Faggiani F., McRobert A., Knowles Z. DEVELOPING PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES. Vol. 4 Issue 2: 39 - 52 DEVELOPING PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES FOR ACROBATIC GYMNASTICS: A CASE STUDY WITH A YOUTH TUMBLING GYMNAST Fernanda Faggiani, Allistair P. McRobert and Zoe Knowles Research Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University Original research article Abstract A mixed-method approach was used to examine the development and acquisition of a personalized pre-performance routine (PPR) by a male youth gymnast. The athlete completed the Test of Performance Strategies and participated in semi-structured interviews alongside video clips to examine PPR experience at pre and post intervention then at 6 months follow up. There was a perceived increase in the effective use of psychological skills post intervention. Moreover, the gymnast reported a consistent PPR prior to performance, demonstrating control and automaticity of his routine. The strategy used to develop the individual PPR and its potential use with young athletes more generally is discussed. Keywords: pre-performance routines, mixed methodology, case study. INTRODUCTION Pre-performance routines (PPR) are a sequence of motor and cognitive behaviors performed immediately before the execution of self-paced tasks (Cohn, 1990; Lidor & Mayan, 2005; Lidor & Singer, 2000). For an athlete, the general purpose of a PPR is to take them to an optimally aroused, confident and focused state which then enables control over cognitive activity and emotions before, during and immediately after performance (Lidor & Singer, 2000). The design of PPRs with athletes is influenced by the sport itself, the nature of the required task, the athlete's skill level and individual pre-performance preferences (Boutcher & Rotella, 1987; Cohn, 1990; Ravizza & Rotella, 1982; Singer, 1988, 2002; Taylor & Wilson, 2005). Researchers have shown that to effectively use PPRs in sport, athletes should acquire these techniques as early as possible during skill learning itself (LaRose, 1988; Lidor & Singer, 2000). Research has also shown that athletes need significant experience in their sport (i.e., indicative of a high training age) before using certain elements associated with PPRs as the acquisition of previous routines will enable them to incorporate further strategies, such as imagery techniques (Lidor & Mayan, 2005; Nevett & French, 1997). It has also been further suggested that novices are more likely to incorporate motor routines (e.g., physical rituals or mobilization of limbs) into their training before cognitive strategies (i.e., imagery and focus attention) because some experience is required to reduce the effect of information overload (Lidor & Mayan, 2005). However, Wrisberg and Anshel (1989) demonstrated a Science of Gymnastics Journal 39 Science of Gymnastics Journal Faggiani F., McRobert A., Knowles Z. DEVELOPING PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES. Vol. 4 Issue 2: 39 - 52 significant result in performance efficacy with young basketball players (age: 10.2 -12.4 years) by incorporating a arousal adjustment and imagery into a pre shot routine . Weiss (1991) also concluded cognitive strategies can be used with youth athletes and can have a positive impact when used with highly skilled young athletes. Relaxation techniques may also be used, but perhaps requires age appropriate adjustment for youth athletes in order to engage. For children and youth athletes imagery is a natural skill used in sport. According to Weiss (1991) imagery was reported by youth athletes in rehearsed skill sequences, competition strategies and in retention of newly acquired skills. Imagery exercises are therefore advocated for use with the assessment of intentional and motivational capabilities of youth athletes recommended as a stage to be conducted before imagery is developed (Callow & Roberts, 2010). In sports such as gymnastics athletes achieve expert performance when still young (i.e., have a low chronological age but high training age). Therefore, the athlete may have the experience but not the cognitive development required to implement PPR in their training program. In the present study, we examine the development and acquisition of a personalized PPR using a selection of cognitive strategies by a youth gymnast with a high training age but low chronological age. Previous research examining the development and acquisition of a PPR by youth athletes is somewhat limited. An exception to this is Lidor and Mayan (2005; see also Lidor & Singer, 2000) who conducted a study with youth athletes. They examined the acquisition of motor and cognitive based PPRs in a group of sixty female novice volleyball players (mean aged 16.5 years). Participants were divided into three groups: motor preparatory routine, cognitive preparatory routine, and control (i.e., those who had no-motor or cognitive guidance) and followed three weeks of group based training focused on the serve. The motor routine was found to be more effective for performing the serve more accurately compared to the cognitive routine. The researchers explained that "the (motor) routine provided them (athletes) with the feeling that they were in optimal control of the movement execution, thus increasing their self-confidence during the serving performances" (p. 359). The authors also suggested that in order to introduce cognitive routines with youth athletes, more experience was needed by the players in the skill (serve) to reduce information overload and implement the principles of cognitive strategies (Lidor & Mayan, 2001). Findings demonstrated that the developments of motor-based PPRs with youth athletes are possible, but the acquisition of cognitive-based PPRs is more difficult for these athletes. However, according to Lidor and Mayan (2005) recommend sport psychologists should search for the "best" components of a preparatory routine that most fit the individual's learning capabilities and skill level, which requires understand of the individual characteristics to compose a efficient PPR. In order to decrease the instructional load placed on learners, they further suggested teaching a routine through which the emphasis is on motor elements and only then to add preparatory components that emerge from a cognitive-oriented routine. The authors themselves were unable to test these suggestions regarding individualized PPRs in their study as a group (as opposed to individual) instruction format was used. Tam and Losdale (2007) also made reference to consistency in PPR concluding that athletes should be encourage to develop a consistent pattern of pre-performance behavior which their study founds was associated with greater accuracy. Cotterill's studies with golfers (2008, 2010) also suggests that future research should seek to explore the effectiveness of developing individually focused routines and their perceived impact upon preparation and performance. Although there are guidelines on how to conduct a PPR with beginners (Cohn, 1990) and young athletes (Lidor & Science of Gymnastics Journal 40 Science of Gymnastics Journal Faggiani F., McRobert A., Knowles Z. DEVELOPING PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES. Vol. 4 Issue 2: 39 - 52 Singer, 2000), there is no practical research showing how effective the use of athlete capacities and sport nature together with cognitive strategies can be combined into a PPR. A case study is an important preliminary step towards gathering such information and the present study's aim is to provide an in-depth understanding of the acquisition and use of PPRs in a youth athlete within real life context (Patton, 2002a) using quantitative and qualitative techniques. Subsequent findings could then be used to examine the training and development of PPRs in larger samples of youth athletes. For the purposes of this study it was therefore proposed that the high training age of the study participant combined with the individualized program would result in an effective use of PPR linked with improvement in performance. METHODS Participant The participant was a UK based 15 years old national grade male competitor from the discipline of acrobatic gymnastics (tumbling) selected by convenience (Bryan, 2008). The gymnast had a training age of five years and had been working with his current personal coach at the onset of the study for one year. He currently trained approx 12-15 hours per week with three hours each day. Informed consent was provided prior to participation and ethical approval was gained through the lead institution's Ethics Committee. Design The study was divided into five phases (see Table 1). The first phase (needs analysis) incorporated the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) (Thomas et al., 1999) to examine the participant's use of specific psychological skills; video recording of one training session (2.5 hours) to capture the participant' experiences and help the recall during interview and a semi-structured interview. The aim of the interview was to explore further and highlight examples of the psychological skills that the gymnast currently used in training and competition and explore how effective they were in these environments. The second phase (intervention development) was the development of a personalized PPR program. The third phase (intervention phase) was the implementation of the PPR program. The fourth phase (post intervention/ evaluation) was an evaluation of the PPR program effects by applying the instruments used in the first phase. Finally, the fifth phase (6 month follow-up/retention phase) involved re-administering the questionnaire and a follow up interview. The research used a mixed methodology that sought to incorporate both quantitative and qualitative approaches with quantitative methods (Gratton & Jones, 2004) used to inform the qualitative data collection. Procedures and Measures Prior to contact with the gymnast the participant was informed in writing of the purpose of the study, the study protocol and ethical issues relating to the use of data and anonymity. On receipt of participant, parental and personal coach consent a convenient time and day was set to video record a training session. A full and typical training session was video recorded with digital video cameras (Canon 3CCD Digital Video Camcorder XM2 PAL, Tokyo, Japan). Video recording clips were created using editing software (Sportscode Gamebreaker, Sportstec, UK Limited). The video clips were edited into a short sequence of events that would be used during the interviews with the gymnast. Here, six video clips were shown to the gymnast depicting three accurately executed skill 'runs' and three that fell short of this criteria with major judging associated errors. The gymnasts personal coach advised on the selection of these video clips and the aim was to assist comparison between the PPRs and recall these experiences. Science of Gymnastics Journal 41 Science of Gymnastics Journal Faggiani F., McRobert A., Knowles Z. DEVELOPING PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES. Vol. 4 Issue 2: 39 - 52 Table 1. Project Phases Phase 1 2 3 4 5 Timescale April April May - July July January Procedure Needs analysis Intervention Intervention Post intervention/ 6 month follow- development phase evaluation up/retention phase Rati Exploration of Based on information Implement a Evaluate use of Evaluate retention and onal psychological revealed by TOPS personalized PPR personalized PPR use of skills of the e strategies employed (Thomas et al., 1999) program over 7 program. personalized PPR by the gymnast. and interview. weeks (4 Evaluate the program after six Respect gymnast sessions). PPR effect of the months. ways to learn. content: Imagery, procedure as a Use strategies that Broad attention, new methodology. align with needs narrow attention analysis and sport and cue word. demands. Design Quantitative Quantitative Quantitative Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative Measure TOPS Representative of Gymnast's TOPS TOPS PPR. research dairy. Video recording Video recording Semi- structured New PPR (Consult - Weekly feedbacks Interview Semi-structured efficiency, and observation. Semi- structured interviews (4) (+ Refinement). Interview (+ clips) clips) Familiarization of Gymnast's dairy protocol for gymnast Researcher observation of training and familiarization with equipment Analysis TOPS: Score Physical rituals TOPS: Score TOPS: Score of the representing the Gaze representing the gymnast use of gymnasts use of Mental strategies gymnasts use of psychological skill psychological psychological and strategy training strategies in training skill and strategy and competition. and competition. training and competition. Interview = Verbatim Video recording = Video recording transcription/ pen clip editing = clip editing profiles/ verbatim Interview = quotes to illustrate the Interview = Verbatim research Verbatim transcription/ pen transcription/ pen profiles/ quotes to profiles illustrate the research Gymnast's research diary = representative verbatim quotes to illustrate the research Science of Gymnastics Journal 42 Science of Gymnastics Journal Faggiani F., McRobert A., Knowles Z. DEVELOPING PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES. Vol. 4 Issue 2: 39 - 52 The TOPS questionnaire was used to assess the participant's current use of specific psychological skills. Given the participants age, the questionnaire was administered co-operatively with author one to ensure clarity in understanding and completion. The instrument contains 64 items which describe the use of psychological strategies in a situation that athletes might encounter during training or competitions together with how frequently they actually use the skills. The mental skills constructs are those of goal setting, emotional control, automaticity, relaxation, activation, self-talk, imagery and attentional control. The competition section of the questionnaire includes the same mental skills with the exception of the item "attentional control" which is replaced by "negative thinking". The participant rated the frequency of his psychological skills usage on a five-point Likert scale anchored at one (never) and five (always). The maximum raw score on each subscale session of TOPS is twenty and a high score indicates a greater use of mental skills in the training or competition environment. Reliability coefficients for this test have been reported to range from 0.86 to 0.93 (Thomas et al., 1999). Reviewers have also agreed on the validity of the instrument's content (Goudas, Kontou, & Theodorakis, 2006; Harwood, Cumming, & Fletcher, 2004; Lane, Harwood, Terry, & Karageorghis, 2004). Following completion of the TOPS, four semi-structured interviews were conducted to expand on responses within the questionnaire in order to gain in-depth information and understanding of the psychological strategies and other elements (i.e. physical rituals) used by the gymnast before his performance. Following procedures successfully adopted by other authors (Ravizza & Rotella, 1982) the type of questions incorporated into the guide and structure were developed through discussions with author three who was experienced in sport psychology consultancy with junior athletes and coach of elite artistic gymnasts. The interviewer (author one), had previous experience in qualitative research and experience as a participant in artistic gymnastics, was trained to perform the interview. Prior to data collection, a familiarization session was conducted including the use of video and enable the interviewer to practice the interview/video combined technique. The interview structure emerged from the responses revealed by the TOPS scores and the video clips. During each interview the participant was asked to respond to the questions based on his current use of preparation strategies in training and competitions while watching the clips from the laptop to stimulate recall analysis (Gardin, 2010; Nicholls et al., 2006). The interviews lasted on average of 36 minutes each, were conducted over a period of three weeks, were taped recorded and transcribed verbatim for the purpose of data verification (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The second phase (intervention development) of the program focused on the development of a personalized PPR for the gymnast using information revealed by the TOPS and interviews. This was designed by drafting and re-drafting a representative PPR, identifying strategies for the gymnast taking into account personal characteristics and nature of the sport (i.e., self-paced, speed). The analyses of the first phase (needs analysis) revealed that the gymnast was already engaged in a highly consistent PPR characterized by physical ritually based movements however mentally was only using imagery as part of this routine. The gymnast was experiencing debilitative symptoms associated with negative thoughts while preparing to perform in both competition and training. Additional information revealed by the questionnaire, such as the consistent use of imagery and the presence of negative thoughts was taken into account to develop a personalized PPR for the gymnast (see Table 2). The interviews suggested that the gymnast was having difficulties in focusing his attention (i.e. where to locate his gaze during his preparation to perform) and Science of Gymnastics Journal 43 Science of Gymnastics Journal Faggiani F., McRobert A., Knowles Z. DEVELOPING PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES. Vol. 4 Issue 2: 39 - 52 eliminating negative elements and distractions to think on the tumbling sequence or 'run'. The psychological strategies utilized in the PPR program were thus a sequence of imagery (an internal image of his 'run' characterized by the sensations felt and the images seen), broad attentional focus (associated with end of the track) shifting to narrow (linked with initial hand placement on the track) and an energizing cue word (i.e., "Come on!"). The physical components of the routine remained the same (e.g., arms position extending in front of the body and dry his hands 3 times). Table 2. Measures obtained by the application of the TOPS (Phase one). Practice Competition Psychological skills Needs Needs and strategies analysis analysis phase 1 phase 1 Activation 9 9 Relaxation 4 4 Imagery 14 11 Goal Setting 18 11 Self Talk 6 7 Automaticity 8 10 Emotional Control 12 12 Negative Thinking/ 15 20 Attentional Control Note. Maximum score for each subscale session = 20. Once the PPR training program was established, the third phase was implemented over a seven week period. The implementation of the program was conducted by author one. To introduce the PPR and assist the gymnast on its integration into training, meetings between author one and the gymnast were held each week for approximately 30 minutes each in the first four weeks. Each PPR strategy (imagery, attention and cue word) was trained separately in each of the first four weeks followed by the whole PPR training in the remaining weeks. The final three weeks were monitored by the author one via telephone and training observation in order to both support the gymnast in his PPR training and gain feedback from both the gymnast and coach. A 'home task' (using clips from the previous video recorded training session and the PPR training) was also set for the gymnast to undertake at home in order to complement his PPR practice. A diary was completed by the gymnast to record his experiences and reflections during the investigation period. He was requested to date all entries and write in his own style (words) following a guided structure format: description of the activity; feelings; evaluation (what was positive and negative); conclusion (suggestions). The diary was used during the Intervention phase meetings and final interview in order to facilitate the gymnast to reflect and recall his PPR training experience. The fourth phase (post intervention/ evaluation) was conducted to record the training, complete the TOPS and conduct a final interview for evaluation immediately after intervention. This phase was conducted by the same researcher following the procedures described in the first phase. Finally, the retention phase was conducted after six months following a competitive phase and incorporated the completing again the questionnaire and an interview to evaluate the retention of skills and application of the routine following the removal of support/intervention by author one. Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were calculated for the TOPS to explore the use of psychological skills by the gymnast. Firstly, the raw score was calculated in order to demonstrate the psychological skills used by the gymnast. Secondly, the increased change of the score was calculated to present the comparison between postintervention and retention phase of the questionnaire following the sequence present in the table one. In the current study, several methods were used to enhance the trustworthiness of the data proposed by Lincoln and Guba Science of Gymnastics Journal 44 Science of Gymnastics Journal Faggiani F., McRobert A., Knowles Z. DEVELOPING PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES. Vol. 4 Issue 2: 39 - 52 (1985). The interview guide, which was based on the findings from the TOPS and video clips, provided a deductive analytic framework. Thereafter, analysis of the interview data involved moving back and forth between deductive and inductive approaches. This movement allowed for both the verification of deductively driven research question and the exploration of inductive findings that emerged from the multiple interviews (Patton, 2002b). Pen profiles were firstly constructed from the transcripts of phases fourth and fifth. These profiles provide a composite of key themes from the data at post intervention/evaluation and retention phases (Ridgers, Knowles, & Sayers, 2012; Mackintosh, Knowles, Ridgers & Fairclough, 2011). Verbatim quotations were used directly from the transcripts in order to expand the pen profiles. These extracted quotes, or a statement made by the subject, were self definable and self delimiting in the expression of a single recognizable aspect of the subjects' experience. The consultation process took the form of a presentation by first authors in which the pen profiles and verbatim quotations were demonstrated to the third author an experienced researcher familiar with qualitative research techniques. The researcher critically questioned the analysis then interrogated the data independently tracking the process in reverse from the pen profiles to the transcript. A further meeting allowed the researchers to offer alternative interpretations of the text or profile. This process continued until acceptable consensus had been reached. Credibility and transferability (qualitative equivalent of internal and external validity respectively) were demonstrated through verbatim transcription of data and inter-researcher consensus procedures. Dependability (qualitative equivalent of reliability) was demonstrated through the comparison of pen profiles with verbatim citations and triangular consensus processes (Knowles, 2009). The qualitative themes and quantitative data subsequently formed the basis of the discussion. Quotations from the interviews and athlete's diary were selected to illustrate the research phases (Faulkner & Biddle, 2004). RESULTS The aim of the research was to provide an understanding of the acquisition and use of PPRs in a youth gymnast. Scores for post- intervention and retention phases of the TOPS are provided in table three and revealed that the gymnast maintained a consistent use of the psychological strategies during training. However, in competition he had a profound increase (100%) in using relaxation and a decrease (47%) in negative thoughts, corroborating with interview based data. It should also be noted that the gymnast did not have competitions during the implementation of the program due to unforeseen circumstances however data collected after six months (retention phase) was completed following a competitive phase within his annual program. The analysis of the interview responses yielded eight raw data themes in the post- intervention (Figure 1) and five key themes in the retention phase (Figure 2) that suggested perceived effectiveness of the PPR according to the gymnast. The current authors have reported the interview results based on a selection of direct quotations to illustrate the variety of responses obtained. This offers a considerable advantage by allowing the gymnasts "voice" to be heard and enabling the reader to gain understanding as to the experiences and issues involved via the participants' words. PPR program development The PPR was developed in accordance with the current pre-performance routine of the gymnast which was characterized with imagery techniques and noted a persistent appearance of negative thought. With regard to the latter the gymnast described himself as despondent and perceived he was viewed negatively by others (i.e., coach, previous coach, judges, and competitors). The design of the routine considered sport Science of Gymnastics Journal 45 Science of Gymnastics Journal Faggiani F., McRobert A., Knowles Z. DEVELOPING PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES. Vol. 4 Issue 2: 39 - 52 characteristics such as power and explosiveness. A sequence of specific cognitive strategies was incorporated into the PPR to assist the gymnast in coping with uncontrollable situations immediately prior to his performance. Even though relaxation appeared a critical issue for the gymnast, it was not appropriate to incorporate relaxation techniques into the routine per se as he perceived explosion and activation were essential characteristics to complete the sequence of complex skills. The gymnast also requested to use anxiety to assist him during perceived pressure situations. As a result a cue word was incorporated in his PPR firstly to help the gymnast to avoid negative distractions and secondly, to permit him to achieve an optimal right arousal level. Table 3. Measures obtained by the application of the TOPS at Post intervention/ evaluation (phase 4) and 6 month follow-up/retention phase (phase 5). Practice Competition Psychological skills Needs Post Percentage Needs analysis Post Percentage and strategies analysis Increased Increased (%) or Difference (%) Activation 12 12 0 12 14 16 Relaxation 6 7 17 7 14 100 Imagery 18 18 0 18 20 11 Goal Setting 18 20 11 18 18 0 Self Talk 13 13 0 14 11 -21 Automaticity 11 11 0 10 9 -10 Emotional Control 15 16 7 15 16 7 Negative Thoughts/ 16 17 6 17 9 -47 Attentional Control Note. Maximum score for each subscale session = 20. Pe rce ptu a I