Acta agriculturae slovenica, suplement 1(avgust 2004), 15–20. 
12th Int. Symp. “Animal Science Days”, Bled, Slovenia, Sept. 2–4, 2004. 
Review paper 
Pregledni znanstveni prispevek 
ECOLOGICAL AND ETHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PIG PRODUCTION IN 
CROATIA 
Boris ANTUNOVIĆ a), Gordana KRALIK b) and Tihomir FLORIJANČIĆ c) 
a) Josip Juraj Strossmayer Univ. of Osijek, Fac. of Agriculture, Dept. for Animal Husbandry, Trg svetog Trojstva 3, 
HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia, e-mail: bantun@pfos.hr, Univ. Lecturer, Ph.D., M.Sc. 
b) Dept. for Zootechnics, same address, Prof., Ph.D., M.Sc. 
c) Dept. for Zootechnics, same address, Teaching Fellow, M.Sc. 
ABSTRACT 
As consciousness about significance of preserving environment around farms and welfare of 
farm animals is increasing every day, ecological and ethological aspects are becoming more 
important in making decision about ways of pig production. Intensive farming has shown its 
weaknesses through low resistance of pigs and occurrence of new diseases. On the other side, 
low production coming from high number of small producers in Croatia is not acceptable due to 
the low competitiveness and huge amount of imported pork. The solution is seen in redirecting 
ground properties to those who are younger, educated and willing to produce much through 
“Enlarging Ground Properties” program, which should increase domestic pig production by 
better genetics and living condition in middle sized family farms. This should have significant 
influence on improving ecological and ecological aspects of pig production in Croatia. 
Key words: pigs / pig production / ecology / ethology / animal welfare / housing / Croatia 
EKOLOŠKI IN ETOLOŠKI VIDIKI REJE PRAŠIČEV NA HRVAŠKEM 
IZVLEČEK 
Z zavedanjem pomena varovanja okolja ob posestvih in dobrega počutja živali, se je pri 
odločanju o načinih reje prašičev potrebno ozirati tudi na ekološke in etološke vidike. Zaradi 
intenzivnega farmskega načina kmetovanja se je odpornost prašičev zmanjšala in pojavile so se 
nove bolezni. Vendar pa tudi veliko število majhnih proizvajalcev na Hrvaškem ni sprejemljivo 
zaradi premajhne konkurenčnosti ob velikih količinah uvožene svinjine. Možna rešitev je v 
preusmeritvi zemljiške lastnine na mlade, izobražene in dela voljne ljudi s pomočjo programa 
“Enlarging Ground Properties”, ki bi lahko vplival na povečanje domače prireje prašičev z boljšo 
genetsko osnovo in boljšimi rejskimi pogoji na srednje velikih družinskih kmetijah. To bi lahko 
pomembno vplivalo na izboljšanje ekoloških in etoloških vidikov reje prašičev na Hrvaškem. 
Ključne besede: prašiči / prašičereja / ekologija / etologija / dobro počutje / uhlevitev / Hrvaška 
INTRODUCTION 
Up-to-date intensive swine husbandry is implicated by numerous problems. The most 
important aspects are those that we are generally considering as ecological or ethological. 
Agglomerations consisted of many thousands of pigs kept in closed barns, as well as unilaterally 
directed production, are constantly threatening to animal welfare and health status of such 
population (ethological aspects) and are potential risk to environment (ecological aspects). Such 
industrial way of swine breeding is a result of increased demands from human population, which 
has grown in number and feeding needs.  
http://www.bfro.uni-lj.si/zoo/publikacije/zbornik/suplementi/index.htm
Acta agriculturae slovenica, suplement 1(avgust 2004). 
 
16 
Occurrence of new diseases in intensive pig production, as well as disappearing of 
autochthonous breeds, are determining decisions about which directions should Croatian swine 
husbandry go to in the future. Due to increased consumers’ care about living conditions of pigs 
and decreased popularity of highly intensive farming, being behind European achievements 
could be considered also as an advantage for Croatia in this moment (Antunović, 2003). 
SITUATION IN CROATIAN SWINE HUSBANDRY TODAY 
Agriculture (including feeding industry) participates with a little bit less than 10% in Croatian 
GDP (Gross Domestic Product). For a long period of time, Croatian agriculture has been 
characterized by the two models of land ownership. Agricultural recourses were directed toward 
small number of huge agricultural properties owned by the Government. In the same time, small 
family properties were restricted in size and therefore considered as “other” or “marginal” 
producers. The result was non standardized structure of properties. Most of them are today rather 
small and not able to make enough profit that could increase their living standard, as well as 
participate in investments on properties. This situation has resulted in food import to Croatia 
worth 300 millions $ only during the year 2003. 
Size of pig farms is one of the most important aspects that can influence ecology. Despite the 
fact that family properties in Croatia are individually small, they posses approximately 80% of 
agricultural recourses (land, farm animals etc.). However, greatest part of agricultural land has 
not been utilized rationally, animal husbandry has been carried out mostly in barns that are not in 
accordance with EU ecological demands (Antunović et al., 2004a) and most of them are not 
suitable for renovating (Antunović et al., 1999). Around 76% of pigs in Croatia are kept on small 
family properties, with low technology level, daily gain and average meatiness under desired 
(Kralik et al., 2004). While in highly developed countries as Netherlands 25% producers keep 
from 100 to 200 sows per farm, in Croatia around 75% family “farms” keep up to five sows per 
farm.  
It is important to notice that even in the EU-15 countries pig farms vary considerable in size. 
Across those countries, 67% of sows are in units of more than 100 sows. While in Belgium, 
Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom this figure is over 
70%, in Austria, Finland and Portugal smaller sow units are predominant. Furthermore, the 
majority of pigs for fattening (81%) are reared on units of 200 pigs or more, with 63% of them 
on units of more than 400 pigs. Around 31% of fattening pigs are reared on holdings of more 
than 1000 pigs. While the industry in Italy, United Kingdom and Ireland is characterized by units 
of more than 1000 fattening pigs, Germany, Spain, France and the Netherlands have significant 
proportion of pig units of between 50 and 400 fattening pigs. These numbers indicate that 
relatively small number of farms will fall under the scope of the IPPC (Integrated Pollution 
Prevention and Control) of European Commission from 2003. 
Not many family properties in Croatia are capable to compete with importing. Moreover, 
most of them are older and not educated in farm management, which have a great impact on 
ecological and ethological aspects of production. 
As a result, swine breeding in Croatia is characterized by oscillations in production due to 
price cuts and import. In average, Croatia is producing 21 kg and consuming 25 kg of pork per 
inhabitant, while in developed countries this number is twice or more times higher. Despite of 
the rate of sufficiently of 80%, due to the low price in European market (especially in Denmark 
and Netherlands) Croatia has imported 1 632 tons of live pigs and 11 921 tons of pork only 
during the first six months in year 2003. 
Antunović, B. et al. Ecological and ethological aspects of pig production in Croatia. 17
POSSIBILITIES FOR IMPROVING ECOLOGICAL AND ETHOLOGICAL ASPECTS 
OF PIG PRODUCTION IN CROATIA 
Today, the Government is giving central role in agricultural politics to the prosperity of 
family properties. Responsible ministries are trying to increase domestic food production, 
decrease import and adjust production to EU demands (EC, 1991; EC, 2001a; EC, 2001b). For 
that reason, it is important now to distinguish producers that could be capable to increase their 
properties from those that are older and producing only for themselves. While the first ones will 
get stimulus for their production from the Government or local head offices, the second ones will 
become social category and get some kind of pension. By getting this pension, small producers 
will not be stimulated to produce and will sell their ground to those who are younger, educated 
and willing to produce much. This process is called in Croatia “Enlarging Ground Properties” 
and should increase domestic pig production by better genetics and living condition, which will 
have significant influence on improving ethological and ecological aspects of pig production. In 
the period from year 1991 till 2003, number of husbandries having 10 ha of ground increased 
from 12 000 to 21 000, with average ground units of 2.4 ha per husbandry. Taking in account 
averages of 18.7 ha in EU countries before 1 May 2004 (from 4.4 ha in Greece up to 67.7 ha in 
United Kingdom), it is to be concluded that the situation is still far away from satisfactory.  
In the process of enlarging ground properties in Croatia, it will be important to avoid building 
big farms that are hard to control in ecological and ethological way. The samples of bulky pig 
farms that had been producing up to 100 000 fattened pigs per year in non-stop production were 
“Sljeme” near Zagreb (now abandoned) and “Belje” in Darda near Osijek (never came back to 
the capacities obtained before the War 1991). Even the small omissions in management or 
feeding in big farms can disturb living conditions, which can cause considerable problems to 
production and health status of pigs. In such conditions we rarely find clinically recognizable and 
microbiologically defined infectious diseases. Instead of them, we are often hearing about 
occurrence of new “high production diseases” or “conditional diseases” (Pauković et al., 1990; 
Antunović, 2000), which are maintaining themselves in production in almost invisible way, 
hidden behind opportunistic infections and waiting there for even the smallest possibility for 
breaking out. Therefore, more important role are playing facultative or conditionally depending 
pathogenic microorganisms, which are capable to cause diseases only if living conditions and 
stress resistance of pigs were disturbed. Relevant experts and authorities in Croatia are now 
pointing out that welfare in pig production is much depending of health protection and 
prophylactic measures. Of the same importance are immune-prophylactic measures and general 
prophylactic measures, as well. Omitting or ignoring one of them decreases efficiency of other 
measures (Vinković et al., 2004). Generally speaking, intensive farming would not be possible 
without usage of various vaccines, as well as without controlling of housing conditions, proper 
feeding and care of pigs from the day of born till the and of production cycles.  
Health control and hygienically and sanitary measures on pig farms in Croatia are much 
depending on technological specificities and infrastructure of barns. Proper ventilation is playing 
important role in maintaining optimal microclimate (reducing air pollution) and health status in 
pigs. The role of ventilation system in causing respiratory diseases still needs to be more 
investigated. However, no matter how technological solutions are carried out on the farm, 
ventilation in closed barns must be capable to bring enough oxygen and in the same time reduce 
air pollution. Besides regulating air temperature, the air flow should be controllable as well. On 
the other side, improper ventilation combined with high density population increases number of 
microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, fungi, mildew etc.), concentration of harmful gases 
(ammonia, carbon dioxide etc.), as well as other pollutants, well known of their negative effect 
on protective mechanism of respiratory tract. The positive moment we find in the fact that many 
viruses and bacteria, as primary pathogens for respiratory organs, dye within few seconds when 
Acta agriculturae slovenica, suplement 1(avgust 2004). 
 
18 
exposed to the air (Webster, 1989). Exactly this is the reason why only few etiological factors 
are capable to cause alone some recognizable disease of respiratory tract. Instead of that, in most 
cases mixed infections combined with ruined resistance caused with improper living conditions 
play the most important role in pigs’ health (Vinković et al., 2004).  
Concerning gas air pollutants in pig farms, Croatian experts are advising that ammonia 
concentration should not exceed 10 ppm and carbon dioxide concentration 0.2 vol% (Sviben, 
2001). According to the regulations (Pravilnik…, 1993), the maximum allowed concentration of 
ammonia in working rooms for humans is 25 ppm or 18 mg m–3. Strange fact that suggested 
highest concentration in pig farms are lower than those in working rooms for people should be 
respected as pigs are constantly exposed to ammonia, while humans are exposed eight hours 
times five working days in a week (Wathes et al., 1984). High emission of gas pollutants from 
pig farms can significantly disturb balance in the nature (Seedorf, 2004). Beside negative effects 
on working staff and pigs on the farm, plants and forests nearby intensive farming units can also 
be endangered (e.g. leaves necrosis). Furthermore, considerable ecological problem caused by 
high ammonia emission can be found in souring and eutrophycation of ground and water. 
Greenhouse gases responsible for climate changes as CH4 and N2O are products of intensive 
farming as well. However, they are more originating from cattle than from pig farms. Improper 
ventilation systems are emitting bio-aerosols consisted from organic material (proteins), 
biologically active materials (endo-toxins) and even gases (ammonia) adsorbed to their surface. 
Therefore, those bio-aerosols are presenting infectious, allergic and toxically matter capable to 
disturb health status of exposed farmers (Brkić, 2004) and people around such farm. 
Moreover, technological improvements and new solutions, as well as routinely usage of 
various pharmaceutical products, have marginalized hygienically and sanitary measures. We are 
the witnesses of disturbances in pigs’ health status even in farms that seem to have optimal 
conditions for pigs. Praxis has shown that many sick animals do not react on therapy. We find 
the reason for that in multi-causal character of greatest number of diseases, as well as in 
increased resistance of causal on medicals. These problems are spreading out from the farms and 
getting public health dimension recognizable by terms “resistance” and “residua”.  
Even the traditional swine husbandries can become source of some public health threatening 
diseases. For instance, due to none carrying out the measures for eradication (proper veterinary 
and sanitary control, rodent control system, proper waste, confiscate and corpse removing), 
trichinellosys in East Slavonia was a serious ecological problem during and after the War in 
Croatia 1991–1995 (Florijančić et al., 2002).  
Industrial ways of swine husbandries based on old technology have survived until today in 
Croatia. In the same time, new, similar husbandries, but based on modern technologies, have 
been built. Some of them are successfully combining nearly forgotten ways of fattening pigs on 
strow in modern barns, which is a good way to avoid stereotypes, frustrations and conflicts 
between pigs and in the same time increase daily gain (Margeta et al., 2004). However, 
removing of manure, wasted water and air, corps of animals etc. (only one removing unit in 
whole country) are still potentially weak ecological points in production, which is the topic of 
interest not only to animal hygiene, but also to public health. 
Due to greater demands for ecological products from inland, as well as from international 
market, this way of breeding is foreseen in Croatian swine husbandry as an interesting alternative 
to conventional way of breeding in forming competitive husbandry. Eco-producers will have to 
apply even more strict regulations compared to conventional producers. However, benefits of 
ecological production could be found in breeding genetically more resistant swine breeds that do 
not have great demands concerning housing. The Government is now giving stimulus to those 
producers who breed endangered autochthonic Croatian breeds Black Slavonian Pig and 
Turopolje Pig. Orientation to producing final dry products instead of producing pork could bring 
producers in Croatia money from European market, which could be invested in better ecological 
Antunović, B. et al. Ecological and ethological aspects of pig production in Croatia. 19
and ethological standards on such farms. Recently confirmed autochthonic Croatian product 
“Slavonian Kulin” is a good sample. 
CONCLUSION 
Big intensive pig farms are today exposed to temptation because of minimally two mutually 
opposing reasons. First of them is preserving ecological and ethological criteria important for 
welfare standards in artificially made living conditions. The second is demand for high quality 
animal products with minimal influence of their by-products on environment. This means that 
animal science specialists’ knowledge about preparing food and its quality, genetics and 
productive characteristics and needs of each breed should be in coordination with veterinarians’ 
knowledge about prevention, diagnostics and healing of pigs and in respect to other related 
professions, as doctors, feeding technologists, architects etc. (Antunović et al., 2004b). In order 
to avoid needless conflict of competences and to harmonize and precise control and proper 
removing of animal waist and by-products, it is necessary to synchronize overlapped legislative 
in Croatia. Multi-discipline approach should be the basis for up-to-day swine husbandries that 
are in accordance with ecological and ethological aspects. Balancing between preserving 
traditional swine farming through breeding original autochthonic breeds as well and producing 
recognizable Croatian pig products and building middle sized modern farms with intensive 
production that respect those aspects will be the main direction of agriculture politics in swine 
husbandry in the period of joining EU. 
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