ACTA HISTRIAE
30, 2022, 2
UDK/UDC 94(05) ISSN 1318-0185ACTA HISTRIAE 30, 2022, 2, pp. 263-564
UDK/UDC 94(05) 
Zgodovinsko društvo za južno Primorsko - Koper
Società storica del Litorale - Capodistria
ACTA HISTRIAE
30, 2022, 2
KOPER 2022
ISSN 1318-0185
e-ISSN 2591-1767
ACTA HISTRIAE • 30 • 2022 • 2
ISSN 1318-0185                UDK/UDC 94(05)             Letnik 30, leto 2022, številka 2
e-ISSN 2591-1767
Darko Darovec
Gorazd Bajc, Furio Bianco (IT), Stuart Carroll (UK), Angel Casals Martinez (ES), 
Alessandro Casellato (IT), Flavij Bonin, Dragica Čeč, Lovorka Čoralić (HR), Darko 
Darovec, Lucien Faggion (FR), Marco Fincardi (IT), Darko Friš, Aleš Maver, Borut 
Klabjan, John Martin (USA), Robert Matijašić (HR), Darja Mihelič, Edward Muir 
(USA), Žiga Oman, Jože Pirjevec, Egon Pelikan, Luciano Pezzolo (IT), Claudio 
Povolo (IT), Marijan Premović (MNE), Luca Rossetto (IT), Vida Rožac Darovec, 
Andrej Studen, Marta Verginella, Salvator Žitko
Urška Lampe, Gorazd Bajc, Lara Petra Skela, Marjan Horvat, Žiga Oman
Petra Berlot
Urška Lampe (angl., slo.), Gorazd Bajc (it.), Lara Petra Skela (angl., slo.)
Zgodovinsko društvo za južno Primorsko - Koper / Società storica del Litorale - Capodistria© 
/ Inštitut IRRIS za raziskave, razvoj in strategije družbe, kulture in okolja / Institute IRRIS for 
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300 izvodov/copie/copies
Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije / Slovenian 
Research Agency, Mestna občina Koper
Dvoboj med Charlesom de Lamethom in Charlesom de Castriesom 12. oktobra 1790. 
Jean-François Janinet (1752-1814) (Muzej Carnavalet, Pariz) / Duel between Charles 
de Lameth and Charles de Castries on October 12 1790. Jean-François Janinet (1752-
1814) (Carnavalet Museum, Paris) / Duello tra Charles de Lameth e Charles de Castries 
del 12 ottobre 1790. Jean-François Janinet (1752-1814) (Museo Carnavalet, Parigi). 
Redakcija te številke je bila zaključena 30. junija 2022.
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ACTA HISTRIAE • 30 • 2022 • 2
Volume 30, Koper 2022, issue 2
VSEBINA / INDICE GENERALE / CONTENTS
Matjaž Grahornik: Tragičen vstop v novo leto: 
smrt Franca Jožefa grofa Herbersteina v dvoboju 2. januarja 1713 ............................
Un tragico ingresso nell’anno nuovo: la morte in duello di 
Franz Joseph conte di Herberstein il 2 gennaio 1713
A Tragic Start to a New Year: The Death of Franz Joseph 
Count Herberstein in a Duel on 2 January 1713
Alessandro Fausti: Relazioni di amicizia tra Salò e Venezia. 
Il caso della riedizione degli statuti della Magnifica Patria .........................................
Friendship Relations between Salò and Venice. The Case of 
the Re-edition of the Statutes of Magnifica Patria
Prijateljski odnosi med Salòjem in Benetkami. 
Primer nove izdaje statutov »Magnifice Patrie«
Marija V. Kocić & Nikola R. Samardžić: British Sources 
on the Crisis of the Venetian Patriciate during the Second 
Morea War: The Case of Daniel IV Dolphin ..................................................................
Fonti britanniche sulla crisi del patriziato veneziano nel periodo 
della seconda guerra di Morea: il caso di Daniele IV Dolfin
Britanski viri o krizi beneškega patriciata v času druge 
morejske vojne: primer Danieleja IV. Dolfina
Jelena Knežević & Julian Köck: Theodor Mommsen in 
Montenegro (1862) ...........................................................................................
Theodor Mommsen in Montenegro (1862)
Theodor Mommsen v Črni gori (1862)
Milena Kavarić & Rajka Đoković: Čedomorstvo u 
modernoj i suvremenoj Crnoj Gori ..............................................................................
L’infanticido nel Montenegro in età moderna e contemporanea
Infanticide in Modern and Contemporary Montenegro
263
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e-ISSN 2591-1767
297
325
347
377
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Ivona Jovanović & Jasna Potočnik Topler: The Contribution of 
First Teachers of French at Petrovic’s Court to the Transformation 
of Society and the Affirmation of Montenegro in Europe .........................................
Il contributo dei primi insegnanti di francese alla 
corte dei Petrović alla trasformazione della società e 
l’affermazione del Montenegro in Europa
Prispevek prvih učiteljev francoščine na Petrovićevem dvoru 
k preobrazbi družbe in uveljavitvi Črne gore v Evropi
Ivan Jeličić: I migliori elementi d’italianità. 
Local Political Power Ascension and Italianization during the 
First Years of Post-world War I in Volosca–Abbazia, 1918–1920 ............................
I migliori elementi d’italianità. L’ascesa al potere 
locale e l’italianizzazione nei primi anni del primo 
dopoguerra a Volosca–Abbazia, 1918–1920
I migliori elementi d’italianità. Vzpon lokalne politične moči 
in italijanizacija v prvih letih po prvi svetovni vojni v 
Volosko–Opatiji, 1918–1920
Marko Medved: L’abuso della religione nella liturgia politica della 
Fiume dannunziana: la benedizione del pugnale nella chiesa di S. Vito ..................
Abuse of Religion in the Political Liturgy of D’Annunzio’s 
Rijeka (Fiume): The Scandal of the Blessing of the 
Dagger in St. Vitus Church
Zloraba vere v politični liturgiji na dannunzijevski Reki:
blagoslov bodala v cerkvi sv. Vida
Larysa Poliakova & Natalia Shkoda: Historiographic Issues Regarding 
the Position of the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches in 
Soviet Ukraine in the Years 1920–1930 ..................................................................
Problemi storiografici relativi alle posizioni della chiesa ortodossa 
e quella cattolica romana nell’Ucraina sovietica negli anni 1920–1930
Historiografska vprašanja glede položaja pravoslavne in 
rimokatoliške cerkve v sovjetski Ukrajini v letih 1920–1930
Klemen Kocjančič: A Contribution to the Role of (Former) 
Red Army Prisoners of War and White Emigrés in Slovenia 
during the German Occupation, 1943–1945 ............................................................
Contributo riguardo al ruolo degli (ex) prigionieri di guerra 
dell’Armata rossa e dell’«emigrazione bianca» in Slovenia 
durante l’occupazione tedesca, 1943–1945
Prispevek k vlogi (nekdanjih) rdečearmijskih vojnih ujetnikov in belih 
emigrantov v Sloveniji med nemško okupacijo, 1943–1945
407
429
451
471
487
ACTA HISTRIAE • 30 • 2022 • 2
Borut Klabjan: Graditi partizanski spomin v socialistični Jugoslaviji: 
slovenski primer v času po drugi svetovni vojni ....................................................
Costruire la memoria partigiana nella Jugoslavia socialista: 
il caso sloveno dopo la seconda guerra mondiale
Building Partisan Memory in Socialist Yugoslavia: 
The Slovene Case after World War II
Boštjan Udovič: “Danke Deutschland!”: The Political and Diplomatic 
Contribution of the Federal Republic of Germany to the 
Creation of Independent Slovenia ............................................................................
«Danke Deutschland!»: il contributo politico-diplomatico 
della Repubblica Federale di Germania alla nascita dello 
Stato indipendente della Slovenia
»Danke Deutschland!«: politično-diplomatski 
prispevek Zvezne republike Nemčije k nastanku slovenske države
513
535
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Ivona JOVANOVIĆ & Jasna POTOČNIK TOPLER: THE CONTRIBUTION OF FIRST TEACHERS OF FRENCH AT ..., 407–428
THE CONTRIBUTION OF FIRST TEACHERS OF FRENCH AT 
PETROVIĆ’S COURT TO THE TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIETY 
AND THE AFFIRMATION OF MONTENEGRO IN EUROPE
Ivona JOVANOVIĆ
University of Montenegro, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Stari grad 320, 85330 Kotor, Montenegro
e-mail: ivonaj@t-com.me
Jasna POTOČNIK TOPLER
University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Cesta prvih borcev 36, 8250 Brežice, Slovenia
e-mail: jasna.potocnik1@um.si
ABSTRACT
The paper explores the role and contribution of the first foreign teachers of French in 
Montenegro, to their students/rulers – last three sovereigns of the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty, 
to Montenegrin society as a whole and to the affirmation of Montenegro in Europe. The 
paper chronologically relates to the period of rule of Petar II Petrović- Njegoš, Danilo I 
and Nikola I, to whom the aforementioned Romance language instructors did not transfer 
merely a knowledge of language, but also much other substance formed from different views 
and perspectives on the world, thus contributing to the emancipation of Montenegrin society. 
Through their efforts to modernise Montenegro and strengthen its sovereignty, as well as 
their publications and political engagement during events critical to Montenegrin history, 
they contributed to its reputation and popularisation throughout Europe. The research is 
based on facts found by studying archive and library materials, and on analysis of periodical 
publications, travel writings, and documents of a memoir/autobiographical character, which 
significantly contributes to the originality of the article, where the conclusions of the new 
analysis are presented and represent a significant contribution to the findings published so far.
Key words: Montenegro, 19th century, Montenegrin rulers, teachers of French, travel 
writing, autoethnography, branding
IL CONTRIBUTO DEI PRIMI INSEGNANTI DI FRANCESE ALLA 
CORTE DEI PETROVIĆ ALLA TRASFORMAZIONE DELLA SOCIETÀ E 
L’AFFERMAZIONE DEL MONTENEGRO IN EUROPA
SINTESI
L’articolo indaga il ruolo e il contributo dei primi insegnanti di lingua francese 
straniera nel Montenegro ai loro studenti-sovrani - gli ultimi tre sovrani della dinastia 
Petrović-Njegoš alla società montenegrina nel suo insieme e all’affermazione del Mon-
tenegro in Europa. L’opera è cronologicamente legata al periodo di governo degli ultimi 
Received: 2017-09-04                          DOI 10.19233/AH.2022.17
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tre sovrani della dinastia Petrović Njegoš, a cui questi romanzieri non trasferiscono 
esclusivamente conoscenze linguistiche, ma anche altri numerosi contenuti plasmati 
da atteggiamenti e visioni del mondo differenti, contribuendo alla emancipazione della 
società montenegrina. Attraverso il loro impegno per la modernizzazione e la sovranità 
del Montenegro, attraverso le loro pubblicazioni e l’impegno politico in eventi chiave 
della storia montenegrina, hanno contribuito alla sua reputazione e divulgazione in 
Europa. La ricerca si basa su fatti ottenuti attraverso lo studio di materiali archivistici 
e librari, periodici e memorie di carattere autobiografico. L’originalità è rappresentata 
dall’analisi di alcune pubblicazioni periodiche e documenti di carattere commemorativo 
o carattere autobiografico, non ancora analizzato. Le conclusioni della nuova analisi 
sono presentate per la prima volta in questo articolo e rappresentano un importante 
aggiornamento dei risultati finora pubblicati.
Parole chiave: Montenegro, XIX secolo, sovrani montenegrini, insegnanti di lingua 
francese, scrittura di viaggio, autoetnografia, branding
INTRODUCTION
This article1 focuses on autoethnographic texts, analysed from the perspec-
tive that reveals the social and diplomatic contribution of the first foreign 
teachers of French at Petrović‘s court in Montenegro in the second half of 
the 19th century. Referring to publications of which two are signed by French 
language teachers Henri Delarue and Charles Emile Piguet in which their 
thorough knowledge of Montenegrin reality is demonstrated, the article em-
phasizes the specific circumstances under which these foreign intellectuals 
came to Montenegro, and presents the characteristic environment in which 
they built their relations with Montenegrin rulers and members of their fami-
lies. The permeation and intertwining of these relations based on mutual trust 
took place primarily through the French language and almost always resulted 
in joint action, with the aim of strengthening and affirming Montenegro in the 
international arena.
As an independent state, Montenegro was recognized in 1878 at the Berlin 
Congress. However, at the end of the First World War, when Montenegro was 
1 The article was partly written within the framework of a scientific research project cooperation between 
Slovenia and Montenegro entitled Cultural Tourism as a Tool for Sustainable Development of Rural 
Areas no. “BI-ME / 21-22-020” funded by Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS).
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annexed to Serbia within the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the great 
powers, led by France, were not in favor of preserving its independence. After 
the restoration of Montenegrin independence in 2006, this fact had a negative 
impact on the interest in studying the French language in Montenegro, espe-
cially in those parts of Montenegro where, like the former capital of Cetinje, 
the spirit of radical sovereignty was expressed (Jovanović, 2017, 114). In this 
context, the intention of the authors is to draw readers‘ attention to the first 
Francophone teachers in Montenegro and to their efforts in the processes of 
deciding on Montenegro’s borders.
 Firstly, a short description of Montenegro in the 1830s is needed. At that 
time, the Old Montenegro without any towns, had a population of 100,000 
(Milaković, 1835, 48), and it was confined to a karst territory of no more 
than 3,000km². Grémaux (1984, 673) described it as “curious segmentary 
tribal society of peasant-pastoralists”. Due to its position, it was under the 
crucial influence of three big empires: Turkey, Austria and Russia (Savić-
Rebac, 1957/2020). With still undefined borders, the principles of European 
and national law were not applied to Montenegro in international relation-
ships. Montenegro’s capital Cetinje, situated at the foot of the Mount Lovćen, 
consisted of around a dozen of scattered thatched houses. There was also 
a fortified monastery, in which Prince-Bishop Petar II Petrović, a poet and 
philosopher (1830–1851), resided. 
To such an exotic environment (Knežević & Minić, 2019, 147), remote 
from major European cultural centres, the Prince-Bishop brought from Trieste 
Antide Jaume, a teacher of French, justifying his wish to learn the language 
by the increasing number of visits of foreigners and the need to communicate 
outside of his country (Milović, 1964, 56). With the help of his instructor 
who also became his loyal friend and ideological advisor, Njegoš managed 
to acquire a good command of diplomatic language (Nenadović, 1998, 307), 
which facilitated for him numerous convocations and influence on elite lit-
erary as well as political circles in Austria, Russia and Italy. With Jaume’s 
assistance, Njegoš started to read great works of world literature translated 
into French (Kilibarda & Knežević, 2017, 26) and discuss Voltaire’s works, 
translate Lamartine’s verses (Stojanović, 1928, 56), and learn how to play 
billiards and chess (Jovanović, 2016, 36–38). 
His heir, Prince Danilo I (1851–1860), also needed to learn French to draw 
the attention of Europeans to the thankless position of his country and the need 
for its international recognition. That is why in 1856, on the recommendation of 
Hyacinthe Hecquart, a French consul in Shkodër, and after being talked into it by 
his educated and energetic wife Darinka Kvekić, originally from Trieste, Njegoš 
invited to Montenegro a French secondary school professor, Henri Delarue, who 
taught him French until 1859 while working also as his secretary. Delarue took 
part in the Battle of Grahovac in May 1858, which brought Montenegro de facto 
sovereignty. 
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Contrary to his predecessors, the Montenegrin Prince/King2 Nikola I (1860–1918) 
had the privilege not just to learn French in Paris, where he obtained his education, 
but also to govern a state that gained official international recognition. The popula-
tion of Cetinje rose to some 1,500 and the smallest European capital was gradually 
beginning to look like a small town (Rastoder et al., 2006, 1; Andrijašević, 2013, 
197). The Montenegrin sovereign was not only a francophone, but also a Francophile, 
a connoisseur and admirer of French Romantic era literature who also tried his hand 
at translating it.3 To his newly built court he brought a Swiss teacher for his sons, 
Charles Emile Piguet, who stayed in Cetinje during the last two decades of the 19th 
century. As a true devotee to Montenegro, he made it beholden by representing its 
interests in Switzerland, working for the affirmation of its sovereignty.
French-Montenegrin foreign-political relations in the mentioned period oc-
cupied the attention of some researchers, among which the historians Dimitrije 
Vujović, Andrija Lainović, and the philologist Krunoslav Spasić stand out (Cf.: 
Spasić, 1988; Vujović, 1971; Lainović, 1956). One of the most important experts 
in Njegoš‘s life and oeuvre Jevto Milović dedicated a large part of his research 
work to collecting materials about Peter II Petrović Njegoš and his period of life 
in the Zadar archives. Milović‘s works describing the arrival and stay of Njegoš‘s 
French teacher Antide Jaume in Montenegro were a valuable source for writing this 
paper, since this is a period for which an insignificant number of travelogues were 
available. One of the authors of this paper studied and systematically presented, 
in a bilingual monograph entitled French Language and Culture in Montenegro 
(1830–1914), the study and knowledge of French in the former Montenegro, where 
attention is drawn to the pronounced presence of French art de vivre in Petrović‘s 
court (Jovanović, 2016). 
Relying on the historical facts presented in the mentioned publication, the primary 
sources for this research were autoethnographic texts (memoirs, diaries, travel writ-
ing texts) written by foreigners and French educators travelling around Montenegro 
almost two centuries ago. Among the sources analysed for this paper are until now 
unanalyzed memoirs of two of the three Francophone pedagogues: a memoir by the 
French teacher and court secretary Henri Delarue published in Paris in 1862 and a 
Swiss court preceptor Charles Emile Piguet dating from 1905. This paper additionally 
illustrates the work of the first French teachers in Montenegro by numerous observa-
tions of their contemporaries, including the Swiss writer and painter William Ritter 
and his almost unknown work of exceptional literary value written in French in 1895, 
as well as the autobiographical work of the famous Serbian writer Simo Matavulj, 
who, in addition to ethnographic facts, is rich in specific humour. There are also 
numerous observations by those authors whose works are primarily of documentary 
2 Prince Nikola was proclaimed king in 1910.
3 In addition to translating lyrical poems occasionally, Prince/King Nikola I also adapted from 
French the prose tale Les aventures du dernier Abencérage by the French Romantic author René 
de Chateaubriand in 1888.
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value, such as the writings of French archaeologist F. Lenormant, Italian botanist B. 
Biazoletto, French physician A. Boulogne and German travel writers H. Stieglitz, 
J.G. Kohl and G. Rasch. 
In these texts the relationship of their experiences and stories to culture and 
cultural practices are highlighted (Holman Jones et al., 2016). Some of the writers 
decided to include into their publications a critique of the circumstances they 
encountered. In addition to representing valuable knowledge of the past, they 
are also valuable ethnological, historical and anthropological sources (Kavrečič, 
2011) that express various views (Alú & Hill, 2018). According to Holman Jones 
et al. (2016, 38), they act “as a mirror or reflection of life and living in ways that 
are useful for contemplation”. All the analyzed texts have in common that they 
are “about the experience of travel and visits to ‘other’ places” (Robinson, 2004, 
303). Through qualitative analysis of these autoethnographic texts, information 
on beliefs, commonly practiced behaviors, cultural values, social trends (Holman 
Jones et al., 2016), and political circumstances are provided. Based on that the 
contribution of the first foreign teachers of French at Petrović’s court to social 
and diplomatic development of Montenegro in the second half of the 19th century 
is evaluated.
The research approach in this paper is qualitative as it is based on a deeper 
understanding and analysis of documents from the past. Having in mind the 
historical background of the work, we used the historical method to illustrate 
the Montenegrin reality of the 19th century, more precisely the period related 
to the rule of the last three sovereigns from the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty. The 
original documentation in the paper is presented by the descriptive method, while 
the observation and comparison of autoethnographic records try to look at the 
phenomena and issues analyzed in the paper.
ANTIDE JAUME, NJEGOŠ’S TEACHER OF FRENCH
Despite gaining his education sporadically and unsystematically, and despite the 
fact that he grew up in scarcity in an area without any primary schools, the Montene-
grin poet and prince-bishop Petar II Petrović Njegoš (1813–1851) was able to speak 
and write in several languages (Banašević, 1929, 193). Since the neighboring areas 
were under the governance of the Republic of Venice until 1797, and Austria during 
his lifetime, the Prince-Bishop learned Italian and German. However, he had the 
best command of Russian, probably because of its similarities to his native tongue. 
Nevertheless, of all languages of which he had a good command, Njegoš spent most 
of his time and money on learning French (Jovanović, 2016, 30).
The biggest credit for Njegoš’s good command of French is undoubtedly due to 
the unusual French teacher Antide Jaume, whom Njegoš met in Trieste in July 1837 
after returning from Saint Petersburg. Njegoš came into contact with him follow-
ing the recommendation from the French Consul in Trieste, Colonel André Nicolas 
Levasseur, who took the position from the French novelist Stendhal. Jaume, who 
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Ivona JOVANOVIĆ & Jasna POTOČNIK TOPLER: THE CONTRIBUTION OF FIRST TEACHERS OF FRENCH AT ..., 407–428
was originally from Tarascon in southern France, had been living in Trieste for three 
years, making a living by giving private French lessons. He was married to Francesca 
Bortolotti, a Triestina of Slovenian origin. Jaume also gave French lessons to Njegoš, 
who was satisfied with Jaume’s teaching, and invited him to travel to Cetinje for a 
period of two years for a high fee of one gold coin per day (Milović, 1964, 54). 
During the period in question, it was not easy to get papers and enter Montenegro. 
Due to the suspicion of the Austrians that he was a revolutionary and a political agent 
(Milović, 1964, 53), Jaume, accompanied by Francesca, experienced difficulties in 
obtaining permits and visas for his stay in Montenegro, and decided to enter it il-
legally. In December 1837, Jaume and Francesca obtained passports from the French 
Consulate in Trieste that allowed them to go to Shkodër via Kotor. Jaume had told 
the Trieste police that he was going to Kotor to visit his wife’s family, and after that 
to Shkodër to deliver confidential letters from Paris to the French consul (Kolendić, 
1948, 242). 
Jaume and his wife Francesca came to Kotor by ship from Trieste on 2 January 
1838. Because of Francesca’s health problems and the cold climate in Cetinje, Jaume 
managed to arrange temporary accommodation for his wife in Kotor, in Austrian 
territory, where they stayed in the distinguished house of the Austrian Court President 
Karl Zirk, giving private lessons to his children in return for their accommodation 
and food (Milović, 1964, 52). 
When Jaume came from Kotor to Cetinje following a narrow, steep and meander-
ing path on 22 January 1838, he was 35 years old (Milović, 1964, 52). In the Cetinje 
plain, surrounded by the karst slopes of the Lovćen mountains, he found a settlement 
consisting of a monastery on a hill and a few stone houses. In this frugal environment 
providing no comfort, Jaume managed in just a couple of weeks to make friends with 
the Montenegrin ruler, who started to count on his teacher by confiding to him and 
asking him for advice (Spasić, 1988, 45).
In his reports, the Austrian Chief Magistrate of Kotor Ivačić claimed that Njegoš 
began to immediately introduce reforms to his court, under Jaume’s influence. 
Despite opposition from the Montenegrin chieftains, Njegoš moved from the mon-
astery, which had been the residence of Montenegrin prince-bishops for centuries, 
to a newly built residence called Biljarda (Milović, 1951, 4). The building, which 
was built in less than a year, was finished during Jaume’s stay in Cetinje. The new 
court, or rather the new house as it was called in the beginning, was built with 
financial support from Russia in accordance with the plans provided by the Russian 
emissary Jakov Nikolajevič Ozeretskovsky. In addition to the three rooms used by 
Njegoš from autumn 1838 for his residence and for receiving guests, this elongated 
one-storeyed building painted in white also housed the first school, offices of the 
Montenegrin Senate established by Njegoš, and a printing house. The name of this 
building, which reminded some travel writers of a hangar (Lenorman, 2002, 41; 
Lekić, 1982, 69), and others of a military post (Štiglic, 2004, 113) or fortress (Raš, 
2001, 41) comes from the deep impression made on people’s imagination by the 
importing and setting up of the first billiard table, which was not easy to carry on 
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the steep and impracticable path from Kotor. Njegoš ordered the table in Vienna in 
1839, so as to place it in the central room of his residence, probably after his teacher 
of French, Antide Jaume, taught him how to play this game (Milović, 1964, 67).
In the 19th century, billiards4 was a very popular game in France, where many 
billiard clubs existed. The origin of the game is linked to the French King Louis 
XI who due to his back pain and inability to play cricket on grass, which was very 
popular at the time, commissioned an artist carpenter working with ebony, Henri de 
Vigne, in 1469 to make the first billiard table, which he then used to decorate his 
Bastille palace. The French form of billiards without pockets practiced by Njegoš 
is called Carambole5 after a red ball that is used for the game in addition to cues 
and two other balls. 
When describing the situation found at the residence in 1840, the German 
writer Heinrich Stieglitz talks about billiards as the only form of entertainment for 
Njegoš’s tribal members in the gloomy atmosphere in Cetinje at the time: 
While I was walking down a narrow corridor, I met everywhere armed men, and 
through an open door of a larger chamber I saw several senators with short 
fur coats thrown over their shoulders playing billiards. The eyes of the ones 
standing around and observing the game were moving left and right faster than 
the balls on the table, and with their energetic gestures they were following and 
commenting on the quick moves of both of the players, making it look like a real 
war was going on (Štiglic, 2004, 85). 
That year, the English travel writer and Egyptologist John Gardner Wilkinson 
visited the Prince-Bishop at his court. In his texts, he referred in particular to the 
hall where the billiard table stood: 
Exits from all chambers lead to a single long corridor with the Prince-Bishop’s 
rooms situated at its end. The most impressive of them is the billiard hall that also 
serves as a hall for holding audiences, dining hall and a reception room. The walls 
of the billiard hall are decorated with rifles and other weaponry. The Prince-Bishop 
adores both playing billiards and observing others playing it. Some of his guards-
men or his adjutant often entertain him with their skills (Raš, 2001, 47). 
Even rare memories of the Prince-Bishop in the memoirs of Prince/King 
Nikola I, who ruled Montenegro from 1860, are related to billiards. As Njegoš 
forbade children to watch the game, little Nikola, whose ‘greatest joy was to enter 
the billiard saloon’, hid under the billiard table on one occasion fearing he would 
get caught (Bogdanović, 2013, 220). 
4 From French bille: a ball made of hard material, from the 16th century the ball used for billiards.
5 The word Carambole comes from Portuguese and refers to an exotic fruit of a round shape and purple 
colour.
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Apart from these testimonies, we can also add that the billiard hall was decorated 
with a portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte (Kol, 2005, 90) whose reforms and code 
were admired by the Prince-Bishop. Moreover, in his personal notebook Bilježnica 
(Jovanović, 2015) there are 25 pages of verses of French Romantic poets written down 
by Njegoš, including the following verses of Victor Hugo dedicated to Napoleon: 
Toujours Napoléon, éblouissant et sombre,
Sur le seuil du siècle est debout (Les Orientales)6 
Napoleon, ce Dieu dont tu seras le prêtre. (Les Feuilles d’automne) 7
D’être Napoléon, l’empereur radieux (Les Feuilles d’automne) 8  
In addition to billiards, a game previously 
unknown to the Montenegrins, it is also believed 
that Jaume taught the Prince-Bishop to play chess 
(Milović, 1964, 67). Nevertheless, in the testimo-
nies of foreign travellers no reference was found 
to any of them seeing him sitting at a chess board. 
Furthermore, it seems that the Prince-Bishop 
started to wear civilian clothes after being talked 
into it by his teacher of French. ‘Despite being 
a religious leader, he rarely wore bishop’s ap-
parel…’ wrote Guillaume Depping in 1853 in his 
comments in the French magazine Illustration 
(Spasić, 1988, 217). Another text under the pen 
of the German writer Johan Georg Kohl, who met 
Njegoš in Cetinje in 1851, contains the following 
description of the Prince-Bishop: 
He wore an Italian broad-brimmed straw 
hat, tight black silk uniform, light black silk 
cassock thrown over his back, and had a 
nice long stick in his hand. He did not look 
to me like a prince-bishop or ruler of heroic 
mountain people, but more like a Venetian pa-
trician or (because of his shallow straw hat) 
rich Spanish plantation owner from South 
America (Kol, 2005, 123).
6 Always Napoleon, both dazzling and sombre, Is standing at the threshold of this century (Les Orientales).  
7 Napoleon, that God whose priest you will be (Autumn Leaves).
8 To be Napoleon, the dazzling emperor (Autumn Leaves) (Jovanović, 2015, 40, 44).
Fig. 1: Njegoš and the billiard 
table at Biljarda (Drawing by 
Mr Henry Layard, an English 
travel writer who visited Bil-
liards in 1839. It is in a private 
collection in Paris).
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After a smaller house was built at the end of May 1838 near the Cetinje Monastery 
for the Jaumes (Bjazoleto, 2004, 77), Antide’s wife moved from Kotor to live in 
Montenegro. Based on a report from the Austrian police, which kept Njegoš’s official 
correspondence under surveillance, it is clear that Antide and Francesca were well-
informed of Njegoš’s affairs and official correspondence. The Austrians pointed out 
that Jaume praised Montenegro in his correspondence, that he was loyal to revolu-
tionary ideas, and hostile to the Austrian authorities (Milović, 1964, 57). Considered 
a spy, Jaume was mentioned in the Austrian newspaper Algemeine Zeitung on 26 
September 1838, where his strong influence on the ruler of Montenegro was brought 
up in a negative context (Milović, 1964, 60). It should be noted that Jaume’s stay 
in Montenegro took place during the period of intensive work of a committee for 
the boundary demarcation between Austria and Montenegro, to which Njegoš often 
expressed objections. With the Protocol on the Border Line, established without 
the mediation of the Ottoman authorities, signed in July 1841 Austria as the first 
European country recognised Montenegro’s sovereignty (Rastoder et al., 2006, 226). 
In March 1839, the first disputes arose between Njegoš and Jaume, who asked for 
a pay rise, which Njegoš refused. Jaume left Montenegro in July of that year together 
with his wife and took an Austrian steamship from Kotor to Zadar after going through 
considerable back and forth to obtain an Austrian return visa. With Njegoš’s recom-
mendation to the Russian court (Milović, 1964, 54) Antide and Francesca went via 
Trieste and Vienna to Russia, where Jaume continued to teach French in Kiev after 
passing a professor’s exam (Milović, 1964, 65–66). 
THE FRENCHMAN HENRI DELARUE AT PRINCE DANILO I’S COURT
After Njegoš passed away in 1851, Prince Danilo I took over the Montenegrin 
throne. He ruled to August 1860, when he was mortally wounded by an assassin 
in Kotor. Contrary to his predecessors in terms of foreign affairs, the sovereign of 
Montenegro turned to France, which had strengthened its position in Europe by 
defeating Russia, the biggest ally and protector of Montenegro up until then, in the 
Crimean War. An important role in the pro-French orientation of Montenegro during 
the period was also played by the Prince’s wife Darinka (Cf.: Vujović, 1968). Due 
to her excellent command of the French language and European manners, the newly 
appointed French consul in Shkodër Hyacinthe Hecquart, who was also accredited 
for Montenegro, was especially fond of the Princess (Lainović, 1956, 200). As an 
experienced diplomat, Hecquart became well acquainted with Montenegro during his 
mission, popularising it in Europe in his scholarly articles published in prestigious 
French scholarly journals.9 
Following the example of his predecessor, the Montenegrin ruler decided to start 
learning French, which is why he looked for someone to teach him at the end of 1855. 
9 Les Wassoevitch, tribu habitant la Haute Albanie, Revue de l’Orient, de l’Algerie et des Colonies 
(1857), Mémoire sur le Monténégro, Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, 1856.
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Upon the recommendation of the French consul in Shkodër, Henri Delarue, came to 
Montenegro where he became the Prince’s business secretary and a great and loyal 
friend of Princess Darinka (Davril, 2003, 7–8). 
Henri Delarue was a professor from the renowned French Collège de Juilly, a 
royal academy situated in the vicinity of Paris and established in 1638, which, at the 
time, promoted very avant-garde teaching methods that prioritised understanding the 
learning content rather than mere memorising in their work with students. As the 
son of a physician, he first studied at the École Polytechnique with an ambition to 
serve in the navy, and later worked as an accountant at the Longitudes Bureau at the 
Paris Observatory (Davril, 2003, 7). The French diplomat, writer and Slavist Adolphe 
d’Avril (signed under the pseudonym Cyrille), who knew Delarue well, stated that he 
was endowed with a strong physical constitution, which certainly made him suitable 
for travelling to the harsh Balkans (Davril, 2003, 5).
Henri Delarue came to Cetinje via Shkodër in 1856 and he stayed in Montenegro for 
three years. In order to prove to Europe that it should recognise the sovereignty of Mon-
tenegro, he initiated, acting as Prince’s secretary, a visit to Paris in 1857, during which 
he accompanied the Prince and Princess. The French Emperor Napoleon III received 
the Montenegrin ruler several times in a special audience and promised full support in 
the protection of Montenegrin interests (Lainović, 2007a, 258; Lainović, 1932, 12).
In 1862, Delarue’s book titled Le Monténégro (histoire, descriptions, moeurs, 
usageI.), which is a significant source of Montenegro’s history, was printed in Paris. 
That same year this testimony of Delarue’s stay in Montenegro was published also 
in the French journal Revue de l’Orient, de l’Algerie et des Colonies. The book was 
translated and published in Montenegro in 2003 under the title Crna Gora – istorija, 
opis, naravi, običaji, zakonodavstvo, političko uređenje, zvanična dokumenta i spisi.10 
In the first part of his book, Delarue informs the reader of the specific position of 
Montenegro in the Balkans in relation to its neighbours in the light of fighting the 
Turkish enemy for five centuries. Considering that the Serbs who went over to the 
Turkish side (most of which live in Bosnia, according to him) were responsible for 
such a long existence of Turkish authority in the region, Delarue admires the courage 
of the small Montenegrin people to defend their religion and freedom, and calls them 
the moral leaders of the Serbian people. Despite the poverty, soil infertility and lack 
of roads, Delarue admires the work and diligence of the Montenegrins, their dignity, 
sociability, and especially their love for their country. He gives special credit to the 
last Montenegrin rulers from the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty, who were aware that the 
interest of the people was above tribal interests, and that the introduction of reforms 
gradually changing the customs was a necessity strengthening patriotism. According 
to Delarue, the establishment of the borderline between Montenegro and Austria in 
1841 was the best proof of the persistence of the Montenegrin people in their fight 
for independence. 
10 The book was translated by Marina Vukićević and published by CID – Podgorica (original title: Henri 
Delarue, Le Monténégro. Ed. B. Duprat. Paris, 1862).
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In the second chapter of his book, Delarue gives a physical description of Monte-
negro, information on its climate, the physical appearance of its inhabitants and their 
daily lives. When observed from Lovćen, Montenegro reminds him of a rough rock 
sea made of a limestone skeleton being washed out by strong autumn and winter rain 
showers. Due to the porosity of the land, water from heavy rainfalls is not retained, 
making hilly Montenegro infertile and ravaged by constant famine. In his notes, De-
larue is fascinated by numerous contrasts when it comes to Montenegro’s landscape, 
but also its climate, which is harsh in the north, and mild on the outskirts of Lake 
Shkodër. Like other foreigners who have visited Montenegro, Delarue notices the 
physical appearance of its people, who he says are tall, strong and agile, yet forced to 
emigrate and flee from poverty despite their inborn survival characteristics.
The last two chapters of the book are dedicated to the history of Montenegro; 
the first one deals with the period from the middle of the 19th century and the death 
of Petar II Petrović Njegoš, while the second chapter covers the period of rule of 
Prince Danilo I and the pivotal Battle of Grahovac. Delarue points out that in the 
past, Russia and Austria were involved in the events taking place in Montenegro, 
but now France is starting to interfere after its success in the Crimean War and the 
appointment of the French consul in Shkodër, whose diplomatic intervention in the 
territorial demarcation with Turkey Delarue considers crucial to a positive outcome 
of the Montenegrin question. Referring to the historical facts confirming that rulers 
in Montenegro always inherited their throne by virtue of law and that Montenegro 
was never a Turkish enclave, Delarue in particular emphasizes the French involve-
ment in the defense of Montenegro’s interests.
 The book also includes a map of Montenegro made by Delarue himself, and 
many other official documents: legal instruments on the boundary demarcation 
between Montenegro and Austria and Turkey, Minutes of the Paris Congress held 
in 1855, the Code of Montenegro, Notes on the health of the population. In his 
publication, Delarue provides details of the course of the Battle of Grahovac in 
which he took part, claiming also that he was partly responsible for its outcome. 
The supplement to the book contains also an article on this event published by the 
French newspaper Moniteur in May 1858. The famous battle against the Turks 
plotted the course of Montenegro’s history, as the Great Powers de facto recognised 
its sovereignty in 1859 by marking its borders.
The invasion of Montenegrin territory that took place in May 1858 near the town of 
Grahovac, not far from the border with Herzegovina, was followed by a battle between 
the Turkish army of approximately 10,000 soldiers led by General Hussein Pasha and 
the Montenegrin army, which was almost half the size of the Turkish force, led by 
Prince Danilo’s brother, Grand Duke Mirko Petrović. In order to avoid bloodshed after 
the fierce fighting that started on 11 May 1858, the Prince’s secretary Henri Delarue 
asked Hussein Pasha to allow him to go on a four-hour walk to Klobuk, a Turkish for-
tress where the headquarters of the Turkish army and European consuls were located, 
to discuss a peaceful resolution to the conflict. The Turkish general decided to provide 
Delarue with an armed escort for his protection and asked him in return to notify the 
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Montenegrin commander in writing not to attack the Turkish camp while Delarue 
was away (Lenorman, 2002, 365). Delarue notified Duke Mirko Petrović, who was 
commander-in-chief, of his departure in French, but since Duke Petrović did not speak 
French, he sent the letter to Cetinje for translation. Having already taken key positions 
on the ground, the Montenegrins grasped the opportunity and completely surrounded 
their enemy during the night. They seized large amounts of weaponry and inflicted 
heavy losses on the Turkish troops. During an all-out firefight, the Montenegrin troops 
recognised the Prince’s secretary Delarue and saved him by giving him a horse (Lenor-
man, 2002, 366). Montenegro’s final victory was won on 13 May 1858.
The letter from Danilo I sent on 22 May 1858 to the French consul in Shkodër 
containing the information on the outcome of the Battle of Grahovac (Lenorman, 
2002, 364–367) and many other articles published in the foreign press at the time 
emphasise the role of the French secretary Delarue in the outcome of the decisive bat-
tle for the independence of Montenegro (Jovanović, 2016, 103–104). In his preface 
to Delarue’s book, A. d’Avril points out that Delarue impressed the Montenegrins 
by passing through rifle fire by repelling bullets with his hands, and Montenegrins 
produced a folk song about him in which they call him a grey falcon: 
Duke Mirko
calls his grey falcon,
by the name of Henri De la Rue,
the secretary of the noble prince:
who came from the city of Paris
‘Delarue, my grey falcon!
Please go to the Turkish camp
And say hello to both Emperor’s pashas
To come and surrender to me’
(Lainović, 2007b, 147)
Henri Delarue left Cetinje after the boundary demarcation between Montenegro 
and Turkey took place in 1859. A good friend of his, the French consul in Shkodër, 
participated in delineating the borders in dispute. Delarue passed away in France at 
the age of 40 just before going on a visit to Montenegro on an invitation from Prince/
King Nikola I (Delari, 2003, 10).
CHARLES EMILE PIGUET, A SWISS PRECEPTOR AT THE 
COURT OF PRINCE/KING NIKOLA I
From 1860, Montenegro was under the rule of Prince Danilo I’s nephew Prince/
King Nikola I who gained his education in Trieste and Paris. Nikola I ruled Mon-
tenegro for more than 50 years. He introduced many reforms and promoted the 
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development of the smallest Balkan country, which gained international recogni-
tion and access to the high seas and doubled its territory in 1878. The village of 
Cetinje, which had a little over 60 houses in 1867 according to the French physician 
Boulogne (Bulonj, 2002, 29), was experiencing a building expansion and became a 
miniature capital to which the European countries started to send their diplomatic 
representatives. The Montenegrin court and intellectual elite was communicating in 
French, maintaining French manners and introducing French etiquette (Jovanović, 
2016, 195–209). There are testimonies of certain foreigners staying in Cetinje 
during that period regarding the ‘Gallomania’ (obsession with everything that is 
French) at the Petrović court that was completely at odds with the daily lives of 
the common people. In his autobiographical work Bilješke jednog pisca, Simo 
Matavulj, a Serbian writer born in Šibenik, gives the following description of the 
situation in Cetinje he witnessed in the 1880s:
As I saw there huts that can be found only in desolate mountains, in addition to 
buildings they call courts, primordial people with very few needs, and even less 
Fig. 2: Map of Montenegro according to Henri Delarue, 1862, 
Paris (Anri Delari, Crna Gora, CID, Podgorica, 2003).
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thoughts, in addition to the people with Parisian manners, or more precisely, 
acting in a style befitting a person of Parisian manners, countryside habits and 
way of life, in addition to recently introduced European customs; a feudal spirit 
of the 19th century (Matavulj, 1975, 75). 
The Prince/King of Montenegro had eight daughters and three sons. He sent 
his daughters to school in Saint Petersburg at the Smolny Institute, the first higher 
education institution for girls, where French was studied intensively. For his sons 
Danilo (1871–1939), Mirko (1879–1918) and Petar (1889–1932), he had found a 
Swiss francophone preceptor, Charles Emile Piguet, who stayed in Montenegro for 
more than twenty years.
In order to understand the decision of the Prince/King Nicholas I to bring the men-
tioned Swiss to Cetinje, it is necessary to emphasize that Piguet studied medicine, and 
that the Montenegrin court lacked doctors at that time. Namely, starting from 1858 
until the 1880s, France sent military doctors to the Montenegrin court, who also per-
formed a secretarial function and reported on the situation at the Montenegrin court 
to France (Bulonj, 2002, 97–113). Prince/King Nicholas I, however, was not satisfied 
with the last of them Jean Baptiste Feuvrier, because he took an overly critical at-
titude towards his rule, so he was denied the secretarial function (Jovanović, 2016, 
213). In the diary of the Swiss doctor Fréderic Ferrière, who came to Montenegro 
in early 1876 as a member of the mission of the International Committee of the Red 
Cross from Geneva, some information characterized as confidential can be found. 
Namely, not at all satisfied with the French doctors, Prince/King Nicholas I asked to 
hire a secretary from Geneva for a salary of 8000 francs (Ferijer, 2007, 107).
Immediately after finishing his studies of Medicine in Geneva, Charles Emile 
Piguet (1859–1918) moved to Cetinje in 1881 to serve as a head teacher and educa-
tor of the Prince’s sons. His contemporaries point out that he was a highly educated 
and diligent teacher renowned for his tolerance, culture and responsible approach 
to his profession. In a travelogue published in 1895, the Swiss writer and painter 
William Ritter described his second trip to Montenegro in 1893, where he had the 
opportunity to meet his compatriot. He points out that Piguet spent most of his 
free time studying the difficult local „Yugoslav language“ which is „sometimes 
called Serbian, sometimes Croatian, and could also be called Bosnian, Illyrian or 
Montenegrin“ (Ritter, 1895, 27). Knowledge of the local language enabled him 
to translate into French and publish literary and scholarly papers, in an effort to 
present the significance of Montenegro in the Balkans to Europeans. During his 
stay in Cetinje, he translated into French the play Gordana (or Uskokova ljubav) 
written by Laza Kostić, a Serbian writer who worked in Montenegro as a political 
advisor to the Prince and an editor of the Montenegrin official newspaper (Ritter, 
1895, 87). In his travelogue, Ritter further introduces readers to long excerpts of 
heroic lyricism - epic poems of Prince / King Nicholas I, including an excerpt from 
the poem The Poet and the Fairy written in 1892, which was translated into French, 
but inedited, by Charles Emile Piguet (Ritter, 1895, 42–52).
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The writer and professor Simo Matavulj, who knew Piguet well, emphasises in 
his autobiographical work that Piguet was young and original and had a poetic soul, 
as well as a vast knowledge of literature despite being a physician by education 
(Vukmanović, 1993, 158). Other foreigners who had a chance to meet Piguet in per-
son in Montenegro were also impressed by his well-built physique and the fact that he 
was almost always wearing Montenegrin garb. In his travel journal published in 1903 
in Saint Petersburg, E. Markov, a Russian travel writer, states that this sturdy Swiss 
resembled a Montenegrin hero rather than a European teacher (Markov, 2005, 368). 
Henrik A. Angell, a Norwegian captain who came to Montenegro in January 1893, 
was also impressed by Piguet’s strength talking about it in his book Montenegro on 
Skis (Crna Gora na Skijama): 
My neighbour, a French Swiss, monsieur Charles Piguet, who works for Prince, 
used to bathe every morning. At seven o’clock I would hear him starting his morn-
ing cleaning routine by breaking ice in water cans. He was a diligent man working 
all day round regardless of the cold, incredibly strong and beautiful naturalised 
Montenegrin, an athlete to the marrow (Angel, 50, 1991). 
Charles Emile Piguet indeed spent all day educating the Prince’s sons who, to 
judge from the photos in our possession and oral testimonies from their later child-
hood years, were not the most diligent students (Jovanović-Bjeloš, 1998, 66). Danilo, 
the firstborn son and heir to the throne, continued his education at a military academy 
in Russia, whilst the youngest, Prince Petar, received his education in Heidelberg 
under the auspices of his sister, Princess Ana (married name Butemberg), graduating 
in 1907 after getting into mischief quite often (Jovanović-Bjeloš,1998, 66). Mirko, 
Nikola’s second-born son, was the only one to have children, he composed music and 
was passionate about horse riding. He wrote music for Balkanska carica, a drama by 
Prince/King Nikola I, and the Prince’s anthem (Rastoder et al., 2006, 1017). Mirko’s 
grandson, Prince Nikola II, is currently the head of the Petrović Njegoš house. He 
is an architect by profession and lives and works in France and Montenegro. He 
runs the Petrović-Njegoš Foundation, established in 2011 with the aim of developing 
and promoting Montenegro through various activities of solidarity, environmental 
protection, innovations and culture.
In 1905, a summary of Piguet’s lecture from his book dedicated to Montenegro (Le 
Monténégro, 1905) was published on six pages in No. 44 of the Geneva geography 
journal Le Globe. At the beginning of his lecture, Piguet points out that Montenegro, 
a country which has fought Turkey for a long time to earn its deserved freedom, is 
currently led by one of the most unusual European rulers. In his presentation, he talks 
affirmatively about the economic development of Montenegro during the last two 
decades of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century, the construction 
of the first roads, the railway infrastructure which is being constructed by the Italians 
and the transformation of a seaport in Bar, the only Montenegrin coastal town. In 
addition to geographic indicators related to Montenegro, Piguet also talks about its 
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climate and the lack of rainfall during the summer, which often causes famine among 
the Montenegrins, and their emigration to other countries where they resort to hard 
labour to survive. Estates in Montenegro are fragmented and the very existence of 
each Montenegrin depends on a small piece of land, which often provides barely any 
opportunities for their survival and the survival of their families. Piguet also talks 
about the education system, which has expanded in such a short time that, according 
to him, one can rarely meet an illiterate Montenegrin nowadays. He describes the men 
as beautiful, tall, slender and fearless, and points out that the women are ‘splendid 
companions to their husbands and accompany them also on war expeditions’. In ad-
dition to the information on the population figures for the country and its towns, 
Piguet’s observation about military service is also interesting. On one occasion, 
Piguet attended a military recruitment rally where he noticed many men with grey 
hair claiming that they were under 45 years of age, so they could continue their 
active service. Piguet also talks highly and very emotionally of Prince/King Nikola I, 
describing him as diligent and a skilful poet and national leader (Piguet, 1905). 
After fighting fiercely for the recognition of Montenegro, Prince Nikola I, who be-
came king in the meantime, left his country in January 1916 because of the occupation 
of Montenegro by the Austro-Hungarian Empire and establishment of a military occu-
pation administration. He went into exile with his court and government to France and 
kept fighting for the integrity of Montenegro by using all possible diplomatic means, 
but failed to obtain support from the Great Powers. After the Podgorica Assembly in 
November 1918 and annexation of Montenegro by Serbia, Montenegro de facto ceased 
to exist. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created, and the Petrović 
Njegoš dynasty was dethroned, whilst its property was confiscated (Rastoder et al., 
2006, 1040). During a fierce campaign led enthusiastically by Prince/King Nikola I in 
France until his death in 1921, with the aim of restoring independence and returning to 
his homeland, he had the sincere support of Charles Emile Piguet, who represented the 
interests of Montenegro in Switzerland. In 1916, the king of Montenegro proposed to 
Switzerland the opening of a consular mission in Geneva. The mission was entrusted 
to Charles Emile Piguet, who was appointed Honorary Consul. He remained in this 
position during an extremely hard period in the history of Montenegro, until he passed 
away on 24 September 1918 at 59 years of age. During his two-year term, he put a lot 
of effort into regaining Montenegro’s sovereignty at many key locations, establishing 
a range of diplomatic contacts and activities. Giving him deserved credit, the Royal 
Government of Montenegro organised his funeral in Geneva at the state’s expense in 
a manner earned by his life and work. At the funeral, Montenegro was represented 
by its former Government, President in exile Lazar Mijušković. Geneva newspapers 
published an obituary of the meritorious deceased. (Glas Crnogorca, 15. 10. 1918, 3; 
Journal de Genève, 27.09.1918, 4; Journal de Genève, 28.09.1918, 5).
In 1893, France decorated Charles Emile Piguet with the Officer’s Cross of the 
Order of the Legion of Honour for his merit and engagement in the education of the 
Prince’s children, and Montenegro awarded him with the Order of Prince Danilo I for 
independence (Kapičić & Vujačić, 2005, 179).
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CONCLUSION
With this work, we tried to acquaint readers with the hitherto insufficiently af-
firmed contribution of the first foreign French language teachers in Montenegro, 
which is reflected not only in their sincere encouragement of Montenegro‘s cultural 
development, but their perennial of dedicated work also had an impact on its inter-
national recognition. We could freely call the first Francophone teachers from rich 
European countries, who in the 19th century arrived to the Balkans to the smallest 
European capital, Philomontenegrians. Namely, staying at the Cetinje court for many 
years, these missionaries of adventurous spirit had the opportunity to get to know, 
experience, see Montenegro and its population in one, not only objective, but also 
intriguing way, get acquainted with the local language from which some of them 
translated literary works, and became closer to the Montenegrin rulers, and to convey 
in the original and emotionally colored writings to the Europeans their positive view 
and praiseworthy experiences about a country hitherto almost unknown to them.
Fig. 3: Charles Emile Piguet with Prince Petar in 
Cetinje in 1900 (National Library of Serbia).
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Through the hitherto unpublished analysis of the perception of Montenegrin 
reality in the works authored by Francophone teachers Henri Delarue and Charles 
Emile Piguet, it is observed at first glance that Montenegro, its culture, history 
and tradition are presented in a very affirmative context. The same observations 
and views on Montenegro can also be found in other autoethnographic records and 
in the views of their authors, analysed in this paper. Namely, in almost all works, 
the exceptional courage and fearlessness of the Montenegrin people in defending 
freedom is underlined, but also the unjust position of the poor country, which was 
influenced by the geopolitical and strategic context on a larger scale. In the desire 
to help Montenegro in the key moments for its independence, all three first Fran-
cophone teachers gave a strong impetus to its affirmation in three different periods 
of its history. The controversial French teacher of Njegoš, Antide Jaume, taught his 
student to be fluent in a language that was considered diplomatic, which enabled 
Njegoš to draw attention to the ungrateful position of his country in international 
circles. The drawing of the first Montenegrin border lines with Austria in 1841 
is a proof that his mission bore fruit. With the help of his close friend the French 
consul in Shkodra, Hyacinthe Hecquart, which Henri Delarue discusses in detail in 
his book, he had great credit for the favorable outcome of the Battle of Grahovac 
in 1858, after which Montenegro was de facto granted independence. Finally, 
the French preceptor at the court of Nicholas I, Charles Emile Piguet, who of all 
Francophone foreign teachers spent the longest time in Montenegro, promoted the 
smallest Balkan state in elite European circles by translating literary works and by 
publishing about Montenegro. This eminent doctor and philologist would decide to 
represent the interests of the Montenegrin government in exile in Switzerland, at a 
very ungrateful historical moment, immediately after the occupation of Montenegro 
in World War I in 1916.
Today, Njegoš‘s residence in the Montenegrin cultural capital Cetinje, built dur-
ing Jaume‘s stay in Montenegro, is very popular with tourists. It is named Biljarda 
after the first billiard table and game, very favored in the 19th century France. 
Njegoš apparently learned it from his French teachers. Billiards – the so-called 
Carambol or Carom version (played by Njegoš) – is one of the most popular sports 
in Cetinje today and is played in the Billiards Club, which is a member of the 
European and World Billiard Carom Federation. The fact that one of the rulers on 
the edge of Europe in the Montenegrin mountains in the 1830s had a billiard room 
also tells us that the influence of the first Francophone teachers was unavoidable 
for Montenegro. The results and works of the first Francophone teachers (unjustly 
neglected, in the opinion of the authors of this paper, especially given the slight 
interest in studying French language and culture in today‘s Montenegro) have been 
translated into a testimony that marked the Montenegrin identity and can nowadays 
serve in creating the brand of Montenegro as a destination.
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PRISPEVEK PRVIH UČITELJEV FRANCOŠČINE NA PETROVIĆEVEM 
DVORU K PREOBRAZBI DRUŽBE IN UVELJAVITVI 
ČRNE GORE V EVROPI
Ivona JOVANOVIĆ
Univerza Črne gore, Fakulteta za turizem in hotelirstvo, Stari grad 320, 85330 Kotor, Črna gora
e-mail: ivonaj@t-com.me
Jasna POTOČNIK TOPLER
Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za turizem, Cesta prvih borcev 36, 8250 Brežice, Slovenija
e-mail: jasna.potocnik1@um.si 
POVZETEK
Članek analizira prispevek prvih učiteljev francoščine v Črni gori k razvoju 
njene družbe v 19. stoletju, to je v času vladavine zadnjih treh vladarjev dinastije 
Petrović Njegoš: Petra II. Petrovića Njegoša, princa Danila in princa / kralja Nikole. 
Glede na to, da so francoščino v 19. stoletju uporabljali splošno izobraženi ljudje 
po Evropi, v takratni Črni gori pa ni bilo učiteljev, so bili prvi profesorji izobraženi 
tujci iz evropskih frankofonskih držav. Antide Jaume, ki je prišel iz Francije, da bi 
poučeval Njegoša francoščino, Henri Delarue, ki je bil učitelj in tajnik Danila I., in 
Charles Emile Piguet, ki je bil učitelj sinov princa / kralja Nikole I., niso bili le redni 
učitelji, ki so diplomirali iz filologije, ampak karizmatične osebnosti, ki so na podlagi 
široke izobrazbe ter energičnih in pogumnih prepričanj dale močne impulze za razvoj 
družbe in družbenopolitično krepitev Črne gore v Evropi v odločilnih trenutkih za 
njeno zgodovino. Ti učitelji na misiji so se odrekli udobju in blaginji civilizacije, ki 
so jo uživali v razvitih delih Evrope, in so najboljša leta svojega življenja preživeli 
na prostovoljnem poslanstvu v skorajda divjini Cetinja ter skušali svoje učence skozi 
učenje francoskega jezika in kulture približati kulturni Evropi. Poleg poučevanja se 
njihova vloga kaže tudi v tem, da so Črno goro predstavljali, opisovali in populari-
zirali v svojih pisnih pričevanjih, potopisnih besedilih, pa tudi z iskreno podporo in 
verovanjem v potrebo po njenem mednarodnem priznanju. Članek o prvih učiteljih 
francoščine v Črni gori temelji na dejstvih, ugotovljenih s preučevanjem arhivskega 
in knjižničnega gradiva, izvirnost pa predstavlja analiza nekaterih periodičnih publi-
kacij, potopisnih besedil in dokumentov spominskega oz. avtobiografskega značaja, 
ki doslej še niso bili analizirani. Zaključki te analize so prvič predstavljeni v tem 
članku in predstavljajo pomembno nadgradnjo doslej objavljenim spoznanjem in vir 
za nadaljevanje znamčenja Črne gore kot destinacije.
Ključne besede: Črna gora, 19. stoletje, črnogorski vladarji, učitelji francoščine, potopi-
sno pripovedništvo, avtoetnografija, znamčenje
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