetal.2020). Asamultidimensionalphenomenon(Kalleberg2014;Broughton,Green, and Rickard2016; Jetha et al. 2020; Kreshpaj et al. 2020; Padrosa et al. 2021;Allan,Autin,andWilkins-Yel2021;Valeroetal.2021),operationali- sationofprecariousnessdemandsavarietyofmethodologicalapproaches and indicators. The lackof a clear definition and proper measurement instrument are the main research challenges in the field of precarious employment(BenachandMuntaner2007).Slovenianresearchers(Kre- sal Šoltes, Strban, and Domadenik 2020) came to a similar conclusion Managing Global Transitions Precarious Workand Mental Health among Young Adults 229 andaccordinglydefinedprecariousworkasworkmarkedbyinsecurity, wherebyinsecurityisnotaresultofaworker’sfreechoiceandthework issointenseitrepresentsarisktotheworker’shealthandwellbeing,and thisisoneofthepremisesforourstudypresentedbelow. InSlovenia,atypicaltypesofwork,whichmayincludeelementsofpre- cariousness,havelatelybeenparticularlyevidencedforyoungadults(18– 40yearsold),astheirsharesoffixed-termandpart-timeemploymentare amongthehighestintheEuropeanUnion(KanjuoMrčelaandIgnjatović 2015),andtheyarealsoattheforefrontintermsofworkingassolepro- prietors(DomadenikandRedek2020).Thisiswhythephenomenonof precarious work and mental health is studied in this population upon theirentryintothelabourmarket. Thisarticleincludesapresentationofthefundamentalfeaturesofpre- cariouswork,followedbyitsrelationshiptoselectedmentalhealthfactors inyoungadultsandapresentationofresearchandresults,whichisthe basisofourdiscussionandconclusionpreparation. LabourMarketPrecariousnessFeatures The socioeconomic and political change that started at the end of the 1970sledtothecollapseofthenormativeemploymentmodel;standard typesofemploymentwithindefinitedurationcontracts,regularand‘suf- ficient’payandemploymentrightsbeingreplacedbyinsecureandflexible typesofemploymentandwork(Standing2011).Thisincreaseinlabour marketflexibilityhasbeenjustifiedasanecessaryactiontopreservejobs, butitdecreasesjobsecurity(Standing2011;BradyandBiegert2017;Kre- sal2020).Despitethelackofclaritywithregardtoadefinitionofpre- cariouswork,certainbasicfeaturesareevidenced.Ingeneral,precarious workenablesemployerstotransferrisksandresponsibilitiestoworkers, andismarkedbyvariouslevelsanddegreesoftheobjectiveandsubjective featuresofunreliabilityandinsecurity(InternationalLabourOrganiza- tion2011). Althoughprecariousworktakesvariousforms,itisusuallydefinedin termsofinsecurityregardingemploymentduration,ahighernumberof possibleemployers,concealedemploymentrelationships,lowerlevelsof socialsecurityandbenefitsusuallyconnectedtoemployment,lowerin- come,andlegalandpracticalobstaclestotradeunionassociation(Inter- nationalLabourOrganization2011;Vivesetal.2011).Precariousworkers areinweakerlabourandsocialpositions,andhavepoorersecuritynet- worksandbases;theyalsohavefewerpossibilitiesforin-housetraining Volume19·Number3·2021 230 AnjaUmičevič, AnaArzenšek, andValentina Franca andpromotion.Thisisoftenaccompaniedbyperiodsofunemployment andpossiblyhigherpersonalandfamilylifeplanninguncertainty(Mee- hanandStrauss2015;EichhorstandTobsch2017).Theincreasingnumber ofprecarioustypesofemploymentcoincideswiththeincreasingriskof poverty.Itisfurthermoreconnectedtothephenomenonofpoorworkers, assuchworkdoesnotalwaysenableadecentliving(VanLancker2013; oecd 2015).Precariousworkersoftenfacefinancialandemploymentin- security.Theirincomeislower,sotheyareoftenuncreditworthy,andface difficultyattainingindependence,planningfamiliesandpurchasingreal estate,andthisinstabilitydoesnotenablethemtoplantheirlivesinthe longterm(InternationalLabourOrganization2011). In the last two decades, Slovenian legislation has increasingly sup- portedflexibleemploymentpractices.Asaresult,employmentandse- curityprotectionisweaker,andthenumberofprecarioustypesofwork has increased (Domadeniketal.2020). Forcertain workers, increasing employment flexibility means that their social security, rights and au- tonomyarereduced.Theirabilitytodefendtheirownrightsareseverely weakened,andinthiswaytheirfuturesbecomeincreasinglyinsecureand risky(Smolej2009).TheprevailingbasictypeofworkinSloveniaisstill indefinitedurationemployment,althoughanincreasingtrendandinci- denceofatypicaltypesofemploymentandothertypesofworkthatmay containelementsofprecariousnesshavebeenseeninrecentyears(La- poršek,Franca,andArzenšek2018;DomadenikandRedek2020).This particularlyappliestoyoungadults,astheirsharesoffixed-termandpart- timeemploymentareamongthehighestintheEuropeanUnion(Kanjuo Mrčela andIgnjatović2015),and they arealso attheforefrontinterms ofworkingassoleproprietors(DomadenikandRedek2020);andthisis whywedecidedtoanalysetheprecariousworkphenomenoninrelation to mental health in young adults aged 18–40 years who face this when enteringthelabourmarket. PrecariousnessandMentalHealth:LiteratureReview Exposuretoinsecuretypesofworkmaynegativelyaffectanindividual’s physicalandmentalhealth(Jonssonetal.2020;EmploymentCondi- tionsKnowledgeNetwork2010;Vivesetal.2020).Precariousworkaffects health by means of various mechanisms, including stress at the work- place(Vivesetal.2013),socialandmaterialdeprivation(Domadeniket al. 2020; Benach and Muntaner 2007), personal life limits, such as the inabilitytoplanforthefuture(Clarkeetal.2007),dangerousworkenvi- Managing Global Transitions Precarious Workand Mental Health among Young Adults 231 ronments(BenachandMuntaner2007),lowworkandsafetystandards (Quinlan,Mayhew,andBohle2001),periodsofunemployment,employ- mentpressurebecauseinmostcasestheymustcontinuouslylookfornew work(Clarkeetal.2007),andpresentism(Virtanenetal.2005).Theinci- denceofmanyhealthissuesrelatedtothevarioustypesofworkincluding elementsofprecariousnessisalsoconfirmedbythefindingsofaSlove- nianstudybyDomadeniketal.(2020),whichfoundthatsuchworkers often report mental health issues, with digestive disorders and disease beingverycommon. Manystudiesonthe harmfuleffects ofunstableemploymentonthe healthofindividualshavebeenconducted.Jobinstabilityhasbeenpri- marilyassessedusingtwoapproaches,thefirstbeingperceivedjobsecu- rity,thatis,generalanxietyregardingthecontinuedexistenceofjobsin thefuture(DeWitte1999)inrelationtoatypical,conditionalandnon- standardtemporaryemployment(Virtanen,Janlert,andHammarström 2011;Quinlan,Mayhey,andBohle2001).Suchstudieshaveevidenceda consistentconnectionbetweenjobinstabilityandvarioushealthcondi- tions,especiallyweakenedmentalhealth.Althoughjobinstabilityisone of the main features of precariousness, studies in the context of unsta- bleworkhavesomeimportantconceptuallimitations,whichiswhytheir outcomes cannot be fullyappliedto precarious work(Vives et al. 2013; Vives et al. 2020). This one-dimensional approach is inappropriate be- causeprecariousworkisamultidimensionalconstruct(Kalleberg2014; Broughton,Green,andRickard2016;Benachetal.2016),whichdoesnot necessarilyormerelyincludejobinstability.Tobemoreprecise,standard employmentisoftenidentifiedastheidealemploymentstandardandas suchprecariousnessinsuchtypesofemploymentisoftenunderestimated andoverlooked(EmploymentConditionsKnowledgeNetwork2007;Ju- liaetal.2017;Vivesetal.2020),andelementsofprecariousnessmayalso appearinsuchtypesofemployment. Basedonourreviewofarticlesinthefieldofunstabletypesofwork, includingthoserelatingtoprecariousnessandmentalhealth,wehavein- cludedfourmentalhealthconstructsinourstudy,namelylifesatisfac- tion, depression, anxiety and emotional exhaustion (Llosa et al. 2018). Empiricaldataevidencesthatsubjectivewellbeingandincreasedlifesat- isfactionimprovementalhealthandworkperformance.Ahighlevelof satisfactionwithlifeandpositiveemotions,suchashappiness,arecon- nected to a large spectrum of important life factors related to physical andmentalhealth,andsocialrelationships(PavotandDiener2008).The Volume19·Number3·2021 232 AnjaUmičevič, AnaArzenšek, andValentina Franca youngadultsindifferentEuropeansocialsecuritysystemsdoingprecari- ousworkreportedlowerlifesatisfactioninastudyconductedbyVancea, Shore,andUtzet(2018).Anegativeconnectionbetweeninsecuretypesof workandlifesatisfactionwasconfirmedinastudywhichresearchedthe connection between life satisfaction and resilience pertaining to stress resultingfromunstabletypesofwork(Mauno,Ruokolainen,andKim- nunen 2013). The fact that unstable types of work negatively affect life satisfactionwasalsoconfirmedbySillaetal.(2009). Basedonsuchempiricalfindings,weassumedthatyoungadultsen- gagedinprecariousworkwouldreportlowerlifesatisfactionwhencom- paredtoworkersengagedinnon-precariouswork(h1). There is no single explanation for the relationship between insecure workanddepressionandanxietythusfar.D’Souzaetal.(2003)evidenced thatinsecureworkispositivelyrelatedtotheincidenceofdepressionand anxietyasdidBoyaetal.(2008)whentheyresearchedtheeffectsofper- ceivedworkinsecurityontheincidenceofdepressionandanxietysymp- toms.Moreover,participantswithinsecureworkachievedhigherscores ontheDepressionsScalethantheydidontheAnxietyScale(Boyaetal. 2008). Researchers have also stated that work insecurity may be more stressfulandharmfulthanunemployment(Llosaetal.2018).Inastudy byNellaetal.(2015),workerswithhighlevelsofworkinsecurityreported higherlevelsofperceivedstress,anxiety,depressionandnegativeemo- tionscomparedtoworkersinmorestabletypesofemployment;asmany as97oftheworkersengagedininsecuretypesofworkreportedanxiety symptomsand86depressionsymptoms. De Cuyper et al. (2012) researched and analysed the connection be- tweeninsecureworkandemotionalexhaustionintermsofperceivedex- ternalemployability,whichreferstoworkers’beliefsonhowsimpleitisto findanewjobwithanotheremployer,findingacausallinkbetweenper- ceivedexternalemployability,insecureworkandemotionalexhaustion, therebyconfirmingthatinsecureworkaffectsemotionalexhaustionin- cidence. Insecureworkreduceswelfarebyincreasingemotionalexhaustion,as thoseengagedinsuchworkbelievetheyhavenocontrolovertheinherent dangerousworkingconditions.ThiscorrespondstoStressCopingThe- oryandfindingsinthefieldofinsecureworkthusfar.Workerswhoper- ceivetheiremploymentsituationasinsecure,the‘primaryrating’being threat,mostlikelyassesstheirabilitytomanagesuchdangerousworking environmentsasinsufficient,the‘secondaryrating,’whichmightleadto Managing Global Transitions Precarious Workand Mental Health among Young Adults 233 lowerwelfareandincreasedemotionalexhaustionincidence(VanderElst etal.2014). Basedonthefindingsoftheaboveresearch,weassumedthatindivid- ualsinvolvedinprecariousformsofworkwillreportahigherincidence ofsymptomsofanxietyanddepression(h2)andemotionalexhaustion (h3)comparedtoemployeesinnon-precariousformsofwork. Method participants The study included201participants fromSlovenia,aquarter ofwhom were men and three quarters women. A condition for participation in the study was that they were aged between 18 and 40 years old, as our focuswastheearlyadulthoodperiod.Anotherconditionwasthatthey wereengagedinoneofthetypesofworkwewerestudying.Themajority, 42.3,wereagedbetween26and30yearsold,andjustoverathirdwere agedbetween18and25yearsold;thesmallestgroup,thatis,atenthofour participants,wereagedbetween36and40yearsold.35.3ofourpartici- pantshadindefinitedurationcontracts,30.8hadstudentcontractsand 17.9hadfixed-termemploymentcontracts.47.3ofoursamplestated thatthetypeofworktheyperformedwasprecarious. measurement ThefirstscaleweuseistheSatisfactionwithlifescale– slws (Dieneret al.1985),whichisdesignedtomeasureanindividual’soveralllifesatis- factionbymeansofrepresentingcognitivelifesatisfaction.Itconsistsof fiveitemsthatindividualsassessona1–7scale(from1–stronglydisagree to7–stronglyagree).Allscaleitemsarepositivelyorientedandthefinal resultisthesumofthefiveitemscores.Therangeoftheachievedscores is5to35,wherebyascoreof20isneutral.Thelifesatisfactionscalehas ahighcoefficientofinternal consistencymeasure,withvaluesinstud- iesrangingfrom0.79to0.89,pointingtothescale’sgoodreliability.The authorsofthescaleevidenceitsgoodreliabilityintimeas:test–retest= 0.54–0.84(PavotandDiener2008). We measured depression and anxiety using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale – dass-42 (Lovibond and Lovibond 1995), which is com- posed of 42 items designed to measure depression, anxiety and stress. Individuals give their answers on a four-level scale, from 0 – does not applytomeatall(never)to3–appliestomeverymuchormostofthe Volume19·Number3·2021 234 AnjaUmičevič, AnaArzenšek, andValentina Franca table1 ResearchParticipantCharacteristics Variable Category () () Gender Male  . Female  . Age –  . –  . –  . –  . Typeofwork Indefinitedurationcontract  . Fixed-termcontract  . Civilcontract  . Soleproprietor  . Part-timecontract  . Studentwork  . Other  . Precariousness Yes  . No  . notes Columnheadingsareasfollows:(1)numberofparticipants,(2)percentage.Un- derothertypesofwork,participantsstatedundeclaredwork(2.5),self-employedperson inculture(1),andmanaginganassociationconcludingcontractswithcompaniesfor thepurposeofperformingwork(0.5). time(almostalways).Eachofthescalesincludes14items;forthepur- pose of our research, weonly used items from the scalefor depression andanxiety,bywhichparticipantsassessthepresenceofvarioussymp- tomsforthepreviousweek.Thescaleisnotintendedtoassesspresence orabsenceofadisorder,buttoassessintensityandoccurrenceofsymp- toms,andmonitortreatmentprogress(HenryandCrawford2005).The internal consistencycoefficientofthedepressionscaleis0.96, whereas itisslightlylowerfortheanxietylevelat0.89(LovibondandLovibond 1995). Thelastcomponentofourmentalhealthmodelisemotionalexhaus- tion, which we measured using the Maslach Burnout Inventory – mbi (Maslach,Jackson,andLeiter1997).Thisscalemeasuresburnoutinthe workplacebasedonthreedimensions:emotionalexhaustion,deperson- alisationandpersonalaccomplishment,andiscomposedof44items;for thepurposeofourresearchwork,wefocusedsolelyontheemotionalex- Managing Global Transitions Precarious Workand Mental Health among Young Adults 235 haustioncomponent. In the first part, respondents score the frequency withwhichtheyexperiencetheresearchedfeelingsonascalefrom1(a few times a year) to 6 (every day); intensity of experience is scored in thesecondpart,from1(veryweak)to7(verystrong);inbothcases,0 canbeselected,meaningthatrespondentshaveneverexperiencedsuch feelings(Lamovec1994).Thereliabilitycoefficientsforindividualscales rangefrom0.76to0.90,andofthethreescales,theemotionalexhaustion scalehasthebestreliabilitymeasureatα=0.90(Maslach,Jackson,and Leiter1997). Pursuanttotheabsenceofaninstrumenttomeasureprecariousness, weprovidedtherespondentswithashortbasicdefinitionofprecarious- nessandtheyaccordinglystatedwhethertheyconsideredtheirworkpre- cariousornot,ourdefinitionofprecariousworkbeing:Precarious work is unreliable, of a small scale, temporary and legally not protected in the senseofthe accompanying rights(the righttoaminimumpay, break,holi- day leave, social securitycontributions, etc.).Usingthegeneraldefinition ofprecariousness,onthebasisofwhichindividualsjudgedtheprecari- ousnessoftheirownwork,weinvestigatedthesubjectiveassessmentof workingconditionsfacedbyindividuals,asthesubjectiveperceptionof workingconditionsdeterminesthewell-beingandbehaviourofindivid- uals. procedures WecustomizedthescalesoftheonlinesurveyplatformEnka(www.1ka.si) accordinglyforourpurposes.Weactivatedthequestionnaireforoursur- veybetweenMayandAugust2020toavoiddistortedresultspursuantto thecurrentpandemic.Weinvitedparticipantstocooperatebymeansof various online socialmedia platforms. First, we posted it on the Face- book group Through the Eyes of Precariousness; soon afterwards, we postedandshareditonDelozlomonInstagram,whichhasaroundten thousand followers. Sampling was executed according to the voluntary participation principle and included a random sample of participants. The conditions for participating in the study were relevant work type participation and ages between 18 and 40. The data was arranged and analysedusingMicrosoftExceland spss Statistics27.0. Results Wealsoassessedhowindividualsdefinedprecariousnessinthecontext ofdifferenttypesofworktobetterunderstandstudyparticipantfeatures Volume19·Number3·2021 236 AnjaUmičevič, AnaArzenšek, andValentina Franca table2 PrecariousElementswithinDifferentTypesofWork(in) Typeofwork () () () Indefinitedurationcontract . . . Fixed-termcontract . . . Civilcontract . . . Self-employed . . . Part-time . . . Studentwork . . . Other . . . Total . . . notes Column headings are as follows: (1) precariousness, (2) no precariousness, (3) total. Under other types of work, participants stated undeclared work (2.5), self- employedpersoninculture(1),andmanaginganassociationconcludingcontractswith companiesforthepurposeofperformingwork(0.5). (table2).Themajorityofourparticipants,thatis,23.3ofthestudent workers, believed that their work included elements of precariousness; suchelementswerealsofoundinworkbymeansofindefiniteduration contracts(5.5);6ofparticipantsonafixed-termcontractstatedthat thetypeofworkthey carriedoutincludedelements ofprecariousness; andmostoftheindividualsworkingoncivilcontractsstatedtheirwork includedelementsofprecariousness,asdidsoleproprietors. Table3showsdataontypesofworkaccordingtoagegroup.Thema- jorityofthoseagedbetween18and25yearsoldcarryoutstudentwork (23.8), withslightlyfewerregularlyemployed inother types ofwork. Oldergroupsevidenceslightlydifferenttrends.Thoseagedbetween26 and30yearsoldhaveincreasedratesoffixed-termemployment(11.9) andindefiniteperiodemployment(17.9),withothersbeingsolepropri- etors(3)andstudentworkers(7),andthisshareissignificantlylower than that for the previous age group. Among older participants, a no- tablyhighernumberofpeoplewithindefinitedurationemploymentis evidenced,thatis,8.5forthoseagedbetween31and35yearsold,and 6forthoseagedbetween36and40yearsold,whoalsoevidenceadra- maticdecreaseinfixed-termemploymentwhencomparedtothoseaged between26and30yearsold. Weused spss Statistics27.0toevaluatetheinternalconsistencymea- sures,i.e.reliability,oftheindividualscalesused(table4),wherebythe EmotionalExhaustionScaleprovedmostreliableatα=0.965.Ahighin- Managing Global Transitions Precarious Workand Mental Health among Young Adults 237 table3 TypesofWorkAccordingtoAgeGroup(in) Typeofwork () () () () () Indefinitedurationcontract . . . . . Fixed-termcontract . . . . . Civilcontract . . . . . Self-employed . . . . . Part-timecontract . . . . . Studentwork . . . . . Other . . . . . Total . . . . . notes Columnheadingsareasfollows:(1)18–25years,(2)26–30years,(3)31–35years, (4)36–40years,(5)total.Underothertypesofwork,participantsstatedundeclaredwork (2.5),self-employedpersoninculture(1),andmanaginganassociationconcluding contractswithcompaniesforthepurposeofperformingwork(0.5). table4 MeasuresofInternalConsistencyofScalesUsed Typeofwork () () () Lifesatisfaction . .  Depression . .  Anxiety . .  Emotionalexhaustion . .  notes Columnheadingsareasfollows:(1)Cronbach’salphacoefficient,(2)standard- izedCronbach’salphacoefficient,(3)numberofitems. ternalconsistencycoefficientwasachievedbythescalesfordepressionat α=0.960andanxietyatα=0.958. WeconductedtheKolmogorov-Smirnovnormalitytestpriortotest- ingourhypothesesandthecoefficientforallvariablesusedwaslessthan 0.05,pointingtothefactthatourdataisnotnormallydistributed,which iswhyweusedthenonparametricMann-WhitneyUtestforfurtheranal- ysisandbecauseweareinterestedindifferencesbetweenindividualswho reportedprecariousworkandthosewhobelievedtheirworkdidnotin- cludeelementsofprecariousness.TheuseoftheMann-WhitneyUtest wasmostappropriatefortestingtheresearchhypotheses.Table5shows statisticallyimportantdifferencesinthevariablesrelatedtolifesatisfac- tion(p=0.025),depression(p=0.004),anxiety(p=0.011)andemotional exhaustion(p=0.000).Wecanseethattheparticipantswhostatetheir workhadfeaturesofprecariousworkachievedlowerresultsinrelationto Volume19·Number3·2021 238 AnjaUmičevič, AnaArzenšek, andValentina Franca table5 TestStatistics:Mann-WhitneyUTestandIndividualScaleRangeValues Variable () () () () () () Lifesatisfaction Yes  . . . . No  . . Depression Yes  . . . . No  . . Anxiety Yes  . . . . No  . . Emotionalexhaustion Yes  . . . . No  . . notes Columnheadingsareasfollows:(1)precariousness,(2)numberofparticipants, (3)rangeaverage,(4)rangesum,(5)U-test,(6)p–levelofproperties(p≤0.05). lifesatisfactioncomparedtothosewhodidnotreportthepresenceofpre- cariousnesselementsinthetypeofworktheyperformed;furthermore, theyachievedhigherresultsinrelationtodepression,anxietyandemo- tionalexhaustion.Ourresultshighlightthehigherpresenceofsymptoms relatedtodepressionandemotionalexhaustion. DiscussionandConclusion Precariousness can indirectly affect health by means of various psy- chologicaland behaviouralcopingmechanisms(Viveset al.2013).The presence of‘chronic’employmentinsecurityisoftenconnectedtopsy- chosocialstressreactions,leadingtopoorerphysicalandmentalhealth (D’Souzaetal.2003;Jonssonetal.2020;EmploymentConditionsKnowl- edgeNetwork2010;Vivesetal.2020);itmayalsocauseproblemsinterms ofsocialinclusion,assuchworkershavedifficultysocialisingwithpeople fromtheirsocialenvironmentbecauseoftheirpoorlydistributedwork- ingtimes,leadingtothemoftenfeelingsociallyisolated(Domadeniket al.2020).Thecompanieswithpoliciestoemployworkersforlongerperi- odsoftimeandwillingtoprovidestableemploymentofferbetterworking environments.Workerswithindefinitedurationcontractsarebetteraf- filiatedtoemployersandmoreproductive,andhavebetterrelationships. Workersconstantlyworriedaboutwhethertheywillearnenoughtosur- vivespendagreatdealoftimelookingforregularemploymentandother income,andfinditdifficulttoidentifywiththecompaniestheyworkfor. Weaker affiliation to employers and co-workers affects relationships as wellasproductivity(Brinkmannetal.2006). Managing Global Transitions Precarious Workand Mental Health among Young Adults 239 Pursuant to previous findings, we assumed that individuals engaged inprecariousworkwouldreportlowerlifesatisfaction(h1),higheroc- currence of anxiety and depression symptoms (h2) and emotional ex- haustion (h3) when compared to workers engaged in non-precarious work. Our research results evidence statistically important differences between the two groups. Young adults engaged in precarious work on average achieved lower scores for life satisfaction, highlighting poorer lifesatisfaction.Ourresearchresultsareconsistentwiththefindingsof previousstudiesinthefieldofinsecure/unstableworkandlifesatisfac- tion,thatis,subjectivewellbeing(HsiehandHuang2017;Mauno,Ruoko- lainen,andKinnunen2013;Vancea,Shore,andUtzet2018),meaningthat youngadultsengagedinprecariousworkreportimportantlylowerlevels ofqualityoflifeandperceivedlifesatisfactionisanimportantelementof mentalhealthself-rating. Thecorrelationbetweendepressionandanxietysymptomswithpre- cariousworkincidencehasbeenhighlightedinseveralstudies(D’Souza etal.2003;Llosaetal.2018;Toivanenetal.2020;Wangetal.2009;Wang etal.2011).Oursecondhypothesisisalsoconfirmedbecause the young adults who stated theirwork included elementsof precariousnessachieved higher scores on the depression and anxiety scales compared to the young adultswhodidnotreportthepresenceofelementsofprecariousness.Con- stantworryaboutmonthlyincome,lookingforfutureemploymentand a wide range of social and personal issues, including finding an apart- ment,day-careforchildren,andmaintainingfriendshipsandromantic relationships,harmfullyaffectthephysicalandemotionalhealthofthose engagedinprecariouswork.Manyprecariousworkersreportexperienc- ingseveralhealthissues,suchasstomachproblems,sleepdisordersand highbloodpressure,andanimportantproportionofsuchworkersreport anxietyanddepressionissuesdirectlyattributabletotheiremployment (Clarkeetal.2007). Ourfinalmentalhealthdimension,emotionalexhaustion,isthecen- tralelementofburnout,andweevidencedstatisticallyimportantdiffer- enceinrelationtothegroupsofyoungadultworkerparticipantstocon- firmourthirdhypothesis.Precariousworkersevidencedhigherscoreson theemotionalexhaustionscalewhencomparedtoworkerswhodidnot reportthepresenceofelementsofprecariousness.Thisisconsistentwith the findings of De Cuyper et al. (2012), who found that insecure work positivelyinfluencesemotionalexhaustionoccurrence. Basedonourresultsforthesecondandthirdhypotheses,aquestion Volume19·Number3·2021 240 AnjaUmičevič, AnaArzenšek, andValentina Franca arises as to whether society as a whole really benefits from precarious work in terms of business savings being reflected in increased public healthsystemexpenditure:thosewhosehealthisdamagedduetotheir workareforcedtoseekmedicalandpsychologicalhelpseveraltimesat differentlevels,therebyfurtherburdeninghealthsystems.Emotionalex- haustionalsoreducesactivityinotherspheresoflife,whichincreasesthe possibility of emotionally exhausted individuals being less actively in- volved in family and social processes. Other studies correlate insecure workwithsleepdisorders(Boyaetal.2008;Toivanenetal.2020),anxi- etyanddepression(D’Souzaetal.2003;Toivanenetal.2020;Wangetal. 2009;Wangetal.2011),psychosomaticstresssymptoms(MaunoandKin- nunen2002),familyrelationshipproblems,alackofmotivation,weaker immunesystems,exhaustionanddissatisfactionwithwork(Boyaetal. 2008). Amajorlimitationofthisstudyisthelackofasuitablemeasurement instrumentforprecariousness.SpanishresearchersdevelopedTheEm- ploymentPrecariousnessScale(epres)(Vivesetal.2011;Vivesetal.2013) tomeasureemploymentprecariousness.Anadditionallimitationarising from the lack of a measurement instrument is that participants had to assesstheprecariousnessoftheirownemploymentbasedonthegeneral definition provided in our survey; we trusted their self-assessment but shouldneverthelessaskourselvesabouttheactualprecariousworksitu- ation. Thenextlimitationistheunevendistributionofparticipantsaccord- ingtogender,ageandtypeofwork,andthisshouldbeeliminatedinthe futuretoobtainthemostrealisticimageofsamplepropertiesrelatedto workprecariousnessaspossible,includingtheoreticalsamplingofpartic- ipantswithcertainproperties;dedicatedsamplingwouldbeofthegreat- estutility,asitwouldfacilitatetheselectionofmoreappropriatepartici- pants(HlebecandMrzel2012). Insummation,precariousworkisabroadphenomenonandthereis nouniversallyaccepteddefinition.Ourresearchfindingsevidencethat precariousworkplaysanimportantroleinlifesatisfaction,includingde- pression, anxiety and emotional exhaustion symptom occurrence. The youngadultswhoassessedtheirworkasprecariousarenotsatisfiedwith theirlives,donotunderstanditaswellastheycould,anddonotbalance theiraspirationsandvalues.Lifesatisfactionasacomponentofsubjective wellbeingisimportantbecauseitmaybeneficiallyaffectanindividual’s mentalhealth.Wefoundanegativecorrelationbetweenlifesatisfaction Managing Global Transitions Precarious Workand Mental Health among Young Adults 241 anddepressiondevelopment:respondentswhorankedtheirworkaspre- cariousreportedahigherpresenceofdepressionsymptoms,whichmay eventuallyleadtodepressiondisorderdevelopment.Wealsoresearched anxietysymptomdevelopmentanditwasreportedmorebyparticipants engaged in precarious work. Such workers largely suffer emotional ex- haustionresultingfromtheextremeemotionalrequirementsoftheirpre- carious work. Results show that such individuals face feelings of being overburdenedandexhaustedbecausetheyareoftenstressedandhighly agitated. The need for such research is great, as the phenomenon of atypical typesofemploymentwhichmayleadtoprecariousnesshasbeenonthe rise,nomoresothaninSlovenia,whichlackssufficientresearchonthis pressingtopic.Firstofall,astepforwardmustbetakentorecogniseand measureprecarioustypesofwork.Furthermore,wehavefoundthatthe currentepidemiologicalsituationhasfurtherincreasedtheburdencar- riedbyworkersengagedinprecariouswork,astheyaregenerallythefirst onestolosetheirjobsincrisissituations,andthecurrentcrisisisnodif- ferentinthisregard. References Allan,B.A.,K.L.Autin,andK.G.Wilkins-Yel.2021.‘PrecariousWork inthe21stCentury:APsychologicalPerspective.’JournalofVocational Behavior126:103491.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103491. 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