43 DOI: 10.4312/mz.58.1.43-59 UDK 783:784:23(594.61) Musical Ritual and Ritual Music: Music as a Spiritual Tool and Religious Ritual Accompaniment Brita Renée Heimarck Boston University ABSTRACT This article explores music as a religious ritual accompaniment within the realm of Balinese Hinduism in Bali, Indonesia, and the spiritual dimensions of music as a “tool” and a “ritual” in itself, within the Hindu-based Siddha Yoga practices and philosophies of sacred sound and the devotional worship of arati. Keywords: musical ritual, spiritual tool, sacred sound practices, arati, gender wayang IZVLEČEK Članek proučuje glasbo kot spremljavo verskega obreda v okviru balijskega hinduizma na Baliju v Indoneziji. V okviru na hinduizmu utemeljenih Siddha joga praks ter filozofij svetega zvoka in obrednega čaščenja v pesmih zvrsti arati raziskuje duhovne dimenzije glasbe, ki je sama po sebi »orodje« in »obred.« Ključne besede: glasbeni obred, duhovno orodje, študije svetega zvoka, arati, gender wayang MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 43 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 43 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lviii/1 44 Introduction Guy Beck (1993, 2006, 2013) has provided years of serious scholarship on sacred sound and ritual music practices in India and within Indian traditions generally. While building on the foundational work of Beck, Lewis Rowell (1992), and Joyce Irwin (1983), this article applies Indian concepts of sacred sound and ritual music practices to new locations and new areas of research. This study explores music as a religious ritual accompaniment within the realm of Balinese Hinduism in Bali, Indonesia, and the spiritual dimensions of music as a “tool” and a “ritual” in itself, within the Hindu-based Siddha Y oga practices and philosophies of sacred sound and the devotional worship of arati. In this article I distinguish between ritual music generally (music that ac- companies a ritual or ceremony) and a distinctly musical ritual to denote sacred text and sacred music that functions as a fundamental aspect of the ritual itself. To this end I investigate the sounds of arati 1 – often used to honor a teacher within a Hindu, Buddhist, or yogic lineage – as a case study of music that func- tions as a ritual, or in other words, a musical ritual. In fact, this delineation of terms – between ritual music and a musical ritual – provides a key incentive for comparing these two case studies. Arati has an inner dimension facilitated by musical devotion (in both the music and the text it supports), whereas the more ritualistic culture of Bali may cause practitioners to focus directly on the ritual elements and ceremonial requirements needed to complete a given religious, human, or spiritual obli- gation, rather than concentrating on the inner transformation it affords. Of course, there are exceptions. When the spirit or soul of a deceased person in Bali is accompanied by gender wayang music 2 during a cremation procession, then transition and transformation from one place and one state to another is paramount. In addition, certain theatrical performers in Bali such as dalang (shadow play puppeteers) may engage in spiritual practices in order to develop taksu, a kind of divine charm that enables them to keep their audiences enrapt from the beginning to the end of a performance. However, these spiritual prac- tices by individual performers may not involve instrumental music but rather prayer, meditation, or mantra repetition. By contrast, the widespread use and expectation of the instrumental gender wayang ensemble to facilitate or accom- pany rites of passage ceremonies in Bali is a factor that assists in and enhances the performance of such ritual ceremonies. The association of the ensemble 1 Arati is a devotional hymn with a refrain and multiple stanzas that honor one’s teacher. The per- formance of arati provides a “means for the enactment of devotion” and may be “evocative of the inner experience that the gurus extend to devotees” (Brooks et al. 1997, 298). 2 Gender wayang refers to both the ensemble and the shadow play music in Bali, Indonesia, where gender is a ten-keyed metallophone performed in pairs of two or four instruments, and wayang refers to both the shadow play theater in Indonesia, and the shadow play puppets. Wayang kulit indicates carved leather puppets typically used in Balinese shadow play performances. MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 44 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 44 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 Brita Renée Heimarck: Musical Ritual and Ritual Music... 45 and its repertoire with religious culture of a ceremonial nature accords it a sacred connotation that differs from its usual association with shadow puppet theatre, even though wayang (the shadow play) is also performed predomi- nantly for temple festivals so the sacred context is not lost even when wayang is performed at Odalan (temple anniversary festivals) as a form of evening entertainment (Heimarck 2003, 71). 3 In this article, I discuss the concept of music as a “tool” in religious or spir- itual contexts. For those on a spiritual path, music can function as a “spiritual tool,” a religious tool, a ceremonial tool, a ritual tool, or a tool of emancipation, transformation, or consciousness-raising. In addition to focusing on music as a spiritual tool, and music as an accompaniment to religious ceremonies, I will define the potential for music – including the recitation of sacred text – to serve as a ritual in itself, as a musical ritual. I will discuss the musical ritual that embodies devotion known as arati within Hindu, Buddhist, and yogic tradi- tions in South Asia, East Asia, and diasporic or transplanted traditions in new locations. I will also investigate music that accompanies rites of passage in Bali, Indonesia, namely the gender wayang accompaniment to tooth-filing ceremo- nies, weddings, and cremation ceremonies. 4 Music or mantra repetition in the context of meditation, or group chanting in the context of satsang (a program within a Hindu-based tradition) will complete this exploration of music as a religious, ceremonial, and spiritual tool embodying inner and outer devotion, transition, and transformation. 5 Changing Geographies of Religion In “Global Shifts, Theoretical Shifts: Changing Geographies of Religion,” ge - ographer Lily Kong (2010, 756) makes note of new approaches to the study of religion such as “different sites of religious practice beyond the ‘officially sacred,’ different sensuous sacred geographies.” These are just some of the post- secular developments that call for our attention as scholars. The current article investigates arati practices that may occur in a yoga center located in an urban building reconstructed to serve as a music and meditation hall. These new it- erations of yogic practices occurring in the United States over the past forty to 3 See individual performers’ accounts in Balinese Discourses on Music and Modernization: Village Voices and Urban Views (Heimarck 2003). 4 These social ceremonies and rites of passage occur within the broader context of Balinese religion, known as Agama Tirtha (the Religion of Holy Water), which is a unique form of Hinduism prac- ticed in Bali. 5 Roy Rappaport (1999, 25) notes that just as “all ritual is not religious, not all religious acts are ritual.” The same holds true for ceremonies. While all religions have ceremonies and rituals, not every religious act constitutes a ceremony or ritual, and not all ceremonies or rituals are religious. There are secular ceremonies, such as political inaugurations; there are social ceremonies such as birthdays and anniversary celebrations; there are economic rituals or ceremonies such as a certain number of years acknowledged at a job, and so on; these are not religious. MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 45 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 45 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lviii/1 46 fifty years represent “different sites of religious practice […] different histori- cal and place-specific contexts […] and different constituents of population” (Kong 2010, 756), and assist in our understanding of postsecular strategies in the U.S. Theory and Practice One fundamental trait that ritual practices and yogic traditions have in com- mon is the intention to put theory into practice. Within these practices, the outer physical ritual act also includes an inner experience. Thus, there is a three-part cycle of theory, practice, and experience. 6 Yogic theories and phi- losophies concerning inner sounds and sacred resonances can be found in the Hatha Yoga Pradipika of the fifteenth century, and earlier treatises of South Asia, where “bells, drums, thunder, the conch, and the primordial sound AUM” describe “the divine sounds [known as Nada] that arise from within during meditation” (Siddhananda 2014, 2). While these inner sounds clearly derive from an inner source, it is notable that several of the instruments mentioned may be sounded during the outer ritual worship known as arati, and their vi- brations are believed to have a “purifying effect on the mind and body” (SYDA Foundation 1996, 1). 7 Putting yogic theories and philosophies into practice, enabling a direct ex- perience of and union with God or the inner Self is the goal of yoga 8 and connects closely with Tantric aims and practices as well. According to S. K. Ramachandra Rao (1979, 21) in Tantra Mantra Yantra: The Tantra Psychology , Tantra can be seen as the “translation of theory into practice.” Shankara 9 is considered the great unifier who brought Vedic wisdom and theories of the cosmos together with Tantric traditions and practices that were contemplative and focused on the individual. Consequently, most monistic tantras believed that Reality is simultaneously transcendent and immanent (Rastogi 1979, 38). Further to this merging of Vedic influence with Tantric tradition, in Shankara’s 6 This cycle then returns as experience informs theories, which may change or adapt and be inte - grated into the practices of ritual. 7 For example, bells, conches, and drums may precede or accompany the sung prayer (SYDA Foun- dation 1996, 1). Thus, certain instruments are performed as part of the outer ritual, while also evoking the inner sounds known as Nada or sacred sound that may arise “from within during meditation” (Siddhananda 2014, 2). 8 Aubrey Menen (1974, 101) translates the term ‘yoga’ as ‘a bridge,’ “with the understanding that it is a bridge to learning about the true self.” He notes that “The sages of the Upanishads did not set up a religion. They had no God. ‘Brahman’ was not the name of deity: it was the name of some- thing you discovered in your self ” (Menen 1974, 113). 9 Another transliteration from Sanskrit into English for Shankara is Samkara, as used by Rao. For consistency, I have relied on the common English usage of the name Shankara for this renowned figure, now believed to have lived between 788 and 820 C.E., though there is still some debate concerning his dates. MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 46 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 46 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 Brita Renée Heimarck: Musical Ritual and Ritual Music... 47 interpretation of the philosophical school of Advaita-vedanta, 10 “Advaita was not meant to be a mere intellectual discipline; it was not only an approach to Reality (a darsana) but a means to reach it (an upasana)” 11 (Rao 1979, 21). There are deep intersecting and overlapping threads connecting Tantric Saivism, Sakta Tantra (Goddess/es), and Vaisnavite Tantric thought and prac- tices with yogic practices of sacred sound. 12 For example, in India and the West today, Siddha Yoga ashrams incorporate many Hindu ceremonies, hymns, and ritual worship such as arati into their daily schedule, as well as meditation and contemplation. In yogic sacred sound practices, Hindu, Buddhist, and tantric traditions, recitation of sacred mantras is a means to assist the practitioner in reaching the goal of liberation. 13 Within tantric and yogic concepts of sacred sound, mantra represents a sonic threshold into a deeper form of body aware- ness, and a pathway to enlightened states of consciousness. 14 10 According to the Introduction by Debabrata Sinha (1983, xvi) to The Metaphysic of Experience in Advaita Vedanta: A Phenomenological Approach “the Advaita school of Vedanta, founded by ´Sankara, and followed up, developed, and ramified by post-´Sankara authors through the centu- ries (from ninth century A.D. onward), is generally represented as a full-fledged metaphysics of Being. Its uncompromising monistic doctrine is singularly focused on the concept of Absolute, that is Brahman, the all-engulfing ultimate.” “The very equivalence of the highest Reality with the essence of consciousness – Sat that is Cit – promotes a unique dimension to the Advaitic ontol- ogy” (Sinha 1983, xviii); where sat refers to existence or Being, and cit indicates Consciousness or pure Consciousness (Sinha 1983, xvii). 11 Shankara also recognized that Sankhya was styled as a ‘tantra’ (Rao 1979, 16–17). Broadly speaking, Tantrism is present in Sankhya-Y oga, Ayurveda and the early Upanishadic texts (Rao 1979, 14–15). 12 In A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English John Grimes (1996, 314) provides several definitions for ‘Tantra’: “rule; ritual, scripture; religious treatise; loom; warp (from the root “tan” = “do in detail” + “tra” = “to protect”).” I will cite three of the five definitions for ‘Tantra’ provided by Grimes (1996, 314–315), as they relate to some of the texts and topics under discussion: “1. As religious treatises, they are usually in the form of a dialogue between ´Siva and ´Sakti. Sometimes they are referred to as the ‘fifth Veda.’ They posit an esoteric spiritual dis- cipline which worships ´Sakti, the creative power of the Absolute, as the Divine Mother through the practice of rituals, mantras, and yantras. The goal of tantra is attaining Self-realization through Kundalini awakening and through uniting the two principles, ´Siva and ´Sakti. Tantras are di- vinely revealed scriptures revealing the secrets of knowledge, meditation, and devotion to the guru, and practices for the attainment of Self-realization. […] 4. They are practical treatises on religion. By means of worship of images (arca), diagrams (yantra), repetition of mystic syllables (mantra), and meditation (upasana), they provide courses for developing the hidden, latent power in indi- viduals leading to realization. They may also be used for attaining worldly desires. 5. An initial characterization of tantric texts is a text which presents itself as revealed without attaching itself in any way to the Veda. A second aspect of tantra is that it has a strong reaction against Upanishadic renunciation. It strives for both liberation (mukti) and enjoyment (bhukti). Third, tantra establishes a series of correlations between human beings, the universe, the gods, and rituals. Finally, tantra stresses the centrality of the goddess or divine power (´Sakti) in all its forms.” 13 In From the Finite to the Infinite, vol. 1, Swami Muktananda (1989, s.v. “mantra”) defines “mantra” as “sacred words or sounds invested with the power to protect and transform the one who repeats them; the sound body of God.” It is important to recognize here that mantra may refer to both sacred words and sacred syllables. 14 Whether through chanting or meditating on or with these mantras, these sacred sounds – inner or outer – are believed to be efficacious. For example, Siddha Yoga meditation intensives frequently MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 47 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 47 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lviii/1 48 Music as a Spiritual Tool Most religious ceremonies, especially lengthy ones, require some form of mu- sical accompaniment; but beyond this primary religious role, music also acts as a spiritual tool in many traditions. Let us consider what is meant by the term “tool.” Certainly, musical instruments may serve as ritual tools in certain contexts; for example, percussion instruments such as conches and idiophones (rattles, shakers) enliven particular South Asian arati chants and may be seen to function as ritual tools in this setting, since I am defining arati as a ritual, and these percussive sounds are required accompaniments to this ritual in par- ticular cases of arati chants. In these instances, the percussion enhances the effectiveness of the chant. But let me return to my use of the term “tool” in this investigation. What do I mean by a “spiritual tool”? A tool may be defined as a device or implement, thing, or even person used to carry out a purpose. For example, tools of one’s trade would be things used in an occupation or pursuit. In a religious or spir- itual context, we might find tools used to further spiritual goals, for example incense, sounds or silence for meditation, and so on. I suggest that music and mantra are tools – things used to carry out a spiritual purpose – that further the goals of ceremonial events and spiritual illumination within the Hindu-based traditions of Bali, Indonesia and South Asian tantric and yogic traditions prac- ticed in diverse locations. 15 Music as Ritual Action or Ritual Performance Beyond ritual or spiritual tools, I would also like to consider ways in which music may constitute a ritual action or ritual performance. In “The Many Di- mensions of Ritual,” Marc Verhoeven examines different definitions for ritual, noting the ideas of archaeologists Colin Renfrew and Evangelos Kyriakidis who defined ritual as “practices that are time-structured and involve perfor- mance, with the repetition of words and actions in formalized ways” (Renfrew 2007, 109–110; quoted in Verhoeven 2011, 116); “an etic category that refers to set activities with a special (not-normal) intention-in-action, and which are specific to a group of people” (Kyriakidis 2007, 294; quoted in Verhoeven 2011, 116). After noting certain key attributes of ritual, Verhoeven (2011, 118) offers his own definition with regard to the form of rituals: engage in chanting the Names of God through short-text chants known as namasankirtana, and may also chant the core mantra of this lineage to lead into meditation. 15 For a history of tantric thought and influences as well as aesthetics in medieval Java (eighth through sixteenth centuries C.E.), in addition to the influx of Sufi Islam and later more orthodox ideologies see Becker (1993). MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 48 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 48 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 Brita Renée Heimarck: Musical Ritual and Ritual Music... 49 I define ritual as performances which are distinguished in both space and time, marked by explicit material and immaterial symbolism, often (but not always) related to the supernatu- ral, in which behaviour is guided and restricted by tradition, rules and repetition […]. With regard to function and meaning I propose that rituals are practices in which symbolic com- munication serves to establish relationships between humans and/or supernatural beings. Within practice-based approaches to ritual, Verhoeven (2011, 122) notes that “ritual is social action.” Humphrey and Laidlaw (1994; quoted in Verhoeven 2011, 123) further clarify that “ritual is a quality that actions can come to have.” Most importantly, it is “through ritual action that religious beliefs are commu- nicated, negotiated, and transmitted” (Verhoeven 2011, 126). In Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice, Catherine Bell ([1992] 2009, xv) notes the tendency to cast ritual “as action in opposition to thought and theory,” with a concentration on ritual performances. She later clarifies that action and thought are integrated in ritual; you cannot have action divorced from thought in human activity (Bell [1992] 2009, 23). Therefore, ritual action involves both action and thought; clearly this enables an interdependence between the prac- tices of ritual and the meanings attributed to the text, music, and ritual actions. If we combine the key contributions of Renfrew and Kyriakidis above, we could define ritual as “practices that are time-structured and involve perfor- mance, with the repetition of words and actions in formalized ways” (Renfrew 2007, 109–110), often meant to foster a special intention that is “specific to a group of people” (Kyriakidis 2007, 294). Clearly arati as a musical form of worship involves practices that are time- structured and involve performance, with the repetition of words and actions in formalized ways; and it is meant to foster a special intention that is specific to a group of people, that of honoring their teacher and connecting to the di- vine in some form through this ritual act. Therefore, the performance of arati by the musicians, chanters, and devi – the ritual practitioner who is waving the tray, often seen as an embodiment of the goddess – would appear to be a ritual performance, and thus a ritual act. While rules and regulations or specifications are often noted in diverse forms of rituals, there is no question that the performance of arati follows some formal constraints. There are specific melodies played for a set period of time; there are certain instruments involved as well as chanters that may be divided into lead and response; or in the case of “Sadguru Ki Arati” following recitation of the Guru Gita in Siddha Yoga, each verse begins with the women chanting the first two lines, followed by the men chanting the same two lines of text, then the remainder of the verse and the refrain are chanted all together. In addition, symbolic objects are held and waved by the ritual practitioner. In this and other ritual performances, the music creates a sense of time and space through the enactment of sound over a select period of time; it also allows for the presence MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 49 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 49 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lviii/1 50 of sound within distinct spatial boundaries. 16 At the same time, in many musi- cal rituals and in the case of arati, texts expressing spiritual beliefs are chanted along with the musical accompaniment, adding to the complex symbolism of this ritual event. 17 Beyond these formal considerations, in their Introduction to Music and Rit- ual: Bridging Material and Living Cultures, Raquel Jimenez Pasalodos, Rupert Till, and Mark Howell (2013, 19) define “ritual as a human action linked with religious beliefs or spiritual needs.” Music performed as a fundamental compo- nent of a sacred ritual may be interpreted as a human action tied to the realms of religion and spirituality. By this definition, the music for arati fulfills the role of a ritual and might be further defined as a musical ritual, especially when the instrumental accompaniment and sung text provide the primary means of ex- pressing a set of religious beliefs or realizing particular spiritual needs. Ritual performances might include additional human actions beyond the musical and/or textual performance, including gestures, as well as material ob- jects required for certain ritual acts; nonetheless, the music and sung or recited text plays a significant part. In some instances, such as arati, the other ritual acts – such as waving of the tray – could not take place without the music. I will give two case studies from my own fieldwork. One represents ritual music in Bali, Indonesia, where the music accompanies a religious ceremony but is not absolutely required – the cremation procession, wedding, or tooth- filing will occur regardless of the music, though the gender wayang accompani- ment is the preferred musical accompaniment for these ceremonies in Bali. 18 The second case study concerns the devotional hymn known as arati, which I refer to as a musical ritual because of the central importance of the music and chanted text to the meaning and experience of the ritual itself. 19 Case Example I: Balinese Cremation Ceremony Rites of passage are one category of ritual action noted by Bell ([1997] 2009), also known as life-cycle rituals: birth, puberty rituals, marriage, and death 16 When you close the doors to a music hall for example, the sounds may be contained within those spatial boundaries, but if you open the doors or windows to that space, the sounds may travel be- yond those borders. 17 Once again, action and thought – music and text – are combined in this musical ritual. For puja (worship) certain elements may be placed on a tray that is waved during arati. For example, flow- ers, a small lamp, candle, or tea light, yellow turmeric, rice, and red Kumkum or red turmeric pow- der. These are symbolic offerings to the deity, image, or guru, and to the inner Self. In addition, offering water and food may be part of a puja ritual worship (see Beck 2012, s.vv. ‘Arati,’ ‘Puja’). 18 The author has conducted more than three years of fieldwork in Bali over multiple visits of varying lengths (1985–1987, 1988, 1990, 1994, 1996, 2006), studying the complex, sacred ceremonial mu- sic of gender wayang with the virtuoso musician Bapak I Wayan Loceng in the village of Sukawati. 19 The author has participated in and researched Siddha Yoga music and conducted interviews on peoples’ experiences since 1989. MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 50 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 50 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 28. 07. 2022 12:07:42 Brita Renée Heimarck: Musical Ritual and Ritual Music... 51 Figure 1: Author’s video footage of a cremation tower in Sukawati with gender wayang accompaniment. 20 (Verhoeven 2011, 118). My first example concerns Balinese ritual music, fo- cusing on the musical accompaniment to a high-status cremation ceremony in Bali where musicians may be asked to perform by sitting on a platform carried by dozens of men as part of an elaborate cremation tower. Two gender wayang 21 musicians may perform this sweet and haunting music while the procession carries the deceased from the family compound to the cremation grounds. In part, this depends on the availability of gender wayang musicians, 20 In the author’s video footage (Heimarck 2006) of a cremation tower in Sukawati with gender way- ang accompaniment you may notice the presence of marching gamelan music beleganjur playing at the same time. Beleganjur is a common accompaniment for Balinese cremation processions to the cemetery, and when performing alongside gender wayang on the cremation tower this helps to create the preferred aesthetic known as ramai, which means “busy, crowded, or hectic” refer- ring to the crowds of people and often noisy or loud overlapping of different types of music playing simultaneously. The video is available on the following link: https://drive.google.com/ file/d/1qasrQ-p7T8JxB--V5uCuiMgNO6XQSOEA/view?usp=sharing. 21 Gender wayang is a quartet of ten-keyed metallophones used in Bali, Indonesia to accompany the evening shadow play theater and many different ceremonies: weddings, cremations, tooth-filing ceremonies. There are two pairs of instruments tuned slightly apart to create a shimmering effect: two larger gender, and two smaller gender that sound an octave higher. Each pair has one person playing the polos or basic melody part, and one person playing the sangsih or counterpart. Each person plays with hard, wooden, round disc-tipped mallets one in each hand, and they dampen the keys as they play with the side of the palm. The metal keys are suspended over bamboo resonators that help to amplify this delicate sounding and intricate music. In the case of the cremation tower above, clearly only two gender players can fit on the cremation tower as a special setting for this music. In addition, in certain villages in North Bali and elsewhere they may perform this music with just two gender. MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 51 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 51 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lviii/1 52 because of the extreme difficulty of this particular genre of Balinese music; the width and size of the cremation tower, in order to provide room for the musi- cians; and the status of the deceased based on either social class or renown. For the cremation of my gender wayang teacher, the internationally respected performer Bapak I Wayan Loceng, in the village best known for the shadow play tradition, with family lineages representing more than six generations of gender wayang performers and dalang (puppeteers), clearly there were gender wayang players on the cremation tower. “The polos player sits on the left side of the tower, and the sangsih player sits on the right. In this way, gender wayang music is believed to accompany the soul of the dead person as it departs for the heavens” (Heimarck 2015, 16). The polos part represents the basic melody part with both hands interacting in various musical textures, and the sang- sih part represents the counterpart, often enhancing the polos melodies and rhythmic patterns with contrary motion, interlocking parts, and syncopation. Case Example II: Arati The second example I will consider is the chanting of a devotional text known as Arati Karun, 22 that relates to the wider practice of this devotional ritual in many parts of India, other parts of Asia, and recontextualized tra- ditions within the diaspora. Arati combines sacred devotional text that is chanted, with a gestural ritual in which a dedicated devi (goddess) or ritual practitioner waves a tray or ritual object with one or more lit flames and often additional ritual components. This combination of music and ritual in arati represents a unique form of musical devotion. The tray or ritual object is waved in front of the Guru, image, 23 or deity, up and around in a circular motion. This ritual worship honors the Guru or deity while asking them to awaken the fire of knowledge within. 24 This musical ritual combines ges - ture in a circular motion, light, and sacred text with musical accompaniment: 22 In Siddha Yoga the text for Arati Karun – listed in The Nectar of Chanting book as “Sadguru Ki Arati” – was written by a devotee of Baba Muktananda and this honorific hymn is practiced regu- larly within the Ashram schedule and is often a part of regular programs. The Arati Karun text is published in a book entitled The Nectar of Chanting along with the Guru Gita long-text chant, and many others. Some background to the scriptural and non-scriptural texts that inform Siddha Yoga has been provided in Meditation Revolution (Brooks et al. 1997, 298–299) as follows: “The Nectar of Chanting, first published by Shree Gurudev Ashram in 1972, is a compilation of texts that is the primary example of Siddha Yoga scriptural canon-making. Its sources are drawn from across the spectrum of the exoteric and esoteric canon of Hindu-based spirituality. Sometimes works are taken in their entirety, like the Visnu Sahasranama, or in part, like the so-called ‘Intro- ductory Mantras,’ the ‘Arati,’ and the ‘Upanishad Mantras,’ which come from a variety of sources and oral lore.” 23 For example, the Vedanta Society meeting hall located close to Boston University has been known to place the Sanskrit letters for AUM on the altar or puja. 24 Verse 23 of Sri Guru Gita notes that the Guru carries the disciple from the darkness (gu) of igno- rance, into the light (ru) of supreme knowledge and consciousness (Muktananda 1983, 13). MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 52 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 52 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 Brita Renée Heimarck: Musical Ritual and Ritual Music... 53 often harmonium (pump organ) accompanying the melody, and the North Indian tabla drums or the South Indian double-headed, barrel-shaped mri- dangam drum, as well as hand cymbals, and at times a conch and additional percussion punctuating the rhythmic cycle. Each verse returns to the refrain for the arati being sung. 25 Whereas there is only one – or occasionally several – ritual practitioners waving the tray in an arati worship practice, everyone else present will par- ticipate in singing the hymn honoring the teacher, deity, or guru, therefore the vast majority of participants in this musical ritual join in the musical portion, chanting the sacred text, but do not participate in the gestural choreography of waving the tray or dressing as a devi (goddess) or devotee in a given tradi- tion, as seen in the representative video of BAPS Swaminarayan new aarti. In fact, the ritual practitioner or arati devi will generally not sing at all; rather, they are focused on the inner dimensions of offering the chant to their teacher or mentor. 26 Different Hindu, Buddhist, or yogic communities may all have their own versions of arati performance or dress, and select musicians may accompany the chant in each given case, yet I have noticed that certain musical melodies that accompany arati may be used in more than one tradition, even when the text has been adapted or changed. There are also different versions of arati within individual communities, such as a morning arati, noon-time arati, or afternoon-evening arati that have different text, music, and percussive accom- paniments. However, an in-depth explanation of all these different chants is beyond the scope of this article that is more focused on arati as a spiritual tool and musical ritual. A large part of the power behind a musical ritual is the intention behind it, known in Sanskrit as sankalpa. If a person sets an intention – mental prayer, aim, or purpose – before they start to chant, they may have an even more powerful experience. 27 Traditionally, sankalpa refers to the intentionality of the guru (to make a certain scripture canonical (Brooks et al. 1997, 298, 300), to give a certain experience to a devotee, and so on). This is different from the in- tention of the devotee while engaging in spiritual practices; nonetheless inten- tionality is a key factor in creating an impactful experience. A distinction may also be made between group actions and intentions and “the internal feelings 25 For the text and translation into English of one version of arati see “Sadguru Ki Arati” (Muktan- anda 1983, 69–72). 26 To view an example of an arati perfomed by devotees of Swami Narayan see the BAPS Swami- narayan new arati video (Patel 2018), available on the following link: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=M0oH_EG7Jpc. 27 “A sacred chant is ´sabda brahman, God in the tangible form of sound. When we chant sincerely, it is like two mighty rivers – deity and disciple – coming together and creating a tremendous surge of spiritual energy and blessing. To further strengthen one’s participation in a sacred chant, one can make a sankalpa, an intention, before beginning” (“Chanting with Intention […]” 1997, 56). MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 53 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 53 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lviii/1 54 and imaginative concepts of the individual actor” (Munn 1973, 583; quoted in Bell [1992] 2009, 23–24). Yogic Traditions of Meditation and Inner Reflection On the more contemplative side, while sitting silently for meditation, some yo- gic practitioners may repeat mantras to themselves inwardly. This represents yet another dimension of sacred sound and the spiritual use of mantra or sacred syl- lables within the South Asian yogic tradition of meditation and inner reflection. Sacred sound that is unvoiced outwardly, still circulates powerfully within the inner realms of contemplation and meditation. Ajapa Mantra 28 or silent repeti- tion of mantras may occur within the inner spaces of the mind, representing the ancient spiritual discipline of unvoiced sacred sound in the Indian tradition. 29 Uses and Functions of Music John Kaemmer distinguishes between the uses and functions of music in differ- ent settings, and it might be worth considering these distinctions for a moment. Kaemmer (1993, 149–150) defines “uses” of music as the purpose or goal of including music in a particular event. By contrast, he defines “function” as the “consequences or results” of music in a given occasion. If I apply these definitions to the two case studies noted above, I could say that in the case of arati, the goal may be to honor one’s teacher or guru, but the function or consequence could be an inner experience of devotion through the actions of this musical ritual. In the case of Balinese gender wayang ritual music accompanying rites of passage ceremonies, the goal may be to accompany the individual, couple, or spirit through a transitional time from one phase of life to another, but the function or consequence of the gender wayang music may also be emotional support, aesthetic layering, and musical beauty and poignancy during an emo- tionally significant time, such as tooth-filing ceremonies (which metaphorically tame one’s animal nature by filing down the canine teeth, preferably before one gets married), weddings (which benefit from the delicate and often interlocking sounds of gender wayang), and cremation processions for a high caste or re- nowned person. All of these significant rites of passage in Bali rely on the beau- tiful and contrapuntally complex sounds of gender wayang ceremonial music. 30 28 Whereas ajapa mantra is unuttered, japa mantra refers to the repetition of mantras, or the recita- tion of the name of God. Japa mantra “may be practiced orally, whispered, or mentally” (Grimes 1996, 145). 29 The thirteenth-century treatise the Sangitaratnakara of Sarngadeva (Raja 1945, 10) notes the pres- ence of both Ahata and Anahata Nada, that is audible and inaudible sounds. 30 Kaemmer’s argument may be further illuminated by the following comparison: the intention of music in a religious ceremony or ritual may be to entertain the participants or audience and there- fore encourage them to attend the ritual or ceremony, but the actual consequence or function could be to move the participants on an inner, spiritual level and provide an inner experience of MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 54 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 54 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 Brita Renée Heimarck: Musical Ritual and Ritual Music... 55 In conclusion, what is clear from these investigations of the Hindu-based traditions of South Asia and the sacred music associated with rites of pas- sage ceremonies in Bali, Indonesia is that these sacred sound practices are re- quired or preferred for the South Asian devotional ritual known as arati, and as a religious ritual accompaniment for high-status cremation processions in Bali to accompany the soul to its ultimate destination. Furthermore, in tantric and yogic traditions, it is believed that sacred sound practices, including man- tra repetition, and the inner or outer experience of sacred sounds can lead to Self-realization. Music is one of the most powerful tools we know of in both religious and spiritual traditions to support, accompany, and enact the goals of spiritual realization, transition through rites of passage or states of consciousness, and inner transformation. Musical devotion plays a significant role in these emancipatory practices, and musical rituals are perhaps the most fundamental practice for devotional worship and to facilitate transformation, as sacred sound permeates the inner worlds and connects the practitioner and all those listening to the experiential embodiment of divinity through sound. In the case of arati, this divinity might be interpreted as the guru or renowned teacher of a tradition; knowledge, insights or experiences imparted by the Guru; a deity or protection of a deity; the inner Self; or sacred sound. In the case of the ritual accompaniment of gender wayang for a high-status Balinese cremation ceremony and procession, this sacred ceremonial music is believed to accompany and facilitate spiritual transformation for the deceased. While scholars have noted the loss of ritual in a “secular age” (Taylor 2007), or the “return of ritual” in popular music customs (Till 2013), this article seeks to address the role of music as a “spiritual tool” within certain ritual contexts that emphasize mystical union with God or the inner Self. References Beck, Guy L. 1993. Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound . Columbia, SC: The Univer - sity of South Carolina Press. Beck, Guy L., ed. 2006. Sacred Sound: Experiencing Music in World Religions. Waterloo, On- tario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. Beck, Guy L. 2012. Sonic Liturgy: Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition. Columbia, SC: The University of South Carolina Press. Becker, Judith. 1993. Gamelan Stories: Tantrism, Islam, and Aesthetics in Central Java. Mono- graphs in Southeast Asian Studies. Tempe, AR: Arizona State University, Program for Southeast Asian Studies. Bell, Catherine. (1992) 2009. Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice . New Y ork: Oxford University Press. Bell, Catherine. (1997) 2009. Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions. New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press. the ritual. Or it could be the reverse! The intention could be to move the audience to have a pro- found experience of the religion through music, but the actual function or consequence could be entertainment, or social value in the form of community. MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 55 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 55 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lviii/1 56 Brooks, Douglas Renfrew, Swami Durgananda, Paul E. Muller-Ortega, William K. Ma - hony, Constantina Rhodes Bailly, and S. P . Sabharathnam. 1997. Meditation Revolution: A History and Theology of the Siddha Yoga Lineage . South Fallsburg, NY: Agama Press, Muktabodha Indological Research Institute. “Chanting with Intention: A Selection of Experiences.” 1997. In Darshan in the Company of the Saints: The Recitation of Sacred Texts , edited by Ed Levy et al., 56–59. Tenth An - niversary Issue. South Fallsburg, NY: SYDA Foundation. Grimes, John. 1996. A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. New and Revised Edition. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Heimarck, Brita Renée. 2003. Balinese Discourses on Music and Modernization: Village Voices and Urban Views. New York: Routledge. 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Jiménez Pasalodos, Raquel, Rupert Till, and Mark Howell. 2013. “Introduction to the Vol - ume, Ritual Music and Archaeology: Problems and Perspectives.” In Music and Ritual: Bridging Material and Living Cultures, edited by Raquel Jiménez Pasalados, Rupert Till, and Mark Howell, 17–23. Publications of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeol- ogy. Vol. 1. Berlin: Ekho Verlag. Kaemmer, John E. 1993. “Uses and Functions of Music.” Music in Human Life: Anthropo- logical Perspectives on Music, 142–169. Austin: University of Texas Press. Kong, Lily. 2010. “Global Shifts, Theoretical Shifts: Changing Geographies of Religion.” Progress in Human Geography 34, no. 6: 755–776. Kyriakidis, Evangelos. 2007. “Archaeologies of Ritual.” In The Archaeology of Ritual , edited by Evangelos Kyriakidis, 289–308. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA. Menen, Aubrey. 1974. The Mystics . New York: The Dial Press. Muktananda, Swami. 1983. The Nectar of Chanting . South Fallsburg, NY: SYDA Foundation. Muktananda, Swami. 1989. From the Finite to the Infinite. Vol. 1. South Fallsburg, NY: SYDA Foundation. Munn, Nancy D. 1973. “Symbolism in a Ritual Context.” In Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology, edited by John J. Honigmann, 579–612. Chicago: Rand McNally. Patel, Nilesh. 2018. “New Aarti Jai Akshar Purshottam Jai Swaminarayan BAPS New Aarti.” YouTube video, 3:51. November 18, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=M0oH_EG7Jpc. Raja, C. Kunhan. 1945. Sangitaratnakara of Sarngadeva: Translated into English with De- tailed Notes. Vol. 1. – Chapter 1. The Adyar Library Series, no. 51. Adyar, Madras: The Theosophical Publishing House. Rao, S. K. Ramachandra. 1979. Tantra, Mantra, Yantra: The Tantra Psychology . New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann. MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 56 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 56 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 Brita Renée Heimarck: Musical Ritual and Ritual Music... 57 Rappaport, Roy A. 1999. Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity. Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press. Rastogi, Navjivan. 1979. The Krama Tantricism of Kashmir: Historical and General Sources . Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Renfrew, Colin. 2007. “Archaeology of Ritual, of Cult, and of Religion.” In The Archaeology of Ritual, edited by Evangelos Kyriakidis, 109–122. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA. Rowell, Lewis. 1992. Music and Musical Thought in Early India . Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Siddhananda, Swami. 2014. “Siddha Yogis’ Experiences of Nada, The Divine Inner Sounds.” Siddha Yoga Path online. Accessed June 23, 2022. https://www.siddhayoga. org/archives/2014/november/experiences-on-nada. Sinha, Debabrata. 1983. The Metaphysic of Experience in Advaita Vedanta: A Phenomenological Approach. Delhi and Varanasi: Motilal Banarsidass. SYDA Foundation. 1996. “Introduction.” In Arati. South Fallsburg, NY: SYDA Foundation. Taylor, Charles. 2007. A Secular Age. Cambridge, MA and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Till, Rupert. 2013. “The Return of Ritual: Sacred Popular Music Cultures and Cults.” In Music and Ritual: Bridging Material and Living Cultures, edited by Raquel Jiménez Pasalados, Rupert Till, and Mark Howell, 359–387. Publications of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology. Vol. 1. Berlin: Ekho Verlag. Verhoeven, Marc. 2011. “The Many Dimensions of Ritual.” In The Archaeology of Ritual and Religion, edited by Timothy Insoll, 115–132. Oxford and New Y ork: Oxford University Press. MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 57 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 57 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lviii/1 58 POVZETEK Glasbeni obred in obredna glasba: glasba kot duhovno orodje in spremljava verskega obreda Guy Beck (1993, 2006, 2013) se je vrsto let posvečal znanstvenim raziskavam svetega zvoka in obredne glasbene prakse v Indiji in znotraj indijskih tradicij. Pričujoči članek izhaja iz njegovega temeljnega dela ter iz del Lewisa Rowella (1992) in Joyce Irwin (1983), obenem pa indijske koncepte svetega zvoka in obrednih glasbenih praks aplicira na nove kraje in nova raziskovalna področja. Ta študija tako proučuje glasbo kot spremljavo verskega obreda v ba- lijskem hinduizmu na Baliju v Indoneziji. Pri tem raziskuje duhovne dimenzije glasbe, ki je sama po sebi »orodje« in »obred«, v okviru na hinduizmu utemeljenih Siddha joga praks ter filozofij svetega zvoka in obrednega čaščenja v pesmih zvrsti arati. Arati je nabožna himna na čast izbranemu učitelju z refrenom in več kiticami. Brooks in drugi (1997, 298) poudar- jajo, da izvedba aratija omogoča »način za udejanjenje pobožnosti« (»means for the enactment of devotion«) in lahko »prikliče notranjo izkušnjo« (»may be evocative of the inner experience«), ki jo guruji razširijo na vernike. Obredni fokus balijskega hinduizma uporablja sveto glasbo, kot je gender wayang (glasba senčnega gledališča) za spremljavo verskih obredov ali ceremonij obredov prehoda. Siddha joga kot jogijska disciplina pa sveti zvok – vključno z glasbo, notranjim ali zunanjim ponavljanjem manter, speve oz. petje dolgih besedil, himne in speve namasankirtana s kratkimi besedili, ki poveličujejo božja imena – uporablja ob zavestno izpeljani poti v samouresničenje. V članku zavestno razlikujem med obredno glasbo na splošno (tj. glasbo, ki spremlja obred ali ceremonijo) in natančno določenim glasbenim ritualom oz. glasbenim obredom, s čimer označujem péta sveta besedila in sveto glasbo, ki so bistveni del samega obreda. Na podlagi dveh v članku opisanih študij primera je predstavljena razlika med tema dvema izrazoma in obrednimi konteksti. S tem namenom najprej proučujem zvoke aratijev, ki so pogosto poklon učiteljem v hinduističnih, budističnih ali jogijskih tradicijah oz. linijah in so študija primera glasbe, ki sama deluje kot obred oz. glasbeni obred. Prvi primer glasbo pojmuje tudi kot du- hovno orodje, ki udejanja notranjo in zunanjo pobožnost oz. vernost. Druga študija primera se nanaša na balijsko ceremonialno glasbo za obrede prehoda in osvetljuje glasbo gender wayang kot sveto ceremonialno tradicijo, ki spodbuja prehod in zaključitev obreda. Medtem ko raziskovalci govorijo o izgubi obrednega v »posvetni« oz. »sekularni dobi« (»secular age«) (Taylor 2007) ali »vračanju ritualnega« (»return of ritual«) v običajih popularne glasbe (Till 2013), ta članek naslavlja vlogo glasbe kot »duhovnega orodja« znotraj določenih obrednih kontekstov, ki poudarjajo mistično zvezo z Bogom in notranjim jazom. MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 58 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 58 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 28. 07. 2022 12:07:43 Brita Renée Heimarck: Musical Ritual and Ritual Music... 59 ABOUT THE AUTHOR BRIT A RENÉE HEIMARCK (heimarck@bu.edu) is Associate Professor of Music at Bos- ton University. She obtained her PhD in Music at Cornell University. Heimarck has written several books on Balinese shadow play music: Balinese Discourses on Music and Modernization: Village Voices and Urban Views (2003); and a critical edition entitled, Gender Wayang Music of Bapak I W ayan Loceng from Sukawati, Bali: A Musical Biography, Musical Ethnography, and Critical Edition (2015). She has also explored the aesthetics of gender wayang in her book chapter entitled, “Waves of Emphasis and the Effects of Modernization in the Balinese Shadow Theater,” in Puppet Theater in Contemporary Indonesia: New Approaches to Performance- Events, ed. Jan Mrazek (2002). Heimarck specializes in music and mysticism; yogic traditions; Bali, Indonesia; India; theorizations of sacred sound; and sacred sound practices in the U.S. O AVTORICI BRIT A RENÉE HEIMARCK (heimarck@bu.edu) je izredna profesorica glasbe na Uni- verzi v Bostonu. Doktorirala je iz glasbe na Cornellovi univerzi v Ithaci v zvezni državi New York. Je avtorica več monografij o glasbi balijskega senčnega gledališča. Leta 2003 je izšla njena knjiga Balinese Discourses on Music and Modernization: Village Voices and Urban Views (Balijski diskurzi o glasbi in modernizaciji: Vaški glasovi in mestni pogledi), leta 2015 pa kritična izdaja z naslovom Gender Wayang Music of Bapak I Wayan Loceng from Sukawati, Bali: A Musical Biography, Musical Ethnography, and Critical Edition (Glasba gender wayang Bapaka I Wayana Locenga iz Sukawatija na Baliju: Glasbena biografija, glasbena etnografija in kritična izdaja). Estetiko gender wayang je raziskovala tudi v poglavju »Waves of Emphasis and the Effects of Modernization in the Balinese Shadow Theater« (»Valovi poudarkov in učinki modernizacije v balijskem senčnem gledališču«), ki je leta 2002 izšlo v knjigi Puppet Theater in Contemporary Indonesia: New Approaches to Performance-Events (Lutkovno gledališče v sodobni Indoneziji: Novi pristopi k performativnim dogodkom, ur. Jan Mrazek). Brita Hei - marck je specialistka s področij glasbe in misticizma, jogijskih tradicij in teoretizacij svetega zvoka ter strokovnjakinja za glasbo Balija, Indonezije in Indije, pa tudi praks svetega zvoka v Združenih državah Amerike. MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 59 MZ_2022_1_FINAL.indd 59 28. 07. 2022 12:07:44 28. 07. 2022 12:07:44