COBISS: 1.01 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH LEDENIŠKI PSEVDOKRAS Bulat R. MAVLyUDOV Abstract UDC 551.332:551.44 Bulat R. Mavlyudov: Glacial karst Glacial karst (GK) is combination of phenomenon and processes as a result of which specifc surface forms and cavities inside ice are formed. Hummocky relief with abundance of lakes, chan-nels and reservoirs inside ice and on ice-rock contact are typical for GK. GK development occurs under acting of physical pro-cess of ice melting instead of limestone dissolution in classical karst. However processes directivities and arising forms in both cases are similar at system level. As karst processes in ice origin very fast it is give possibility to use them as physical models for limestone karst. Vice-versa, we can understand GK better if we use results of limestone karst investigations. However in both cases only general regularity can be used because some specifc features are typical for each kind of karst. GK shows in development of such forms in ice: internal drainage systems (moulins, shafs, cascades, vadose galleries and phreatic chan-nels, siphons, griphons) and under ice (vadose and phreatic channels), dry and water fll dolines on clean ice and on ice covered by moraine (debris-covered glaciers), glacier caves. Stages of GK development completely correspond to stages of limestone karst development. But because of glaciers motion it is possible to observe all stages of GK development on the surface of the same glacier from decrepit (at glacier tongue) up to early (in upper part of ablation zone). GK has large signifcance in glaciers evolution. GK is widely spread in all temperate and polythermal glaciers of the world. Te accelerated glaciers deg-radation in present time gives a task of mandatory analysis of GK because of many glaciers can disappear very soon. keywords: glacial hydrology, debris-covered glacier, karst of glaciers, internal drainage systems, glacial karst evolution, simi-larity of glacial and calcareous karst. Izvleček UDK 551.332:551.44 Bulat R. Mavlyudov: Ledeniški psevdokras Ledeniški psevdokras je skupek procesov, katerih rezultat so značilne površinske oblike in jame v ledenikih. Za ledeniški psevdokras je značilen grbinasti relief z jezeri in kanali v notranjosti ledenika in ob stiku led-kamnina. Procesi, ki ustvarjajo ledeniški psevdokras in kras v karbonatih in evaporitih se razlikujejo, vendar so oblike, ki nastajajo v obeh sistemih, podobne. Procesi v ledu so hitri, zato je ledeniški psevdokras lahko primeren fzični model krasa v apnencu. Po drugi strani lahko s poznavanjem krasa v apnencih bolje razumemo ledeniški psevdokras. Seveda govorimo le o splošni podobnosti med fenomeni, medtem ko se oba tipa “krasa” v podrobnostih razlikujeta. Stopnje razvoja ledeniškega psevdokrasa se ujemajo s stopnjami rasvoja v apnenčastem krasu. Zaradi gibanja ledenika lahko razvojne stopnje ledeniškega psevdokrasa spremljamo vdolž ledenika, od jezika do ablacijske cone. Ledeniški psevdokras je razširjen v ledenikih zmerne klime (temperate glaciers) in v politermalnih ledenikih. ključne besede: ledeniška hidrologij a, pokriti ledenik, ledeniški psevdokras, notranji drenažni sistem, podobnost glacialnega in apniškega krasa. *Author uses the term Glacial karst, which denotes features on the glacier surface and inside the glacier that result from the melting of ice. Other terms are used for his phenomena, like glacier pseudokarst (see John Gunn (ed.), Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst, fitzroy Dearborn, 2004) Institute of geography RAS, Staromonetny per. 29, Moscow 109017, Russia, e-mail: bulatrm@bk.ru Received / Prejeto: 16.03.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 55–67, LJUBLJANA 2006 BULAT R. MAVLyUDOV INTRODUCTION In xIx century there was no karst division into separate earth, therefore karst phenomena in them were studied kinds by rocks structure. Limestone on continents is the less ofen. Glaciers are situated only in mountains and in most widespread rock, which have direct or indirect in- Polar Regions, because features of their superfcial relief fuence on people life. Superfcial and underground karst and cavities have investigated later. We considered his- forms have begun to study mainly in limestone areas. tory of glacial caves research earlier (Mavlyudov, 2004a). Other kinds of karst rocks occupy smaller areas on the HISTORy Of GLACIAL KARST STUDy Researchers were interested with perennial ice in calcar-eous cavities. But as caves in glaciers were considered as caves with ice in limestone these absolutely various cavities by genesis have received the uniform name «ice caves» and quite ofen studied by the same researchers (Balch, 1900). But nevertheless many scientists quite un-derstood diference between these caves and specially ac-cented attention on it (Browne, 1865, Listov, 1885). But about similarity of karst phenomena in glaciers and in limestone scientists began to speak only at the end of xIx century (Sieger, 1895). He said that porosity, solubility and weakened planes to the same degree characterized both for ice and limestone. Similar forms for glaciers and limestone are: karrens, natural shafs, moulins, caves, gal-leries, dolines, depressions without runof etc. He found conditions necessary for relief formation on glaciers that similar to karst relief: fat glacier surface with small quan-tity of crevasses and slow ice movement. Moraine cover on ice surface protects it from melting but ice ablation occurs with large intensity only on walls of crevasses and moulins. At the end of xIx century this phenomenon was known for glaciers of Europe, America, New Zea-land and Polar areas. Sieger considered that it is neces-sary to collect additional information for explanation of this karst analogy in limestone and ice. famous Russian geographer A. A. Kruber (1915) wrote that «karst phenomena origin in gypsum, in salt, in ice, but, frstly, these rocks in comparison with limestone occupy considerably smaller areas, and, second, the phenomena in named rocks represent some specifc features in comparison with phenomena in limestone». Tus, Kruber did not distinguish karst phenomena in limestone, gypsum, salt and ice. Te frst who in Russia has used for glaciers term GK was geographer S.V. Kalesnik (1935, 1939). He comes to conclusion about GK existence afer study glaciers in headstream of Naryn River (Tien Shan) during 2nd International Polar year. Describing dolines and moulins at tongues of some Central Asian glaciers (on Zerafshan Glacier, on Petrov s Glacier, on Pamir glaciers etc), Kale-snik wrote that «apparently, here before us is glacial karst that is especially probable on glacier tongues, in areas of maximal ice melting and maximal concentration of subglacial water. Because GK originate in plastic material this is a reason why all crevasses origin afer collapse of ice above subglacial tunnels are masked, soldered and alloyed». Term GK with reference to geomorphology is pre-sent in monumental work devoted to quaternary glacia-tion (Charlesworth, 1957) in which it is spoken about GK wide spreading on glaciers in diferent parts of the world, which difer by small surfaces inclination and slow movement. for ice with moraine cover cryoconite holes, dolines and depressions with moulins and without them, karrens, caves and under surface rivers, blind and dry river valleys are typical. All of these forms have the dupli-cates in limestone. He distinguishes GK and karst only by ice plasticity and by presence of moraine cover on ice. In the other book Kalesnik (1963) give other name for this phenomenon - ice karst. Repeatedly GK concept in glaciology is entered a little bit later (Clayton, 1964). In opinion of the author for GK a plenty of dolines and depressions (frequently flled by small lakes), tunnels and caves, disappearing water-streams, blind valleys, large springs, natural ice bridges and arches, karrens, separate ice blocks and residual sedi-ments (ablation tillites) are typical. He saw full analogy of forms in ice and limestone. Terefore he has automati-cally transferred development laws of limestone karst to GK. Tere are 4 same conditions necessary for GK and limestones karst origin, which were precisely formulated in the middle of xx century (Tornbury, 1954), but were known earlier (Kruber, 1915). It was supposed that GK was widely distributed on dead edges of North American glacial sheet in time of its degradation (Clayton, 1964). In our opinion fast destruc-tion of glacial sheets, which edges at last glaciation were 56 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH terminated on land, depends on wide GK development (Mavlyudov, 2005, 2006). During many years afer Claytons publication term GK in glaciology was almost not mentioned. Usually con-sidering relief on glaciers tongues recently began to use term «debris-covered glaciers» (Nakawo, young, 1981). Cross relief and huge lakes quantity are typical for such glaciers. Generalization of publications about GK was made in one of glaciology reports (Benn, Evans, 1998). But it begins since Clayton only In work (Benn, Evans, 1998) it is marked that mo-raine sediments on ice restrict ice melting and it concen-trates mainly in places where moraine cover is broken: on moulins walls and on slopes of dolines and lake depres-sions. Depressions slopes become too abrupt to keep of rock debris so clean ice here is usually exposed; intensity of ice melting here is maximal. Ice melting on walls (back-wasting) - one of the most important components of ab- lation in lower glaciers parts covered by moraine such as Khumbu (Nepal) or Tasman (New Zealand) (Iwata, et al., 1980, Kikbridge, 1993 and others). Importance of ablation localization in vicinities of depressions and cre-vasses on retreating debris-covered glaciers tongues just also had result, in opinion of authors, occurrence of term GK. Certainly, GK and limestone karst are not identical processes. fissures in calcareous areas extend by calcium carbonate dissolution, and on glaciers crevasses extend preferably by ice melting. In the frst case it is chemical process, in the second - physical. Very detailed description of sedimentary and ero-sive processes and relief forms connected with each stage of GK development was given for edges of outlet Kötlu Glacier, Myrdalsjökull in Iceland (Krüger, 1994). In work (Benn, Evans, 1998) it is shown that GK may oc-cur at tongues of surging glaciers when afer fast motion glacier tongue remains motionless for a long time. TERMINOLOGy Of GLACIAL KARST Recently GK study have progress as a result of creation of the international commission «Glacial Caves and Karst in Polar Regions» (GLACKIPR) in structure of IUS (Actes, 1995, Eraso, Pulina, 1992, 2001, Proceedings, 1991, 1992, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2005). Big part of symposiums materi-als connected with GK study In 1994 question of commission renaming was discussed. Term «cryokarst» in the name of commission has received biggest (but not com-mon) recognition in comparison with term «karst». It has resulted that 3-5 commission symposiums occurred under the name «Glacial Caves and Cryokarst in Polar and High-Mountains Regions». However ambiguity of term «cryokarst» has resulted that since 6th symposium in 2003 the commission has returned to the former name. It is not necessary to forget that the term «cryokarst» is the European analogue of the term «thermokarst» (Monroe, 1976), i.e. it is more applicable to frozen rocks than to glaciers. In Russian glaciology term GK of Kalesnik is not used any more. In glaciological dictionary (Kotlyakov, 1984) this term is absent. In karstology for description of glacier caves frstly was used the term «thermokarst» (Maksimovich, 1963), but subsequently this term be- gan to name areas with thaw dolines in frozen rocks. In karstological literature the term «pseudokarst» more frequently used (Andrejchuk, 1992). However this term ignore similarity of the processes in ice and in soluble rocks and also full coincidence of their karst forms. Some attempts of introduction of new term for description of processes in ice were undertaken. for example term «glaciokarst» was ofered (Andrejchuk, 1992). But this attempt cannot be named successful as this term for a long time is used for designation of karst in limestone, originated under glaciers or activated by glacial meltwa-ter (Monroe, 1976). As now study of glaciers relief that similar to karst began increase, it is quite obvious, that has ripened ne-cessity for term describing formation of this specifc relief. for our opinion it would be reasonable to use term Glacial Karst (GK). Tis term shows that phenomena in glaciers are very similar to phenomena in karst rocks. Te word «glacial» (but not ice) means features of this type of karst is formed not simply in ice but namely in glaciers. On analogies, calcareous karst it will be neces-sary to name «karst of limestone massifs» or «limestone karst». ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 57 BULAT R. MAVLyUDOV CyCLE Of GLACIAL KARST DEVELOPMENT On available representations (Clayton, 1964) by analogy to karst in limestone (Kruber, 1915) cycle of GK develop-ment consists of three stages: young, mature and decrep-it. Basing on works (Cvijich, 1909, 1918, Kruber, 1915), we have added in cyclic evolution of GK delopment one more stage - early stage (Tab. 1) (Mavlyudov, 2004b). On the same glacier it is possible to fnd all stages of GK development from the earliest up to decrepit stage (fig. 1). Tis is one of essential distinctions of GK from cal-careous karst. Especially well it can be seen in tongues of retreating glaciers (from the ice edge) where it is possible to see gradual transitions from decrepit stage of GK through mature to stages of youth and early On active glaciers the set of these stages will be incomplete. fre-quently on such glaciers it is easy to fnd only early or less ofen - young stages of GK development. Briefy we shall consider each stage of GK development. EARLy STAGE. for this stage of GK development is typical almost full absence of superfcial forms and weak channels develop- ment inside glaciers. Glacier surface here is completely free from moraine. Besides, this area is situated closely to snowline (ELA) and may completely or not completely be clear out from snow in separate years. At presence frn there may be channels as in it thickness (originate at verti-cal infltration of meltwater jets), and on frn/ice contact. However these channels are insignifcant. As catch areas of superfcial water streams are still insufciently exten-sive, large internal channels here may not form yet. Dye tracing of water carried out closely to ELA have shown that water moves from here up to glacier tongue with very small velocity Time of water movement was about some weeks (Bingham et al., 2005 and others). It says about small channels opening in the upper part of glacier abla-tion zone. Nevertheless these channels exist, that allows allocating this stage of GK development. Tis stage may develops in the lower part of accumulation and in the upper part of ablation areas not only there, where there are water streams on glacier surface and crevasses in ice, but also where water infows from areas adjoining to glacier or drain from lakes situated on rock/ice contact. tab. 1 - GK development cycle (Clayton, 1964) with author changes Stages GK development Early young Mature Decrepit Karst forms Channels in snow, frn, on contact ice/ frn, small moulins, widen crevasses, englacial channels Moulins, shafs, englacial and subglacial channels Dolins, caves, tunnels, water channels Karst windows, depressions, ?????????, uvalas, residual ice blocks Drainage Mainly surfcial Partly surfcial, p artly internal Mainly internal Internal, surfcial (afer ice disappear) Ice thickness, m 150-400 and more 50-150 10-50 0-10 Surfcial moraine deposits, thickness, m Absent Absent, except median moraines, some centimeters Some centimeters, later > 1 m, unstable from 1.5 to > 3 m, stable Vegetation on moraine deposits No No first weakened grass; subsequently bushes Grassy and wood vegetation Lakes, cleanliness of water, density of population Rare lakes, in cracks, cold, transparent, without life Enough rare, cold, transparent, without life In dolins, cold, silty without life In dolines, depressions, uvalas and poljes; isolated from ice by moraine sediments; warm and clean; fresh-water plants and animals Glacier movement Active Inactive from small activity to motionless Immobile 58 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH fig. 1. Scheme of glacier with internal drainage system; on the right - massif of dead ice. 1 - cold ice layer; 2 - temper-ate ice layer; 3 - snow and frn; 4 - englacial and subglacial channels; 5 - glacial crevasses; 6 - moraine cover; 7 - lake water. H - vadose englacial channels (Hooke channels); R - freatic englacial channels (Röthlisberger channels); N -subglacial channels (Nye channels); Lc - linked-cavities channels behind bed ledges; L - lakes. I-IV - GK stages: I - early II - young, III - mature, IV - decrepit. yOUNG STAGE. localization along moraines and formation of large wa- Boundaries of this stage distribution on glaciers are up- ter-streams. It leads to formation of developed systems per part of ablation zone above and a zone of occurrence of an internal drainage. Dye tracing of water streams has of median moraines on ice surface - below. On active gla- shown, that water velocity through channels beginning in ciers this stage may occupy almost all ablation area. On this zone, are comparable to velocity in superfcial water- less active glaciers area of young stage may occupy half of streams and may reach 1 m/s (Stenborg, 1969 and oth- ablation area. On almost motionless glaciers young stage ers). Our speleological researches have shown that chan- can be found out only in the uppermost parts of ablation nels sizes inside ice are great enough: pits have depth up area (fig. 2). As catch areas here are extensive enough, to 100 m and more, pits diameter may be up to 10 m and large superfcial water streams may be formed. It pro- more, galleries width may be 0.3-4 m, height of galleries motes development of large channels in internal drainage. - from 2 up to 20 m. Te channels sizes directly depend Occurrence of median moraines ofen promotes stream on volume of water-streams absorbed in ice. Superfcial aetive glacier I 1111§1111||| se m i aetive glacier : earl y / yo«»9 //: ; ¦¦;/¦;; ; unaetive glacier decrepit almost urimo ve d glacier // / imim^l \ ]jf ;;; fig. 2. Relationship of sizes of various zones appropriate to diferent stages of GK development on glaciers with diferent activity degree. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 59 BULAT R. MAVLyUDOV forms are submitted basically by closed lake depressions on ice, which are not numerous. Teir number may grow in places of crevasses formation. MATURE STAGE. Tis stage is typical for parts of glaciers covered by mo-raine (fig. 3). In the upper part of this stage zone moraine cover does not exceed 1/3 of glacier surface but in the englacial and subglacial channels. Subsequently small lakes merge into one large lake. Afer that development of karst process departs on second plan and as the frst acts calving. Absence of glacier tongue damming leads to GK development under dry scenario when lakes exist at dif-ferent levels. Expansion of lakes depressions occurs on ring crevasses by ice collapse (fig. 4). As a result of GK fig. 3. Block-diagram showing development of mature and decrepit GK stages (Krüger, 1994). a-b) mature stage; c) decrepit stage. 1 - strips of rock fragments in glacial ice; 2 - ridges with ice core; 3 - through-shape valley; 4 - melting escapes of clean ice; 5 - rock fragments fow (colifuction); 6 - crevasses expanded by melting; 7 - subglacial channels; 8 - dolines; 9 - collapsed arch of tunnel; 10 - doline expanded by melting and collapse; 11 - lake extending due by melting on slopes; 12 - dead ice; 13 - hummocky plain, free from ice; 14 - superfcial glacial sediments; 15 - lakes; 16 - subglacial sediments. middle part moraine covers ice completely. Tus in direc-tion to glacier tongue thickness of moraine cover grows up to meter and more. At moraine cover thickness lower then 10 sm there is ice-melting activization due to stones heating (Nakawo, 2000). Tis is expressed in growth of quantity of meltwater on glacier surface. When moraine thickness exceeds 10 sm reduction of ice melting begins. At moraine thickness more than 0.5-0.7 m ice melting practically completely stops. for upper part of mature zone wide development of superfcial water-streams and internal channels are typical. for lower part of mature zone superfcial water-streams are not usual and for glacier surface smoothed hummocky relief is typical with plenty of dolines and depressions, many of which are oc-cupied by lakes. Ice melting occurs here basically on lakes slopes. Lakes water is heated up much more strongly than ice covered by moraine (Sakai et al, 2000). for this rea-son lakes quickly grow. Quite ofen this stage, which is well expressed in relief on glacier surfaces, is named as GK (Krüger, 1986, Benn, Evans, 1998). In dependence of dammed degree of glacier tongues GK development may realized both by lake or dry scenario (Mavlyudov, 2005). Lake scenario of GK mature stage develops where glacier tongue is dammed by rock bar or end moraine. It conducts to formation of extensive lakes connected by numerous fig. 4. View on collapse of dry scenario of mature stage of GK. Bashkara Glacier, Central Caucasus, 2005. activity glacier will disintegrate completely (at lake scenario) or will broken into separate blocks of dead ice (at dry scenario). DECREPIT STAGE. Tis stage develops on tongues of motionless glaciers or within the limits of isolated dead ice massifs (fig. 3). Tickness of moraine cover changes from 1 to 3 m. Nu- 60 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH merous windows are typical even at continuous ice cover. Except dolines and small depressions larger depressions - uvalas and poljes here are typical also. Water streams wandering under ice provide fast ice destruction. Wide directions range for water streams provides formation of big quantity of caves with small water streams. Galleries expansion in caves includes also action of airfows. Be-cause of small ice thickness caves galleries are not com-pressed by plastic deformation. But for galleries are typi-cal vaults collapses. In process of GK development area of glacier ice decrease. It continues until complete ice disappearance. Tere are some variants of transition from one GK stage to another: 1) in active glaciers, 2) in motionless glaciers. In frst case at stable position of ELA there is evolutionary displacement of GK stages boundaries in direction of glacier tongue. Tat is why area of young stage of GK development is displaced on glacier down-wards turning into mature stage. By similar way chang-ing of other GK stages occurs. All stages of GK development are formed approximately in one place of glacier surface during the long period. In this case boundaries of stage zones of GK development remain approximately on the same places. At ELA lowering there will be re-placement of all zones boundaries in direction to glacier tongue. Progressive movement of all GK zones boundaries in direction to upper glacier part will occur at glacier edges retreating and ELA increasing. When processes of GK formation will include all glacier surface, the further decreasing of glacier dimensions will result in size reduc-tion or full lost of upper zone (early stage). So quantity of zones may be reduced gradual. Afer some time there will be only one zone (decrepit stage). Ten the glacier will completely disappear. In surging glaciers all events occurs by other way In period before surge all GK stages will develop in glacier ablation area. During surge all GK structures will be completely destroyed. As ice melting during surge does not stop but existing ways of water throughfow will be destroyed during glacier motion, it may stimulate local water accumulation in englacial and subglacial reser-voirs. It can lead to sudden water outbursts from under glaciers during surge. Afer surge GK structure begins to restore on all extent of ablation area. firstly all ablation area will be in early and young GK stages. Intensity of GK development will increase in area of dead ice. It con-nects with features of local climate (warmest on glacier), moraine cover thickness on glacier surface, big quantity of crevasses, the crossed glacier surface that provides fast development of numerous lake depressions and their in-tensive growth. Terefore in the lower glacier part GK develops more intensively than in other glacier parts. It will result appearance frstly of two, then of three and, at last, of all 4 GK zones in ablation area. Increasing GK development in area of dead ice promotes accelerated ice degradation that prepares possibility for new glacier surge. It seems that calculated and real ice melting in-tensity under moraine cover difers very signifcant. full destruction time of the Glacier Kolka tongue in the Cau-casus afer surge in 1969 was estimated as 25-30 years (Khodakov, 1978). But really glacier tongue has disap-peared afer 11 years. It means that GK increase ablation of debris-covered glaciers in some times. Now we will outline channels evolution inside glaciers. Some authors (for example, Mikhajlev, 1989) tried directly apply schemes of karst cavities evolution to GK cavities. He considered that glacier caves as well as limestone caves evolve through following stages: cre-vasse-slot-hole, crevasse-channel, gallery, channel and collapse. In his opinion, the crevasse-slot-hole stage is characterized by occurrence of open fssures on glacier/ bed contact and in glacier body in accumulation zone. Crevasse-channel stage is characterized by occurrence of narrow horizontal subglacial crevasses on contact with bed in accumulation area. Gallery stage is typical for ablation area with development of subglacial and englacial channels. Channel stage is usual for ablation zone with active development englacial and subglacial caves. Sepa-rate grottoes may reach 30-40 m length and 20 m height. Vaults collapses in subglacial caves conduct to formation of large dolines and depressions on glacier surface. Col-lapse-ablation stage is typical for moraine-covered part of glacier. Caves roof collapses and depression sizes growth are typical for this stage. However we automatically may not transfer char-acter of limestone caves development on ice. Against limestone caves, which mainly change in agreement with all these stages, in ice only channels at glaciers tongues can evolve through all this stages. Other channels may develop only up to gallery stage but then channels can completely disappeared because of secondary ice flling or under action of ice plastic deformation (creep). We know that later type channels on glaciers consist over-whelming majority ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 61 BULAT R. MAVLyUDOV GLACIAL KARST SPREADING GK is enough widespread phenomenon. It was found on a plenty of glaciers all over the world: in Alaska (Clay-ton, 1964; Russel, 1893; Tarr, Martin, 1914), in Iceland (Krüger, 1994; Badino, 2002; Eraso et al, 2002), in Spits-bergen (Gallo, 1977; Griselin, 1991; Shroeder, 1991, Krawczyk, Pulina, Rehak, 1997; Pulina, 1982, 1984, 1997; Mavlyudov, 2002; Mavlyudov, Solovyanova, 2003), in the north of Canada (Iken, 1972, Bingham et al, 2005), in Sweden (Stenborg, 1968, 1969; Holmlund, 1988), in Cau-casus (Mavlyudov, Solovyanova, 2005), in Alpes (Maroue, 1995, Piccini et al, 2002), in Altai, in Central Asia (Kales- nik, 1935; Mavlyudov, 1994, 1995; Popov, 1936; Spengler, 1936; Badino, 2002), in Himalayan (Iwata et al, 1980, Mavlyudov, 1992), in Andes (Aniya, 2001), in New Zea-land (Kikbridge, 1993), Greenland and Antarctica (Eraso et al, 1991) and in other places. Absence of any regions in the previous list simply means insufcient quantity of researches in this area. GK play important and possibly also an integral role during destruction of the majority of temperate and polythermal glaciers, especially if they are in retreating stage. SIMILARITy AND DIffERENCE Of GLACIAL KARST AND LIMESTONE KARST Similarity GK and karst in soluble rocks is shown in con-vergence of cavities forms. Similarity of GK and karst is determined by identical conditions of cavities forma-tion in soluble rocks and in ice. for cavities formation is need: 1) soluble rocks, 2) fssures and crevasses in rocks, 3) solvent of rock, 4) solvent movements and aggressive-ness. Similarity of features of karst and GK also is shown in similarity of characteristics of both drainage systems. Tey have similar structure (arborescent channels form), an evolutionary cycles, seasonal prevalence of develop-ment, dependence on climate and rock conditions; they are singenetic to relief, divided into superfcial and inter-nal components. Despite of processes diference of chemical rocks dissolution and physical ice melting both these process lead to identical results - loss of rock or ice layer on channels walls on contact with water-streams. Not consider kinetic of process of rock chemical dissolution by action of water streams and process of ice melting under action of water streams at molecular level we may speak about general similarity of this processes. Tis processes simi-larity is determined by similarity of curves of limestone dissolution and ice melting, which have linear character (Gabrovchek, 2000; Shumskij, 1955). formulas of carbonate concentration changes in water and of ice melting under action of water streams in time are almost similar (Eraso, Pulina, 1992, page 14-16). Tis similarity also defnes forms of convergence in limestone and in ice. And as solvent in both processes is one substance - water, it defnes similarity in hydraulic processes in both cases. Tis similarity underlies of possible data exchange between GK and karst in soluble rocks in the feld of cavities origin and evolution. Distinctions of processes occurred in limestone and in ice are determined, frst of all, by various physical properties of ice and rocks. Density of ice is 917 kg/m3, density of limestone - 2500 kg/m3, heat conductivity of ice is 2.22 Wt/(m°K), heat conductivity of limestone - 0.9 Wt/(m°K), specifc thermal capacity of ice is equal 2,12 KJ/(kg°K), specifc thermal capacity of limestone - 2.5 KJ/(kg°K) (Shumskij, 1955, Dzidziguri et al, 1966). As we see, the basic distinctions between limestone and ice are shown in rocks density, which approximately in 2.5 times is higher for limestone, and in heat conductivity which approximately in 2.5 times is more for ice. Te last means that at identical heat arrival to both rocks, ice will heat up less than limestone. But it also means, that for cooling of ice and limestone on equal quantity of degrees, from the frst it is necessary to remove approximately in 2.5 times heat more than from the second. But the basic distinctions of processes occurring in limestone and ice are determined not by distinction in rocks thermophysical properties but by speed of their destruction. Terefore distinctions of processes in soluble rocks and in ice are determined by: speed of processes or speed of superfcial and internal forms development; du-ration of evolution cycle; abort of development in winter time; presence of ice movement; presence of ice plastic deformations; ability for ice to heal of crevasses and cavities; infuence of thermal conditions of ice; monolithness of ice, absence of some types of fssures in ice; diference of chemical process of rock dissolution from physical process of ice melting; channels displacement down-wards on glacier during evolution. Essential diference in physical properties of limestone and ice is shown in signifcant distinctions in be- 62 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 havior of drainage systems inside these rocks. But com-mon structure of internal drainage systems in both rocks allows to speak about similarity of evolution of internal drainage in both rocks at a level of system. Te ideological afnity of glacial hydrology with karst hydrology and speleology means not only afnity IMPORTANCE Of G Internal glaciers drainage study is necessary part of ni-val-glacial systems researches (Krenke, 1982). GK has complex infuence on glaciers. Investigations has shown that GK presence in glaciers cardinally changes physical ice properties, ice permeability for water, structure and chemistry of glacial runof, character of sediments remov-ing by water streams, separate characteristics of glaciers: water level position in diferent parts of glaciers, changes of cold ice layer thickness by ice warming around drainage channels. All these changes can be incentive reasons of numerous phenomena in glaciers: water outbursts, winter runof, changes in speed of ice movement, glaciers surges, accelerated deglaciation. At some stages of glaciers evolution (in particular in deglaciation period) GK begins to control practically all processes in ice thickness and many processes on glaciers surface, becomes deter-mining factor of glacier development. Without taking into account GK infuence on glaciers mistakes are possible in: 1) hydrological calculations; 2) hydrological processes modeling in glaciers; 3) results interpretation of majority of indirect methods of GK study (dye tracing of waters, runof studying, defnition of throughfow time, runof chemistry suspense sediments transport, cold ice layer thickness measurements etc). If we do not know GK structure, it becomes not clear as wa-ter moves in ice thickness. If we shall not study GK: 1) an glaciers interior remain for us as «black boxes», 2) we shall irrevocably lose valuable scientifc information based on character of internal glaciers destruction; 3) we shall not understand many processes in glaciers. Only expensive ice drilling or study of glaciers wa-ter runof regime usually give information about glacier internal structure. GK drainage channels researches al-low us: a) to receive direct information about glacier structure, to make large crevasses survey, to establish presence and amplitudes of ice replacement on them afer time of cavities formation; b) to take ice samples of any size from necessary depths for diferent purposes (defnition of permeability, durability, water-saturation etc); c) to determine morphometric characteristics of cavities. Analysis and mathematical processing of mor- GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH in research methods of drainage systems in glaciers and limestone, but also afnity of theories describing drainage systems and their separate elements origin and evolution. for this reason many conclusions about GK structure and evolution are received by analogy to structure of drainage systems in limestone (Mavlyudov, 2006). CIAL KARST STUDy phometric parameters of GK drainage channels allow to receive statistically steady parameters of channels sizes and content of cavities in ice of separate glaciers and their parts. Analysis of plans and vertical cuts sections of separate cavities allows to determine main directions of crevasses and their connections with orientation of tension ellipsoid in separate parts of concrete glaciers. By statisti-cal analysis of the data about length of rectilinear sites of drainage channels it is possible to determine sizes and a confguration of ice blocks, to establish density of hydro-logically active crevasses inside these blocks. Usually hydrological research is possible only in catch and outfow areas of glacial waters. Application of karstological (speleological) methods allow to carry out hydrological research also in internal water transit zone - directly inside drainage systems. Researches of them allow: A) to establish position of water level (uniform hy-drostatic water level, isolated conduits, «double porosity» with various fltration properties for crevasse zones and internal parts of ice blocks with small quantity of fssures and crevasses). B) to establish structural and fltration anisotropy of glacier by realization of indicator experiments. C) to establish character of water movement (free, pressure head, laminar, turbulent) in various parts of drainage systems to receive settlement characteristics of water streams inside drainage systems (stream velocity water level, discharge, Reynolds and fraud numbers and so on) and glacier in whole (fltration index etc), to dismember hydrographers of springs (upwellings) at glaciers tongues (with allocation of dead volume in underground dammed and accumulative lakes) and curve of exhaustions (with allocation of various components of glacial runof). D) to coordinate seasonal changes of hydrodynami-cal parameters and temperatures of glacial water with data of meleorological and hydrological investigations on surface, with changes of springs discharges and with fuctuations of water levels in moulins and boreholes. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 63 BULAT R. MAVLyUDOV E) to receive diferential values of GK activity for diferent seasons and hydrodynamical zones of glaciers. GK study in future will allow to receive quantitative indicators of growth and dynamics of drainage channels in diferent glaciers and in diferent regions. With the help of these indicators in future, probably it will be pos-sible to make quantitative estimations not only for speed of origin and destruction of internal drainage systems, but also its role at diferent stages of glaciers evolution. further study of internal drainage will enable to explain mechanisms of such catastrophic glacial phe-nomena as outbreaks of glacial lakes and fast ice motion (surges). Detail study of an internal drainage will allow to understand GK evolution. It will enable to approach us to explanation of ancient glacial sheets destruction from quantitative positions. Research of GK together with others glaciological researches will allow to look in a new fashion at a role of water in glaciers. It will enable to explain both properties of ice and feature of glaciers (movement, metamorphism, degradation features etc). Investigations of glaciers drainage systems, laws of their origin and evolution during ablation season and long periods of time, and also in connection with con-ditions and structure of glaciers enables to coordinate among themselves combinations of superfcial and internal glaciers drainage systems. But also it is possible to solve inverse task on basis of drainage systems study to understand conditions of separate parts and of whole glaciers. It will allow in the future on the basis of GK study including remote sensing methods together with the control of glaciers tongues positions to receive more Tus forms and processes, which result in formation of karst relief (superfcial and underground) on glaciers can named GK. Despite of some distinctions determined ba-sically by ice properties, full similarity of superfcial and internal karst forms in ice and limestone is observed. It means, that GK may serve as model for calcareous karst and on contrary. It is especially important as speeds of formation and evolution GK in millions times is higher than at calcareous karst. But we need take into account full, wide and trustworthy information not only about a structure and a condition of many glaciers of a planet, but also character and tendencies of regional climate change. Isomorphism of GK and karst allow to use achieve-ments in research of one of karst type for fnding out of development laws for other karst type. Calcareous karst is now enough well investigated. It means that laws of limestone karst development may be used for fnding out corresponding laws in GK. And this «laws conversion» is possible without entering serious corrections (in view of time diference of drainage systems formation, and also in view of special properties of ice: fuidity and plastic-ity). It results now and will result in future progress in GK study including glaciers internal drainage. But it means also that many laws received at GK study may be used without very serious changes at researches of calcareous karst. It is especially tempting because of diferent speed of karst forms origin in limestone and ice (many hundreds thousands years for limestone karst and from several months to several years for GK). It means pos-sibility not only directly observe origin of karst forms in glaciers of diferent regions with various climate, to carry out their exact measurements or even to put some types of experiments. It means GK may serve as natural model of calcareous karst. Certainly, not now, not in the future it will be impossible automatically to transfer laws of origin of separate forms from one karst type to another. But it does not mean that in general it will be impossible to take advantage from it. Hope therefore is quite competent that big interest, which has originate recently to GK study, in future will result in progress of calcareous karst study diference between ice and rocks and processes of chemical rocks dissolution and physical ice melting. GK also defnes a lot of processes on glaciers: change in thermal ice conditions, maintenance of fast water delivery in ice thickness, water-contents changes in ice, ice properties changes, maintenance of glacier surges, outbursts of gla-cier-dammed lakes etc. Terefore GK study has the big prospects in future. 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