Letnik/Volume: 10 Številka/Number: 1
Maribor, marec 2017
REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE
THE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE ISSN 2350-4803 (splet), ISSN 1855-4431 (tisk)
THE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ISSN 2350-4803 (Online), ISSN 1855-4431 (Print)
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REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE THE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
Izdajatelj: / Publisher: Založba PEF, Pedagoška fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru in Univerza na Primorskem Pedagoška fakulteta
Uredniški odbor: /Editorial Board:
Dr. Renate Seebauer, Pedagoška visoka šola, Dunaj, Avstrija Dr. Ligita Stramkale, Univerza Lettlands, Riga, Litva Dr. Herbert Zoglowek, Visoka šola Finnmark, Norveška Dr. Maria Aleksandrovich, Akademia Pomorska w Slupsku, Poljska
Dr. Nevenka Tatković, Fakultet za odgojne i obrazovne znanosti, Sveučilište Jurja Dobrile u Puli, Hrvaška
Dr. Grozdanka Gojkov, Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitača »Mihailo Palov« Vršac, Srbija
Dr. Jelena Prtljaga, Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitača »Mihailo Palov« Vršac, Srbija
Ddr. Jürgen Kühnis, Pädagogische Hochschule Schwyz, Švica
Dr. Marie Fulkova, Pedagogicka fakulta, Univerzite Karlove, Praha, Češka
Dr. Vera Janikova, Pedagoška fakulteta Univerze Masaryk, Brno, Češka
Dr. Ljubica Marjanovič Umek, Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija
Dr. Janez Vogrinc, Pedagoška fakulteta Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija
Dr. Milena Valenčič Zuljan, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija
Dr. Mateja Pšunder, Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija
Dr. Rado Pišot, ZRS Univerza na Primorskem, Slovenija
Dr. Matjaž Duh, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija
Dr. Samo Fošnarič, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija
Dr. Jurij Planinšec, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija
Dr. Marko Marhl, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija
Dr. Branka Čagran, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija
Dr. Jerneja Herzog, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija
Dr. Tomaž Bratina, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija
Dr. Sonja Starc, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija
Dr. Silva Bratož, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija
Dr. Jurka Lepičnik Vodopivec, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija
Dr. Bogdana Borota, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija
Dr. Sonja Rutar, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija
Dr. Janja Plazar, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija
Dr. Darjo Felda, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija
Glavni in odgovorni urednik / Editor in Chief: dr. Matjaž Duh
Namestnica glavnega in odgovornega urednika / Deputy Editor in Chief: dr. Sonja Starc
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za angleško besedilo / English: mag. Mirko Zorman, dr. Michelle Gay Gadpaille za slovensko besedilo / Slovene: dr. Polonca Šek Mertük Naslovnico je oblikoval / The title page designed by: Bogdan Čobal, akad. slik.
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REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE / THE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Letnik / Volume: 10	Številka / Number: 1	Maribor, marec 2017
Revija je vpisana v razvid medijev.
REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE je indeksirana in vključena v bazo podatkov / THE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION is indexed and abstracted in: Co-operative Online Bibliographic System and Services (COBISS); Ulrich's Periodicals Directory; IBZ, Internationale Bibliographie der Zeitschriftenliteratur; EBSCO (EBSCO host databases and discovery technologies); DOAJ (Directory of Open Access Journals); Proquest; ERIH PLUS; dLib.si.
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VSEBINA/CONTENTS
Majda Schmidt Krajnc, Ksenija Seršen
Družine z otroki z motnjami v duševnem razvoju in kakovost življenja
Janez Kovač, Tanja Ščuka, Branka Čagran	19
Pogoji za inkluzijo v vzgoji in izobraževanju po oceni ravnateljev
Bojana Clobačnik	31
Raba samostalnika pri gluhih učencih in učencih s polževim vsadkom
Eva Kranjec	39
Perfekcionizem: prednost ali ovira za učenca?
Mateja Škalič, Milena Ivanuš Crmek	57
Stališča staršev do nacionalnega preverjanja znanja ob koncu drugega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja
Tina Štemberger	73
Etnografska raziskava na pedagoškem področju
Blaženka Bačlija Susić	85
Glasbena vzgoja in izobraževanje za vsakega otroka - ideal ali resničnost?
5
Nataša Rizman Herga, Samo Fošnarič	99
Usklajenost elementov šolskega interiera za poučevanje naravoslovja z nekaterimi antropometrijskimi parametri 11—12-letnih otrok
Tomaž Bratina	115
Zanimivost in uporabnost študijskih vsebin IKT — vidik bodočih učiteljev generacije Z
Polonca Šek Mertük	1127
(Ne)usvojeni cilji pravopisne zmožnosti v prvem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju
Splošno o reviji	141
Navodila avtorjem
General Information
Guidelines for Submission
143
Majda Schmidt Krajnc Ksenija Seršen
Quality of Life for Families of Children with Intellectual Disabilities
Original scientific article UDK: 159.922.76-056.313
ABSTRACT
The main part of the article presents the results of a recent empirical study about the quality of life for families in Slovenia that have a child with intellectual disabilities and other developmental disabilities. Using the FQOLS-2006, we analysed nine quality of life domains (Health, Financial Well-Being, Family Relationships, Support from Others, Support Services, Influence of Values, Careers, Leisure and Community Interaction) from the perspective of six measurement dimensions. The study also examines the differences among the measurement dimensions in the nine domains.
The sample consisted of 44 families. We used descriptive statistics and inferential statistics (Friedman test). The Family Relationships domain had the highest average rating of all measured domains regarding the quality of family life. The results in the domain of Support from Others are not encouraging, in particular the domain of Support from Services.
Families require powerful support programs from qualified professional teams as well as societal and political attention.
Key words: family quality of life, intellectual disabilities and other developmental disabilities, quality of life domains, quality of life dimensions
Družine z otroki z motnjami v duševnem razvoju in kakovost življenja
Izvirni znanstveni članek UDK: 159.922.76-056.313
POVZETEK
V osrednjem delu prispevka predstavljamo najnovejše rezultate raziskave o kakovosti življenja slovenskih družin z otroki z motnjami v duševnem razvoju in drugimi razvojnimi motnjami. Podatke smo zbrali s pomočjo mednarodnega vprašalnika FQOLS - 2006. Z vidika šestih dimenzij smo analizirali devet področij kakovosti družinskega življenja (zdravje; finančno stanje; družinski odnosi; podpora drugih oseb; podpora služb; vpliv vrednot; poklic in priprava za poklic; prosti čas in rekreacija; interakcija s skupnostjo). Preučevali smo tudi razlike znotraj dimenzij na področjih kakovosti življenja. Vzorec je zajemal 44 družin. V raziskavi smo uporabili deskriptivno in inferenčno statistiko (Friedmanov test). Med področji kakovosti življenja so starši z najvišjimi povprečji z vidika šestih dimenzij ocenili področje družinski odnosi. Skrb vzbujajo rezultati na področju podpora drugih oseb, še zlasti pa na področju podpora služb. Družine potrebujejo pomoč usposobljenih strokovnih timov in vključenost v intenzivne podporne programe ter tudi ustrezno družbeno in politično pozornost.
Ključne besede: kakovost življenja, motnje v duševnem razvoju in druge razvojne motnje, področja kakovosti življenja, dimenzije kakovosti življenja
Introduction
Raising a child with disabilities poses a considerable parental challenge at different periods of the parents' lives and entails responsibilities that surpass their abilities, as well as restricting their social lives (Lessenberry & Rehfeldt, 2004; Olsson & Hwang, 2002). Families often navigate within previously uncharted territory and must seek information about the diagnosis, interventions and education for their child (Iarocci, Virji-Babul, & Reebye, 2006).
Research (Gardiner & Iarocci, 2012; Hartley, Sikora, & McCoy, 2008; Shu 2009) has also shown the negative impact of the socially maladaptive behavior and behavioral deviation of children with autistic disorders on the well-being and mental health of parents and the quality of their lives. Low socio-economic and employment status likewise pose a risk that can reduce the quality of family life (World Health Organization, 2011). On the other hand, parenting a child with disabilities is not necessarily a negative experience for the family (Hoddap, 2007). Some studies have (Cuskelly, Hauser-Cram, & Van Riper, 2009; Hoddap, 2007) affirmed the resilience, strength, connection and coherence of families that have children with intellectual disabilities.
The ample literature also features claims that developmental and/or intellectual disability in an individual can influence the entire family (Reichman, Corman, & Noonan, 2008; Turnbull & Turnbull, 1997); that children with developmental disabilities are best taken care of in the context of family life (Parish et al., 2001); and that experts who actively collaborate with families can provide better support for the needs of children with disabilities (Brown & Wang, 2009). If families want to live a quality life and be competent in confronting the deficiencies and specific needs of a family member, they need a range of resources, particularly professional/emotional support, which can be formal (professionals, healthcare institutions, professional organisations etc.) or informal (relatives, friends, and non-professional sources of assistance) (Dunst & Trivette, 1986; Raina et al., 2005). We must not overlook the concern that society or the state should provide for the education, as well as the social, legal and health protection of individuals with disabilities and their families. Often, however, parents of children with disabilities feel dissatisfied with professionals who do not provide continuous intervention or who provide poor communication and limited service programs (e.g., the early education system) (Swick, 2004). In recent years, Family Quality of Life (FQOL) has become a construct that aims to consider a broader spectrum of family outcomes (Gardner & Iarocci, 2015). FQOL is defined as the conditions where the family's needs are met, and family members enjoy their life together as a family and have the chance to engage in activities that are important to them (Park et al., 2003).
The quality of life for families that have children with intellectual disabilities is an important holistic and multidimensional concept that influences policy-making, improves the functioning of professional services and enables a better life to individuals with intellectual disabilities and their families (Brown & Wang, 2009).
An international research team comprising researchers from Canada, Australia, Israel and the USA focused on conceptualizing family quality of life along six aspects or dimensions (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Attainment, Stability and
Satisfaction) of quality of life in nine main domains of family life (Health, Financial Well-being, Family Relationships, Support from Others, Support from Services, Influence of Values, Careers, Leisure and Community Interaction) (Brown & Wang, 2009). This team devised the "Family Quality of Life" (2006) questionnaire, which has been used in over 25 countries (e.g., the USA, Canada, Australia, Nigeria and many European countries, as well as some Asian countries such as Japan) (Rillotta et al., 2011).
The questionnaire was also used in the first survey in Slovenia about the quality of life for the families of children with intellectual disabilities (Čagran, Schmidt, & Brown, 2011; Schmidt & Kober, 2010). The main part of the present article reports the results of our most recent empirical study about the quality of life for families in Slovenia that have a child with both intellectual disabilities and other developmental disabilities (ID/DD).
The study also examines the differences among the measurement dimensions of family life (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Stability, Attainment and Satisfaction) within the nine domains.
Method
Participants
The sample was non-random and purposive. It comprised 44 Slovene families that have children with ID/DD. The families were from the eastern part of Slovenia. The major group in the sample were families living in the countryside or in small towns (61.4 %). 86.4 % of participants were members of two-parent families. The remaining 13.6 % were from one-parent families headed by mothers. All these children with ID/ DD lived at home with their parents.
Instrument and Procedures
The data was collected using the FQOLS - 2006 (Brown et al., 2006) survey for researching the quality of family life. The survey provided the basic data about the families and the data related to individual domains of life (Health, Financial Well-being, Family Relationships, Support from Others, Support from Services for people with ID, Influence of Values, Careers, Leisure, Community Interaction and in the Overall Quality of Life). Every domain with the exception of the Overall Quality of Life was rated from the point of view of six dimensions (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Attainment, Stability and Satisfaction) in intervals from 1 to 5; the Careers domain in an interval from 0 to 5.
The reliability of the survey used was good (rtt = 0.817), which was confirmed by the Cronbach alpha coefficient (a = 0.783).
Objectivity of the questionnaire was ensured through individual cooperation with the families because quantitative data from the nine domains of family life was supplemented by qualitatively obtained comments and opinions from and consultations with the parents.
Data analysis
Basic descriptive statistics was used to analyze individual domains of quality of life for families that have children with ID/DD (Mean, Standard Deviation, Minimum, Maximum value of an individual domain, Skewness and Kurtosis and Variability Coefficient (VC %) for the overall result of individual domain ratings).
The Friedman test was used to measure the differences between individual dimensions (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Stability, Attainment and Satisfaction) that were used to rate individual domains.
Results
Analysis of the measurement of individual domains of the quality of family life
Individual domains of the quality of life (Health, Financial Well-being, Family Relationships, Support from Others, Support from Services for people with ID, Influence of Values, Careers, Leisure and Community Interaction) were rated in terms of importance from the point of view of the six dimensions (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Stability, Attainment and Satisfaction), and the intervals used to rate the dimensions ranged from 1 to 5; for the Careers domain, it was from 0 to 5.
Table 1: Mean (standard deviation (SD), minimum (xmiJ and maximum (xmaJ value of the sum of dimensions for each individual domain, skewness (SKEW) and kurtosis (KURT) and coefficient of variation (CV %) of the overall result of the nine domain ratings
Domain	N	Mean	SD	Range		Coefficients		
				X min	X max	Skew	Kurt	CV %
Health	44	21.66	2.676	16.00	2700	-0.311	-0.108	12.35
Financial Well-being	44	19.45	2.672	14.00	25.00	-0.062	-0.520	13.74
Family Relationships	44	25.52	2.445	19.00	30.00	-0.514	-0.295	9.58
Support from Others	44	18.84	3.953	12.00	27.00	-0.155	-0.739	20.98
Support from Services	44	18.40	2.920	11.00	26.00	-0.161	0.406	15.87
Influence of Values	44	20.36	4.856	10.00	29.00	-0.230	-0.568	23.85
Careers	44	19.77	6.415	2.00	28.00	-1.376	1.551	32.45
Leisure	44	20.82	3.943	12.00	27700	-0.376	-0.367	18.94
Community Interactions	44	21.64	2.412	18.00	27700	0.075	-0.833	11.15
Skewness in the domains of Health (SKEW = -0.311), Financial Well-being (SKEW = -0.062), Support from Others (SKEW = -0.155), Support from Services (SKEW = -0.161), Influence of Values (SKEW = -0.230), Leisure (SKEW = -0.376) and Community Interactions (SKEW = 0.075) show a relatively symmetric distribution; in the domain of Family Relationships, distribution measures show the distribution results to be slightly asymmetric to the left (SKEW = -0.514). Kurtosis shows a normal-like distribution in the domains of Health (KURT = -0.108), Leisure (KURT = -0.367) and Family Relationships (KURT = -0.295), or a flat distribution in the domains of Financial Well-being (KURT = -0.520), Support from Others (KURT = -0.739) and the Influence of Values (KURT = -0.568). In the Support from Services domain, the distribution is leptokurtic (KURT = 0.406).
The two coefficients that stand out are the asymmetry coefficient in the Careers domain (SKEW = - 1.376), which shows that the distribution is asymmetric to the left, and the leptokurtic (KURT = 1.551), which has a cone-shaped distribution. This domain shows a trend towards a higher number of higher results. Skewness and kurtosis are highlighted in Careers, because distribution measures show results to be asymmetric to the left (SKEW = - 1.376) and also leptokurtic (KURT= 1.551).
If we consider the distribution of means for rating the domains from the point of view of the six dimensions (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Stability, Attainment and Satisfaction), the highest average appears in the Family Relationships domain ( = 25.52), followed by Health ( = 21.66), Community interaction ( = 21.64), Leisure ( = 20.82) and the Influence of values ( = 20.36) domains. Financial Well-being (=19.45), Support from Others ( = 18.84) and Support from Services ( = 18.40) have the lowest ranking. It should be pointed out that the ranking does not include Careers because this is not comparable. In all domains included in the survey, the values on the rating scale ranged from 1 to 5; however, for Careers, the scale ranged from 0 to 5, which is why the mean value was lower.
The lowest variability was 9.58% in Family Relationships. Standard deviation for this domain was 2.445. Community Interaction was next with a variability of 11.15% and a standard deviation of 2.412, followed by Health with 12.35% variability and a standard deviation of 2.676, Financial Well-being with 13.74% variability and a standard deviation of 2.672, Support from Services with 15.87% variability and a standard deviation of 2.920, Leisure with 18.94% variability and a standard deviation of 3.943. The highest variability appears in Support from Others, with 20.98%; Influence of Values, with 23.85% and Careers, with 32.45%. In these domains, the highest standard deviations were measured. Standard deviation for the Support from Others domain was 3.953; for Influence of Values, 4.856 and for Careers, 6.415.
From the point of view of the six dimensions (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Stability, Attainment and Satisfaction), the Family Relationships domain had the highest average rating (25.52) of all measured domains regarding the quality of family life.
87% of the parents were satisfied or very satisfied with relationships in the family, as many believed that all family members had many or very many opportunities to establish good relationships with everyone in this domain. They also put the most effort into this domain, and regard themselves as successful in this regard; in addition, good relationships provide them with more stability.
As many as 65.90% of the parents report that each family member does their best to take responsibility regarding daily obligations in their family. A few parents (25%) believe that one or two people take the most responsibility, in most cases the mother.
It can be concluded on the basis of their comments that these families confront the challenges and demands in different ways and rely on their inner strength and the bonds among them. They see themselves as active and competent in the domain of mutual relations, a finding which has been confirmed by other studies (Neely-Barnes & Dia, 2008).
The highest results in the "Family Relationships" domain in our study are comparable to those from a previous study about the quality of family life (Čagran et al., 2011) in Slovenia; those, however, were based on a smaller sample.
In addition to Family Relationships, high average results regarding the six dimensions were measured in the Health ( = 21.66) and Community Interaction ( =21.64) domains.
The parents rated the Health domain highly ( = 21.66), even though most of them (70.45%) commented that the physical and/or mental health of the member(s) of the family with ID did cause them great concern (e.g., epileptic seizures in children, constant pain in the stomach, digestion disorders, special diets etc.).
77.27% of the parents expressed considerable concern because of the physical and/ or mental health of other members of the family and a concern that they would not be able to provide the necessary care for the child.
They also reported that constant obligations and worries at home did have an effect on them (fatigue, exhaustion), and other health problems were also reported (e.g., back pain). Often the entire well-being of the family depended on the child's health problems. Some parents were worried about the future, the health condition of their child in the future and whether they would be able to provide the child with everything that he needed.
The families also rated the Community interaction domain highly ( = 21.64). As many as 63.6% of the families commented that they enjoyed living in their community; 31.8% enjoyed that very much and felt good within the community. Many families are members of the Sožitje and Sonček associations for people with disabilities. They also mentioned associations for hemophilia, celiac disease and autism, self-help groups etc. Other family members participate in various sports or excursion groups, fire-fighting and cultural associations.
Most parents (88.6%) stated that their family had experienced no form of discrimination in the community.
In contrast with Family relationships, Health and Community Interaction, the lowest average score from the point of view of the six dimensions was measured in the Financial Well-being ( =19.45), Support from Others (= 18.84) and the Support from Services ( = 18.40) domains.
In the Financial well-being domain ( =19.45), the majority of parents (61.36%) who participated in our survey described their total family income in Slovenia as average. 22.73% said that their family income was above-average, while 15.90% considered their income as below average. The parents reported that therapies available from international experts and the necessary devices were very expensive (in excess of 1000 eur). As many as 40.90% of the families spent 10-25% of their total income on special care, medication, assistance or equipment for the family member with ID; 15.90% of the families spent 26-50% of their total income; and 11.36% spent more than half (51% and more) of their total income, including all payments for special care, medication, assistance or equipment for the family member with ID.
56.82% of the parents believed that the family income mostly sufficed for their personal needs (e.g., food, clothing, accommodation etc.); however, 58.1% of the parents reported that after their household had paid for all the monthly expenses, no money was left for optional items, which was a financial deprivation for their family. More than 90% of the families also commented that they received no financial support from the services in addition to their monthly income.
Other authors (Parish et al., 2004; Sen & Yurtsever, 2007) have reported that families that have children with disabilities experience financial difficulties, even though they do not report major economic problems; they sacrifice only some commodities and holidays. It is necessary to point out the finding of NGOs in Slovenia that social security income is relatively low and does not meet all the needs of children with ID and their families. The social security system in Slovenia does take sufficient account of the greater needs of parents who have children with ID. They have also found that, regarding social security, institutionalized care means better protection than home care (Kukova, Zaviršek, & Urh, 2005).
The parents also rated rather low Support from Others ( = 18.84).
More than half of these parents (56.81%) commented that they received very little practical support from relatives and friends. 27.27% of the parents said that friends and neighbors provided little practical support; 11.36% of the parents said that they had
some support; and 4.54% that they had a lot of it. The comments revealed that the parents wanted more practical support from other people: "i think that relatives could offer more practical support. However, at the same time i understand their reservations. My husband and i know our children well and sometimes struggle to make it through the day. There are good days and there are bad days. Every day is unpredictable."
Parents provided varied answers regarding emotional support from friends and neighbors in the sense of being good listeners or providing encouragement.
29.54% of the parents commented that the level of emotional support was very low; 27.27% said that emotional support was low; 25% thought that there was some emotional support; 11.36% thought that emotional support was high; and only 6.82% of the parents reported that emotional support was very high. In addition, the parents pointed out that discussion with others rarely touched upon emotional problems or the emotional side of life and that they did not want to be unduly burdensome to others, which is why they preferred to talk about daily life or work. The parents also said that they enjoyed considerable emotional support from other parents with similar problems, with whom they are connected through various associations. Regarding private social life outside the family, 47.73% of the parents described this side of their lives as somewhat less satisfactory than they would like. 31.82% of the parents thought that the situation was worse than they would like, and 20.45% thought it was as they wanted.
The parents reported that they often lacked time for networking. Their comments included the following: "A feeling of guilt when enjoying one's own moments of happiness. it is hard when you know that someone is depending on you and you cannot leave them alone"
Regarding support from others, the results show that most parents sacrifice their own well-being for the benefit of the child and put it before their own needs.
International studies about the quality of family life have also found similarly low levels of support from others for families who have children with ID (Ajuwon & Brown, 2012; Steel et al., 2011; Zuna, Turnbull, & Summers, 2009).
The Support from Services domain, which is of vital importance for these families, was ranked the lowest ( = 18.40).
The parents from towns and villages (they comprised 61.4%) listed considerably fewer services as being available to them. They reported that no services were available in their hometown. Among the available services, they most frequently listed the following: social services, a legal office and special care/special education schools. The following services were next in frequency: assistance from the employment agency, institutions, hospital, family doctor, pediatrician etc. The parents listed a range of related services that they or their children had received, depending on the type and level of the child's disability. Among the available services, they most frequently listed the following: social services, special care/special education schools, and institutions. The families pointed out that there were not enough social services in their area; even if special services for people with ID existed, 37% of the parents said that these did not provide the necessary support.
The following were the types of support that they did not receive: physiotherapy, occupational therapy and special educators for autistic children. The following were the most frequently listed reasons why they did not receive needed support from services: the services are unavailable in our town; we do not know where to look for
support; the waiting periods are long, or the services do not provide enough support. The parents were most critical of services in terms of lack of information and the complexity of the support system: "We as parents are uninformed, we do not know all of our rights, we are often let down by experts, of whom there are not enough or they do not have the right expertise". "The support system in Slovenia is too complicated. Support for suchfamilies should be automatic. The current system is based on resourcefulness, research and a search for rights." Slovene experts have also highlighted the shortcomings of and problems with offering professional support to children with disabilities. They highlighted incomplete professional teams in the out-patient clinics, which lacked child psychologists, speech therapists and rehabilitation educators. In big cities (Ljubljana, Maribor), there are programs available through the centers for education of children with special needs; however, certain services are not available to those parents from more remote places (Opara et al., 2010).
The parents most frequently highlighted support from the special education schools that the children attended. They also mentioned the associations of which they were members.
Analysis of differences within the individual domains of family life
In this section, differences between the dimensions (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Stability, Attainment and Satisfaction) were rated within individual domains of family life (Health, Financial Well-being, Family Relationships, Support from Others, Support from Services, Influence of Values, Careers, Leisure and Community Interaction).
Table 2: Results of the Friedman test of differences between the dimensions (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Stability, Attainment and Satisfaction) within the domains
Domains	Dimensions	Friedman test		
		Average range	X2	P
Health	Importance	5.53	106.698	0.000
	Opportunities	2.19		
	Initiative	3.24		
	Stability	4.10		
	Attainment	2.53		
	Satisfaction	3.40		
Financial Well-being	Importance	4.80	86.808	0.000
	Opportunities	2.53		
	Initiative	4.84		
	Stability	2.89		
	Attainment	2.99		
	Satisfaction	2.95		
Family Relationships	Importance	4.68	110.106	0.000
	Opportunities	3.57		
	Initiative	3.82		
	Stability	3.91		
	Attainment	1.51		
	Satisfaction	3.51		
Domains	Dimensions	Friedman test		
		Average range	X2	P
Support from Others	Importance	4.83	54.326	0.000
	Opportunities	2.97		
	Initiative	3.88		
	Stability	2.49		
	Attainment	3.28		
	Satisfaction	3.56		
Support from Services	Importance	5.28	75.917	0.000
	Opportunities	2.70		
	Initiative	3.22		
	Stability	2.73		
	Attainment	3.40		
	Satisfaction	3.67		
Influence of Values	Importance	4.15	24.022	0.000
	Opportunities	3.23		
	Initiative	3.47		
	Stability	3.38		
	Attainment	2.84		
	Satisfaction	3.94		
Careers	Importance	4.78	45.706	0.000
	Opportunities	3.41		
	Initiative	3.51		
	Stability	3.24		
	Attainment	2.58		
	Satisfaction	3.48		
Leisure	Importance	5.09	73.009	0.000
	Opportunities	2.83		
	Initiative	4.01		
	Stability	3.05		
	Attainment	2.58		
	Satisfaction	3.44		
Community Interaction	Importance	4.56	72.397	0.000
	Opportunities	3.40		
	Initiative	3.82		
	Stability	3.53		
	Attainment	1.97		
	Satisfaction	3.73		
Table 2 reveals that statistically significant differences do exist between the dimensions (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Stability, Attainment and Satisfaction) in all domains (Health, Financial Well-being, Family Relationships, Support from Others, Support from Services, Influence of Values, Careers, Leisure and Community Interaction).
In all nine domains, the Importance dimension was rated the highest, which suggests that parents were aware of the importance of all domains for the quality of
life of their family. The Importance domain is the most prominent, in particular in the Health, Support from Services and Leisure domains.
The Opportunities and Attainment dimensions were evaluated lowest, and the Initiative and Satisfaction dimensions lower than Importance; however, still more than the Opportunities and Attainment dimensions. It can be concluded that parents have tried to change the family situation, on the one hand, but, on the other, the opportunities were limited and attainment was poor, which is why satisfaction with the results has not been what they wanted or expected.
The parents reported that they had the most opportunities in the Family Relationships, Careers and Community Interaction domains, and the fewest in the Health, Financial Well-being and Support from Services domains. Even though parents perceived few opportunities in the Financial Well-being domain and satisfaction was lowest in this domain, they had nevertheless tried to improve the situation because they made the most initiatives in this domain. It is more worrying that in the Health and Support from Services domains, where they saw few opportunities, the fewest initiatives were made to improve the situation. It can be concluded that these parents no longer believed or had hope that positive change and improvement were possible in these two domains in the future. Empirical data suggest that attainment was highest precisely in the Support from Services domain, which is perhaps unusual/surprising; however, it was conditioned by the fact that their children with ID continuously attended educational institutions that provided them with teaching, security and protection. Within a special school, the teachers-special educators and other experts cooperate with the parents and are available to provide a range of information during their office hours, joint meetings and informal meetings, which probably reduces and alleviates the concerns and fears and provides families with a feeling of accomplishment (Schmidt & Brown, 2015).
Discussion and conclusion
In this study, individual domains of quality of life (Health, Financial Well-being, Family Relationships, Support from Others, Support from Services, Influence of Values, Careers, Leisure and Community Interaction) of families with children with ID/DD were investigated. The study also examines the differences among the measurement dimensions (Importance, Opportunities, Initiative, Attainment, Stability and Satisfaction) within the nine domains.
In our study, Family Relationships emerged as the area that inspires more optimism in the life of families. Despite the pressure of and difficulties in daily life arising from parenting a child with ID, support, resilience and strength are present in theirmutual relationships, which also confirms the results of recent international studies of the quality of life in the domain of Family Relationships (Čagran et al., 2011; Davis & Gavidia-Payne, 2009; Heiman, 2002).
The results in the domain of Support from Others are not encouraging, in particular the domain of Support from Services. Descriptive data indicate greater family isolation and distance from social life, and at the same time limitation and passivity in seeking sources of support outside the family, which decreases the quality of life. Full or partial absence of practical and emotional support from relatives, friends and neighbors is present for most families. On the one hand, the results of the study highlight the major problem of inaccessibility of existing support services, and on the otherhand, the results confirm that services either do not exist or fail to provide the necessary assistance.
This fact is very disturbing. Parents' critical comments relate to poor information from the services, complexity in seeking help and rights enforcement. In any case, it is necessary to consider the situation. The needs of these families are constantly changing, so we can predict that families raising children with ID/DD will probably encounter more obstacles as their children grow up. Therefore, it is necessary to make changes and take certain measures, because Slovenia lacks specific professionals to work with children and people with ID and their families in health centers, hospitals and counseling centers (Čagran et al., 2011). Additionally, austerity measures at the level of public services are a contributory factor. It would be necessary to set financial strategies, including redistribution and reorganization of existing services, to overcome these obstacles (World Health Organization, 2011), and furthermore, to promote the development of private initiatives and non-governmental organizations.
It is also necessary to look for solutions in the inefficient functioning of existing services. Services should allocate more time for in-depth information and introduction of legislation for all parents, especially for those who come from distant urban settlements or towns, the unemployed, the socially isolated and those who have fewer opportunities for informal and self-directed learning (Finn & Sturmey, 2009; Pretis, 2011). Important aspects of professional work include education and skill training for parents of children with disabilities and supporting them with practical coping strategies (Gardiner & Iarocci, 2015). Better quality and effective work by the professional services can involve the active connection of families with informal social/emotional support and help for parents in establishing self-help groups, which represent an invaluable source of assistance for many families (Raina et. al. 2005; Tsai & Wang, 2009).
The issues of children and families need to be addressed through complex, interdisciplinary cooperation and coordination between the areas of health, education and social support (Opara et al., 2010).
The results of the analysis of differences between the dimensions within individual domains of family life has shown that in all nine domains the Importance dimension is the most highly rated, from which it is evident that parents do realize the importance of all domains of quality of life for their families. The Opportunities dimension and Attainment dimension were assessed the lowest. The Initiative dimension and Satisfaction dimension were assessed lower than the Importance dimension, but higher than the Opportunities dimension and Attainment dimension.
Generally, the findings from the point of view of families with children with ID/ DD suggest that these families require powerful intervention support programs from qualified professional teams as well as societal and political attention.
In the future, it would be worthwhile to conduct longitudinal studies in which the quality of life of all family members would be tracked over an extended period of time, or through different cycles of life. The perception of quality of life is a dynamic process in which there are many influences and changes over time. Therefore, the obtained results are limited to a certain extent.
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Dr. Majda Schmidt Krajnc, Pedagogical Faculty, University of Maribor, majda.schmidt@um.si Ksenija Seršen, M.A., Veržej Primary School, ksenija.sersen@gmail.com
Janez Kovač Tanja Ščuka Branka Čagran
Pogoji za inkluzijo v vzgoji in izobraževanju po oceni ravnateljev
Izvirni znanstveni članek UDK: 373.3:376
POVZETEK
V prispevku predstavljamo pogoje za inkluzijo v vzgoji in izobraževanju, kakor jih zaznavajo ravnatelji slovenskih osnovnih šol. V teoretičnem delu se osredotočamo na dejavnike oblikovanja inkluzivne šole, to so ravnatelji, učitelji in starši otrok s posebnimi potrebami, ter na kratko izpostavimo nekaj teoretičnih izhodišč izvajanja dodatne strokovne pomoči v osnovni šoli. V empiričnem delu predstavljamo rezultate spletne anketne raziskave, ki smo jo izvedli med ravnatelji v slovenskih osnovnih šolah. Z raziskavo smo želeli ugotoviti, kako ravnatelji ocenjujejo pogoje za inkluzijo in kako pogoje, ki so vezani na njih same, na izvajalce dela z učenci s posebnimi potrebami in na šolo v celoti. Pri tem smo bili tudi pozorni na razlike glede števila otrok s posebnimi potrebami, ki so vključeni v redni program s prilagojenim izvajanjem in dodatno strokovno pomočjo.
Ključne besede: osnovna šola, ravnatelji, inkluzija v vzgoji in izobraževanju, inkluzivni pedagog, učenci s posebnimi potrebami
Conditions for Inclusive Education from the Viewpoint of Headteachers
Original scientific article UDK: 373.3:376
ABSTRACT
The paper presents conditions for inclusive education as perceived by headteachers in Slovenian basic schools. In the theoretical part, we focused on the key elements of inclusive schools, i.e. headteachers, teachers, and parents of children with special needs. In conclusion, we briefly highlight some theoretical propositions in relation to additional professional support in basic schools. In the empirical part of the paper, we present the results of an online survey conducted among headteachers in Slovenian basic schools. The aim of the survey was, among other things, to find how headteachers perceive conditions for inclusive education - those relating to headteachers themselves, to teachers/professional staff working with students with special needs, and those relating to school as a whole. Here, we also paid our attention to differences regarding the number of children with special needs who are included in regular programme with adjusted implementation and additional professional assistance. The obtained results provide an opportunity for assessment of current situation, and for further consideration concerning the development of inclusive education in Slovenia in the future.
Key words: basic school, headteachers, inclusive education, inclusive teacher, students with special needs
Uvod
Vodenje šole je zelo pomembno za uresničevanje inkluzije v praksi, zato smo v raziskavo vključili ravnatelje in s pomočjo spletne ankete ugotavljali, kakšna so njihova stališča, ocena pogojev in razumevanje inkluzije v vzgojno-izobraževalnem procesu. V prispevku bodo predstavljeni le rezultati ocene pogojev za inkluzijo.
V teoretičnih izhodiščih najprej predstavljamo vodenje šole, saj so za uresničevanje inkluzije v proces izobraževanja otrok s posebnimi potrebami pomembni načini vodenja šol in stališča vodilnih do inkluzije. Poleg številnih nalog, ki jih ima ravnatelj, je pomembna tudi njegova vloga pri uresničevanju inkluzivne paradigme v praksi. Ob ravnatelju je odločilnega pomena tudi učiteljeva pripravljenost na inkluzivno vzgojo in izobraževanje. Pomemben vezni člen med šolo, učenci s posebnimi potrebami in domom so tudi starši; za uspešnost inkluzivne šole je seveda zelo pomembna tudi njihova vloga. Osvetlili bomo tudi nekaj temeljnih značilnosti dodatne strokovne pomoči v osnovni šoli, brez katere ni mogoče izvajati inkluzije.
Osrednji del članka je namenjen predstavitvi empirične raziskave, v okviru katere smo med drugim proučili ravnateljevo oceno pogojev za inkluzijo učencev s posebnimi potrebami. Pri tem so nas zanimali pogoji, vezani na ravnatelje, na izvajalce dela z učenci s posebnimi potrebami in na šolo v celoti. Pozorni smo bili tudi na razlike med ravnatelji glede na število učencev s posebnimi potrebami na izbranih osnovnih šolah.
Vodenje šole
Vodenje šole je zelo pomembno za uresničevanje inkluzije v praksi. Poleg številnih nalog, ki jih ima ravnatelj, je pomembna tudi njegova vloga pri uresničevanju inkluzivne paradigme v praksi. Kot vodja lahko spodbuja, ignorira ali pa zavira ta proces (Koren, 2007; Erčulj idr., 2008).
Vodenje je eden izmed procesov menedžmenta, ki je povezan še z drugimi funkcijami menedžmenta, to so: načrtovanje, organiziranje, zagotavljanje in upravljanje s človeškimi viri (Erčulj idr., 2008). V svetovni literaturi zasledimo veliko različnih opredelitev vodenja. Iz večine razberemo, da je vodenje proces družbenega vplivanja, pri čemer posameznik (ali skupina) namerno uveljavlja vpliv nad drugimi ljudmi (ali skupinami), da oblikuje dejavnost in odnose v organizaciji. Z vodenjem posameznik prepriča skupino, da si prizadeva za doseganje ciljev, za katere se zavzema vodja (Koren, 2007). Pri tem poudarimo, da se ravnatelji od vodij v drugih organizacijah razlikujejo po svoji usmerjenosti na učenje in prevzemu odgovornosti zanj (prav tam).
Tudi država prepoznava ravnatelje kot ključni dejavnik za razreševanje številnih težav, s katerimi se morajo šole v današnjem času spopadati. Z ustanovitvijo Šole za ravnatelje kot samostojnega javnega zavoda so uradno prepoznali pomembnost vodenja v vzgoji in izobraževanju (Širec, 1999).
Ravnatelj šole ima pomembno vlogo pri doseganju optimalnih rešitev za razvoj vsakega učenca. Iz tega sledi, da je nadvse pomembno, da pozna strokovna izhodišča vzgoje in izobraževanja otrok s posebnimi potrebami v Republiki Sloveniji, ustrezno področno zakonodajo, veljavne standarde in normative za vključevanje otrok v program osnovne šole ter da ima pozitiven odnos do vključevanja otrok s posebnimi potrebami v šolo (Košir, 2008).
Ravnatelj kot vodja šole ima jasno opredeljene naloge in odgovornosti, ki so določene v 49. členu Zakona o organizaciji in financiranju vzgoje in izobraževanja. Ravnateljeve naloge so razdeljene v tematske sklope, to so načrtovanje, delo z zaposlenimi, delo z udeleženci izobraževanja, sodelovanje z okoljem, upravljanje zavoda (Erčulj idr., 2008).
Poleg številnih nalog v ravnateljevanju je ena od poglavitnih uresničevanje inkluzije v praksi. Kot vodja lahko ravnatelj spodbuja ali pa zavira proces zagotavljanja pogojev za optimalen osebnostni razvoj vsakega učenca.
Učiteljeva pripravljenost na inkluzivno vzgojo in izobraževanje
V inkluzivni vzgoji in izobraževanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami ima ključno vlogo učitelj, saj skrbi za inkluzivno klimo v razredu ter za ustrezno poučevanje s prilagoditvami procesa poučevanja in znanja. Vse to zmore ob pomoči in sodelovanju z ravnateljem, svetovalnim delavcem, drugimi učitelji, starši idr. Člani šolskega tima učitelju pomagajo pri prilagajanju vzgojno-izobraževalnega procesa, posredujejo znanja in strategije za učinkovito delo, pomagajo reševati probleme, nudijo pomoč in podporo itd. Učitelji in drugi strokovni delavci brez podpore vodstva ne morejo uvajati sprememb, potrebnih za razvoj inkluzivne šole. Ker inkluzija zahteva stalno spreminjanje prakse, te spremembe zmorejo le strokovni delavci, ki imajo pozitivna stališča do sprememb in do vključevanja otrok s posebnimi potrebami ter potrebna posebna znanja in strategije za odkrivanje in obravnavo otrok s posebnimi potrebami (Kavkler, 2010).
Tudi Opara (2003) poudarja, da sta za uspešno inkluzijo potrebna pozitiven odnos in učiteljeva pripravljenost. Na pomembnost učiteljevih prepričanj in stališč do drugačnih učencev opozarja tudi Marentič Požarnik (2003). Učitelji se morajo izogniti predsodkom, uravnavati lastna pričakovanja do otrok s posebnimi potrebami ter biti usmerjeni v pozitivno vrednotenje močnih področij otrok s posebnimi potrebami na raznih področjih.
Stališča učiteljev v rednih šolah do vključevanja otrok s posebnimi potrebami v redne šole so se v zadnjih letih spremenila, in sicer v smeri od pretežno odklonilnega stališča do naklonjenosti (Opara, 2012). K temu pomembno prispeva tudi spremenjen koncept dodiplomskega izobraževanja bodočih učiteljev, ki v času študija pridobijo določena specifična znanja o otrocih s posebnimi potrebami.
Medveš (2003) izpostavlja, da številne države iščejo način, kako reformirati izobraževanje učiteljev, da bi se usposobili za inkluzivno izobraževanje. Meni, daje treba združevati in povezovati izobraževanje osnovnošolskih učiteljev z izobraževanjem specialnih pedagogov. Marentič Požarnik (2003) izpostavlja potrebo po prenovi sistema izobraževanja učiteljev in problem pomanjkanja izkustvenega strokovnega izpopolnjevanja. Resman (2003) je videl možnosti v razvoju podiplomskega študija za izobraževanje učiteljev, ki bi jim omogočal dopolniti svoje znanje.
Inkluzivne vsebine so danes zajete v študijskem programu prve stopnje Razrednega pouka na Pedagoški fakulteti v Ljubljani, Mariboru in Kopru. Na teh fakultetah se tudi izvaja drugostopenjski magistrski program Inkluzivna pedagogika (Univerza v Ljubljani, Univerza na Primorskem) in Inkluzija v vzgoji in izobraževanju (Univerza v Mariboru), katerega cilj je izobraziti usposobljenega strokovnjaka, ki bo znal prepoznati posameznike s posebnostmi v razvoju in pri učenju ter bo obvladal različne pristope, metode, tehnike in strategije za delo z otroki s posebnimi potrebami (Opara, 2012).
Na voljo so tudi Programi za izpopolnjevanje izobrazbe, Posodobitveni programi in tematske konference za delo z različnimi skupinami otrok s posebnimi potrebami za učitelje, ki so že zaposleni na rednih šolah (Katalog programov nadaljnjega izobraževanja in usposabljanja strokovnih delavcev v vzgoji in izobraževanju za šolsko leto 2015/16).
Starši otrok s posebnimi potrebami
Pomemben vezni člen med šolo in učenci s posebnimi potrebami predstavljajo starši. Ob vključitvi otroka s posebnimi potrebami v šolo je treba najprej seznaniti vse starše, še posebej pa starše otrok v oddelku, v katerega je vključen otrok s posebnimi potrebami. Starše je treba potolažiti glede skrbi, da bodo ob vključitvi otroka s posebnimi potrebami njihovi otroci prikrajšani za pozornost učitelja in da bo delo manj učinkovito. Največ časa pa je treba nameniti staršem otrok s posebnimi potrebami. Šola jih seznani o otrocih s posebnimi potrebami, o načinu dela, o zakonskih in programskih prilagoditvah, ki so namenjene otrokom s posebnimi potrebami. Starši otrok s posebnimi potrebami imajo različna pričakovanja in želje. Naloga šole je, da si pridobi njihovo zaupanje ob vključitvi njihovega otroka v program osnovne šole (Košir, 2008).
Ključnega pomena za učinkovito premagovanje motenj, ovir in primanjkljajev učencev s posebnimi potrebami je sodelovanje staršev s šolskim strokovnim delavcem. Pomembni so tudi uporaba ustreznega jezika, osebno in profesionalno odzivanje šolskega strokovnega delavca ter spoštovanje otroka in staršev. Poudarimo še, da starši otrok s posebnimi potrebami sodelujejo pri pripravi, izvajanju in evalvaciji individualiziranega programa (prav tam).
Če povzamemo: sodelovanje šole s starši je pomembno in ključno za uspeh ter počutje učencev. Starši doma opazujejo svojega otroka in dajejo strokovnim delavcem pomembne informacije o otrokovem razvoju, vedenju, učenju, navadah, težavah, spretnostih, interesih ipd. Šole morajo videti svojo odgovornost pri delu s starši in jih spodbujati k sodelovanju.
Dodatna strokovna pomoč v osnovni šoli
S prenovo koncepta vzgoje in izobraževanja otrok s posebnimi potrebami in vse večjega vključevanja otrok s posebnimi potrebami v redne programe vzgoje in izobraževanja so nastale nove potrebe po zagotavljanju ustrezne strokovne pomoči ter podpore učencem s posebnimi potrebami, ki se vključujejo v redne šole. Včasih so bili otroci, ki so bili vključeni v specializirane oddelke, šole in zavode, tam deležni ustrezne strokovne pomoči, zdaj pa se je veliko teh učencev preusmerilo v redne programe izobraževanja. Ob tem je pomembno, da se jim zagotovi ustrezna strokovna pomoč in nudi ustrezna podpora. V Sloveniji smo to obliko podpore imenovali »dodatna strokovna pomoč« in predstavlja osrednjo vlogo pri izobraževalnih programih s prilagojenim izvajanjem in dodatno strokovno pomočjo (Opara, 2005).
Dodatna strokovna pomoč lahko nastopa v dveh funkcijah - kot oblika pomoči pri premagovanju primanjkljajev, ovir oziroma motenj ter kot oblika učne pomoči oziroma v obliki rehabilitacijske funkcije in funkcije pomoči pri učenju (prav tam).
Kakšna bo oblika in količina dodatne strokovne pomoči, je odvisno od učenčevih posebnih potreb. Pri tem je pomembno, da se le-ta izvaja med poukom in ne izven njega. Iz
tega sledi, da je uspešnost te pomoči pomembno odvisna od komunikacije med učiteljem in izvajalcem strokovne pomoči. Njuno delo mora biti optimalno usklajeno. Učenec, ki je deležen dodatne strokovne pomoči, mora imeti možnost, da je s svojimi vrstniki pri vseh tistih predmetih, pri katerih dodatne strokovne pomoči ne prejema (Navodila za prilagojeno izvajanje programa osnovne šole z dodatno strokovno pomočjo, 2009).
8. člen Zakona o usmerjanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami (ZUOPP, 2011) določa: »Dodatna strokovna pomoč se izvaja za otroke s posebnimi potrebami, ki so usmerjeni v program za predšolske otroke s prilagojenim izvajanjem in dodatno strokovno pomočjo ter v izobraževalne programe s prilagojenim izvajanjem in dodatno strokovno pomočjo, izjemoma pa tudi v drugih programih vzgoje in izobraževanja za otroke s posebnimi potrebami«. In: »Dodatna strokovna pomoč se lahko izvaja kot: pomoč za premagovanje primanjkljajev, ovir oziroma motenj, svetovalna storitev ali učna pomoč« (ZUOPP, 2011).
Dodatno strokovno pomoč izvajajo strokovni delavci vrtca, šole ali zavoda, lahko pa tudi zunanji strokovni delavci, ki izpolnjujejo s predpisi določene pogoje (prav tam). Izvaja se individualno ali skupinsko v oddelku ali izven njega v vzgojno-izobraževalnem ali socialnovarstvenem zavodu. Obseg in način izvajanja dodatne strokovne pomoči se določi z odločbo o usmeritvi v skladu s pravilnikom, ki jo izda Zavod RS za šolstvo, podrobneje pa se način izvajanja dodatne strokovne pomoči opredeli z individualiziranim programom vzgoje in izobraževanja, ki ga pripravi strokovna skupina na šoli. V vsakem konkretnem primeru pa daje konkretno podlago za dodatno strokovno pomoč odločba o usmeritvi, ki mora določiti obseg in vrsto izvajanja dodatne strokovne pomoči (prav tam).
Vsem otrokom, ki so usmerjeni v redni program s prilagojenim izvajanjem in dodatno strokovno pomočjo, pripada določeno število ur dodatne strokovne pomoči ter ustrezne prilagoditve, ki se izvajajo v celotnem vzgojno-izobraževalnem procesu. Dodatna strokovna pomoč je za uspešno napredovanje otrok s posebnimi potrebami nujna, vendar zaradi omejevanja sredstev za ta namen premalo obsežna. Na primer, otrokom s primanjkljaji na posameznih področjih učenja se v osnovni šoli lahko določi »največ tri ure, ob vseh nadaljnjih usmeritvah pa največ dve uri tedensko dodatne strokovne pomoči« (Pravilnik o dodatni strokovni in fizični pomoči za otroke in mladostnike s posebnimi potrebami, 4. člen).
Na teh teoretičnih izhodiščih sloni del empirične raziskave, ki ga predstavljamo v nadaljevanju.
Empirična raziskava
Namen empirične raziskave
V empirični raziskavi smo analizirali pogoje za inkluzijo, in sicer:
•	pogoje, vezane na ravnatelje,
•	pogoje, vezane na izvajalce dela z učenci s posebnimi potrebami,
•	pogoje, vezane na šolo v celoti.
Metodologija
Raziskovalna metoda
Uporabljena je bila deskriptivna in kavzalno neeksperimentalna metoda empiričnega metodološkega raziskovanja.
Raziskovalni vzorec
Raziskovalni vzorec je bil slučajnostni vzorec ravnateljev slovenskih osnovnih šol (n = 96). V anketi je sodelovalo več ravnateljic (71,9 %) kot ravnateljev (28,1 %).
Starostna struktura ravnateljev je naslednja: največ ravnateljev je starih od 51 do 60 let (44,8 %), sledijo ravnatelji, ki so stari od 41 do 50 let (39,6 %), pomembno nižji je odstotek ravnateljev, ki so stari od 31 do 40 let (8,3 %) ter več kot 60 let (7,3 %).
Večina ravnateljev ima univerzitetno izobrazbo (81,3 %), le malo jih ima dokončan magisterij (10,4 %) in visokošolsko izobrazbo (7,3 %); le eden ima doktorat.
Največ sodelujočih ravnateljev ravnateljuje do 5 (27,1 %) in od 5 do 10 let (24 %), sledijo ravnatelji z do 20 (21,9 %) in do 30 leti (17,7 %), najmanj je tistih z delovno dobo ravnateljevanja nad 30 let (9,4 %).
V osnovnih šolah, ki so se odzvale, imajo v povprečju največ do 30 učencev s posebnimi potrebami (65,6 %), sledijo osnovne šole z do 50 učenci (17,7 %), nato osnovne šole z do 10 učenci (14,6 %); le dve osnovi šoli imata nad 50 učencev s posebnimi potrebami (2,1 %).
Postopki zbiranja podatkov
Izdelali smo anketni vprašalnik, ki je vseboval vprašanja o objektivnih dejstvih, lestvico stališč Likertovega tipa za merjenje stališč ravnateljev do procesa inkluzije, ocenjevalno lestvico pogojev za inkluzijo, sklop anketnih vprašanj, vezanih na razumevanje inkluzije.
Zbiranje podatkov je potekalo elektronsko, in sicer od 31. 5. 2015 do 17. 6. 2015. Ravnateljem (na 448 elektronskih naslovov) smo posredovali e-sporočilo s povezavo do anketnega vprašalnika.
Uporabljen anketni vprašalnik ima zagotovljene merske karakteristike, in sicer:
•	veljavnost temelji na upoštevanju dosedanjih znanstvenih spoznanj in pregledu ekspertov za vsebinsko in metodološko plat vprašanj;
•	zanesljivost je empirično določena s Cronbachovim koeficientom alfa, ki potrjuje, da je inštrument zanesljiv (a = 0,787);
•	objektivnost zagotavljajo uporabljeno elektronsko zbiranje podatkov in sklopi ocenjevalnih lestvic.
Postopki obdelave podatkov
Podatki so obdelani s programom SPSS. Uporabili smo frekvenčne porazdelitve (f, f %) kategorij neštevilskih spremenljivk, aritmetične sredine numerično izraženih stopenj odgovorov in Kruskal-Wallisov preizkus razlik glede na število učencev s posebnimi potrebami na šoli.
Rezultati in interpretacija
Ravnatelji so oceno pogojev za inkluzijo v vzgoji in izobraževanju izrazili s petstopenjsko ocenjevalno lestvico (1 - sploh ne drži, 2 - v glavnem ne drži, 3 - deloma drži, 4 - v glavnem drži, 5 - popolnoma drži), in sicer za sklope pogojev, vezanih na ravnatelja, na izvajalce dela z učenci s posebnimi potrebami in na šolo v celoti.
Pogoji, vezani na ravnatelja
Preglednica 1: Pogoji, vezani na ravnatelja, rangirani po aritmetičnih sredinah ocen
Trditev	x
Učitelje/strokovne delavce podpiram in spodbujam pri delu z učenci s posebnimi potrebami.	4,34
Za uspešno delovanje in udejanjanje inkluzivne šole redno sodelujem z zunanjimi institucijami.	4,05
Za uspešno delovanje in udejanjanje inkluzivne šole redno sodelujem s starši učencev s posebnimi potrebami.	4,02
Dovolj sem informiran o posebnostih učencev s posebnimi potrebami in načinom dela z njimi.	3,91
Imam dovolj dobro znanje o učencih s posebnimi potrebami.	3,50
Ranžirna vrsta pogojev, vezanih na ravnatelja, kaže, da ravnatelji te pogoje dokaj visoko ocenjujejo, in sicer v intervalu od 3,50 do 4,34.
Vrh ranžirne vrste predstavlja trditev, da ravnatelji učitelje/strokovne delavce podpirajo in spodbujajo pri delu z učenci s posebnimi potrebami. Sledijo trditve, da ravnatelji za uspešno delovanje in udejanjanje inkluzivne šole redno sodelujejo z zunanjimi institucijami in s starši učencev s posebnimi potrebami ter da so dovolj informirani o posebnostih učencev s posebnimi potrebami in načinom dela z njimi. Na dnu, z najnižjim povprečjem, je trditev, da imajo ravnatelji dovolj znanja o učencih s posebnimi potrebami.
Iz rezultatov razberemo, da ravnatelji učitelje/strokovne delavce pri delu z učenci s posebnimi potrebami podpirajo, prav tako tudi sodelujejo z zunanjimi institucijami in starši, njihovo znanje o učencih s posebnimi potrebami pa je nižje.
Pri preverjanju razlik glede na število učencev s posebnimi potrebami smo ugotovili, da ni statistično značilnih razlik. Izpostavljamo le tendenco, da ravnatelji šol z nad 30 učenci s posebnimi potrebami bolj kot tisti z do 10 učenci učitelje/strokovne delavce podpirajo in spodbujajo pri delu z učenci s posebnimi potrebami (P = 0,086). Enaka smer razlike se kaže tudi pri trditvi, da je za uspešno delovanje in udejanjanje inkluzivne šole potrebno redno ravnateljevo sodelovanje z zunanjimi institucijami. Kaže se torej, da ravnatelji šol z več učenci s posebnimi potrebami učitelje/strokovne delavce bolj spodbujajo pri delu s temi učenci in tudi bolj sodelujejo z zunanjimi institucijami.
Pogoji, vezani na izvajalce dela z učenci s posebnimi potrebami
Preglednica 2: Pogoji, vezani na izvajalce dela z učenci s posebnimi potrebami, rangirani po aritmetičnih sredinah ocen
Trditev	x
Učenci s posebnimi potrebami dobro sprejemajo mobilnega pedagoga na šoli.	4,15
Komunikacija med mobilnimi pedagogi in strokovnimi delavci šole je zelo dobra.	4,01
Učitelji in strokovni delavci na šoli so seznanjeni s posebnimi potrebami učencev ob vpisu na našo šolo.	3,92
Učitelji in drugi strokovni delavci na šoli so ustrezno usposobljeni in znajo delati z učenci s posebnimi potrebami.	3,33
Preglednica pogojev, povezanih z izvajalci dela z učenci s posebnimi potrebami, kaže, da so povprečne ocene njihove pomembnosti v razponu od 3,33 do 4,15.
Vrh ranžirne vrste predstavljajo trditve, da učenci s posebnimi potrebami dobro sprejemajo mobilnega pedagoga na šoli, da je komunikacija med mobilnimi pedagogi in
strokovnimi delavci šole zelo dobra ter da so učitelji in strokovni delavci na šoli seznanjeni s posebnimi potrebami učencev ob vpisu na njihovo šolo. Na dnu ranžirne vrste je trditev, da so učitelji ustrezno usposobljeni in znajo delati z učenci s posebnimi potrebami.
Rezultati kažejo, da so mobilni pedagogi na šolah dobro sprejeti in da so učitelji ob vpisu učenca s posebnimi potrebami na podlagi odločbe in pogovora s strokovnjaki iz zunanjih institucij dovolj dobro seznanjeni z njegovimi posebnimi potrebami. Nižja pa je stopnja ustrezne usposobljenosti učiteljev za delo z učenci s posebnimi potrebami.
Glede na število učencev s posebnimi potrebami na šoli v oceni pogojev, vezanih na izvajalce dela z učenci s posebnimi potrebami, kakor so pokazali izidi Kruskal-Wallisovega preizkusa, ni statistično značilnih razlik.
Pogoji, vezani na šolo v celoti
Preglednica 3: Pogoji, vezani na šolo v celoti, rangirani po aritmetičnih sredinah
Trditev	X
Sodelovanje s starši učencev s posebnimi potrebami na naši šoli je dobro.	4,16
Potrebovali bi boljše materialne pogoje za izvajanje inkluzivne šole.	3,54
Potrebovali bi boljše prostorske pogoje za izvajanje inkluzivne šole.	3,40
Ministrstvo za izobraževanje, znanost in šport upošteva naše pripombe glede pomanjkljivosti in težav pri uresničevanju inkluzivne prakse.	2,56
Ranžirna vrsta pogojev, vezanih na šolo v celoti, kaže, da so povprečja razpršena v intervalu od 2,56 do 4,16.
Ravnatelji najvišje ocenjujejo sodelovanje šole s starši učencev s posebnimi potrebami. S podobnimi povprečnimi ocenami sledita trditvi, da bi za izvajanje inkluzije potrebovali boljše materialne in prostorske pogoje. Najnižje je ocenjena trditev, da Ministrstvo za izobraževanje, znanost in šport upošteva njihove pripombe glede pomanjkljivosti in težav pri uresničevanju inkluzivne prakse.
Dejstvo, da ravnatelji sodelovanje s starši ocenjujejo kot dobro, je pomembno pozitivno spoznanje. Zaskrbljujoče pa je, da ravnatelji pri Ministrstvu nimajo potrebne podpore, in kaže na nezadostno povezavo med pedagoško prakso ter najpomembnejšimi organi vodenja in odločanja.
Analiza razlik glede na število učencev s posebnimi potrebami kaže, da obstaja statistično značilna razlika prav pri trditvi, da Ministrstvo za izobraževanje, znanost in šport upošteva njihove pripombe glede pomanjkljivosti in težav pri uresničevanju inkluzivne prakse (P = 0,050), to bolj potrjujejo ravnatelji z do 10 učenci, manj pa tisti z nad 30 učenci s posebnimi potrebami, ki so vključeni v reden program. Po naši oceni ravnatelji, ki imajo veliko takšnih otrok na šoli, bolj občutijo ovire pri uresničevanju inkluzivne šole in od tu njihova večja prizadevanja po preseganju le-teh s sodelovanjem z Ministrstvom za izobraževanje, znanost in šport.
Zaključek
V juniju 2015 izvedena empirična raziskava na slučajnostnem vzorcu ravnateljev slovenskih osnovnih šol razkriva, kako ravnatelji ocenjujejo pogoje za inkluzijo v vzgoji in izobraževanju.
Med pogoji, vezanimi na ravnatelje, ravnatelji najvišje ocenjujejo svoje podpiranje in spodbujanje učiteljev/strokovnih delavcev pri delu z učenci s posebnimi potrebami, za tem svoje sodelovanje z zunanjimi institucijami in starši učencev s posebnimi potrebami, najnižje pa svoje znanje o učencih s posebnimi potrebami. Med pogoji, vezanimi na izvajalce dela z učenci s posebnimi potrebami, ravnatelji najvišje ocenjujejo delo mobilnega pedagoga na šoli, najnižje pa ustrezno usposobljenost učiteljev za delo z učenci s posebnimi potrebami. Med pogoji, vezanimi na šolo v celoti, je najvišje ocenjeno sodelovanje s starši učencev s posebnimi potrebami, najnižje pa sodelovanje z Ministrstvom za izobraževanje, znanost in šport. Število učencev s posebnimi potrebami na šoli pri tem praktično nima pomembne vloge. Večje število teh učencev nikakor ne pomeni več ovir, nasprotno, kaže se, da se z njihovim številom dviga trud ravnateljev in vseh zaposlenih za uresničevanje inkluzivne šole.
Na tej osnovi izpeljujemo oceno, da so ravnatelji dobro vključeni v proces inkluzije v vzgoji in izobraževanju; učitelje pri tem podpirajo, jih spodbujajo ter sodelujejo z zunanjimi institucijami in starši učencev s posebnimi potrebami. Zanimivo bi bilo vedeti, kaj menijo učitelji in izvajalci dodatne strokovne pomoči o ravnateljevi podpori pri inkluziji. Spodbudno je dejstvo, da so mobilni pedagogi na šolah dobro sprejeti in da je sodelovanje šole s starši učencev s posebnimi potrebami dobro. Hkrati pa odkrijemo, da Ministrstvo za izobraževanje, znanost in šport glede procesa inkluzije potrebam ravnateljev ne sledi v potrebni meri in, kar je še zlasti pomembno, učitelji za delo z učenci s posebnimi potrebami niso dovolj ustrezno usposobljeni. Izkaže se torej, da sta izobraževanje in zaposlovanje inkluzivnih pedagogov odločilnega pomena za uresničevanje dobre inkluzivne šole.
Janez Kovač Tanja Ščuka Branka Čagran
Conditions for Inclusive Education from the Viewpoint of Headteachers
In the theoretical background, we focus our attention on school management. Headteachers, among their many roles, have an important role in implementing the inclusive paradigm in practice. Besides headteachers, teacherpreparedness forinclusive education is another key factor. Also, the role of parents as an important link between school, students with special needs, and home is essential for an inclusive school to succeed. Finally, we described additional professional support in basic schools. Based on the above theoretical framework we devised an empirical study in which we examined, among other things, how headteachers perceive conditions for inclusive education - those relating to headteachers themselves, to teachers/professional staff working with students with special needs, and those relating to school as a whole. Here, we paid attention to differences in the number of children with special needs who are included in the regular programme with adjusted implementation and additional professional assistance. The survey was conducted in June 2015 on a random sample
of headteachers of Slovenian basic schools (n = 96), which differ according to sex, age, time performing the duty of headteacher, and the number of students with special needs at school. Data were collected by using an online questionnaire consisting of survey questions on the respondents' understanding of the concept of inclusion, an assessment scale containing the conditions for inclusion, and an attitude scale of the respondents' views about inclusive education. The collected data were processed using methods of descriptive and inferential statistics. The results show that among the conditions related to headteachers themselves, headteachers gave the highest ratings to their support and enhancement of teachers'/professional staff's competences in their work with students with special needs, and to their cooperation with external institutions and parents of students with special needs. On the other hand, they gave the lowest ratings to their knowledge about students with special needs. Regarding the conditions related to teachers/professional staff working with learners with special needs, headteachers gave the highest ratings to the work of the mobile special needs teachers at the school, and the lowest rating to teachers' ability to work with students with special needs. As regards conditions related to school as a whole, the respondents gave the highest ratings to cooperation with parents of students with special needs, and the lowest ratings to co-operation with the Ministry of Education, Science and Sport. The number of students with special needs in the school has virtually no significant role in this regard. A larger number of students does not present any serious obstacle; on the contrary, it shows that an increase in the number of students results in greater efforts of headteachers and all employees towards becoming an inclusive school.
Based on the above we can conclude that headteachers are much involved in the process of inclusion in education; they provide support and encouragement to teachers and engage with external institutions and parents of students with special needs. It is encouraging that mobile special needs teachers are well accepted by schools, and that schools have developed effective cooperation with parents of students with special needs. At the same time it has been found that the Ministry of Education, Science and Sport does not adequately respond to headteachers' needs as regards the process of inclusion and, which is particularly important, teachers are not sufficiently prepared for work with students with special needs. We can thus conclude that training and employment of inclusive teachers is crucial for the realisation of a good inclusive school.
LITERATURA
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Marentič Požarnik, B. (2003). Temelj uspešnega vključevanja učencev s posebnimi potrebami so ustrezno usposobljeni učitelji. V Integracija, inkluzija v vrtcu, osnovni in srednji šoli: teorija in praksa (str. 104-113). Ljubljana: Zveza društev pedagoških delavcev Slovenije.
Medveš, Z. (2003). Integracija/inkluzija v vrtcu, osnovni in srednji šoli. Sodobna pedagogika, 54 (120), 278-286.
Navodila za prilagojeno izvajanje programa osnovne šole z dodatno strokovno pomočjo. (2009). Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo.
Opara, B. (2005). Otroci s posebnimi potrebami v vrtcih in šolah: Vloga in naloga vrtcev in šol pri vzgoji in izobraževanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami: uresničevanje vzgojno-izobraževalnih programov s prilagojenim izvajanjem in z dodatno strokovno pomočjo. Ljubljana: Centerkontura. Opara, B. (2003). Otroci s posebnimi potrebami so del celotnega sistema vzgoje in izobraževanja. Sodobna pedagogika, 54 (120), 36-52.
Opara, B. (2012). Šola za vse - pravična šola. V D. Hozjan in M. Strle (ur.), Inkluzija v sodobni šoli. Koper: Univerza na Primorskem.
Pravilnik o dodatni strokovni in fizični pomoči za otroke in mladostnike s posebnimi potrebami. (2006). Pridobljeno s http://pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=PRAV6696 Resman, M. (2003). Integracija/inkluzija v vrtcu, osnovni šoli in srednji šoli. Ljubljana: Zveza društev pedagoških delavcev Slovenije.
Širec, A. (1999). Ravnatelj v okovih zakonodaje. Ljubljana: Šola za ravnatelje.
Zakon o usmerjanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami. (2011). Pridobljeno s http://www.uradni-list.
si/1/objava.jsp?urlid=201158&stevilka=2714
Janez Kovač, mag. prof. inkluzivnepedagogike, Petrol, d. d., dr.janezzi@gmail.com
Tanja Ščuka, mag. prof. inkluzivne pedagogike, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, tanja.scuka@gmail.com
Dr. Branka Čagran, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, branka.cagran@um.si
Bojana Globačnik
Raba samostalnika pri gluhih učencih in učencih s polževim vsadkom
Kratki znanstveni članek UDK: 373.3:612.858.7-057.874
POVZETEK
Polževi vsadki prinašajo korenite spremembe v rehabilitaciji in izobraževanju gluhih oseb, posebej otrok. Zgodnje operacije otrok pri starših upravičeno vzbujajo upanje, da bo njihov otrok po uspešni operaciji in slušno-govorni rehabilitaciji že do vstopa v šolo nadomestil primanjkljaj na govorno-jezikovnem področju. V članku je analizirana raba samostalnika v stavkih pri skupini gluhih učencev in skupini učencev s polževim vsadkom. Obe skupini učencev sta bili v rabi samostalnika dokaj izenačeni. Znotraj starostnih skupin so najboljše rezultate dosegli učenci s polževimi vsadki v drugi starostni skupini (10-12 let). Gluhi učenci brez polževih vsadkov v tretji starostni skupini (12-16 let) so imeli boljši rezultat pri nalogah ostalih sklonov ednine in imenovalnika množine kot učenci s polževim vsadkom. Raziskava kaže na zahteven in postopen proces usvajanja gramatike pri gluhih učencih.
Ključne besede: gluhi učenci, učenci s polževim vsadkom, raba samostalnika v ednini in množini
The Use of Nouns By Deaf Students and Students with Cochlear Implant
Short scientific article UDK: 373.3:612.858.7-057.874
ABSTRACT
Cochlear implants have fundamentally changed the rehabilitation and education of deaf people, particularly of children. Early operations in children make parents justifiably hopeful that following a successful early surgery and hearing and speech rehabilitation their child will be able to make up for their speech and language deficit by the time they enter school. The article provides an analysis of the use of nouns in sentences by a group of deaf students and a group of students with cochlear implants. The two groups were found to be quite equal in terms of their knowledge of the use of nouns. Out of all the age brackets, the best results were achieved by the students with cochlear implants in the second bracket (1012 years old), while deaf students without cochlear implants in the third bracket (12-16 years old) achieved better results in tasks involving the nominative case in plural and other cases in the singular grammatical number than students with cochlear implants. The study showed that for deaf students learning grammar is a difficult and gradual process.
Key words: Deaf students, students with cochlear implants, use of nouns in the singular and plural grammatical numbers
Uvod
Na področju novih tehnologij v rehabilitaciji gluhih oseb so največji napredek nedvomno prinesli polževi vsadki. Zato upravičeno predstavljajo velik izziv za
strokovnjake, ki delajo na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja gluhih, in na drugi strani predstavljajo veliko upanje za starše gluhih otrok. Poznano je, da ima od 87 do 95 % gluhih otrok slišeče starše (Marschrank, 1993), ki imajo željo in naravno pričakovanje, da njihovi otroci razvijejo enake govorno-jezikovne kompetence, kot jih imajo njihovi slišeči vrstniki. V stanju, ko gre za izgubo sluha od rojstva, je razumljivo, da se je skoraj nemogoče naučiti vseh pravil in vseh obrazil za pravilno označevanje med besedami. Sestava in raba sklonov se najlažje in najenostavneje usvajata v zgodnjem otroštvu po slušni poti. Zato je pri otroku tako poudarjena in pomembna zgodnja implantacija polževega vsadka (Geers in Brenner, 2003).
Ena izmed značilnosti gluhote je redukcija gramatičnosti, ki se kaže v rabi sklonov. Pod usvajanjem gramatike razumemo usvajanje jezikovnega znanja, ki je po svoji naravi abstraktnejše od usvajanja besednega zaklada. Morfološke spremembe besed in njihova raba v stavku omogočajo izražanje sestavljenih pomenov (Svirsky, 2000). Pogosto gluhi »berejo« (čitajo) govor z ustnic (odgledovanje). To pomeni, da prejmejo globalno strukturo izrečenega ter opuščajo poudarke in intonacijo. Zgodnje raziskave o jezikovnem razvoju gluhih segajo v šestdeseta leta prejšnjega stoletja; prva dela je opravil Myklebust, na področju sintakse pa Quigley s sodelavci (Quingley, 1976). Večina raziskav, ki so povezane s polževimi vsadki, se ukvarja s področjem produkcije in percepcije govora. Iz ugotovitev raziskav je sklepati, da je reševanje nalog s področja morfologije samostalnika, tako za gluhe učence kot tiste s polževimi vsadki, povezano s težavami v razumevanju morfoloških in sintaktičnih struktur nasploh (LaSasso, 1987).
Slovenski jezik ima bogato morfologijo samostalnika. Samostalniki imenujejo posamezno ali predstavnike vrste. Imena za posamezno so lastna, za vrstno pa občna (Žagar, 2010). Samostalniku v slovenščini določamo spol, sklon in število. Sklon je oblika samostalniške ali (pridevniške) besede za posebno skladenjsko vlogo. Izraža se večinoma z glasovnimi končnicami (Žagar, 2010). Sklon ugotavljamo predvsem z vprašalnicama kdo in kaj. Posebnost slovenskega jezika je dvojina, ki gluhim in naglušnim učencem predstavlja še posebej težavo. Pri teh učencih je v besednem izražanju in v pisni obliki pogosto zaznati, da ne poznajo rabe dvojine in zato izražanje omejijo zgolj na ednino ali množino.
Cilj raziskave
Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti razlike pri rabi samostalnika v stavkih, in sicer v ednini in množini, med skupino gluhih učencev in učencev s polževim vsadkom.
Metoda dela
Vzorec
Preizkusi za raziskavo so potekali v Centru za sluh in govor Maribor in v Zavodu za gluhe in naglušne v Ljubljani v šolskem letu 2007/08. V raziskavo je bilo vključenih 24 učencev. Podvzorec sta sestavljali dve skupini - prva z 12 gluhimi učenci (GL), druga z 12 učenci s polževim vsadkom (PV). Vsaka skupina je bila razdeljena v tri podskupine glede na kronološko starost učencev: v prvi skupini so bili učenci stari od 7 do 10 let, v drugi od 10 do 12 let in v tretji od 12 do 16 let. Skupini učencev sta bili izenačeni glede na starost,
spolno strukturo in stopnjo izgube sluha. Povprečna starost pri skupini gluhih učencev je bila 11,82 leta, pri skupini učencev s polževim vsadkom 11,01 leta. Glede na celoten vzorec je bilo v raziskavo vključenih devet dečkov (37,5 %) in petnajst deklic (62,5 %). Skupini sta bili izenačeni tudi glede na izgubo sluha po Fowlerju ter sta imeli tudi delno podobno variabilnost. Povprečna izguba sluha v skupini gluhih učencev je bila 98,58%, v skupini gluhih učencev s polževim vsadkom pa 99,5-%. Nobeden od učencev, ki so bili vključeni v raziskavo, ni imel dodatnih motenj. Najmlajši učenec je prejel polžev vsadek pri starosti 2,6 leta in ga je uporabljal 4,6 leta, najstarejši učenec pa je polžev vsadek prejel pri 11,6 leta in ga je uporabljal 5 let. Povprečna starost učencev, ko so dobili vsadek, je bila 5,6 leta, povprečen čas uporabe polževega vsadka je bil 5 let. Povprečen čas uporabe polževega vsadka je bil pri prvi starostni skupini (7-10 let) 4,5 leta, pri drugi starostni skupini (10-12 let) 5,5 leta in pri tretji starostni skupini (12-16 let) 6,3 leta.
Statistična obdelava
Podatki so prikazani na ravni deskriptivne statistike, za ugotavljanje razlik med skupinama smo uporabili t-preizkus za neodvisne vzorce.
Testni material
Naloge za ugotavljanje morfologije samostalnika so zajemale sklone konkretnih -stvarnih imen za vse tri spole. Vsaka skupina nalog je bila sestavljena iz sedmih nalog (stavkov) za posamezno obliko sklona: nominativ ednine (NE), ostale sklone ednine (OSE), nominativ množine (NM) in ostale sklone množine (OSM). Za vsako nalogo so bile na voljo po štiri izbire odgovorov. Pred vsako vajo sta bili z učencem opravljeni po dve poskusni vaji. Skupno število nalog za področje morfologije samostalnika je bilo 28, kar je predstavljalo maksimalno število pravilnih odgovorov.
Rezultati in interpretacija
V stanju, kot je izguba sluha od rojstva, se je težko naučiti vseh pravil in obrazil za pravilno označevanje med besedami. Sestava in raba sklonov se najlažje in po naravni poti usvajata v zgodnjem otroštvu po slušni poti. Analiza v preglednici 1 je usmerjena na prikaz osnovnih statističnih pokazateljev rabe sklonov, ki so definirani v štirih variablah: nominativu ednine (NE), ostalih sklonih ednine (OSE), nominativu množine (NM) in ostalih sklonih množine (OSM).
Preglednica 1: Aritmetične sredine doseženih točk gluhih učencev in učencev s polževimi vsadki treh starostnih skupin v NE, OSE, NM in OSM
Sklon	Učenci N GL 12 PV 12	1. starostna skupina x 4 4	2. starostna skupina x 4 4	3. starostna skupina x 4 4
NE	GL PV	5,25 6,25	5,75 6,75	5,50 5,50
OSE	GL PV	4,50 5,25	6,25 6,00	6,50 5,25
Sklon	Učenci N GL 12 PV 12	1. starostna skupina x 4 4	2. starostna skupina x 4 4	3. starostna skupina x 4 4
NM	GL PV	5,00 5,50	7700 7700	6,25 5,00
OSM	GL PV	5,00 5,00	5,75 6,00	3,75 4,25
Do razlik v rabi nominativa ednine (NE) med skupinama gluhih učencev in učencev z vsadki prihaja v prvi in drugi starostni skupini, v katerih so učenci s polževimi vsadki uspešnejši. To se povezuje z zgodnjo implantacijo učencev. V prvi in drugi starostni skupini so učenci vsadek prejeli v starosti od dveh do treh let in so ga uporabljali več kot štiri leta, v tretji starostni skupini so učenci prejeli vsadek od sedmega do enajstega leta in so ga uporabljali od pet do devet let. Učenci z vsadki v tretji starostni skupini so dobili vsadek pozno in kljub dolgi uporabi so pri nalogah nominativa ednine (NE) dosegli slabši rezultat v primerjavi z učenci prve in druge starostne skupine.
Po raziskavi centra Suvag (Paškvalin, 2010) se rezultati rehabilitacije pokažejo šele po treh letih uporabe polževega vsadka, kar izkazujejo dobljeni rezultati. Za hitrejši govorno-jezikovni razvoj so nujni povezanost s socialnim okoljem že takoj od rojstva (Marjanovič Umek, 2011), čim zgodnejša vsaditev polževega vsadka ter vključitev čim manjših gluhih otrok v takojšnjo zgodnjo obravnavo (Pajk, 2015).
V	prid zgodnji implantaciji polževega vsadka govori raziskava za nemško in nizozemsko govorno področje, s katero so dokazali, da predšolski otroci tri leta po implantaciji v veliko večji meri rabijo množino samostalnika kot njihovi gluhi vrstniki (Laaha, Blineder in Glillis, 2015). Druga raziskava (Amemiya in Goulart, 2013), v kateri so primerjali gluhe (uporabnike znakovnega jezika) in slišeče vrstnike, stare med 8 do 11 leti, je pokazala, da ne obstajajo pomembne razlike v rabi samostalnika med primerjanima skupinama otrok. Rezultati raziskave s področja besednega zaklada (Globačnik, 2010) kažejo, da učenci obeh skupin dosegajo boljše rezultate pri rabi sklonov samostalnika kot na področju besednega znanja.
Pri ostalih sklonih ednine (OSE) in nalogah nominativa množine (NM) so bili v tretji starostni skupini nekoliko uspešnejši gluhi učenci. Predvidevamo, da so rezultati povezani s sistematičnim in metodično načrtovanim učenjem gluhih v specializiranih ustanovah za gluhe, v kateri se učenci tretje starostne skupine izobražujejo od predšolskega obdobja. Podobni raziskavi o rabi samostalnika, prva je bila narejena za hrvaški jezik (Bradarić Jončić, 2010), druga na Nizozemskem (Hammer, 2010), sta prav tako pokazali, da je pri gluhih raba samostalnika najpravilnejša v nominativu ednine in množine. To sta prva sklona, ki se jih gluhi naučijo in si ju najbolj zapomnijo ter pogosto rabijo, tudi če gramatikalno nista uporabljena.
V	tretji starostni skupini izstopajo slabši dosežki v primeru ostalih sklonov množine (OSM) pri obeh skupinah učencev, kar je pri učencih s polževimi vsadki lahko odraz kasnejše vsaditve vsadka, pri gluhih učencih pa je povezano z razvojnim obdobjem pubertete in uporabo kretnje. Iz prakse je poznano, da mnogi učenci, tudi tisti, ki pred puberteto niso uporabljali kretnje, v puberteti to uporabljajo. V tem obdobju sta v ospredju vrstniško druženje in hitrejša izmenjava informacij. Povsem brez uporabe
kretnje poteka komunikacija v slišečem domačem okolju in pri dobro rehabilitiranem učencu s polževim vsadkom.
Avtor teorije o kritičnem obdobju za usvajanje jezika Eric Lenneberg navaja, da se lahko prvi jezik in njegove zakonitosti usvojijo le v določenem življenjskem obdobju (Stančić, 1994). To obdobje je po njegovem od drugega leta starosti do pubertete. Meje tega obdobja so povezane z izgubo prilagodljivosti in reorganizacijo v možganih, ko obdobje plastičnosti mine. Lahko sklepamo, da gluhi učenci in učenci z vsadki v puberteti dosežejo določeno raven jezikovnega znanja, po tem obdobju pa jezikovno počasneje napredujejo.
Preglednica 2: Izid t-preizkusa razlik med gluhimi učenci in učenci s polževim vsadkom v NE, OSE, NM in OSM
Naloga	Skupina	Število n	Aritmetična sredina x	Standardni odklon s	Preizkus homogenosti varianc		Preizkus razlike aritmetičnih sredin	
					F	p	t	p
NE	GL PV	12 12	5,50 6,17	1,732 1,030	3,667	0,069	1,146	0,264
OSE	GL PV	12 12	5,42 5,50	1,782 1,243	2,808	0,108	-0,133	0,895
NM	GL PV	12 12	, 8 o OJ co	1,311 1,801	0,603	0,446	0,389	0,701
OSM	GL PV	12 12	4,83 5,08	2,081 1,379	5,182	0,033	-0,347	0,733
V primeru OSM predpostavka o homogenosti varianc ni upravičena (p = 0,33), zato je naveden rezultat iz aproksimativne metode t-preizkusa; v vseh drugih je izid običajnega t-preizkusa, ker je zagotovljen pogoj homogenosti varianc pogoj zanj (p > 0,005). Vsi rezultati kažejo, da med skupinama učencev ni statističnih razlik v nobenem od zajetih kriterijev.
Z vidika NE, OSE, NM in OSE so gluhi učenci in učenci s polževimi vsadki dosegli precej podobne dosežke. Izpostavljamo zgolj NE, pri katerem so nekoliko uspešnejši učenci s polževim vsadkom.
Ob raziskavi velja izpostaviti, da je bila narejena na majhnem vzorcu učencev. Za današnjo prakso velja, da gluhi otroci dobijo vsadek že v prvem letu starosti. To jim daje realne možnosti za bolj primerljiv govorno-jezikovni razvoj z vrstniki enake starosti. Zato velja s podobnimi raziskavami nadaljevati, saj bodo le-te pokazale dejanski napredek učencev z vsadki v primerjavi z gluhimi učenci.
Zaključek
Rezultati nalog s področja rabe samostalnika v štirih skupinah sklonov kažejo na to, da je usvajanje slovničnih pravil za obe skupini učencev, vključenih v raziskavo, verjetno zahteven proces. Ugotovitev raziskave je, da so imeli vsi učenci, tako gluhi kot tisti s polževim vsadkom, podobne težave. Majhne statistične razlike med obema skupinama kažejo na podobne težave v načinu organizacije sprejetih informacij, na težave v povezovanju že obstoječega jezikovnega znanja in besednega zaklada ter na pomen zgodnje implantacije polževega vsadka in intenzivnosti dela z majhnimi otroki. Boljše dosežke pri vseh sklonih so v povprečju dosegli učenci s polževimi vsadki, razen pri ostalih sklonih množine, kjer so bili z gluhimi izenačeni.
Sklepamo lahko, da se pri gluhih dogajajo kvalitativno različni procesi v usvajanju jezika.
V	tem delu nam v prid govori teorija uma, ki pri otrocih z različnimi primanjkljaji (tudi pri gluhih) zaradi težav v interakciji z okoljem kasni (Villanueva, Clemente in Garcia, 2000).
V	tem dejstvu lahko iščemo nove poti in načine za kakovostnejšo obravnavo gluhih otrok. Glede na to, da se je večina gluhih učencev vključevala v specializirane ustanove za gluhe in večina učencev s polževim vsadkom v redne šole, je mogoče sklepati, da je delo v specializiranih ustanovah za gluhe metodično in didaktično prilagojeno in postopno. Tudi v prihodnje je pomembno razvijati longitudinalne študije na področju izobraževanja gluhih otrok in otrok s polževim vsadkom, s poudarkom na raziskovanju govora pri mlajših otrocih, ki so dobili polžev vsadek.
Bojana Globačnik
The Use of Nouns By Deaf Students and Students with Cochlear Implant
Cochlear implants represent a great challenge for all who work in the area of medical rehabilitation and educational treatment in the sense of developing language and speech skills. The implants justifiably raise hope of parents that with early implant and adequate hearing and speech treatment by entering school their child will have attained the level of language and speech skills of his or her hearing peers. One of the characteristics of deafness is the reduction of grammaticality manifested, inter alia, in inadequate and incorrect use of nominal declensions.
The research was conducted on a sample of 24 pupils, divided into two subgroups of 12 pupils each, one representing deaf pupils and the other pupils with cochlear implants. Regarding age, gender structure, and the degree of hearing loss both groups were equalised. By chronological age each group was divided into three subgroups. None of the children had any additional disabilities that would represent contraindication for implantation. In the group of implanted children the criterion was no less than two years of implant use.
The tasks for determining the knowledge of morphology of the noun included declensions of concrete, common names for all the three genders in the singular and in the plural. Each cluster of tasks consisted of seven items (sentences) for each individual case form: nominative singular, other declensions in the singular, nominative plural and other declensions in the plural, where the students were asked to fill in the correct use of the case. Total number of items was 28, which also represented the maximum possible number of correct answers.
Deaf students, as well as those with cochlear implants who attended different schools (mainstream schools and specialised institutions for deaf children) had similar difficulties determining the right nominal case; students with cochlear implant achieved slightly better results. Both groups of students were equalised in the use of the noun, especially of the noun in the nominative singular.
Looking at the statistical analysis of the use of all the cases by deaf students and students with cochlear implants we see the results they achieved show us very similar pictures.
Within all the age brackets, the best results were achieved by the students with cochlear implants in the second bracket (under 12 years), while deaf students without cochlear implants in the third bracket (under 16 years) achieved better results in tasks involving the other cases in singular and in plural compared to students with cochlear implant.
The research shows how complex the process of the acquisition of grammatical rules in Slovene language is both for deaf pupils and those with cochlear implant, who had similar difficulties in the use of nouns in the singular and in the plural. All students with implants attended regular schools and therefore received more speech incentives, while deaf students attended specialised schools for the deaf.
The results of this research support the assumption of qualitatively different processes in language acquisition by the deaf pupils and emphasise the significance of early cochlear implantation. The research indicates similar processes of language acquisition of students with cochlear implant. The practical value of the research is manifested in in the findings on the basis of which we can suggest practice-oriented strategies of treatment of both groups of students - deaf ones and those with cochlear implant. In this way we undoubtedly want to encourage the emergence of longitudinal studies in the field of education of all deaf children.
LITERATURA
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Dr. Bojana Globačnik, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru (upokojenka), bojana.globacnik1@gmail.com
Eva Kranjec
Perfekcionizem: prednost ali ovira za učenca?
Povzetek
Razprave o konstruktu perfekcionizma so neizogiben del tako družboslovnih kot humanističnih znanstvenih ved. Pogostnost perfekcionizma tako pri otrocih kot odraslih vodi raziskovalce k podrobnemu preučevanju specifičnih dimenzij perfekcionizma in načinov manifestiranja. Slednje dodaja pomembno vrednost pri obravnavah perfekcionizma na različnih področjih posameznikovega življenja. V prispevku predstavljamo pregled teoretičnih pojmovanj perfekcionizma, njegov razvoj in merske instrumente za ocenjevanje konstrukta perfekcionizma. Glavni namen prispevka je predstavitev znanstvenih spoznanj o perfekcionizmu pri otrocih in mladostnikih znotraj šolskega konteksta, pri čemer povzemamo različne implikacije za delo z učenci z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma.
Ključne besede: perfekcionizem, modeli perfekcionizma, merjenje, učenci
Perfectionism: Student's Advantage or Obstacle?
Abstract
The debate on the construct of perfectionism is an inevitable part of both social studies and humanities. This ubiquity, repeatedly leads researchers to study in more detail the specific dimensions of perfectionism and ways it is manifestated, which adds significant value to the treatment of perfectionism in different areas of an individual's life. The following paper presents an overview of the theoretical concepts and the development of perfectionism, as well as the measurement instruments for its assessment. The main highlights of this article are based on the current scientific knowledge of perfectionism in children and adolescents within school context, wherein various implications of working with perfectionist students are being summarized.
Key words: perfectionism, models of perfectionism, assessment, students
Uvod
Perfekcionizem kot osebnostna lastnost vključuje posameznikove visoke standarde glede osebne predstave, prizadevanje za brezhibno delovanje (Frost, Marten, Lahart in Rosenblate, 1990) in težnjo k popolnosti (Flett in Hewitt, 2002). V šolskem kontekstu razprave o perfekcionizmu pogosto postavljajo v ospredje njegovo nefunkcionalno naravo, čeprav je lahko perfekcionizem s svojimi prilagojenimi (angl. adaptive) dimenzijami pozitiven konstrukt, ki učencu pomaga pri organiziranju in doseganju zastavljenih ciljev. Razumevanje perfekcionizma in delo z učenci, ki izražajo višjo stopnjo neprilagojenih (angl. maladaptive) dimenzij perfekcionizma, sta lahko izziv za marsikaterega šolskega delavca. Namen preglednega prispevka je predstaviti pomembnejša teoretična izhodišča in izsledke empiričnih raziskav s področja perfekcionizma pri otrocih in mladostnikih. V končnem delu prispevka so povzete tudi nekatere praktične implikacije za delo z učenci z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma. Pregled spoznanj lahko strokovnim delavcem v šoli pomaga pri učinkovitejšem vzgojno-izobraževalnemu delu z učenci, ki izražajo višjo stopnjo perfekcionističnih teženj, in opozarja na pomen tako teoretične kot empirične poglobitve na posameznih podpodročjih perfekcionizma ter oblikovanja ustreznih intervencijskih programov.
Perfekcionizem - enodimenzionalen ali večdimenzionalen konstrukt?
Zgodnje opredelitve prikazujejo perfekcionizem kot enodimenzionalen in izjemno patološki konstrukt (Ganske in Ashby, 2007). Korenine preučevanja perfekcionizma izvirajo iz kliničnih študij, v katerih so raziskovalci preučevali vplive starševskih perfekcionističnih teženj na otrokove vzorce vedenja ter perfekcionizem pri mladostnikih z motnjami hranjenja in nadpovprečno inteligentnih ter akademsko talentiranih posameznikih (Flett in Hewitt, 2002). Hollender (1965) je opredelil konstrukt perfekcionizma kot negativno osebnostno lastnost, ki se nanaša na neutemeljene zahteve posameznika do sebe in drugih, pri čemer posameznikova kakovost predstave presega tisto, kar se zahteva v dani situaciji. Perfekcionizem se razvije pri negotovem otroku, ki potrebuje odobritev, sprejemanje in naklonjenost staršev, ki jih je težko zadovoljiti. Ob razvojnih dejavnikih izpostavlja Hollender (1965) tudi pomen kognitivnih procesov, kot je selektivna pozornost, ki posamezniku omogoča večjo osredotočenost na neuspehe, medtem ko so uspehi pogosto ignorirani ali razvrednoteni. Podobno je na patološkost konstrukta in disfunkcionalne vzorce mišljenja opozoril Pacht (1984); cilji perfekcionistov so »postavljeni tako nerealno previsoko, da jih ni moč doseči« (str. 387). Težnjo k popolnosti je zaznaval kot vzrok mnogih psiholoških težav - »izčrpavajočo« in izvirajočo iz »nezdravega motiva« (str. 386). Pacht (1984) izpostavlja, da posamezniki z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma niso v popolnosti zadovoljni z lastno uspešnostjo. V kolikor je bilo delo opravljeno uspešno, ga zaznavajo kot dosežek, v kolikor pa končni rezultat ni skladen z njihovimi kriteriji, opravljeno delo dojemajo kot neuspeh. Takšna interpretacija nakazuje premik k opredeljevanju perfekcionizma kot večdimenzionalnega konstrukta. Hamachek (1978), katerega dela predstavljajo izhodiščno točko za razvijanje opredelitve perfekcionizma kot večdimenzionalnega konstrukta, izpostavlja, da perfekcionizem ne predstavlja zgolj vedenja posameznika, temveč tudi njegove misli o vedenju, kar je skladno s teorijo Hollenderja (1965) in Pachta (1984). Z ozirom na dvojno naravo konstrukta, je Hamachek (1978) razlikoval med dvema skupinama posameznikov z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma - normalnimi in nevrotičnimi. Prve je opredelil kot posameznike, ki so zmožni postavitve visokih realnih standardov in izbire, v katerih situacijah bodo bolj natančni in v katerih manj. Pri lastnem ocenjevanju so bolj fleksibilni in v namerah doseganja visokih standardov zadovoljnejši. Nevrotične posameznike z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma je opredelil kot »osebe, katerih prizadevanja - tudi tista najmočnejša -niso nikoli dovolj, vsaj v njihovih očeh ne. Zmeraj bi lahko in morali narediti več ... So nezmožni občutenja zadovoljstva,« saj stvari niso izvedene do te meje popolnosti, pri kateri bi si zaslužili čutiti omenjeno čustvo (str. 27). Nevrotični posamezniki z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma izražajo več čustvenih in vedenjskih vzorcev motenosti, kot so depresija, samopodcenjevanje, sram in krivda, sramežljivost ter odlašanje z delom. Od normalnih se razlikujejo v obsegu in načinih prikazovanja navedenih vzorcev, pri čemer na ocenjevalnih lestvicah dosegajo bistveno višje vrednosti (Hamachek, 1978). Zgodnja pojmovanja so v ospredje postavila neprilagojene vidike perfekcionizma kot osebnostne lastnosti in njegovo patološko naravo. Izpostavljena je bila predvsem osebna dimenzija, medtem ko je socialna bila zanemarjena. Pomemben vidik na omenjenem področju raziskovanja predstavlja ravno premik od enodimenzionalnega k večdimenzionalnemu pojmovanju perfekcionizma (Flett in Hewitt, 2002).
Dimenzije in modeli perfekcionizma
Po mnenju nekaterih avtorjev (Flett, Hewitt in Dyck, 1989; Pacht, 1984) je Hamachekova (1978) konceptualizacija v preveliki meri nakazovala na perfekcionizem kot znak nevrotične osebnostne strukture. Nadalje so raziskovalci perfekcionizma v opredelitve slednjega vključili tako osebne kot socialne dimenzije, zaradi česar so perfekcionizem opredelili kot konstrukt z več dimenzijami (Frost idr., 1990; Hewitt in Flett, 1991; Slade in Owens, 1998). Teoretične opredelitve različnih avtorjev se med seboj razlikujejo v poimenovanjih in številu dimenzij.
Frost idr. (1990) so pri opredelitvi poskušali preseči okvire pojmovanj, v katerih lastnost postavljanja visokih standardov predstavlja osrednjo značilnost perfekcionizma, saj na podlagi te lastnosti ne moremo razlikovati med posamezniki, ki izražajo perfekcionistične težnje in tistimi, ki so visoko kompetentni teruspešni. Lastnost postavljanja in prizadevanja za visoke osebne standarde sama po sebi ni nujno patološka, kar je pomembno prispevalo k premiku od enodimenzionalnega k večdimenzionalnemu pristopu. Avtorji so oblikovali večdimenzionalni model perfekcionizma, v katerem so predlagali šest dimenzij; štiri med njimi so usmerjene na posameznika (osebni standardi, dvom v dejanja, zaskrbljenost zaradi napak in organiziranost), medtem ko ostali dve odražata vpliv pomembnih drugih (staršev) na posameznika (starševska kritika in pričakovanja staršev). Dimenzija osebni standardi se nanaša na postavitev visokih standardov glede lastnega delovanja, predstave in samoocene. Dimenzija dvom v dejanja nakazuje stopnjo, do katere posameznik dvomi v lastne sposobnosti pri opravljanju naloge. Dimenzija zaskrbljenost zaradi napak vključuje težnjo k negativnemu odzivanju na napake, pričakovanje neodobravanja s strani drugih in enačenje napak z neuspehom. Dimenzija organiziranost predstavlja posameznikovo urejenost in red. Dimenzija starševska kritika odraža strogost staršev, dimenzija pričakovanje staršev pa starševsko postavitev previsokih standardov (Flett in Hewitt, 2002; Frost idr., 1990).
Perfekcionizem sta kot večdimenzionalni konstrukt z intrapersonalnimi in interpersonalnimi komponentami opredelila tudi Hewitt in Flett (1991). Skrajne perfekcioniste sta označila kot ljudi, ki težijo k popolnosti v vseh vidikih svojega življenja (Flett in Hewitt, 2002). Avtorja sta predlagala tri dimenzije; nase usmerjeni perfekcionizem, na druge usmerjeni perfekcionizem in družbeno predpisan perfekcionizem. Prva dimenzija odraža vedenja in lastnosti, ki so jih opisovali zagovorniki perfekcionizma kot enodimenzionalnega konstrukta (Hollender, 1965). V ospredju so postavitev visokih lastnih standardov, strogo ocenjevanje lastnega vedenja, samokritičnost in samokaznovanje ter očitno razhajanje med realnim in idealnim jazom. Izstopajoča je motivacijska komponenta prizadevanja za doseganje popolnosti v izvedenih dejanjih in izogibanje morebitnim napakam (Hewitt in Flett, 1991). Dimenzija na druge usmerjeni perfekcionizem odraža postavitev nerealnih standardov za vedenja drugih in njihovo strogo ocenjevanje. Samokritičnost in samokaznovanje je nadomeščeno s prenašanjem krivde na druge, pomanjkanjem zaupanja, neprijaznostjo in odklanjanjem. Dimenzija družbeno predpisan perfekcionizem se nanaša na doseganje družbenih standardov in pričakovanj, kar posamezniki občutijo v obliki izvršenega družbenega pritiska. Posamezniki lahko družbene standarde zaznajo kot previsoke in neobvladljive, zaradi česar pride do izkušenj neuspeha in negativnih čustvenih stanj. Slednje izhaja iz »zaznane
nesposobnosti zadovoljiti druge, prepričanja, da so drugi nerealistični v njihovih pričakovanjih ali obojega« (Hewitt in Flett, 1991, str. 457).
Kljub obstoju več modelov perfekcionizma, sta model Frosta in sodelavcev (1990) ter model Hewitta in Fletta (1991) ena izmed najpogosteje uporabljenih ter reprezentativnih modelov, kadar poskušamo opredeliti konstrukt perfekcionizma. Nadalje so raziskovalci ugotovili, da se dimenzije obeh modelov s svojimi značilnostmi prekrivajo in povezujejo, zaradi česar lahko govorimo o dveh nadrednih faktorjih - prilagojenih (angl. adaptive; positive strivingsfactor) in neprilagojenih (angl. maladaptive; maladaptive evalution concerns factor) dimenzijah perfekcionizma (Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia in Neubaurer, 1993). K prvim prištevamo dimenzije osebni standardi, organiziranost, k sebi usmerjen perfekcionizem in na druge usmerjen perfekcionizem. Za posameznika so te dimenzije funkcionalne, saj se nanašajo na stopnjo motivacije, odražene v njegovih dosežkih. K neprilagojenim dimenzijam spadajo zaskrbljenost zaradi napak, dvom v dejanja, pričakovanja staršev, starševska kritika in družbeno predpisan perfekcionizem. Te dimenzije odražajo posameznikove skrbi, povezane z napakami in neuspehom, strah pred ocenjevanjem ter kritiko s strani drugih (Frost idr., 1993). Kljub smiselnemu razlikovanju med prilagojenimi in neprilagojenimi dimenzijami, Hewitt in Flett zavračata dejstvo, da bi dimenzije perfekcionizma lahko bile prilagojene (Benson, 2003), saj se povezujejo z različnimi duševnimi motnjami, kot so depresija, anksioznost ter motnje hranjenja (Flett in Hewitt, 2002; Frost idr., 1990). Posebej izpostavljena je bila dimenzija osebnih standardov - sodobnejše teorije trdijo, da ciljati visoko samo po sebi ne odraža patološkosti, temveč funkcionalnost, kar je po Hewittovih ugotovitvah preveč poenostavljeno, saj enačijo »željo uspeti v /nečem/... in željo biti popoln« (Benson, 2003, str. 18). Da so prilagojene dimenzije do neke meje lahko prilagojene za posameznike, nakazuje tudi Frost, vendar poudarja, da se v diskurzih o prilagojenosti dimenzij nemalokrat zanemarja vloga konteksta, ki determinira ali bo določena drža oziroma vedenje za posameznika prilagojeno ali neprilagojeno (Benson, 2003).
Pojmovanja perfekcionizma kot patološkega konstrukta so vplivala na empirična raziskovanja, saj so lestvice perfekcionizma - npr. Burnsova lestvica perfekcionizma (Burns perfectionism scale; Burns, 1980), Frostova lestvica perfekcionizma FMPS (Frost multidimensional perfectionism scale; Frost idr., 1990), Lestvica perfekcionizma MPS-H (Multidimensionalperfectionism scale; Hewitt in Flett, 1991) - z nekaterimi postavkami in faktorji poudarjale ravno neprilagojenost obravnavnega konstrukta (Slaney in Ashby, 1996). Na možnost obstoja prilagojenih in pozitivnih dimenzij perfekcionizma, sta poleg Frosta in sodelavcev (1993) opozorila tudi Slaney in Johnson (1992; v Slaney in Ashby, 1996), ki sta nakazala, da perfekcionistične težnje po postavitvi visokih standardov ter organiziranost ne predstavljata negativni psihološki značilnosti per se. Zaradi ambivalentnosti med posameznimi dimenzijami so avtorji opredelili perfekcionizem kot večdimenzionalen konstrukt, sestavljen iz pozitivnih in negativnih dimenzij (Slaney in Ashby, 1996; Slaney, Ashby in Trippi, 1995; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi in Ashby, 2001).
Iz tega sta izhajala tudi Slade in Owens (1998), ki sta predlagala dvoprocesni model perfekcionizma, sloneč na Skinnerjevi (1968) teoriji podkrepljevanja; isto vedenje je lahko povezano z različnimi čustvenimi stanji - odvisno ali je v funkciji pozitivne ali negativne okrepitve. Model razlikuje med pozitivnim in negativnim perfekcionizmom, pri čemer pozitivni perfekcionizem odraža prilagojene dimenzije in negativen neprilagojene dimenzije (Frost idr., 1993). Pozitivni perfekcionizem predstavlja mišljenje in vedenje,
neposredno usmerjeno na doseganje višjih ciljev in pridobivanje pozitivnih izkušenj; takšno vedenje se navezuje na pozitivno okrepitev, tj. željo po uspeti. Nasprotno se negativni perfekcionizem nanaša na mišljenje in vedenje, neposredno usmerjena na doseganje višjih ciljev, z namenom izogniti se negativnim posledicam; takšno vedenje se navezuje na negativno okrepitev, tj. strah pred neuspehom (Slade in Owens, 1998; Terry-Short, Owens, Slade in Dewey, 1995). Sodobnejši avtorji (Bieling, Israeli in Antony, 2004; Stumpf in Parker, 2002) pri pojmovanju perfekcionizma uporabljajo termina perfekcionistične težnje in perfekcionistične skrbi, pri čemer razlikujejo med tremi skupinami: zdravimi in nezdravimi perfekcionisti ter neperfekcionisti. Model Stumpfa in Parkerja (2002) razlikuje med zdravim perfekcionizmom in nezdravim perfekcionizmom, pri čemer avtorja poudarjata, da to nista nasprotna pola enega kontinuuma, temveč neodvisna faktorja, ki sta del celotne osebnosti v različnih smereh (npr. zdravi perfekcionizem se pozitivno povezuje z vestnostjo, nezdravi perfekcionizem pa z nižjo stopnjo samopodobe).
Kljub temu, da so si zgornje opredelitve in modeli različnih avtorjev dokaj podobni, se novi raziskovalci omenjenega področja soočajo z različnimi pojmovanji konstrukta, ki žal niso poenotene. Med raziskovalci ne moremo zaznati konsenza v zvezi z opredelitvijo konstrukta, kar daje svobodo (ali omejenost) pri zastavljanju teoretičnih izhodišč različnih raziskovalnih modelov.
Dejavniki razvoj perfekcionizma
Prvi raziskovalci so pred desetletji nakazali, da ima perfekcionizem »korenine v interakcijah med otroki in njihovimi starši, ki so perfekcionistični in zahtevni« (Frost, Lahart in Rosenblate, 1991, str. 470; Hamachek, 1978). Za razliko od konceptualizacije konstrukta, obstaja na tem področju precejšen konsenz o pomembnem dejavniku spodbujanja perfekcionističnih teženj pri otroku - neodobravajočem okolju, ne glede na to ali gre za popolno neodobravanje, nekonsistentno ali pogojno odobravanje. V prvih dveh primerih otrok izgubi občutek o pomenu dobre predstave o sebi ali pa ga niti ne razvije, pri čemer popolnost predstavlja izkristaliziran kriterij, enačen z definicijo sprejemljive predstave (Hamachek, 1978). V primeru pogojnega odobravanja so perfekcionistična vedenja pogojena z višjo mero starševske ljubezni in odobravanja, kar v tem primeru pomeni nagrado otroku za dobro izvedena dejanja ali dosežke (Burns, 1980; Hamachek, 1978; Hollender, 1965). Flett, Hewitt, Oliver in Macdonald (2002) vključujejo slednje v t. i. model socialnih pričakovanj, ki se osredotoča na visoka starševska pričakovanja, pri čemer velja poudariti, da je lahko nasprotna stran spektra (odsotnost ali nizka starševska pričakovanja) za otroka prav tako problematična. Razvoj perfekcionizma lahko pojasnimo tudi z modelom socialnega učenja, izhajajočim iz teorije socialnega učenja (Bandura, 1986), ki se osredotoča na vlogo posnemanja perfekcionističnih vedenj in lastnosti otrokovih staršev. Flett in sodelavci (2002, str. 93-94) so preverjali model socialne reakcije, osnovan na predpostavki, da perfekcionistične težnje otrok izhajajo iz izpostavljenosti težkim razmeram (kaotično družinsko okolje, fizično in psihološko trpinčenje, odsotnost starševske ljubezni), pri čemer so perfekcionistična vedenja v vlogi mehanizmov spoprijemanja. Perfekcionizem je tako socialna reakcija na stisko in se kaže v namerah izogniti se nadaljnjim zlorabam, znižati stopnjo sramu in poniževanja (npr. »Če sem popoln/-a, me nihče ne bo prizadel.«). Model socialne reakcije podpirajo empirične ugotovitve, ki so pokazale pozitivno povezanost med materino neprijaznostjo in hčerinimi perfekcionističnimi težnjami (Frost idr., 1991).
Na podlagi zgoraj navedenih modelov so Flett in sodelavci (2002) oblikovali nadredni konceptualni model, ki vključuje več heterogenih dejavnikov perfekcionizma. Model tako upošteva kompleksne dejavnike, nanašajoče na otroke, starše, širšo družbeno okolje, trenutne življenjske izkušnje in prihodnje socialne kontekste, ki dodatno prispevajo k razvoju perfekcionizma. Temperament otroka s perfekcionističnimi težnjami odraža visoko stopnjo čustvene senzibilnosti, bojazljivosti in vztrajnosti, kar prispeva k perfekcionističnim težnjam strahu pred neuspehom, zaskrbljenosti zaradi napak, socialnemu neodobravanju in neustreznemu sprejemanju kritike (Frost idr., 1990; Hewitt in Flett, 1991; Flett in Hewitt, 2002). Otrokov prispevek k razvoju perfekcionizma sloni tudi na njegovem odnosu s starši in stilu navezanosti (Rice in Lopez, 2004; Rice in Mirzadeh, 2000; Fitzsimons, 2011). Teorija navezanosti, osnovana na delih Bowlbya (196 9, 1973) opisuje dinamiko medosebnih odnosov s poudarkom na zgodnjem odnosu med otrokom in primarnimi skrbniki. Teorija predpostavlja, da se otrok instinktivno naveže na primarnega skrbnika z namenom zadovoljiti biološke potrebe po preživetju in psihološke potrebe po varnosti - po Bowlbyu (196 9, 1973) je navezanost biološko osnovan motivacijski sistem, s katerim gradi otrok varno osnovo za raziskovanje sveta. Razlikujemo med varnim, izogibajočim, preokupiranim (anksiozno-ambivalentnim) in neorganiziranim stilom navezanosti (Ainsworth, 1978). Ne-varni stil navezanosti se po modelu Hewitta in Fletta (1991) povezuje z družbeno predpisanim perfekcionizmom (Flett idr., 2002), medtem ko Crain (2005) predpostavlja, da preokupirani stil navezanosti vodi otroka k popolnosti, saj mu predstavlja način za osvojitev ljubezni primarnih skrbnikov in izogibanje njihovi zavrnjenosti. Stil navezanosti pomembno napoveduje izražanje pozitivnega in negativnega perfekcionizma, pri čemer raziskovalci ugotavljajo, da posamezniki z varnim stilom navezanosti izražajo v višji meri pozitivni perfekcionizem (Rice in Mirzadeh, 2000; Fitzsimons, 2011). Starševski dejavniki, ki prispevajo k otrokovemu perfekcionizmu, se nanašajo na starševske osebnostne lastnosti, perfekcionistične cilje in standarde, oblikovane za otroka, ter vzgojne stile. Flett in sodelavci (2002) navajajo, da se otrokov perfekcionizem razvija v odnosu, v katerem so poudarjene negativne posledice morebitnih napak pri dejanjih, ki spodbujajo perfekcionizem (npr. vključevanje otrok v zahtevne situacije, ki zahtevajo dosego pričakovanj in standardov) in v sklopu modelnega učenja. Vzgojni stil, ki se povezuje z otrokovim perfekcionizmom, je avtokratski vzgojni stil - v zahodni kulturi pojmovan kot najstrožji in pogosto neusmiljen (Flett idr., 2002; Hibbard in Walton, 2014; Rice, Ashby in Preusser, 1996). Tovrstni vzgojni stil odraža visoka starševska pričakovanja in višjo stopnjo starševske kritike, kar se posledično odraža v otrokovih dvomih v lastne sposobnosti (Hibbard in Walton, 2014). Avtokratski vzgojni stil in visoka stopnja starševska psihološkega nadzora sta pomembna napovednika neprilagojenih dimenzij perfekcionizma (Craddock, Church in Sands, 2009), pri čemer nekateri avtorji izpostavljajo predvsem pozitivno povezavo med avtokratskim vzgojnim stilom ter dimenzijami osebni standardi, zaskrbljenost zaradi napak in dvom v dejanja (Gong, Fletcher in Bolin, 2015). Nasprotno avtoritativni vzgojni stil, ki nudi otroku spodbujajoče in razumevajoče okolje za odraščanje, napoveduje nižjo stopnjo zaskrbljenosti zaradi napak ter pozitivno samopodobo, nižjo stopnjo negativnega afekta in depresije (Gong idr., 2015; Stoeber in Otto, 2006).
Zraven starševskih dejavnikov je v sklopu raziskovanja izvora perfekcionizma potrebno upoštevati tudi širše družbene dejavnike - interakcije z vrstniki in učitelji ter kulturne vrednote in norme (Flett in Hewitt, 2002; Flett, Hewitt in Singer, 1995). Čeprav v literaturi
ni moč zaslediti veliko medkulturnih raziskav, Flett in sodelavci (2002) nakazujejo, da so lahko težnje k popolnosti močnejše v družbah z individualistično kulturo kot v družbah s kolektivistično kulturo, ki poudarja posameznika v odnosih z drugimi. Družbeni dejavniki perfekcionizma se najpogosteje interpretirajo na področju telesnega videza ter prispevajo k nastanku motenj hranjenja in socialne anksioznosti (Antony in Swinson, 2009; Bastiani, Rayo, Weltzin in Kaye, 1995; Stoeber in Yang, 2015). K širšemu družbenemu okolju prištevamo tudi vpliv vrstnikov, učiteljev in šole. Flett in sodelavci (2002) predpostavljajo, da se vpliv vrstnikov kaže v različnih smereh, ki se nanašajo na status v vrstniški skupini, preko katerega posameznik dosega standarde, uresničuje pričakovanja in si pridobiva socialno odobravanje. Vrstniška skupina ustvarja tekmovalno okolje, v kateri potekajo socialne primerjave na podlagi normativnih standardov.
Odgovor na vprašanje o izvorih perfekcionizma je kompleksen in ni enoznačno povezan zgolj z enim dejavnikom. Pri razvoju perfekcionizma lahko govorimo o prepletu razvojnih, starševskih in družbenih dejavnikov.
Ocenjevanje perfekcionizma
Za merjenje konstrukta perfekcionizma in njegovih dimenzij je bilo razvitih več merskih lestvic, ki so bile pretežno standardizirane in validirane na vzorcih odraslih posameznikov. Ob pregledu raziskovalnih modelov, uporabljenih v različnih raziskavah (npr. Chang, 2014; Stallman in Hurst, 2011; Soares idr., 2016), lahko ocenimo, da sta kot najpogosteje uporabljeni Lestvica perfekcionizma (MPS-H; Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale), avtorjev Hewitta in Fletta (1991) ter Frostova lestvica perfekcionizma (MPS-F; Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale), avtorjev Frosta in sodelavcev (1990). Vsaka od lestvic zajema dimenzije, ki so skladne s predhodno predstavljenima teoretičnima modeloma posameznih avtorjev. V nadaljnjih letih preučevanja so skladno z novimi teoretičnimi modeli avtorji razvili nove pripomočke za merjenje perfekcionizma. Slaney, Rice in Ashby (2002) so razvili Lestvico perfekcionizma APS-R (The Almost Perfect Scale - Revised), ki vključuje tri podlestvice: visoki standardi, razhajanje (razlika med osebnimi standardi in realnimi dosežki) ter organiziranost. Hill in sodelavci (2004) so razvili Vprašalnik perfekcionizma (The Perfectionism Inventory), ki meri osem dimenzij, ki so jih razvili Frost in sodelavci (1990) ter Hewitt in Flett (1991): zaskrbljenost zaradi napak, visoki standardi za pomembne druge, potreba po odobravanju, organiziranost, pritisk staršev, ruminacija, igrivost in prizadevanje k odličnosti. Navedeni pripomočki imajo dobre psihometrične lastnosti in pripomorejo k jasni interpretaciji rezultatov, vendar nobeden od pripomočkov ni bil ustrezno prirejen za slovensko kulturno in jezikovno okolje. Opravljeni so bili le prevodi postavk Frostove lestvice perfekcionizma, pri čemer so bili rezultati konfirmatorne faktorske analize, s katero smo preverili konstruktno veljavnost na slovenskih podatkih, zadovoljivi, prav tako tudi koeficienti zanesljivosti posameznih dimenzij (Kranjec, Košir in Komidar, 2016). Pripomočkov za merjenje perfekcionizma pri otrocih in mladostnikih je več (za pregled glej Morris in Lomax, 2014), čeprav so empirične raziskave, v katerih so merili perfekcionizem kot večdimenzionalni konstrukt pri otrocih, redke (Kottman, 2000). Za merjenje perfekcionizma pri otrocih in mladostnikih se kaže kot ustrezna Lestvica perfekcionizma APS-R (The Almost Perfect Scale - Revised; Slaney idr., 2002), ki se je izkazala kot uporaben pripomoček tako z vidika veljavnosti kot zanesljivosti (Sastre-Riba, Pérez-Albéniz in Fonseca-Pedrero, 2016).
V kolikor lestvice merijo tako prilagojene kot neprilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizma, povprečni dosežki nimajo visoke napovedne vrednosti za razvoj psihopatologije. Raziskovalci morajo jasno razlikovati med oblikami perfekcionizma, upoštevati etiologijo konstrukta in različne instrumente merjenja (Bieling, Israeli, Smith in Antony, 2003). Različni pripomočki namreč merijo podobne - nepoenotene - dimenzije, kar nakazuje na potrebo po razvoju enotnega merskega instrumenta, ki meri dimenzije, opredeljene na podlagi aktualne literature (Morris in Lomax, 2014).
Perfekcionizem v šolskem kontekstu
Kljub številnim empiričnim raziskavam konstrukta perfekcionizma na vzorcu odraslih, do nedavnega raziskovalci niso posvečali veliko pozornosti perfekcionizmu pri šolskih otrocih in mladostnikih (Kottman, 2000). Raziskovalci so v ospredje postavljali predvsem preučevanje problematične narave odnosa med perfekcionizmom in nadarjenostjo pri učencih (Parker in Adkins, 1995; Siegle in Schuler, 2000) ter povezave otrokovega perfekcionizma z nekaterimi negativnimi psihološkimi izidi, kot sta anksioznost in depresivnost (Hewitt idr., 2002). Učencev s perfekcionističnimi težnjami v razredu ni težko prepoznati; učitelji in starši poročajo, da gre za učence s pretirano urejenimi mizami in delovnimi potrebščinami, pritožbami nad skupinskim delom, težavami z vztrajanjem pri obveznostih, večkratnim popravljanjem naloge do meje »ravno prav« ter očitnim razočaranjem, kadar naloga ni popolno opravljena ali ocenjena (Kottman, 2000).
Šolsko okolje zajema mnogotere dejavnike, ki prispevajo k razvoju in vzdrževanju perfekcionističnih teženj pri učencih, še posebej v razvojnem obdobju poznega otroštva in mladostništva (Flett idr., 2002). S vključitvijo otrok v šolski sistem narašča pomembnost formalnega ocenjevanja, tekmovanja in primerjanja, tako s strani šole, učiteljev kot staršev (Eccles in Midgley, 1989). Slednje vodi učenca z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma k pozitivnim ali negativnim izidom, ki so v šolskem okolju posebej evidentni, saj so visoki učni in socialni dosežki pogosto pričakovani (Schruder, Sharpe in Curwen, 2014). Raziskovalci ugotavljajo, da se prilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizma pozitivno povezujejo s šolsko uspešnostjo, ki kot možen pozitiven izid perfekcionizma vključuje nizko stopnjo odlašanja s šolskim delom, visoko učno učinkovitost in boljše učne dosežke (Bong, Hwang, Noh in Kim, 2014; Stornelli, Flett in Hewitt, 2009). Nasprotno se neprilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizma negativno povezujejo s šolsko uspešnostjo; pri otrocih in mladostnikih je moč zaslediti strah pred neuspehom, testno anksioznost, nizko učno učinkovitost, odlašanje s šolskim delom ter obveznostmi in slabše učne dosežke (Bong idr., 2014; McCloskey, 2011; Stornelli idr., 2009).
Učni dosežki in učna uspešnost
Prilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizma se povezujejo z boljšimi učnimi dosežki učencev tako na ravni osnovnošolskega in srednješolskega izobraževanja kot na ravni akademskegaizobraževanja (Stoeber, 2012).Zaučence sprilagojenimi perfekcionističnimi dimenzijami je na področju učne uspešnosti značilnejše izkazovanje obvladovanja, usmerjenost k ciljem približevanja in intrinzična motivacija za učenje (Eum in Rice, 2011). Pogosto izpostavljena je dimenzija osebni standardi, ki pozitivno napoveduje višje število doseženih točk na zaključnih izpitih in višjo povprečno oceno (Brown idr., 1999).
Postavitev visokih standardov se pri posameznikih s perfekcionističnimi težnjami kaže pri vsaki nalogi ali pisnemu izpitu, ne glede na to, ali so posamezniki prvotne cilje že dosegli. Najnovejše raziskave kažejo, da je učna učinkovitost pomemben dejavnik pri razvoju učenčevih prilagojenih dimenzij perfekcionizma: mladostniki, ki dosegajo višje ocene in višjo učno učinkovitost, sčasoma razvijejo prilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizma. Za nadarjene učence pogosto in enostavno doseganje višjih ocen pomeni, da je popolnost sprejemljiv standard uspešnosti, ki ga lahko in morajo dosegati (Damian, Stoeber, Negru-Subtirica in Bäban, v tisku). Nasprotno se neprilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizma povezujejo z učenčevimi nižjimi učnimi dosežki. Perfekcionizem se delno povezuje tudi z razlagami učne uspešnosti; posameznikovimi predstavami o slabši pripravljenosti na preizkus znanja, čeprav so z objektivnega vidika pripravljeni v podobni meri kot posamezniki, ki ne izražajo perfekcionističnih teženj. Takšne atribucije lahko na dolgi rok prispevajo k nižanju samoučinkovitosti in pojavu negativnih čustev (Bieling idr., 2004).
Odlašanje
Odlašanje (angl. procrastination) velja za eno izmed večjih ovir na poti k šolski oziroma akademski uspešnosti (Scher in Osterman, 2002). Opredeljeno je kot fenomen namernega in nepotrebnega zavlačevanja z nalogami ob hkratnem pojavu nelagodnih občutkov (Solomon in Rothblum, 1984) ali kot odlaganje dela oziroma aktivnosti, ki morajo biti izpolnjene (Schouwenburg, 1995). Schraw, Wadkins in Olafson (2007) navajajo tri kriterije, ki določajo odlašajoče vedenje: kontraproduktivnost, nepotrebnost in zavlačevanje. Najpogostejši mehanizmi odlašanja so strah pred neuspehom, iracionalna prepričanja (Burka in Yuen, 2008) in negativna samopodoba (Flett, Blankstein in Martin, 1995). Kot pomemben dejavnik se je izkazal tudi perfekcionizem (Burka in Yuen, 2008; Ferrari, 1992; Frost idr., 1990; Jadidi, Mohammadkhani in Tajrishi, 2011). Učenci z močneje izraženimi perfekcionističnimi težnjami stremijo k višje zastavljenim ciljem, pri čemer je doseganje teh pogosto nerealno. Zaradi zaznane frustracije izkazujejo vedenjske vzorce prelaganja in odlašanja s šolskim delom (Burka in Yuen, 2008). Tudi v drugih raziskavah poročajo o podobnih rezultatih: neprilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizma se pozitivno povezujejo s splošnim odlašanjem in specifičnimi oblikami (npr. akademsko odlašanje), medtem ko se prilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizma z odlašanjem povezujejo negativno (Burnam, Komarraju, Hamel in Nadler, 2014; Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt in Koledin, 1992; Frost idr., 1990; Jadidi idr., 2011). Takšne ugotovitve kažejo na pomen osredotočanja in ustreznega vzdrževanja učenčevih prilagojenih dimenzij perfekcionizma, ki odražajo pozitivne aspekte in igrajo pomembno vlogo na šolskem področju v smeri funkcionalnega doseganja ciljev in ustreznega načrtovanja dela (Frost, idr., 1990). Prav tako je pomembno prepoznavanje neprilagojenih dimenzij perfekcionizma, saj lahko pri učencih vodijo do pojava anksioznosti in depresivnosti (Antony in Swinson, 2009, Chang, 2014, Zhang in Cai, 2012).
Testna anksioznost
Testna (storilnostna) anksioznost je psihološko stanje, čustven odziv pomanjkljive ali nezadostne pripravljenosti na ocenjevanje znanja (Peklaj, 2001). Z njo se povezujejo tako prilagojene kot neprilagojene oblike perfekcionizma. Pri učencih s prilagojenimi
dimenzijami perfekcionizma je anksioznost sprožena zaradi postavitve visokih standardov pri opravljanju naloge, medtem ko neprilagojene perfekcionistične težnje povečajo stopnjo učenčeve anksioznosti glede šolske naloge (Bieling idr., 2004; Schruder idr., 2014). Skladno z rezultati drugih raziskovalcev (Guignard, Jacquet in Lubart, 2012; Owens, Stevenson, Hadwin in Norgate, 2012) so povezanost med anksioznostjo in perfekcionizmom na vzorcu študentov pokazali tudi rezultati slovenske raziskave (Kranjec idr., 2016). Ne glede na pozitivno ali negativno naravo dimenzij perfekcionizma se vse dimenzije z anksioznostjo povezujejo pozitivno, medtem ko se pri učencih z izraženimi neprilagojenimi dimenzijami perfekcionizma anksioznost pojavlja v večji meri kot pri učencih s prilagojenimi dimenzijami (Schruder idr., 2014). Raziskave kažejo, da se prilagojena dimenzija osebni standardi pozitivno povezuje z aktivnimi strategijami spoprijemanja in negativno s testno anksioznostjo, medtem ko se neprilagojene dimenzije pozitivno povezujejo s testno ankioznostjo, pri čemer odnos med navedenimi spremenljivkami mediirajo posameznikove strategije izogibanja. Te pri učencih z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma, za katere so značilne neprilagojene dimenzije, med testno situacijo vključujejo osredotočanje na standarde, zastavljene s strani drugih, skrbi, dnevno sanjarjenje, tudi odlašanje (Weiner in Carton, 2012). Visoka stopnja testne anksioznosti bi naj bila značilnejša za ženske s prevladujočimi strategijami izogibanja in močneje izraženimi neprilagojenimi dimenzijami perfekcionizma (Eum in Rice, 2011).
Perfekcionizem pri nadarjenih učencih
Preučevanje nefunkcionalne narave konstrukta perfekcionizma pri otrocih in mladostnikih je ob pregledu literature zagotovo v največji meri zastopano na vzorcu nadarjenih in talentiranih učencev (Fletcher in Speirs Neumeister, 2012; Parker, 1997; Parker in Adkins, 1995; Siegle in Schuler, 2000). Čeprav mnogo učiteljev poroča o visoki stopnji perfekcionizma pri nadarjenih in talentiranih učencih, je pogosto nejasno, ali se v svojih poročanjih nanašajo na posameznikove visoke standarde ali na neprilagojeno naravo konstrukta perfekcionizma. Podobno je težko opredeliti, kateri učenčevi cilji so nerealni z vidika njihovega možnega doseganja (Parker, 1997; Parker in Adkins, 1995). Pri razlikovanju med tremi skupinami talentiranih učencev z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma Parker (1997) navaja naslednje značilnosti in nekatere osebnostne lastnosti, ki se povezujejo s perfekcionizmom: (1) za skupino talentiranih učencev, ki ne izražajo perfekcionističnih teženj, so značilni nizki dosežki na dimenzijah osebni standardi, organiziranost in starševska pričakovanja; takšni učenci so neorganizirani in nezanesljivi; (2) za talentirane učence, ki izražajo zdrave perfekcionistične težnje, je značilna nizka stopnja zaskrbljenosti zaradi napak in dvomov v dejanja ter visoka stopnja organiziranosti, ekstravertnosti, vestnosti, zanesljivosti in socialnih spretnosti; (3) talentirani učenci, ki izražajo disfunkcionalne perfekcionistične težnje, dosegajo višje vrednosti na dimenzijah zaskrbljenost zaradi napak, osebni standardi, starševska kritika in pričakovanja staršev ter dvom v dejanja; dosegajo tudi višje vrednosti na osebnostni dimenziji odprtosti in nižje vrednosti na dimenziji sprejemljivosti. Prevladujoča značilnost talentiranih učencev z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma je vestnost. Kljub potrjeni predpostavki, da nadarjeni učenci izražajo višjo stopnjo prilagojenih dimenzij perfekcionizma, LoCicero in Ashby (1999) ugotavljata, da nadarjeni učenci lahko izkusijo določeno stopnjo čustvene stiske in neprilagojenosti, ki izhajata iz razhajanja
med osebnimi standardi in učnimi dosežki. Nadarjene učenke izražajo v primerjavi z nadarjenimi učenci višjo stopnjo zaskrbljenosti glede lastne organiziranosti, pri čemer njihova stopnja zaskrbljenosti zaradi napak narašča od šestega do osmega razreda. Nadarjeni učenci poročajo o višji stopnji pričakovanj staršev (Siegle in Schuler, 2000). V navezavi s šolsko uspešnostjo je ena od raziskav na vzorcu nadarjenih študentov pokazala, da je pri posameznikih, ki izražajo družbeno predpisan perfekcionizem (tj. neprilagojena dimenzija), osnovni motiv izogibanje neuspehu, ki pomembno vpliva na cilje v učnih situacijah dosežka in na učenčevo vedenje. Izhajajoč iz tega motiva posameznik izkazuje lastne zmožnosti (angl. performance approach) ali se izkazovanju lastnih zmožnosti izogiba (angl. performance - avoidance approach), pojavi se tudi odlašanje z delom. Pri nadarjenih študentih, ki izkazujejo k sebi usmerjen perfekcionizem (tj. prilagojena dimenzija) lahko zasledimo izkazovanje obvladovanja (angl. mastery approach) in izkazovanje lastnih zmožnosti (Speirs Neumeister, 2004).
Ali so pri učencih perfekcionistične težnje zdrave ali ne, je stvar številnih razprav. Zdi se, da pri tem pogosto prevladuje argument podpore k vzdrževanju perfekcionističnih teženj, ki bi naj vodile k višjim stopnjam šolske uspešnosti. Če pogledamo onkraj dosežkov in analiziramo motive ter cilje, ki vodijo učne dosežke, slika postane veliko bolj kompleksna. Pri delu s posamezniki z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma je smiselno pregledati vzroke in razloge za vzdrževanje perfekcionistične drže, ki bi naj izhajala iz težnje po odstopanju od povprečnosti in izogibanja napakam (Bieling idr., 2003).
Delo z učenci z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma
Zadnji trend na področju preučevanja perfekcionizma se giblje v smeri preverjanja učinkovitosti preventivnih intervencijskih programov o perfekcionizmu - največ na populaciji mladostnikov in odraslih, manj pri otrocih (Flett in Hewitt, 2014; Morris in Lomax, 2014). Intervencije, katerih primarni namen je nižanje stopnje neprilagojenih dimenzij perfekcionizma in spodbujanje posameznikove odpornosti (angl. resilience) pri učencih, naj bi ciljale na kognitivno in čustveno regulacijo ter na spreminjanje metakognitivnih prepričanj o sposobnostih, sebi in pomenu neuspeha. Vse večja prevalenca neprilagojenih dimenzij perfekcionizma pri otrocih in mladostnikih ter pomanjkljiva iskanja strokovne pomoči, so vodila k oblikovanju različnih intervencijskih pristopov. Programi, ki bi primarno in v celoti naslavljali perfekcionizem, so redki, saj se ta pogosteje obravnava le kot del splošnih programov, kar za posledico nosi nižjo učinkovitost pri spoprijemanju s perfekcionizmom (Flett in Hewitt, 2014; Schuder, Sharpe in Curwen, 2014). Rezultati nekaterih raziskav kažejo majhne, vendar pomembne učinke programov na vzorcu otrok in obenem opozarjajo na pomembnost dolgoročnega spremljanja programov, s katerimi nižamo stopnjo perfekcionizma pri otrocih v obdobju srednjega ter poznega otroštva (Fairweather-Schmidt in Wade, 2015).
Preventivni programi bi naj izhajali iz paradigme/predpostavk pozitivne psihologije, se osredotočali na razvoj kompetenc in bili na voljo tako otrokom kot mladostnikom (Flett in Hewitt, 2014). Program Fletta in Hewitta (2014) sloni na zniževanju visokih in težko dosegljivih standardov, preprečevanju ponotranjanja perfekcionističnih idealnih predstav ter spodbujanju zdrave miselne orientacije. Pri slednji večji pomen nosi tehnika ponovnega miselnega ocenjevanja neuspeha, z namenom nižanja negativnih samoocen in teženj k pretiranemu posploševanju končnih sklepov o lastnih primanjkljajih. K
pozitivni miselni orientaciji pripomore tudi spodbujanje k rasti usmerjene miselne naravnanosti (angl. growth-oriented mindset), ki v kontekstu perfekcionizma omogoča zaznavanje neuspehov kot pomembno priložnost za dodatno učenje. Pilotna raziskava avtoric Fairweather-Schmidt in Wade (2015), v kateri so ocenjevali intervencijski program, osredotočen na zniževanje perfekcionizma pri otrocih v obdobju poznega otroštva, je ena izmed prvih, ki je delno podprla predpostavko, da intervencije, ki vključujejo učenje učencev o konstruktu perfekcionizma, značilnostih dimenzij in razvoju spretnosti, potrebnih za ustrezno spoprijemanje s samokritiko, nižajo stopnjo perfekcionističnih teženj pri šolskih otrocih.
Za učitelje, učence in starše je pomembno poznavanje dvojne narave perfekcionizma, za šolske svetovalce pa poleg tega tudi poznavanje manifestacij prilagojenih ter neprilagojenih dimenzij perfekcionizma v šolskem kontekstu. Šolski svetovalni delavci lahko učencem z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma pomagajo s svetovalnimi (angl. counseling) in posvetovalnimi (angl. consulting) dejavnostmi (Kottman, 2000). Posvetovanje je ključna in osrednja komponenta psihološke pomoči, v sklopu katerega svetovalni delavec uči učitelja o konstruktu perfekcionizma, o načinih prepoznavanja in manifestiranja posameznih dimenzij ter tehnikah obvladovanja, kar pripomore k učiteljevemu učinkovitejšemu delu z učencem z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma (Pečjak in Košir, 2012). Vključenim udeležencem je potrebno predstaviti konceptualne temelje o obstoju perfekcionizma kot enodimenzionalnega konstrukta ter jih izobraziti o večdimenzionalni naravi, s čimer poskrbimo za uravnotežena stališča in odmik od zaznave perfekcionizma kot negativnega pojava; poudariti je potrebno pomen učiteljeve vloge opazovanja učencev z namenom opredeljevanja osrednjih značilnosti perfekcionizma; poudariti je potrebno pomen dialoga z učencem; učence, ki izražajo pretežno prilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizmaje potrebno v tej smeri spodbujati, vendar obenem biti pozoren na morebiten pojav anksioznosti kot posledice razhajanja med visokimi standardi in realnimi dosežki; pri učencih, ki izražajo tako prilagojene kot neprilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizma, pomoč usmerjamo v spreminjanje njihovih stališč in prepričanj (s ponovnim ocenjevanjem preteklih dosežkov, ustreznim načrtovanjem za doseganje realnih dosežkov v prihodnosti, z učenjem relaksacijskih tehnik ali pisanjem dnevnika); pomembna je vzpostavitev vrstniške pomoči z namenom oblikovanja realnih ciljev in učiteljevo prepoznavanje lastnih perfekcionističnih teženj, ki lahko vplivajo na učenčev uspeh pri spoprijemanju in razumevanje sovplivanja več dejavnikov, ki prispevajo k razvoju ter vzdrževanju perfekcionizmu. Svetovalec tako naj pomaga učencem raziskati vpliv neprilagojenih dimenzij perfekcionizma na stališča in vedenja, ki omejujejo različne priložnosti znotraj šolskega konteksta ter nižajo nivo zadovoljstva z življenjem (Kottman, 2000; Schruder idr., 2014). Pri delu z nadarjenimi učenci naj svetovanje zajema skrbno vodenje, povratne informacije, pomoč pri oblikovanju zdravih prepričanj o sebi in učnih ciljev, kar pripomore k razvoju učenčevih potencialov (Fletcher in Speirs Neumeister, 2012). Zaradi pomanjkljivih podatkov o učinkovitosti predstavljenih tehnik dela, predlagamo, da se v nadaljnjih raziskavah raziskovalci osredotočijo tudi na spremljanje dolgoročne učinkovitosti. Pri delu z učenci z visoko stopnjo perfekcionizma je potrebno upoštevati tudi učenčeve starše, s katerimi lahko svetovalni delavec sodeluje v procesu posvetovanja. Starševsko zahtevnost, pretiran nadzor in kritičnost je smiselno uravnavati v dobrobit otroka, pri čemer naj starši stremijo k ustreznemu modeliranju vedenj in odzivov, predvsem pa metakognitivnih sporočil o obstoju nepopolnosti (Flett in Hewitt, 2014).
Posledično ustrezni starševski pristopi prispevajo k večji učinkovitosti šolskih intervencij, pri čemer naj vsi sodelujoči razumejo otrokove napake kot del osebnostnega razvoja in pomen ustreznega spodbujanja, s katerim pripomorejo k razvoju otrokove odpornosti ter osebnostne integritete (Lozano, Valor-Segura in Lozano, 2015).
Zaključek
Čeprav se na prvi pogled zdi, da je konstrukt perfekcionizma dobro raziskan, lahko ob pregledu novejše literature zasledimo potrebo po poglobljenem raziskovanju specifičnih podpodročij perfekcionizma, predvsem na vzorcu otrok in mladostnikov, pri katerih so empirične raziskave zastopane v bistveno manjši meri. Opazna trenja in nepoenotenost pri pojmovanju konstrukta in oblikovanju ustreznih pripomočkov za merjenje perfekcionizma vodijo v nekonsistentne zaključke, predvsem pri opredeljevanju funkcionalne narave perfekcionizma. V okviru šolskega konteksta lahko sklepamo, da prilagojene dimenzije prispevajo k učenčevi motivaciji, učnim dosežkom in učni uspešnosti, medtem ko neprilagojene dimenzije perfekcionizma prispevajo k odnosu med možnimi dosežki in pojavom čustvenih ter vedenjskih motenj. Vzporedno z oblikovanjem teoretičnih modelov bi bilo treba izvesti longitudinalne raziskave, v katerih bi preverili vzročne odnose med perfekcionizmom in nekaterimi spremenljivkami (npr. motivacijo dosežka pri nadarjenih učencih; Fletcher in Speirs Neumeister, 2012), prav tako je opazna tudi potreba po oblikovanju ustreznih intervencij, predvsem v slovenskem prostoru, v katerem ni moč zaznati dovolj poglobljenih raziskav na vzorcu otrok in mladostnikov. Otroci, ki izražajo neprilagojene perfekcionistične težnje, potrebujejo strokovno pomoč odraslih, ki jim pomagajo pri zmanjševanju intenzivnosti teženj do meje, pri kateri jim perfekcionizem ne predstavlja ovire, temveč prispeva k doseganju učnih ciljev.
Eva Kranjec
Perfectionism: Student's Advantage or Obstacle?
In the academic context, the discussions on perfectionism often emphasize its nonfunctional nature, although perfectionism with its adaptive dimensions can turn out to be an extremely positive construct that helps the student to organize and achieve goals. The purpose of this article is to present significant theoretical principles and empirical findings of the researches on perfectionism in children and adolescents. In addition, the paper offers some practical implications for working with perfectionist students. An overview of findings can help professional workers in school settings to a more efficient educational work with students who express a higher level of perfectionist tendencies. Moreover, it opens up opportunities for further research and development of appropriate intervention programmes. When reviewing theoretical definitions of perfectionism in literature, we can notice a shift of conceptions from onedimensional to multidimensional models of perfectionism. As a personality trait, perfectionism includes individual's high standards (Frost, Marten, Lahart & Rosenblate, 1990) and a strivings for perfection (Flett & Hewitt, 2002). Multidimensional models, within which we nowadays conceptualize perfectionism, include adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism. Adaptive
dimensions comprise dimensions of personal standards, organization, self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism. For the individual they are functional as they relate to the level of motivation, reflected in its achievements. The maladaptive dimensions, on the other hand, include concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, parental expectations and criticism, and socially-prescribed perfectionism. These dimensions reflect the individual's concerns related to errors and failure, fear of evaluation and criticism by others (Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia & Neubaurer, 1993). Several factors contribute to the development and maintenance of perfectionism; biological factors, personality traits of the parents, the child's temperament, as well as attachment styles and educational methods (Crain, 2005; Fitzsimons, 2011; Flett & Hewitt, 2002). Interaction with peers and teachers, and cultural values and norms are important as well (Flett & Hewitt, 2002). There are several measures available for the assessment of perfectionism; for children and adolescents the most suitable one is The Almost Perfect Scale - Revised (APS-R; Slaney et al., 2002), which has proven to be a useful tool in terms of both validity and reliability (Sastre-Riba, Pérez-Albéniz & Fonseca-Pedrero, 2016). Perfectionism has been largely studied amongst the population of gifted and talented children. Researches show that students with adaptive dimensions of perfectionism, in terms of their learning performance, present a more distinct management control, goal orientation approach, intrinsic motivation to learn (Eum & Rice, 2011), and a lower level of procrastination. On the contrary, maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism are associated with lower learning achievements of students (Bieling, Israel & Antony, 2004). School effectiveness in adolescence can be therefore defined as a precursor and outcome of perfectionism (Damian, Stoeber, Negru-Subtirica & Baban, in press). General perfectionism positively correlates with test anxiety; here the positive correlation of dimension personal standards with active strategies of coping, and negatively with test anxiety is in the foreground. High levels of test anxiety are more typical for female students, with dominant strategies of avoidance and more expressed maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism (Eum & Rice, 2011). Interventions that aim to decrease the levels of perfectionism in children and adolescents are related to cognitive and emotional regulation, and metacognitive beliefs about abilities, self and the sense of failure (Flett & Hewitt, 2014). However, the data on the effectiveness of these interventions is rarely accessible (Schuder, Sharpe & Curwen, 2014). School counselors can help perfectionist students through psychological counseling and consultation with teachers and parents (Kottman, 2000). When working with perfectionist individuals it is useful to analyze the reasons for maintaining their posture. Those reasons might result from the tendency to deviate from mediocrity and making mistakes (Bieling et al., 2004). In this context, it is necessary to educate students about maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism, the significance of errors and the possibilities of seeking proffesional help: The main objective of interventions should be promoting children's resilience (Flett & Hewitt, 2014). Despite the fact that the issue has already been thoroughly researched, the future holds possibilities for an in-depth research, particularly welcomed in Slovenia.
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Asist. Eva Kranjec, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, eva.kranjec@um.si
Mateja Škalič Milena Ivanuš Grmek
Stališča staršev do nacionalnega preverjanja znanja ob koncu drugega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja
Izvirni znanstveni članek UDK: 37.091.26:373.2(497.4-18)
POVZETEK
V članku predstavljamo stališča staršev do nacionalnega preverjanja znanja ob koncu drugega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja. Podrobneje prikazujemo stališča staršev do upravičenosti nacionalnega preverjanja znanja ter do spodbujanja otrok za priprave nanj. V teoretičnem delu opredelimo preverjanje znanja in natančneje predstavimo nacionalno preverjanje znanja, v nadaljevanju pa predstavimo rezultate raziskave, ki je bila izvedena v letu 2014. V raziskavi je sodelovalo 209 staršev šestošolcev iz Podravske in Pomurske regije. Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da je dosežek otroka na nacionalnem preverjanju znanja za starše dobra povratna informacija o otrokovem znanju, vendar menijo, da ne pokaže otrokovega celostnega znanja. Nadalje ugotavljamo, da starši s končano osnovno šolo ter starši, ki bivajo v Pomurski regiji, pripisujejo pomembnejšo vlogo pri spodbujanju otrok pri pripravah na nacionalno preverjanje znanja bolj učiteljem kot sebi. Rezultati raziskave nas tudi opozarjajo, da so učenci iz Pomurske regije z vidika vpletenosti staršev v manj stimulativnem okolju.
Ključne besede: nacionalno preverjanje znanja, starši, drugo vzgojno-izobraževalno obdobje, Podravska regija, Pomurska regija
Parents' Views on the National Assessment of Knowledge at the End of the Second Cycle of Basic School
Original scientific article UDK: 37.091.26:373.2(497.4-18)
ABSTRACT
The article presents parents' views on the National Assessment of Knowledge at the end of the second educational cycle of basic school. In more detail we present the views of parents on the necessity of the National Assessment of Knowledge and on encouraging children to prepare for it. In the theoretical part we define assessments and further present The National Assessment of Knowledge. We then proceed to present the results of a survey conducted in 2014. The study involved 209 parents of pupils in the 6<h grade from the Podravje and Pomurje regions. The survey results show that the child's accomplishment at the National Assessment of Knowledge provides good feedback for the parents regarding the child's knowledge, however, they also believe it does not show a comprehensive overview of knowledge. Parents who have completed basic school and parents who live in the Pomurje region attribute a more prominent role in encouraging children to prepare for The National Assessment of Knowledge to the teachers, rather than to themselves. The survey results alert us to the fact that in terms of parents' involvement children from the Pomurje region live in a less stimulating environment..
Key words: National Assessment of Knowledge, parents, second educational cycle of basic school, Podravje region, Pomurje region
Uvod
V	slovenskem šolskem prostoru je od začetka devetdesetih let 20. stoletja na področju preverjanja in ocenjevanja znanja prišlo do številnih sprememb. Spremembe so bile vpeljane zlasti ob uvedbi devetletne osnovne šole. Opozorimo le na nekatere: opisno ocenjevanje v prvem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju, nacionalno preverjanje znanja ob zaključku vsakega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja, ocenjevanje znanja pri nivojskem pouku. Čeprav vse spremembe niso bile natančno proučene, so bili sprejeti različni zakonski in podzakonski akti, ki so pripeljali do sprememb na vzgojno-izobraževalnem področju: npr. ukinitev nacionalnega preverjanja znanja po zaključku prvega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja, spremenjena vloga nacionalnega preverjanja znanja ob zaključku osnovnošolskega izobraževanja. Tako v teoriji kot v praksi se kažejo težnje po uveljavitvi transformativnega pristopa k učenju, ki ima posledice tudi pri preverjanju in ocenjevanju znanja (Vogrinc, Kalin, Krek, Medveš in Valenčič Zuljan, 2011). Zaradi navedenih okoliščin je potreben temeljit premislek o preverjanju in ocenjevanju znanja.
V	prispevku se bomo osredotočili na stališča staršev do nacionalnega preverjanja znanja ob koncu drugega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja. Najprej bomo opredelili preverjanje znanja, nato pa predstavili pomen nacionalnega preverjanja znanja, pojasnili dejavnike učne uspešnosti in podali analizo rezultatov raziskave.
Opredelitev preverjanja znanja
Preverjanje znanja je postopek sistematičnega zbiranja informacij o učenju in učenčevem razumevanju obravnavanih učnih vsebin. Pri preverjanju lahko učitelj uporablja različne metode (opazovanje, pogovor, kontrolni seznami ...), s pomočjo katerih spremlja učenčev napredek (Luongo-Orlando, 2008). Preverjanje znanja ima v današnjem času več ciljev kot nekoč. Z njim učencem ne pomagamo le pri poučevanju in učenju, temveč tudi posredujemo informacije o učencih, učiteljih in šolah ter usmerjamo učne načrte in poučevanje (Gipps, 2000). Preverjanje znanja vpliva tudi na boljše poučevanje učiteljev in boljše učenje učencev (Black, 2009, v Zajc, 2010). Toda izhajati mora iz več kriterijev. Biti mora uporabno oziroma dajati informacije, na podlagi katerih je mogoče spremeniti poučevanje in učenje, mora se izvajati relativno pogosto, prav tako pa je pomembno, da se povezuje z dejanskim poučevanjem. Na podlagi rezultatov, ki jih dobimo s pomočjo preverjanja znanja, ugotavljamo, ali učenci novo učno snov razumejo ali ne. V tem primeru je glavni namen poiskati vzroke za primanjkljaje in jih čim prej odpraviti (Strmčnik, 2001).
Hattie in Timperley (2007, v Vogrinc idr., 2011) navajata, da je pomemben element preverjanja in ocenjevanja znanja povratna informacija, ki jo sestavljata dva dela -prvi del tega procesa izraža posredovanje učiteljeve povratne informacije, drugi del pa učenčevo sprejemanje in razumevanje informacije, ki mu jo je posredoval učitelj. Velik pomen je torej treba nameniti temu, kako bo učitelj posredoval povratno informacijo, saj mora le-ta biti učinkovita. Vogrinc idr. (2011) poudarjajo, da povratna informacija mora biti natančna, sistematična, celostna in individualizirana.
Nacionalno preverjanje znanja in njegov namen
Učenčevo znanje lahko preverjamo na več načinov. Preverjanje, ki ga opravlja vsak učitelj zase v razredu, v katerem poučuje, imenujemo notranje preverjanje znanja. O zunanjem preverjanju znanja govorimo takrat, kadar preizkuse sestavijo pedagoški
strokovnjaki ter strokovnjaki za sestavo in analizo merskih instrumentov (Bucik, 2001, v Žakelj in Ivanuš Grmek, 2010). Zunanje preverjanje znanja je tudi nacionalno preverjanje znanja (v nadaljevanju NPZ). To je postopek preverjanja znanja, pri katerem vsi učenci na isti dan rešujejo enake naloge ter pod enakimi pogoji (Nacionalno preverjanje znanja, informacije za učence in starše). NPZ poteka v večini držav Evropske unije, vendar je postopek različen. Na Irskem, v Franciji, Litvi in Romuniji velja, da so ista vprašanja za vse učence le pri nekaterih preizkusih, pri drugih pa se lahko razlikujejo. Razlogi za to izhajajo iz učenčevih potreb in njihove individualne učne stopnje. Tako na Danskem, Irskem, Škotskem in v Angliji preizkuse prilagodijo sposobnostim otrok, ki se od drugih preizkusov razlikujejo po stopnji zahtevnosti. V drugih državah (Francija, Belgija, Španija, Škotska, Litva in Romunija) so razlogi za različna vprašanja na preizkusih metodološki (Nacionalno preverjanje znanja učencev v Evropi, 2010).
NPZ se v Sloveniji izvaja ob koncu drugega (6. razred) in tretjega (9. razred) vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja, pri čemer se preverjajo trije predmeti. V 6. razredu poteka preverjanje iz maternega jezika, tujega jezika in matematike, v 9. razredu pa se prav tako preverja znanje iz maternega jezika in matematike, tretji predmet pa določi minister na podlagi obveznih predmetov 8. in 9. razreda (Nacionalno preverjanje znanja, predmeti). Za učence 6. razreda je s šolskim letom 2013/14 opravljanje NPZ, tako kot za učence 9. razreda, obvezno. Prostovoljno je le za učence 6. oziroma 9. razreda, ki so vključeni v prilagojeni izobraževalni program z nižjim izobrazbenim standardom, prav tako pa tudi za priseljence iz drugih držav, katerih slovenščina ni materni jezik in so prvič vključeni v 6. ali 9. razred osnovne šole v Sloveniji (Osnovna šola; nacionalno preverjanje znanja, informacije za učence in starše).
Namen NPZ je bil od njegove uvedbe v slovensko šolstvo do danes različen. Sprva je bila njegova vloga selekcijska, kasneje je rezultat preverjanja služil tudi kot del šolske ocene. Šele po letu 2005/06 ima tovrstno preverjanje znanja informativno in formativno vlogo (Žakelj in Ivanuš Grmek, 2010). To pomeni, da želimo s pomočjo NPZ pridobiti dodatno informacijo o znanju, ki ga dosegajo učenci. Ta je namenjena učencem, njihovim staršem, učiteljem, šolam in sistemu na nacionalni ravni (Osnovna šola; nacionalno preverjanje znanja, informacije za učence in starše). To se v praksi kaže pri izboljšavi kakovosti znanja in poučevanja, pri preverjanju kakovosti učnih načrtov, omogočanju enakih izobraževalnih možnosti učencem ter uporabi enotnih meril za ocenjevanje znanja (Nacionalno preverjanje znanja, informacije za učence in starše).
Dejavniki učne uspešnosti
Kako uspešen bo učenec v šoli - naj gre za preverjanje znanja, NPZ ali ocenjevanje - je odvisno od vpliva različnih dejavnikov. Poleg notranjih, ki izhajajo iz otroka samega, na učno uspešnost vplivajo tudi zunanji, iz okolja (Kompare, Stražišar, Vec, Dogša in Curk, 2001). Na učni uspeh otroka v osnovni šoli pomembno vpliva tudi spodbuda staršev. Dobro je, da starši otrokovo šolsko delo redno spremljajo, imajo pogost stik z učitelji, otroka spodbujajo in mu pomagajo ter ga pohvalijo za njegov trud. Tudi ko nastopijo težave, naj starši otroka razumejo, mu nudijo pomoč in naklonjenost pri premagovanju le-teh (Nacionalno preverjanje znanja, informacije za učence in starše). Pomembno je poudariti, da starši, ki svojim otrokom namenjajo več pozornosti, jih spodbujajo in ustvarjajo stimulativno okolje, s tem vplivajo na otrokov umski razvoj (Bezenšek, 2003). Tega naj se v prvi vrsti zavedajo predvsem starši z nižjo izobrazbo, saj lahko na tak način
prispevajo oziroma nadomestijo primanjkljaj nizke izobrazbe (Supplee, Shaw, Hailstones in Hartman, 2004). Sicer pa so se podobne ugotovitve pokazale v raziskavah že leta 1991 (Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg in Dornbusch, 1991) in 1998 (Chen in Dornbusch, 1998, v Rutar Leban, 2014). Ugotovljeno je bilo, da nestimulativno družinsko okolje v kombinaciji visoke čustvene neodvisnosti od staršev pomembno vpliva na problematično vedenje mladostnikov, njihovo psihično vedenje in nizke šolske rezultate.
V nadaljevanju bomo posvetili pomembno pozornost vlogi socialno-ekonomskega statusa in vlogi učitelja pri učni uspešnosti.
O vplivu socialno-ekonomskega statusa na učno uspešnost mladostnikov v svoji raziskavi opozarjata Puklek Levpušček in Zupančič (2009). Raziskava, ki je potekala v šolskih letih 2004/05 in 2005/06 in je zajemala vzorec 399 učencev devetletne osnovne šole, ki so v letu 2006 končali osnovno šolo, je pokazala, da so učenci višje izobraženih staršev bolj uspešni od učencev nižje izobraženih staršev. Ti rezultati so se pokazali pri matematiki, slovenščini in rezultatih nacionalnega preverjanja znanja. Tudi rezultati raziskave, ki sta jo izvedli Žakelj in Ivanuš Grmek (2010), opozarjajo, da imajo učenci, ki izhajajo iz socialno-kulturno bolj stimulativnega okolja, praviloma bolj izobražene starše, doma imajo več knjig (večja je verjetnost, da so to slovarji in knjige za učenje), od dejavnosti prevladujejo tečaji tujih jezikov, glasbena in plesna šola ter počitnice s starši. Športne dejavnosti, računalniški tečaji, likovne dejavnosti, šahovski krožek, taborniki, skavti in gasilsko društvo pa imajo z indikatorjem socialno-kulturnega okolja nizke korelacijske koeficiente.
Socialno-ekonomski status družine je močno povezan z domačim učnim okoljem, poudarja Košak Babuder (2002). Otroci, ki živijo v revnih družinah, so deležni manj spodbudnega okolja, manjše čustvene podpore in varnosti, saj je v družini na prvem mestu materialno preživetje. Prav tako je drugačen njihov pogled na izobraževanje, kar posledično vpliva na otrokov učni uspeh. Taki starši imajo do svojih otrok relativno nižja pričakovanja in tudi tisti, ki imajo višja pričakovanja, po navadi ne vedo, kako bi svojim otrokom pomagali.
Ne glede na socialni status staršev je pomembno, da svojemu otroku nudijo čim bolj spodbudno okolje ter podporo. Končna kakovost pouka pa je odvisna od učitelja. Njegova naloga je, da učne cilje, vsebino in učno tehnologijo usklajuje in prilagaja učencem, poleg tega pa neposredno odloča in odgovarja o učnem procesu (Blažič, Ivanuš Grmek, Kramar in Strmčnik, 2003). Bouchey in Harter (2005, v Cugmas, Kepe Globevnik, Pogorevec Merčnik in Štemberger, 2010) v svojih raziskavah ugotavljata, da pričakovanja, ki jih imajo učitelji in tudi starši do otrok glede šolske uspešnosti, vplivajo na otrokova pričakovanja glede šolske uspešnosti in posledično tudi na dejansko učno uspešnost. Na to temo so različni avtorji izvedli veliko raziskav, v katerih je bila ugotovljena povezava med odnosom, ki ga ima učitelj do določenih učencev, ter učno uspešnostjo le-teh, samopodobo, stopnjo sprejetosti pri vrstnikih ipd. Vedenje učiteljev se namreč razlikuje glede na pričakovanja, ki jih imajo do otrok. Če od učenca pričakujejo boljše rezultate, jim zastavljajo več vprašanj, težja vprašanja, dajejo jim več časa za odgovarjanje, pri odgovarjanju jih ne prekinjajo toliko, jih bolj spodbujajo in z neverbalno komunikacijo nakazujejo večjo naklonjenost. Če pa imajo do učenca nižja pričakovanja, mu postavljajo lažja vprašanja, na odgovor čakajo manj časa, so do njih kritični ter jih ne pohvalijo tolikokrat kot tiste učence, do katerih imajo višja pričakovanja (Vršnik Perše, 2014).
Empirična raziskava
Namen raziskave
Namen raziskave je proučiti stališča staršev:
•	do upravičenosti NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja,
•	do spodbujanja otrok za priprave na NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja.
Zanimalo nas je, ali obstajajo razlike glede na spol staršev, njihovo izobrazbo in regijo, v kateri bivajo.
Metodologija
Pri raziskovalnem delu smo uporabili deskriptivno in kavzalno neeksperimentalno metodo empiričnega raziskovanja. Raziskava je bila izvedena na neslučajnostnem vzorcu 209 staršev šestošolcev iz petih pomurskih in šestih podravskih osnovnih šol.
Podatke smo zbrali s pomočjo anketnega vprašalnika za starše. Sestavljen je bil iz dveh delov. Vprašanja v prvem delu so se nanašala na splošne podatke - spol, regijo in izobrazbo staršev. V drugem delu je sledila Likertova lestvica stališč, ki vsebuje 11 trditev s petstopenjsko lestvico (5 - se popolnoma strinjam, 4 - se strinjam, 3 - ne vem, se ne morem odločiti, 2 - se ne strinjam, 1 - se sploh ne strinjam).
Rezultati so prikazani tabelarično. Za posamezne trditve so izračunane aritmetične sredine (x) numerično izraženih stopenj soglašanja. Drugih ocen osnovne deskriptivne statistike (npr. MIN, MAX, standardni odklon, koeficient asimetrije in koeficient sploščenosti) nismo uporabili, saj za njihovo uporabo nimamo pogojev (neštevilske spremenljivke). Glede na merski nivo spremenljivk smo uporabili neparametrična preizkusa, in sicer za preizkušanje odvisnih zvez glede na izobrazbo smo uporabili Kruskal-Wallisov preizkus, za preizkušanje odvisnih zvez glede na spol in regijo pa Mann-Whitneyjev preizkus.
V naši raziskavi smo pridobili podatke (v skladu z namenom) za ordinalne spremenljivke. Te niso prave številske spremenljivke, ampak ordinalne, torej neštevilske z numerično osnovo. Zanje veljajo druge statistične metode kot za številske spremenljivke. V skladu s tem smo na deskriptivnem nivoju uporabili zgolj aritmetično sredino (tudi zanjo velja, da je metoda za številske spremenljivke, ne gremo pa v našem primeru z njo v nadaljnjo obdelavo, ampak se nanjo sklicujemo zgolj zaradi hitrega, orientacijskega vpogleda v nivo stanja neke spremenljivke glede na drugo/-e), na inferenčnem nivoju pa neparametrične preizkuse (Mann-Whitneyjev preizkus, Kruskal-Wallisov preizkus). Uporabljamo jih, ko imamo ordinalne spremenljivke (kot je v našem primeru), za številske pa v tistih primerih, ko za parametrične preizkuse (npr. t-preizkus, analiza variance) nimamo upravičenih predpostavk.
Rezultati in interpretacija
Rezultate raziskave prikazujemo v dveh sklopih, in sicer:
•	stališča staršev do upravičenosti NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja,
•	stališča staršev do spodbujanja otrok za priprave na NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja.
Analiza stališe staršev do upravičenosti NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobrazevalnega obdobja
Preglednica 1: Aritmetična sredina (x) trditev o upravičenosti NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja
Trditev	X
Dosežek na NPZ je dobra povratna informacija o otrokovem znanju.	4,00
NPZ ni pokazatelj otrokovega celostnega znanja, saj je preverjanje le pisno.	3,50
Dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova močna področja.	3,31
Dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova šibka področja.	3,11
NPZ ob koncu 6. razreda je nesmiseln.	2,65
Največje povprečje ima trditev, da je dosežek na NPZ dobra povratna informacija o otrokovem znanju (x = 4,00). To pomeni, da se v povprečju starši strinjajo, da na podlagi rezultatov NPZ dobijo dober vpogled v otrokovo znanje. Z nekoliko nižjim povprečjem, a prav tako zelo visokim, sledi trditev, da NPZ zgolj zaradi pisnega preverjanja ni pokazatelj otrokovega celostnega znanja (x = 3,50). Sledita trditvi, da dosežki na NPZ prikazujejo otrokova močna (x = 3,31) oziroma šibka področja (x = 3,11). Na dnu lestvice je trditev, da je NPZ ob koncu 6. razreda nesmiseln (X = 2,65). Rezultati raziskave nas opozarjajo, da se starši zavedajo pomena NPZ, so pa do njega tudi kritični. Podobne rezultate, in sicer da je NPZ dober pokazatelj znanja učencev, prikazujejo tudi Vogrinc idr. (2011), ki so v raziskavo vključili starše in učitelje učencev od 7. do 9. razreda. Tako je menilo 57,2 % staršev in 60,5 % učiteljev. Le 2,6 % staršev in 5,7 % učiteljev je menilo, da je NPZ zelo slab pokazatelj znanja učencev (prav tam).
Preglednica 2: Izid Kruskal-Wallisovega preizkusa razlik v soglašanju s trditvami, vezanimi na upravičenost NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja glede na izobrazbo
Trditev	Izobrazba	R	Z2	P
Dosežek na NPZ je dobra povratna informacija o otrokovem znanju.	osnovna šola	99,64	13,122	0,011
	srednja šola	116,07		
	višja šola	108,13		
	visoka šola	90,73		
	mag. ali dr.	66,00		
NPZ ob koncu 6. razreda je nesmiseln.	osnovna šola	95,88	2,990	0,559
	srednja šola	100,67		
	višja šola	114,39		
	visoka šola	111,43		
	mag. ali dr.	119,50		
NPZ ni pokazatelj otrokovega celostnega znanja, saj je preverjanje le pisno.	osnovna šola	101,26	0,925	0,921
	srednja šola	106,48		
	višja šola	101,63		
	visoka šola	10757		
	mag. ali dr.	91,73		
Trditev	Izobrazba	R	Z2	P
Dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova šibka področja.	osnovna šola	129,57	9,554	0,049
	srednja šola	109,79		
	višja šola	100,00		
	visoka šola	92,42		
	mag. ali dr.	76,86		
Dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova močna področja.	osnovna šola	130,05	8,020	0,091
	srednja šola	109,05		
	višja šola	92,47		
	visoka šola	92,56		
	mag. ali dr.	95,64		
Rezultati kažejo, da obstajajo statistično značilne razlike v soglašanju s trditvijo, da je dosežek na NPZ dobra povratna informacija o otrokovem znanju (P = 0,011) in da dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova šibka področja (P = 0,049). Z zadnjo se v večji meri bolj strinjajo starši s končano osnovno šolo, medtem ko se s prvo trditvijo bolj strinjajo tisti, ki imajo končano srednjo šolo. Tendenca razlike se kaže pri trditvi, da dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova močna področja (P = 0,091), kar bolj podpirajo starši z nižjo izobrazbo. Bolj kot so starši izobraženi, manjša je stopnja strinjanja s temi trditvami, zato lahko sklepamo, da zanje zgolj pisno preverjanje treh predmetov ne more biti pokazatelj otrokovega celostnega znanja ter njegovih močnih oziroma šibkih področij. Na to nas opozarjajo tudi nekateri avtorji (Blažič idr., 2003), ki menijo, da so za celosten prikaz znanja potrebne še druge oblike preverjanja, npr. ustno oziroma praktično, saj le pisno tega ne omogoča.
Preglednica 3: Izid Mann-Whitneyjevega preizkusa razlik v soglašanju s trditvami, vezanimi na upravičenost NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja glede na spol
Trditev	Spol	R	U	P
Dosežek na NPZ je dobra povratna informacija o otrokovem znanju.	Moški	108,58	3237000	0,653
	Ženski	104,15		
NPZ ob koncu 6. razreda je nesmiseln.	Moški	8703	2661,000	0,027
	Ženski	109,25		
NPZ ni pokazatelj otrokovega celostnega znanja, saj je preverjanje le pisno.	Moški	93,04	2901,500	0,140
	Ženski	10783		
Dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova šibka področja.	Moški	120,30	2768,000	0,064
	Ženski	101,38		
Dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova močna področja.	Moški	116,38	2925,000	0,165
	Ženski	102,31		
Izid Mann-Whitneyjevega preizkusa razlik kaže, da se statistično značilna razlika pojavlja pri trditvi, da je NPZ ob koncu 6. razreda nesmiseln (P = 0,027). Pri tej trditvi so višje odgovarjale ženske kot moški. To pomeni, da NPZ ob koncu 6. razreda matere bolj kot očetje označujejo za nesmiselno obliko preverjanja znanja. Tendenca razlike se kaže pri trditvi, da dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova šibka področja (P = 0,064); to potrjujejo očetje. Na podlagi rezultatov lahko sklepamo, da očetje NPZ ob
koncu 6. razreda pripisujejo večji pomen, saj v rezultatu NPZ bolj kot matere vidijo priložnost, da jih opozori na šibka področja pri otroku, prav tako tudi, bolj kot matere, na močna področja, vendar tu razlika ni statistično značilna.
Preglednica 4: Izid Mann-Whitneyjevega preizkusa razlik v soglašanju s trditvami, vezanimi na upravičenost NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja glede na regijo
Trditev	ReSija	R	U	P
Dosežek na NPZ je dobra povratna informacija o otrokovem znanju.	Pomurska	108,49	4859,500	0,280
	Podravska	100,01		
NPZ ob koncu 6. razreda je nesmiseln.	Pomurska	109,10	4785,000	0,217
	Podravska	99,14		
NPZ ni pokazatelj otrokovega celostnega znanja, saj je preverjanje le pisno.	Pomurska	10776	4949,000	0,402
	Podravska	101,05		
Dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova šibka področja.	Pomurska	112,02	4425,000	0,037
	Podravska	94,95		
Dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova močna področja.	Pomurska	108,19	4897000	0,339
	Podravska	100,44		
Izid Mann-Whitneyjevega preizkusa razlik kaže, da obstaja statistično značilna razlika pri trditvi, da dosežki otroka na NPZ prikazujejo njegova šibka področja (P = 0,037). Pri drugih trditvah nismo odkrili statistično značilnih razlik. Starši iz Pomurske regije se s to trditvijo bolj strinjajo kot starši iz Podravske regije. Iz preglednice je razvidno, da je tudi pri drugih trditvah stopnja strinjanja višja pri starših, ki prihajajo iz Pomurske regije.
Analiza stališč staršev do spodbujanja otrok za priprave na NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja
Preglednica 5: Aritmetična sredina (x) trditev o spodbujanju otrok za priprave na NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja
Trditev	x
Pri spodbujanju otrok na NPZ imajo učitelji večjo vlogo kot starši.	3,72
Bolj kot starši spodbujajo otroka pri NPZ, boljši bo njegov dosežek.	3,46
Starši za čim boljšo otrokovo pripravo na NPZ z njim rešujejo dodatne naloge in mu nudijo pomoč.	3,06
Staršem pri pripravah otroka na NPZ ni treba sodelovati.	2,86
V času opravljanja NPZ naj starši otrokom ne nalagajo dodatnih bremen (npr. hišna opravila).	2,35
Ni pomembno, da starši otroka pri opravljanju NPZ spodbujajo.	2,29
Starši v sklopu trditev, vezanih na spodbujanje otrok za priprave na NPZ, povprečno najvišje ocenjujejo trditev, da imajo pri spodbujanju otrok na NPZ učitelji večjo vlogo kot starši (x = 3,72). Z nekoliko nižjim povprečjem sledita trditvi, da bolj kot starši spodbujajo otroka pri NPZ, boljši bo otrokov dosežek (x = 3,46) in da starši za čim boljšo otrokovo pripravo na NPZ z njim rešujejo dodatne naloge in mu nudijo pomoč (x = 3,06). Rezultati kažejo, da starši vlogo za spodbujanje otrok za pripravo na NPZ pripisujejo tako učiteljem kot sebi. To potrjuje tudi povprečni rezultat trditve, ki se nahaja v spodnji polovici ranžirne vrste, in sicer da staršem pri pripravah otroka na NPZ ni treba sodelovati (x = 2,86). Na dnu ranžirne vrste sta trditvi, naj v času opravljanja
NPZ starši otrokom ne nalagajo dodatnih bremen (Jč = 2,35) in da ni pomembno, da starši otroka pri opravljanju NPZ spodbujajo (Jč = 2,29).
Rezultati kažejo, da starši, čeprav največjo vlogo za spodbujanje otrok za priprave na NPZ pripisujejo učiteljem, tudi sami spodbujajo svoje otroke, kar nedvomno vpliva na njihove dosežene rezultate.
Do podobnih ugotovitev sta prišla ameriški sociolog Coleman leta 1966 in Plowden leta 1967 (v Krumm, 1998). V raziskavi sta ugotovila, da je delež družine pri šolskem uspehu učenca v primerjavi z deležem šole večji. V šolah se bistveno več učijo tisti učenci, ki jih starši podpirajo posredno ali neposredno, v primerjavi s tistimi, katerih starši ne podpirajo ali kakor koli spodbujajo.
Preglednica 6: Izid Kruskal- Wallisovega preizkusa razlik v soglašanju s trditvami, vezanimi na spodbujanje otrok za priprave na NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja glede na izobrazbo
Trditev	Izobrazba	R	Z2	P
Bolj kot starši spodbujajo otroka pri NPZ, boljši bo njegov dosežek.	osnovna šola	133,60	7340	0,119
	srednja šola	105,63		
	višja šola	95,87		
	visoka šola	99,14		
	mag. ali dr.	86,64		
Starši za čim boljšo otrokovo pripravo na NPZ z njim rešujejo dodatne naloge in mu nudijo pomoč.	osnovna šola	125,26	14,350	0,006
	srednja šola	113,48		
	višja šola	98,87		
	visoka šola	80,13		
	mag. ali dr.	106,68		
Staršem pri pripravah otroka na NPZ ni treba sodelovati.	osnovna šola	116,55	2,183	0,702
	srednja šola	104,89		
	višja šola	94,13		
	visoka šola	10733		
	mag. ali dr.	92,23		
V času opravljanja NPZ naj starši otrokom ne nalagajo dodatnih bremen (npr. hišna opravila).	osnovna šola	131,57	20,083	0,000
	srednja šola	114,27		
	višja šola	100,21		
	visoka šola	82,14		
	mag. ali dr.	75,41		
Pri spodbujanju otrok na NPZ imajo učitelji večjo vlogo kot starši.	osnovna šola	118,71	2,454	0,653
	srednja šola	100,84		
	višja šola	115,16		
	visoka šola	104,82		
	mag. ali dr.	102,91		
Ni pomembno, da starši otroka pri opravljanju NPZ spodbujajo.	osnovna šola	12717	6,268	0,180
	srednja šola	10750		
	višja šola	91,61		
	visoka šola	9737		
	mag. ali dr.	96,00		
Izid Kruskal-Wallisovega preizkusa razlik kaže, da obstaja statistično značilna razlika pri dveh trditvah. Trditev, da starši za čim boljšo otrokovo pripravo na NPZ z njim rešujejo
dodatne naloge in mu nudijo pomoč (P = 0,006), bolj potrjujejo starši z dokončano osnovno šolo. Razloge za tak rezultat lahko pripisujemo željam staršev po pomoči, saj bi z njihovim sodelovanjem lahko otroci dosegali boljše rezultate. Raziskava, ki so jo izvedli Kalin idr. (2009), v katero je bilo vključenih 1644 staršev otrok 3. razreda, 5./6. razreda in 9. razreda, je pokazala, da se odstotek staršev, ki menijo, da svojemu otroku znajo pomagati, s stopnjo izobrazbe viša. Starši z osnovnošolsko in poklicno izobrazbo v največji meri odgovarjajo, da znajo otroku pomagati le pri nekaterih predmetih oziroma da otroku ne znajo pomagati pri nobenem predmetu. Kljub temu nas rezultati raziskave opozarjajo, da prav starši s končano osnovno šolo otrokom za čim boljše dosežke nudijo pomoč in z njimi rešujejo naloge. Glede na to, da se ti starši v največji meri strinjajo s trditvijo, da jim pri pripravah na nPz ni treba sodelovati, lahko sklepamo, da pomoč za svoje otroke in čim boljše dosežke najdejo drugje (npr. pomoč sošolcev, inštrukcije ipd.). Trditev, da naj v času opravljanja NPZ starši otrokom ne nalagajo dodatnih bremen (npr. hišna opravila), so višje ocenili starši z dokončano osnovno, srednjo ali višjo šolo (P = 0,000).
Na podlagi rezultatov lahko sklepamo, da starši z nižjo izobrazbo spodbujajo svoje otroke k boljšemu uspehu nekoliko drugače. Supplee idr. (2004) namreč potrjujejo domnevo, da lahko matere primanjkljaj svoje nizke izobrazbe, ki posledično vpliva na učno (ne)uspešnost otroka, nadomestijo s svojim pravilnim »poučevanjem«, spodbudami in izražanjem naklonjenosti.
Iz preglednice lahko razberemo, da se s trditvijo, da imajo učitelji pri spodbujanju otrok večjo vlogo kot starši, v največji meri strinjajo starši z najnižjo stopnjo izobrazbe. Podobne rezultate v svoji raziskavi navajajo tudi Kalin idr. (2009) - nižja kot je stopnja izobrazbe staršev, večja je stopnja strinjanja s trditvijo, da je predvsem šola odgovorna za učni uspeh otroka. Razloge za tovrstno razmišljanje staršev s končano osnovno šolo oziroma nižjo izobrazbo lahko pripisujemo slabemu poznavanju dejavnikov otrokove učne uspešnosti. Otroci sicer res veliko svojega časa preživijo v šoli, ki ima nedvomno pomemben vpliv na njihovo uspešnost, vendar na otrokov uspeh vplivajo tudi drugi dejavniki, npr. okolje in starši.
Preglednica 7: Izid Mann-Whitneyjevega preizkusa razlik v soglašanju s trditvami, vezanimi na spodbujanje otrok za priprave na NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja glede na spol
Trditev	Spol	R	U	P
Bolj kot starši spodbujajo otroka pri NPZ, boljši bo njegov dosežek.	Moški	123,75	2630,000	0,022
	Ženski	100,56		
Starši za čim boljšo otrokovo pripravo na NPZ z njim rešujejo dodatne naloge in mu nudijo pomoč.	Moški	115,14	29 74,500	0,218
	Ženski	102,60		
Staršem pri pripravah otroka na NPZ ni treba sodelovati.	Moški	97728	3071,000	0,341
	Ženski	106,83		
V času opravljanja NPZ naj starši otrokom ne nalagajo dodatnih bremen (npr. hišna opravila).	Moški	118,86	2825,500	0,075
	Ženski	101,72		
Pri spodbujanju otrok na NPZ imajo učitelji večjo vlogo kot starši.	Moški	103,63	3325,000	0,864
	Ženski	105,33		
Ni pomembno, da starši otroka pri opravljanju NPZ spodbujajo.	Moški	116,24	2930,500	0,142
	Ženski	102,34		
Statistično značilna razlika se kaže pri trditvi, da bolj kot starši spodbujajo otroka pri NPZ, boljši bo njegov dosežek (P = 0,022). Iz preglednice je razvidno, da s tem
bolj soglašajo očetje. Tendenca razlike se kaže v soglašanju s trditvijo, da naj v času opravljanja NPZ starši otrokom ne nalagajo dodatnih bremen (P = 0,075). Iz rezultatov, vezanih na spodbujanje otrok za priprave na NPZ, sledi, da očetje v primerjavi z materami temu dajejo večjo vlogo.
Preglednica 8: Izid Mann-Whitneyjevega preizkusa razlik v soglašanju s trditvami, vezanimi na spodbujanje otrok za priprave na NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja glede na regijo
Trditev	RegUa	R	U	P
Bolj kot starši spodbujajo otroka pri NPZ, boljši bo njegov dosežek.	Pomurska	102,84	5023,000	0,515
	Podravska	108,09		
Starši za čim boljšo otrokovo pripravo na NPZ z njim rešujejo dodatne naloge in mu nudijo pomoč.	Pomurska	104,44	5220,500	0,868
	Podravska	105,80		
Staršem pri pripravah otroka na NPZ ni treba sodelovati.	Pomurska	110,57	4604,000	0,092
	Podravska	9703		
V času opravljanja NPZ naj starši otrokom ne nalagajo dodatnih bremen (npr. hišna opravila).	Pomurska	110,51	4611,000	0,082
	Podravska	97712		
Pri spodbujanju otrok na NPZ imajo učitelji večjo vlogo kot starši.	Pomurska	111,24	4522,000	0,056
	Podravska	96,08		
Ni pomembno, da starši otroka pri opravljanju NPZ spodbujajo.	Pomurska	108,82	4819,000	0,220
	Podravska	99,53		
Kot kaže izid Mann-Whitneyjevega preizkusa razlik, ne obstajajo statistično značilne razlike v soglašanju s trditvami, vezanimi na spodbujanje otrok za priprave na NPZ ob koncu 2. vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja glede na regijo. Obstaja pa tendenca razlike, in sicer pri treh trditvah:
•	staršem pri pripravah otroka na NPZ ni treba sodelovati (P = 0,092),
•	v času opravljanja NPZ naj starši otrokom ne nalagajo dodatnih bremen (P = 0,082),
•	pri spodbujanju otrok na NPZ imajo učitelji večjo vlogo kot starši (P = 0,056). Pri vseh treh trditvah zasledimo višje povprečje rangov pri starših šestošolcev iz
Pomurske regije. Na tej osnovi sklepamo, da spodbujanju otrok pri pripravah na NPZ starši iz Pomurske regije ne namenjajo tolikšne pozornosti kot starši iz Podravske regije.
Tudi rezultati raziskave (Kalin idr., 2009) kažejo statistično značilno razliko glede na mestne in nemestne šole v strinjanju s trditvijo, da so za učno uspešnost otroka v šoli odgovorni predvsem starši. S to trditvijo se v večji meri ne strinjajo starši otrok v nemestnih šolah, medtem ko je večje strinjanje pri starših otrok iz mestnih šol.
Velja opozoriti, da je pomanjkljiva spodbuda s strani staršev pri opravljanju NPZ lahko eden izmed razlogov, ki vpliva na dosežene (nižje) rezultate pomurskih otrok. Analiza dosežkov v šolskem letu 2013/14 namreč kaže, da učenci iz Pomurske regije v primerjavi s Podravsko pri vseh predmetih, razen nemščini, dosegajo nižje rezultate oziroma so le-ti pod povprečjem (Domanjko idr., 2014).
Sklep
Rezultati raziskave so pokazali, da je NPZ za starše dober pokazatelj otrokovega znanja, a ni pokazatelj celostnega znanja, saj ne vključuje drugih oblik preverjanja (npr.
ustno ali praktično preverjanje). Starši s končano nižjo stopnjo izobrazbe vidijo v NPZ bolj kot tisti z višjo stopnjo izobrazbe priložnost, ki daje dobro povratno informacijo o znanju otrok ter prikazuje otrokova močna in šibka področja. Čeprav nekateri avtorji (Strmčnik, 2001) poudarjajo, da je za ugotavljanje celostnega znanja treba vključiti več oblik preverjanja, da bi na tak način preverili celostno znanje otroka in dobili boljši vpogled v njegovo znanje, menimo, da je rezultat učenca na NPZ eden od pokazateljev učenčevega znanja. Preverjanje znanja sicer poteka le pisno, so pa zato preizkusi, način preverjanja in organizacija veliko bolj objektivni, omogočajo za vse udeležence enake pogoje, tako glede ciljev, ki se preverjajo, kot glede izvedbe. Trdimo lahko, da je NPZ eden izmed pomembnih pokazateljev znanja otrok. Poleg tega dober rezultat na NPZ učencu daje neko potrditev, da je pri določenem predmetu dober, oziroma v nasprotnem primeru opozorilo, da se mora bolj potruditi. Učenci, ki se morda s strani učiteljev ali vrstnikov počutijo manjvredne, zapostavljene, lahko dokažejo, da zmorejo, so sposobni dosegati dobre rezultate in na tak način pridobivajo samozavest. Posledično lahko dosegajo boljše rezultate tudi na drugih področjih oziroma predmetih, ne samo pri tistih, ki se preverjajo na NPZ. Poleg tega ne smemo zanemariti dejstva, da rezultati na NPZ ne pokažejo le znanja učencev pri predmetih, ki se preverjajo, temveč tudi kakovost celotnega vzgojno-izobraževalnega sistema.
Anketirani starši, ki so bili zajeti v raziskavi, menijo, da imajo učitelji pri spodbujanju otrok na NPZ večjo vlogo kot starši, hkrati pa so mnenja, da lahko tudi sami vplivajo na dosežek otroka. Rezultati kažejo, da so starši z dokončano nižjo stopnjo izobrazbe (osnovno šolo) za boljše otrokove dosežke z otrokom pripravljeni reševati dodatne naloge ter ga čim manj obremenjevati s hišnimi opravili. Starši iz Pomurske regije bolj kot tisti iz Podravske pripisujejo učiteljem pri pripravi in spodbujanju otrok na NPZ večjo vlogo kot staršem. Ti rezultati so nekoliko zaskrbljujoči, saj mnogi avtorji pripisujejo šolski uspeh otroka tako staršem kot učiteljem. Med drugim Rutar Leban (2014) navaja, da nestimulativno družinsko okolje vpliva na nizke šolske rezultate. Zato bi bilo dobro, da se odkrijejo razlogi, ki vplivajo na pomanjkanje spodbujanja otrok na NPZ s strani staršev. Zavedati se je namreč treba, da imajo starši na otroke in njihov učni uspeh pomemben vpliv. Tega se morajo zavedati tudi sami.
Mateja Škalič Milena Ivanuš Grmek
Parents' Views on the National Assessment of Knowledge at the End of the Second Cycle of Basic School
Through assessments of knowledge, we systematically collect information about learning and the pupils' understanding of learning content. The teacher can take different approaches to assessing the pupil's knowledge; through observation, conversation, and checklists (Loungo-Orlando 2008). In the case of the National Assessment of Knowledge, which takes place at the end of the 6th and 9th grade in Slovene basic schools, the matter is somewhat different as the assessment is conducted in written form only. The purpose of the National Assessment of
Knowledge at the end of the 6th grade is mainly informative as it is used to obtain additional information on the pupil's knowledge. This information is intended for the student, his parents, the school, or rather the entire education system. The extent of the child's accomplishment at the National Assessment of Knowledge, however, is not solely dependent on the child's abilities. In the learning process, parents' encouragement, their attentiveness, their socioeconomic status, and both their expectations and those of teachers are important factors.
Through empirical research conducted on a sample of 209 parents of pupils attending the 6th grade from the Podravje and Pomurje region, we strived to determine the necessity of the National Assessment of Knowledge at the end of the 6th grade, and also in what manner and to what extent parents encourage their children in the preparations for the assessment. We wanted to know whether there are differences based on the gender of the parents, their education level, and the region they live in.
The survey results show that the National Assessment of Knowledge is, for the parents, a good indicator of the child's knowledge, but does not show a comprehensive overview of the child's knowledge, because it does not include other methods of assessment - such as oral or practical assessments. More than those with a higher education, the parents with lower education see in the National Assessment of Knowledge an opportunity that gives good feedback on the child's knowledge and outlines the child's strengths and weaknesses. Although some authors (Strmčnik, 2001) point out that a comprehensive overview of the child's knowledge requires incorporating more forms of assessment and that by doing so we test not only comprehensive knowledge, but also gain a better insight into the child's knowledge, we believe that the child's accomplishment at the National Assessment of Knowledge is one of the indicators of the child's knowledge. The assessment is only in written form, but that makes the tests, methods of assessing, and the organization far more objective, and allows each participant equal conditions both regarding the assessed goals and the execution of the assessment. It can be argued that the National Assessment of Knowledge is one of the important indicators of children's knowledge. Moreover, a good result gives the pupil confirmation that he is doing well in a certain class or, otherwise, warns that more effort is needed. We also should not ignore the fact that the results at the National Assessment of Knowledge do not show only the pupils' knowledge in certain the assessed subjects, but also the quality of the entire educational system.
The surveyed parents included in the research believe that teachers have a far greater role than parents when it comes to encouraging children at the National Assessment of Knowledge, but they still believe they can influence the child's achievements. The results show that parents with a lower achieved education (basic school) are, in order to improve their child's achievements, more likely to invest time solving additional tasks with the child, and they burden them less with household tasks. Parents from the Pomurje region, more so than parents from the Podravje region, believe teachers have a greater role than themselves with the preparation and encouragement of children for the National Assessment of Knowledge. These results are somewhat alarming, as many authors attribute the child's academic success to both parents and teachers. Among others, Rutar Leban (2014) states that a non-supportive family environment influences low school performance. It has to be recognized that parents
have a great influence on the child and the child's academic achievements - mainly they have to recognize that themselves.
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Mateja Škalič, mag. prof. raz. pouka, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, skalicmateja@gmail.com
Dr. Milena Ivanuš Grmek, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, milena.grmek@um.si
Tina Štemberger
Etnografska raziskava na pedagoškem področju
Pregledni znanstveni članek UDK: 001.891:37.013
POVZETEK
Etnografsko raziskovanje na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja je pri nas slabše poznano in uporabljano. Pojem etnografsko raziskovanje je različno definiran: pogosto se enači s kvalitativnim raziskovanjem, z opazovanjem z udeležbo ali s študijo primera. V prispevku ga zaradi specifičnih lastnosti obravnavamo kot vrsto raziskave. Najprej izpostavimo problem opredelitve etnografskega raziskovanja, predstavimo osnovne značilnosti in proces etnografske raziskave. Opozorimo tudi na slabosti tovrstnega raziskovanja, razpravo pa zaključimo z vprašanjem o vlogi etnografskega raziskovanja na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja.
Ključne besede: etnografska raziskava, kvalitativno raziskovanje, kvantitativno raziskovanje, proces raziskovanja, eklektični pristop, vzgoja in izobraževanje
Etnographic Research in the Field of Education
Review scientific article UDK: 001.891:37.013
ABSTRACT
In the field of educational research, ethnography is not well known and consequently it is not frequently used. The concept of ethnographic research is differently, unevenly defined. It is frequently misinterpreted as qualitative research, participatory observation or as a case study. The aim of the present paper was to present ethnographic research as an approach in educational research. We first highlight the problems regarding its definition; we then present the particularities and the process of ethnographic research. We also point out to some disadvantages of this approach and we conclude the paper with the question of the role of ethnographic research in the field of education.
Key words: ethnography, qualitative research, quantitative research, research process, eclectic approach
Uvod
Raziskovanje na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja je (bilo) v Sloveniji tradicionalno bolj naklonjeno kvantitativni metodologiji. Slovenska pedagoška stroka se je za kvalitativno raziskovanje, predvsem za akcijsko raziskovanje (Marentič Požarnik, 1990), začela bolj zanimati v devetdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja. Kasneje je o kvalitativnem raziskovanju, o kvalitativni analizi podatkov ter o študiji primera razpravljal Sagadin (19 91 a, 1991 b, 1993a, 1993c), Cencičeva (2001) pa je kot vrsto kvalitativne raziskave na področju edukacije predstavila življenjsko zgodovino. V zadnjem obdobju sta se s kvalitativnim raziskovanjem ukvarjala Mažgonova (npr. 2005, 2006, 2008), ki se je osredotočila na akcijsko raziskovanje, ter Vogrinc (2007, 2008a, 2008b), ki se je ukvarjal z različnimi vidiki kvalitativnega raziskovanja. Pregled obstoječe literature kaže, da se je v slovenski metodološki literaturi s področja vzgoje in izobraževanja mogoče poglobljeno seznaniti
z značilnostmi kvalitativnega raziskovanja. Tu gre predvsem za dve vrsti raziskav, ki ju načeloma uvrščamo pod okrilje kvalitativnega raziskovanja: študijo primera in akcijsko raziskavo. Značilnosti življenjske zgodovine so bile predstavljene le v enem prispevku (Cencič, 2001), nekoliko presenetljivo pa v znanstveni literaturi s področja vzgoje in izobraževanja ni zaslediti prispevkov o etnografski raziskavi, ki jo prav zaradi njene relativne neprepoznavnosti na tem področju predstavljamo v pričujočem prispevku.
Opredelitev etnografske raziskave
Etnografija ima svoje korenine v antropologiji (Muršič, 2011) in sociologiji (Creswell, 2014), njeni začetki pa segajo v obdobje velikih geografskih odkritij (Vidich in Standford, 2000). Sodobno etnografsko raziskovanje je definirano kot iskanje skupnih vzorcev vedenja, jezika, ravnanj neke skupine ljudi v njenem naravnem okolju v daljšem časovnem obdobju (Creswell, 2014). Po Tedlockovi (2000) gre za dlje časa trajajoči poskus, da se neki dogodki umestijo v širši kontekst. Na področju raziskovanja vzgoje in izobraževanja je etnografijo kot antropološko metodo že leta 1977 omenjal Wilson (1977). Izhodiščno poimenovanje antropološke »metode« nakazuje na neenotnost v poimenovanju, razumevanju in pojmovanju etnografije, kar kaže potrebo po razjasnitvi terminoloških neskladij.
Neenotnost v terminologiji se kaže v več segmentih, in sicer pri rabi pojma metoda ter pri enačenju etnografske raziskave s kvalitativno raziskavo, z opazovanjem z udeležbo in s študijo primera. Neustrezna raba termina metoda je najverjetneje povezana s pomenom tega pojma v okviru sociološkega raziskovanja, saj pedagoško raziskovanje pod raziskovalne metode uvršča deskriptivno in eksplikativno metodo (npr. Cencič, 2009; Muzić,1994; Sagadin, 1993b). V metodološki literaturi se pogosto pojavlja tudi enačenje etnografskega pristopa s kvalitativnim raziskovanjem (Anderson-Levitt, 2006; Mukherji in Albon, 2010; Zaharlic,1992). Anderson-Levittova (2006) trdi, da bi lahko etnografijo pojmovali kot vrsto kvalitativne raziskave, hkrati pa dodaja, da nikakor ne gre enačiti obeh konceptov, saj je pojem kvalitativnega raziskovanja nadreden pojmu etnografske raziskave. Avtorica (prav tam) opozarja tudi na neupravičeno enačenje etnografskega pristopa z opazovanjem z udeležbo (npr. Vogrinc, 2008a). Meni namreč, da je etnografija bolj način raziskovanja kot tehnika. To argumentira z dejstvom, da sta v etnografiji v največji meri uporabljeni tehniki opazovanje z udeležbo (participatorno opazovanje) ter polstrukturirani intervjuji. Zaharlicova (1992) opozarja na enačenje etnografske raziskave s študijo primera. Sagadin (1991a) je v razpravi o študiji primera povzel Stenhousovo (1988, v Sagadin, 1991a) opredelitev etnografske študije primera, ki jo opredeljuje kot eno izmed vrst študij primera. Kot zaključuje Zaharlicova (1992), ima etnografska raziskava z zgoraj navedenimi pojavi res nekatere skupne značilnosti, hkrati pa svojstvene značilnosti, zaradi katerih jo lahko identificiramo oz. opredelimo kot posebno vrsto raziskave. Etnografsko raziskavo kot vrsto raziskave opredeljujejo npr. tudi Gojkova (2000), Rhedding-Jones (2007) in Ševkušićeva (2008), ki kot vrste kvalitativnih raziskav eksplicitno navajajo študijo primera, akcijsko raziskovanje ter etnografsko raziskavo.
Značilnosti in posebnosti etnografske raziskave
Banister, Burman in Parker (1999) kot posebnosti etnografske raziskave navajajo zlasti: 1. zbiranje podatkov iz različnih virov (npr. opazovanje, intervjuji, pogovori, dokumenti); 2. analizo podatkov v kontekstu vsakdanjega življenja; 3. uporabo nestrukturiranih pristopov zbiranja podatkov v zgodnejših fazah, tako da se skrči
raziskovalni problem ter se druge tehnike lahko pojavijo postopno, skozi analizo; 4. vključevanje globinskega proučevanja ene ali dveh situacij.
Zaharlickova (1992) ločuje etnografski pristop od drugih predvsem po naslednjih značilnostih: 1. socialni odnosi v polju; 2. raziskovalec kot učenec; 3. dolgotrajno opazovanje z udeležbo; 4. eklektični ali multimetodni pristop; 5. interaktivno-reaktivni pristop; 6. holistična perspektiva in humanistična orientacija. Ugotavljamo, da se etnografsko raziskovanje loči od drugih predvsem po specifiki socialnih odnosov v polju ter »multimetodološkem« oz. eklektičnem pristopu v različnih segmentih raziskovanja (npr. zbiranje podatkov, obdelava podatkov).
Prva in najbolj očitna posebnost tovrstne raziskave so zagotovo socialni odnosi vpolju. Ti so definirani s tem, da etnograf dela na terenu, sodeluje z drugimi osebami (to so npr. respondenti, subjekti, konzultanti, informatorji, udeleženci raziskave, člani socialne skupine) ter si z njimi izmenjuje informacije. V primerjavi z drugimi raziskovalnimi pristopi so ti odnosi dolgotrajni in kompleksni, dogajajo se v različnih kontekstih. Etnografski raziskovalci so tudi sami del družbe oz. skupine, ki jo proučujejo, ter se posledično ne morejo izogniti svojstvenemu vplivu, ki ga imajo na preučevane pojave (Zaharlic, 1992). V okviru etnografskega raziskovanja se pojavi tudi zanimiv, asimetričen odnos med etnografom in člani skupine. Na začetku terenskega dela je raziskovalec nekako v podrejenem položaju, saj se še uči, spoznava skupino, pridobiva znanje. Prav zato pogosto prevzame vlogo t. i. vajenca. Razumeti namreč skuša načine, na katere člani skupine interpretirajo dogajanje v svojih življenjih, hkrati pa skuša oblikovati predpostavke oz. empirična vprašanja raziskave. Istočasno mora biti pripravljen na nenačrtovane dogodke in na morebitne interpretacije, ki so popolnoma drugačne od njegovih izkušenj in pričakovanj. Raziskovalec na terenu preživi veliko časa, da bi pridobil dovolj informacij in razumel ljudi v kontekstu njihovih življenjskih okoliščin (prav tam).
Zmetodološkegavidikaje etnografskaraziskavazanimivazaradit. i.multimetodološkega (Wilson, 1977) ali eklektičnega pristopa (Bannister, Burman in Parker, 1999), tako v smislu zbiranja podatkov kot tudi njihove analize. Gre torej za triangulacijo tehnik zbiranja in analiziranja podatkov (Bannister idr., 1999). Wilson (1977) navaja naslednje načine zbiranja podatkov: način in vsebina verbalne interakcije med udeleženci, način in vsebina verbalne interakcije z raziskovalcem, neverbalno obnašanje, vzorci akcije in neakcije, arhivski posnetki, dokumenti, artefakti. Če bi uporabili aktualno terminologijo pedagoške metodologije, bi torej zapisali, da se kot tehnike zbiranja podatkov uporabljajo opazovanje, spraševanje in analiza dokumentov, vse v različnih variantah (gl. npr. Vogrinc, 2008). Najbolj običajni tehniki zbiranja podatkov sta intervju in opazovanje, predvsem opazovanje z udeležbo (Creswell, 2014).
Najkrajši možen čas opazovanja je enoletno obdobje, saj naj bi se v tem obdobju izkazale vse značilnosti posameznikovega službenega in prostega časa, pa tudi drugih posebnih dejavnosti in aktivnosti. Pri tem je treba upoštevati tudi, da je začetno obdobje namenjeno grajenju zaupanja s strani opazovanih, saj je raziskovalec neposredno vključen v življenje neke skupnosti, natančno in poglobljeno opazuje ljudi v avtentičnem okolju, se z njimi pogovarja in ne le opazuje in zapisuje. Posebnost je tudi to, da živi na zelo podoben način kot osebe, ki jih proučuje (Fetterman, 1998).
Tudi Ogbu (1974) je že opozarjal, da se etnografsko raziskovanje ne bi smelo kategorično uvrščati med kvalitativne raziskave, saj glede na cilje raziskav etnografi zbirajo mnoge kvantitativne podatke. Fetteaman (1998) tako meni, da je poleg kvalitativnih tehnik za
zbiranje večjega števila podatkov v etnografski raziskavi mogoče uporabiti tudi vprašalnike. Prav tako v sklopu nabora možnih analiz navaja statistične metode (podatki, zbrani z vprašalnikom) in razloži, da se v etnografiji pojavljajo predvsem nominalne in ordinalne spremenljivke; v povezavi s tem tudi najbolj običajni statistični preizkusi, x2-preizkus, in drugi neparametrični preizkusi, kot npr. Mann-Whitneyjev, Friedmanov ipd. Sočasno pa opozarja na to, da je raba statističnih preizkusov v etnografiji lahko problematična. Gre namreč za vrsto raziskave, ki težko zagotavlja, da bi bile potrebne predpostavke za preizkuse upravičene. Ob tem izpostavi tudi vprašanje (ne)slučajnostnega vzorčenja.
Na drugi strani pa ne moremo mimo dejstva, da je za tovrstno raziskovanje (podobno kot za kvalitativne raziskave) značilno, da raziskovalni proces ni linearen, vnaprej določen, pač pa je interaktivno-reaktiven, ali kot ga je imenoval Mesec (1998), sekvenčen. Tovrsten način etnografu dopušča, da razišče ali prečisti vprašanja, ki si jih je postavil na začetku raziskovanja ali da generira vprašanja, ki se niso mogla pojaviti pred prihodom na teren. Spremembe pri vprašanjih lahko vodijo k spremembam prvotnega raziskovalnega načrta ter k spremembam pri tehnikah zbiranja in analiziranja podatkov (Zaharlic, 1992). Anderson-Levittova (2006) poudarja, da že samo proučevanje ljudi v vsakdanjem življenju vodi v odkrivanje nepričakovanega, zato mora biti raziskovalec vedno pripravljen redefinirati oz. razširiti raziskovalni problem.
Proces raziskovanja
Wilson (1977) je zapisal, da bi proces etnografske raziskave lahko razdelili na več faz:
1.	vstop v polje in definiranje raziskovalčeve vloge, 2. postopki zbiranja podatkov in 3. analiza podatkov. Fetterman (1998) kot faze opredeljuje: 1. definiranje problema,
2.	definiranje raziskovalčeve vloge, 3. pregled relevantne literature, 4. raziskava: delo na terenu, formalna analiza, pisanje etnografije. V nadaljevanju prestavljamo faze etnografske raziskave, kot jih je predstavil Wilson (1977), predvsem zato, ker je glede na dostopno literaturo prav on prvi utemeljil proces tovrstnega raziskovanja, in tudi zato, ker se je v primerjavi z drugimi avtorji (npr. Fetterman, 1998; Mesec, 1998) osredotočil specifično na etnografsko raziskavo in ne toliko na etnografsko raziskavo znotraj konteksta kvalitativnega raziskovanja.
Vstop v polje in definiranje raziskovalčeve vloge
Vstop v polje in definiranje raziskovalčeve vloge je sicer faza, ki je značilna in pomembna za vse kvalitativne raziskave (gl. tudi Mesec, 1998), vendar je pri etnografski raziskavi še toliko bolj poudarjena. Ključnega pomena namreč je, da si raziskovalec pridobi zaupanje skupine in postane njen član (Wilson, 1977). Wilson (prav tam) nadalje opozori, da mora raziskovalec dobro premisliti in domisliti način, kako bo vstopil na prizorišče in kako bo prevzel vlogo člana skupine, ki mu bo omogočila in olajšala zbiranje podatkov. Odločiti se mora, v kolikšni meri se bo vključeval v aktivnosti skupine, saj bo njegova aktivnost vplivala na to, kako ga bodo drugi člani skupine dojemali in doživljali. Pomembno je, da mu člani zaupajo in ga cenijo, kajti le tako bodo z njim delili svoje misli in bili pripravljeni odgovarjati na mnoga vprašanja. Prav to, da ni le občasni zunanji opazovalec, pač pa član skupine, mu omogoča sistematično opazovanje in pridobivanje izvornih informacij (prav tam).
Zbiranje podatkov
Wilson (1977) je etnografsko raziskavo opredelil kot »multimodalno«, kar pomeni, da dopušča vključevanje različnih načinov oz. tehnik zbiranja podatkov. Kot pri vsaki raziskavi mora raziskovalec že v začetku premisliti, kateri in kakšni podatki so tisti, ki bodo odgovorili na raziskovalna vprašanja, in kako bo dobil dostop do teh informacij (podatkov). V etnografski raziskavi mora raziskovalec nenehno tehtati, kje bo podatke zbiral (npr. v katerih prostorih se bo nahajal), kakšne podatke bo zbiral, s kom se bo pogovarjal, koga (posameznika neke skupine oz. skupino znotraj skupine) bo opazoval ipd. Obvladati mora formalne in neformalne (časovne in geografske) mreže vseh sodelujočih. Postati mora del različnih komunikacijskih mrež, ki dnevno usmerjajo sodelujoče, kje in kdaj naj bi se zgodili pomembni dogodki. Ko se ti dogodki dejansko odvijejo, se mora raziskovalec preudarno odločiti, kakšne vrste podatkov naj zbira in ali naj se ali ne poleg opazovanja aktivno vključi v intervjuvanje. Pomembna je tudi odločitev, s kom bo govoril (Wilson, 1977). Raziskovalec ima tudi to prednost, da lahko opravi intervjuje v različnih situacijah, v različnih okoliščinah. Primerja lahko, kaj vključeni v raziskavo odgovori na vprašanje, kaj o tem govori drugim ljudem, kaj reče ob različnih časih in v različnih situacijah, kaj dejansko naredi oz. dela, kakšni so njegovi neverbalni odzivi, kaj tisti, ki so tej osebi pomembni, menijo, čutijo ali naredijo o zadevi ipd. Prav tako lahko med procesom opazuje poglede drugih nanj in tudi kako se npr. ljudje vedejo, ko so vsi skupaj, ali kako, ko je z njim le nek posameznik (Becker, 1961, v Wilson, 1977).
Analiza podatkov
Analiza (ki je hkrati tudi proces redefiniranja problema) se pravzaprav začne že s prvim dnem terenskega dela. Ko etnografi zapisujejo, hkrati že povezujejo informacije ter si postavljajo nova vprašanja, zato je analiza ciklična, iterativna, gradi na idejah, ki se pojavijo med samo analizo. Sočasno z ustvarjanjem novih zapiskov prebirajo predhodne zapiske in iščejo morebitne predhodno zapisane sorodne termine, izjave, vedenja, primere, ki so v nasprotju z izhodiščno tezo (Fetterman, 1998). V procesu analize iščejo vzorce (npr. vedenja), ključne dogodke, oblikujejo miselne vzorce, organizacijske tabele, diagrame. Formalna analiza in poročilo sta namreč bolj učinkovita, ko ima etnograf zbrane podatke organizirane in ko dele poročila piše ali vsaj dela osnutke teh zapisov že med samim terenskim delom. Anderson-Levittova (2006) kot glavna elementa analize navaja primerjavo in kontrast. Pri tem so etnografi osredotočeni na logične in racionalne perspektive in vedenja vključenih ter tudi na analizo vedenj v širšem kontekstu, ki omogočajo pogled in primerjavo z distance med omenjenimi vedenji. V končni fazi analize pa etnograf ponovno predela vse anekdotske zapise, posnetke ipd., torej vse zbrane podatke, z namenom, da bi lahko čim bolj poglobljeno prikazal proučevano situacijo. Fetterman (1998) navaja, da etnografi za formalno analizo in reanalizo praviloma porabijo toliko časa kot za samo terensko delo.
Priprava poročila o etnografski raziskavi je za raziskovalca velik izziv. Predstavljanje celotne slike neke situacije oz. delovanja neke skupine namreč zahteva vključevanje velikega števila informacij o kontekstu (Wilson, 1997). Ali kot je slikovito navedla Ševkušićeva (2008, str. 81): »Dobra etnografija je kot vodeno potovanje skozi proučevani kontekst in ima značilnosti pripovedke; pri obeh se bralec počuti kot del zgodbe in se lahko identificira z liki.«
Slabosti etnografske raziskave
Kljub temu da etnografija lahko vključuje tudi kvantitativno zbiranje in obdelavo podatkov, jo vseeno največkrat uvrščajo med kvalitativne raziskave in ji posledično pripisujejo slabosti, ki veljajo za kvalitativne raziskave. Pri tem sta v ospredju dilema o veljavnosti in o objektivnosti takšnega načina raziskovanja (Ševkušić, 2008).
V povezavi z zunanjo veljavnostjo se problematizira predvsem vprašanje posplošljivosti. Walford (2001) navaja, da posplošljivost v statističnem smislu ni mogoča, ker malo število vključenih ne omogoča posploševanja na celotno populacijo, vendar pa meni, da lahko etnografske in kvalitativne raziskave dosežejo prenosljivost skozi temeljit opis. Če avtorji podajo celovit in podroben opis nekega točno določenega raziskovalnega konteksta, s tem bralcem omogočijo, da se ti lažje odločijo o morebitni implementaciji rezultatov na različne oz. druge situacije. Da bi lahko vrednotili možnost implementacije rezultatov etnografskih raziskav, morajo dobro poznati tako ciljni prostor (ali okolje) kot prostor, v katerem je bila raziskava izvedena.
Kot druga slabost je največkrat izpostavljena problematika objektivnost. Wilson (1977) sicer trdi, da »ustrezno izvedena« etnografska raziskava vključuje t. i. disciplinirano subjektivnost, ki zagotavlja močno notranjo objektivnost. Dodaja, da imajo človekova dejanja globlji pomen kot samo konkretni podatki kdo, kaj, kje in kdaj, torej kot podatki, ki jih lahko pridobi zunanji opazovalec. Dejanja so močnejši nosilci informacij kot subjekti sami preko intervjuja. Za interpretacijo teh dejanj pa je pomembno, da je raziskovalec v stalnem stiku z udeleženci raziskave ter da ima z njimi tudi neposredne izkušnje. Raziskovalec mora vsekakor sintetizirati različne izkušnje, da bi razumel implicitna dejanja, misli in čustvovanja udeležencev raziskave. Pri tem si lahko občasno pomaga tudi s svojimi izkušnjami, ki jih je doživel kot udeleženec te skupine, in tako lažje razume dejanja tistih, ki jih proučuje. Temeljna predpostavka je, da raziskovalec neprekinjeno opazuje sebe in svoje reakcije ter da je kljub »vpetosti« v skupino sposoben reflektirati svoja notranja dogajanja z vidika zunanje perspektive in na ta način posledično poveča objektivnost svojega raziskovanja. V povezavi z vprašanjem o objektivnosti se omenja tudi dejstvo (Zaharlick, 1992), da je raziskovalec t. i. primarni raziskovalni instrument. Prav zato se mora zavedati svojih teoretičnih in metodoloških preferenc kot tudi morebitne pristranskosti v različnih stopnjah raziskovalnega procesa, ki lahko vpliva na raziskovalni proces in rezultate. Zato se priporoča t. i. disciplinirana objektivnost, kar pomeni, da raziskovalec čim bolj popolno in eksplicitno izpostavi svoja prepričanja, stališča in vrednostne opredelitve. To lahko stori z vodenjem osebnega dnevnika, ki mu je pri obdelavi podatkov in pisanju poročila v pomoč pri razjasnitvi in refleksiji faz v procesu, ki se povezujejo z osebnimi vrednotami in občutki raziskovalca.
Poleg navedenih pomislekov v zvezi z znanstvenostjo in objektivnostjo se pojavijo še druge kritike etnografske raziskave. Wilson (1977) je denimo v kontekstu raziskovalca opozarjal na težavo v primerih, ko gre za proučevanje velike skupnosti, pri čemer en sam raziskovalec ne more biti dovolj za izpeljavo raziskave, saj ne more biti na več mestih hkrati. Banister idr. (1999) so izpostavili problem z beleženjem dokazov v situaciji, kjer je veliko »materiala«. Pogosto je namreč kot pripomoček pri opazovanju neprimerno in hkrati tudi nemogoče uporabiti avdio-vizualna sredstva in je mogoče delati le beležke, ki so sestavljene iz relativno konkretnih opisov socialnih procesov in njihovih kontekstov (prav tam). Hkrati pa raziskovalec zbere tudi veliko podatkov, ki
jih je treba še urediti in analizirati, kar zahteva veliko časa in tudi dobro usposobljenost (Mukherji in Albon, 2010).
Raziskovalno delo na terenu opredeljujeta še dve pomembni vprašanji: vprašanje pristopa in vprašanje odnosa v polju. Najprej je treba pristopiti k potencialnim respondentom in najti ustrezen način, kako to storiti. Odnosi namreč pomembno vplivajo na kakovost in količino podatkov, ki jih raziskovalec pridobi (Banister idr., 1999). Zgodi se tudi, da nekateri člani skupine niso odprti za opazovanje, nekateri pa ne pripravljeni govoriti. Odnosi na terenu so pod različnimi vplivi. Ljudje niso »socialna dejstva«, ki so nekje in čakajo, da bodo proučevani. Udeležba v življenju ene skupine je več kot le vprašanje opazovanja. Pri tem mora raziskovalec seveda paziti, da ne izgubi zavedanja, da je tujec, zato da ne izgubi kritično-analitičnega pogleda na dogajanje (Banister idr., 1999).
Med slabosti uvrščamo tudi čas trajanja take raziskave, saj lahko zaradi kompleksnosti raziskovanja etnografska raziskava traja tudi več let (Fetterman, 1998).
Namesto zaključka: Etnografska raziskava na pedagoškem področju pri nas
Anderson-Levittoova (2006) izpostavlja dejstvo, da je etnografija na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja koristna za razvoj razumevanja mikro situacij ter da lahko na podlagi celostnega pristopa prikaže realnost vedenja ljudi. Ševkušićeva (2008) meni, da lahko etnografski pristop s svojo občutljivostjo prispeva mnoga različna spoznanja o različnih vzgojno-izobraževalnih situacijah in kontekstih ter z različnih vidikov. Gojkova (2000) trdi, da je etnografija na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja koristna zaradi bogatih etnografskih zapisov o npr. različnostih med skupinami, šolami in skupnostmi, ki jim šole pripadajo. Iz teh poglobljenih zapisov se lahko razbere npr. socialna klima oddelka, intelektualne ali emocionalne izkušnje in doživetja učencev, način učiteljevega ukrepanja in reagiranja do učencev različnih narodnosti, spolov, sposobnosti ipd. (Fraenkl in Wallen, 1990). Podatki lahko vključujejo tudi opise različnih dejavnosti oddelkov, posnetke sestankov, razprav, diskusij, primer učiteljevih priprav na pouk, izdelke učencev, sociograme ipd. Kot dodaja Gojkova (2000), je na osnovi analize zbranega raznovrstnega gradiva mogoče tudi identificirati, kakšne prilagoditve so potrebne ter kako lahko vzgojno-izobraževalna institucija odgovori na različne probleme.
Etnografska raziskava v polju vzgoje in izobraževanja je bila v preteklosti (Yon, 2003) pretežno uporabljena za poglobljeno raziskovanje v povezavi z učenci, ki so izhajali iz deprivilegiranih okolij. Prav zato menimo, da bi tak način raziskovanja lahko uporabili za boljše razumevanje značilnosti, vedenja, kulture in specifik otrok (učencev) in družin, ki izhajajo iz manj spodbudnega okolja. V slovenskih šolah se denimo v zadnjih letih veča delež otrok priseljencev in menimo, da bi kompleksni, celostni pogled poznavanja navad, kulture omogočal lažje medsebojno razumevanje in sodelovanje. Bolj poglobljeno in širše razumevanje stanja (kar naj bi bil cilj etnografskega raziskovanja) bi bil v prid tudi številnim otrokom s posebnimi potrebami. Tukaj imamo predvsem v mislih skupino otrok s čustvenimi in vedenjskimi motnjami, za katere menimo, da bi bilo razumevanje celotnega konteksta in ne le parcialnih elementov koristno za vse vključene (vodstvo, učitelje, svetovalno službo, vrstnike, družino). Kot trdi Sevkušićeva (2008), lahko etnografija v situacijah, ko obstajata konflikt ali diskontinuiteta med šolo in otrokovo družino, nastopa kot sredstvo za razumevanje problemov in posledično se lahko olajša
njihovo reševanje. Ko se učitelji, starši in učenci več naučijo drug o drugem, vidijo, kako se lahko aktivnosti v šoli modificirajo in približajo kulturnim modelom iz otrokovega okolja ter kako lahko starši nastopajo kot partnerji v vzgojno-izobraževalnem procesu. Yon (2003) poroča, da so si etnografi dejansko vedno prizadevali, da bi prikazali, kako nek oddelek, razred, šola »izgledajo« skozi oči učencev, kakšen je šolski sistem v očeh marginaliziranih družin itd. Ob tem pa je treba omeniti tudi opozorilo Naderjeve (1969, v Anderson-Levitt, 2006), da se etnografija naj ne bi ukvarjala samo s šibkejšimi skupinami, členi družbe. Smiselna naj bi bila tudi usmeritev v proučevanje različnih vidikov, ki se bolj povezujejo z učitelji, ravnatelji, tudi z družinami iz višjih in srednjih družbenih slojev. Podobno velja tudi za področje vzgoje in izobraževanja v Sloveniji. Skozi etnografske raziskave bi lahko temeljito in poglobljeno spoznali primer dobre prakse prej omenjenih.
Ob tem seveda ne gre pozabiti omejitev spoznanj, ki izhajajo iz etnografskih raziskav. Zaradi metodoloških zakonitosti posploševanje ali prenos iz ene situacije v drugo ni ravno korektno, lahko pa iz primera dobre prakse uporabimo nekatere tehnike, metode, strategije ipd., za katere menimo, da bi lahko dobro delovale tudi v neki drugi situaciji.
Ne nazadnje ne moremo mimo dejstva in vprašanja, zakaj pri nas etnografske raziskave na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja niso prav pogoste. Morda bi takšno stanje lahko pripisali relativno zaprtemu sistemu (problem vstopa v raziskovalno polje - torej vstopa v vzgojno-izobraževalne institucije). Težko si namreč predstavljamo, da bi ali kako bi v naših šolah medse sprejeli raziskovalca, ki bi bil prisoten ves čas, ki bi nepretrgano opazoval dogajanje ter postavljal različna vprašanja. Strokovni delavci bi takšno prisotnost in vpetost verjetno doživljali bolj kot ocenjevanje njih samih in njihovega dela kot pa kot raziskovanje.
Glede na to, da etnografska raziskava pretežno vključuje tudi dlje časa trajajoče opazovanje v avtentičnem okolju, je toliko bolj poudarjen tudi etični vidik. Pri tem je treba izpostaviti vprašanje ranljivosti skupine, ki je opazovana, zlasti ko gre za otroke. V primeru opazovanja otrok nekega oddelka se za dovoljenje navadno prosi vodjo institucije (npr. ravnatelja šole) ter starše otrok. Kot pa denimo poudarjata Mukherji in Albon (2010), je za dovoljenje treba prositi tudi otroke. Raziskovalci naj bi jih seznanili z raziskavo in s cilji raziskave.
Z vidika raziskovalcev je etnografsko raziskovanje tudi precej zahtevno, hkrati pa gre za raziskovanje, ki poteka dlje časa (npr. eno šolsko leto) ter ob stalni prisotnosti raziskovalca, kar tudi ne govori v prid odločitvi o izvedbi etnografske raziskave. Vendarle pa bi bilo, predvsem zaradi nekaterih prednosti etnografske raziskave, smiselno razmisliti tudi o dejanski uporabi tovrstnega pristopa. Najprej pa bi bilo treba raziskovalce na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja temeljiteje seznaniti s tem pristopom, kar bi posledično morda povečalo dejansko rabo te vrste raziskave. Šele ko jo bomo temeljito preizkusili, bomo lahko utemeljeno sodili o njeni uporabnosti na obravnavanem področju.
Tina Štemberger
Etnographic Research in the Field of Education
Educational research in Slovenia has traditionally been more oriented into quantitative methodology. The first shift towards qualitative methodology, especially
action research was done by Barica Marentič Požarnik (1990). Later, Sagadin (1991a, 1991b) presented the particularities of case study and Cencič (2001) the particularities of life history. Qualitative research has recently been in the focus of many works by Mažgon (2005) and Vogrinc (2007). However, ethnography, which is also considered to be a qualitative research design, has not yet been systematically presented in the context of educational research in Slovenia. In the paper we present the particularities of ethnography (which distinguish it from other research designs), its drawbacks and we raise the question of the role of ethnography in educational research in Slovenia.
The first and the most important particularity of ethnography are social relationships in the field. The relationships are defined with the fact that the researcher works in the field, he cooperates with other persons (e. g. respondents, consultants, informants, participants) and shares information with them. In comparison to other designs, these are long-term relationships, they are complex and they take place in different contexts. Researchers become members of the studied groups, which also reflect in their attitude towards specific themes.
From the methodological point of view, ethnography is considered to be multimodal (Wilson, 1977) or eclectic (Bannister et al., 1999) in both data collection and data analysis. Data can be collected using different varieties of observation, interviews and analysing documents, but the most commonly used methods are interview and participatory observation.
In addition to this, Ogbu (1974) already pointed out ethnography should not be categorically labelled as qualitative research. Researchers design different research aims and they often collect quantitative data as well. As argued by Fetterman (1998) data can be collected via questionnaires and processed with different statistical methods. On the other hand, the process of research is cyclical and interactive, which is typical for qualitative research designs.
The process of ethnography in educational research (as defined by Wilson, 1977) consists of three phases: (i) Entrance in the research field and defining the role of the researcher, (ii) Data collection and (iii) Data analysis. The phase of entering the research field is typical of all qualitative research but is even more highlighted in ethnography. The researcher must gain trust from the group members and he also becomes a member, which enables him to collect information he would not be able to if he were an external observer.
As ethnography is multimodal (Wilson, 1977), various methods of data collections can be used to reach the aims of research. As in all researches, the researcher has to plan which data will provide answers to his research questions and how he will access the information. In addition, he has to think about the place he will collect data (e.g. in which room he will be) who (out of all group members) he will talk to and who he will observe. He needs to be aware of all formal and informal (time and geographic) nets of all participants. Being a member of group enables him to compare the responses the participant gives to him and what he says about the same questions to the others. He can also see how the participant acts and he can compare his verbal responses with his nonverbal communication.
In the educational context ethnography can be used to understand micro situations and it can show the real behaviour of certain groups of people. According to Gojkov (2000), ethnography is a valuable approach in education, mainly due to rich
ethnographic notes about differences between the groups, schools, and societies schools belong to. These notes (Fraenkl and Wallen, 1990) can be the basis for analysing social environment of a certain class, intellectual or emotional experiences of students, teachers' approaches towards students of different backgrounds etc. In the past (Yon, 2003), in the field of education ethnography was mainly used for in-depth studies of student from less favourable environments. Following this, today ethnography could be used in order to improve the knowledge and understanding of characteristics, behaviour, culture and particularities of children and families who live in less favourable environments. In Slovenian schools the percentage of immigrant children and children with special needs has been increasing. We believe ethnographic research could lead to a more complex, holistic understanding of these children, which could finally result in realizing the inclusive paradigm in our schools to an even greater extent.
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Dr. Tina Stemberger, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza na Primorskem, tina.stemberger@pef.upr.si
Blaženka Bačlija Susić
Music Education for Every Child - Ideal or Reality?
Review scientific article UDK: 37.091.3:78
ABSTRACT
Contemporary pedagogical, psychological and sociological research highlights the need to make music education available to every child. Starting from the fundamental point of view according to which music affects the development of the child's whole personality, this idea has been around since the 17th century. Various educators in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century emphasized the importance of music education for every child.
Through a historical and theoretical overview of this idea, this paper examine the potential for its realization in contemporary educational practice. The Venezuelan music education program El Sistema, which promotes the humanistic idea of changing society through classical music education, stands out as a unique example of good practice. As a form of music education which particularly promotes the idea of music being available to every child, the conception of Functional Music Pedagogy by the Croatian music pedagogue Elly Bašić (1908-1998) is also discussed. Considering the status of music in American educational policy, it indicates a significant change, in which music has been recognized as an educational priority for the first time in the history of education and has become a basic academic subject in the American federal education policy plan, as well as unprecedentedly incorporated in Federal law.
Key words: American educational policy, El Sistema, every child, Functional Music Pedagogy, music education
Glasbena vzgoja in izobraževanje za vsakega otroka - ideal ali resničnost?
Pregledni znanstveni članek UDK: 37.091.3:78
POVZETEK
Sodobne pedagoške, psihološke in sociološke raziskave poudarjajo potrebo po glasbeni vzgoji in izobraževanju, ki bi bilo na razpolago vsakemu otroku. Izhajajoč iz temeljnega stališča, po katerem glasba vpliva na razvoj celotne otrokove osebnosti, ta zamisel izstopa od 17. stoletja. Konec 19. in na začetku 20. stoletja so pomembnost glasbene vzgoje in izobraževanja poudarjali različni strokovnjaki.
Z zgodovinskim in teoretičnim pregledom te zamisli poskuša ta članek proučiti možnost njene uresničitve v sodobni pedagoški praksi. Venezuelski glasbeni program El Sistema, ki podpira humanistično zamisel spreminjanja družbe s klasičnim glasbenim izobraževanjem, izstopa kot edinstven primer dobre prakse. Kot oblika glasbene vzgoje in izobraževanja, ki zlasti podpira zamisel o dostopnosti glasbe vsakemu otroku, je bila prikazana tudi zamisel funkcionalne glasbene pedagogike hrvaške glasbene pedagoginje Elly Bašić (1908-1998). Upoštevajoč status glasbe v ameriški vzgojno-izobraževalni politiki, je predstavljena kot pomembna sprememba, s katero je glasba prvič v zgodovini vzgoje in izobraževanja priznana kot vzgojno-izobraževalna prioriteta, postala je temeljni učni predmet v ameriškem zveznem načrtu vzgojno-izobraževalne politike, kot nikdar doslej pa je umeščena tudi v zvezno zakonodajo.
Ključne besede: ameriška vzgojno-izobraževalna politika, El Sistema, vsak otrok, funkcionalna glasbena pedagogika, glasbena vzgoja in izobraževanje
Introduction
We live in a "knowledge society" in which human knowledge and competences are the most important resources for and drivers of economic and social change. In such a society, considering the modern way of life, knowledge and information are in the foreground. Highlighting these values encourages people towards activities and the acquisition of new perspectives, on the one hand; on the other hand, it also entails competitiveness and the constant need for approval, acquisition of awards, praise and so on. Furthermore, all of that often leads to the creation of an unhealthy, competitive atmosphere, which is the main cause of stress, tension, fear of mistakes and failure. With easily accessible information in the arts and other fields, today's society seeks something more, and that is creativity. Therefore, it is important to encourage its expression in children from an early age and to explore methods that will facilitate its development. Art education is one way to stimulate a child's creativity. The significance of art education and its availability to everyone were emphasized in The United Nations Convention on the Rights ofthe Child (United Nations, 2010), as well as in the goals outlined by The Second UNESCO World Conference on Arts Education (UNESCO, 2010). Both documents emphasize the importance of affirming the arts as the basis for achieving the balanced, creative, cognitive, emotional, aesthetic and social development of children and youth. Although music is an art form that is currently present in almost all aspects of human life, thanks to the development of technology, today's educational culture still does not recognize its numerous benefits in child development and does not understand the importance of its presence in schools and on modern curricula. The latest comprehensive and comparative report on artistic education in 30 European countries, which was made by The Eurydice Network coordinated and managed by the EU Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) in the study Arts and Cultural Education at School in Europe (2009), indicates that the general objectives of arts education are quite similar among the European countries. Almost all countries mention artistic skills, knowledge and understanding, critical thinking, cultural heritage, individual expression/identity, cultural diversity, and creativity as the learning objectives. However, lifelong learning/interest in the context of art education is mentioned in only 15 curricula. In the majority of countries, art education also aims to facilitate personal and emotional development, as it promotes social skills and self-fulfillment through experiencing pleasure and satisfaction.
Music education in Croatia is mandatory in compulsory education. As stated in the current Curriculum for Primary Schools (2006), the fundamental objective of teaching music in compulsory education is "The introduction of students to music education, introduction to the basic elements of musical language, development of musical creativity, the establishment and adoption of value standards for (critical and aesthetic) evaluation of music" (Curriculum for Primary Schools, 2006, p. 79). According to this plan and program for music education, it is "not necessary to introduce musical notation and other theoretical content in music" (Ibid., p. 78), so additional music education is required to cover those elements and teach children how to play an instrument. While Croatia has a special system of state-funded music education, private music schools are prevalent in most developed countries in the world, including most European countries. Therefore, as indicated by a new study
from the UCL Institute of Education (IOE), the fundamental problem in additional music education involves limited resources, in terms of skills and instruments, as well as financial constraints - due to both school funding and family background. In more affluent families, the parents can afford to buy instruments or pay for their children's music lessons if the school cannot provide them, but children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds usually do not have those same opportunities (https://www. ucl.ac.uk/ioe/news-events/news-pub/april-2016/children-still-face-barriers-in-accessing-music-education).
The National Association for Music Education (NAFME) proclaimed "The Child's Bill of Rights" (introduced in 1950 and revised in 1991), which states that every child in America should have the right to music lessons (Barret, 2009). Furthermore, the same law states that "the quality and quantity of children's music instruction must not depend upon their geographical location, social status, racial or ethnic status, urban/ suburban/rural residence, or parental or community wealth" (Glenn, 1992, p. 4).
Research Problem
The aim of this paper is to point out the importance of music education for every child in contemporary society, and this will be done through a historical and theoretical overview of the development of this idea. It was the guiding point for various authors since the seventeenth century, and it remained so when alternative approaches and approaches within music education began appearing in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Moreover, through an overview of various forms and ways of incorporating this idea into practice, the objective is to explore the potential for its realization in contemporary educational practice.
Methodology
The primary research method is the descriptive method used in scientific pedagogical research, since we introduce and describe historical and theoretical facts found in literature without causal explanation. The comparative method characteristic of pedagogical research was also used, given that the concept of the availability of music education for every child was observed through varied ways and forms of incorporating music education into practice.
Sample, Data Collection and Analysis
We included the primary theoretical resources in the research process. These cover the subject of the study, which is the availability of music education for every child. Altogether, 52 theoretical works by 55 authors and 5 legal acts have been examined.
Overview of the Development of Music Education ideas - from Rousseau to Alternative and Music Education Approaches
Throughout history, various pedagogical experts have emphasized the need for music education to be available to every child. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), one of the main representatives of the Age of Enlightenment, which has been called the pedagogical century, and who is perhaps nowadays better known outside the
musical sphere, was a passionate music lover, musician and worthy composer (Begbie 2013). Shklar (1969) stated that "even among his versatile contemporaries he was extraordinary: composer, musicologist, playwright, drama critic, novelist, botanist, pedagogue, political philosopher, psychologist" (Shklar 1970: 5).
He stated his pedagogical attitudes in a book called Emite, or On Education (1761), for which Goethe noted that it was a gospel for educators (Žarnić 2001). Even though at his time Rousseau did not have any real influence on professional education and the development of education, progressive training in the twentieth century affirms that he was focused on the child (Oelkers 201). He pointed out that a child must be seen as an individual (Roth-Čerina 2011), who should be at the center of education as a primary subject. He emphasized that a teacher should respect the child's abilities and interests and should especially respect the importance of the child's developmental stages and musical affinities. He considered that it was important for every student to achieve music literacy, and he wanted to make that task easier by introducing into schools a new system of writing and reading notes: numbered musical notation.
In the early nineteenth century, J. H. Pestalozzi (1746-1827) advocated the need for general education, as well as music education, available to all classes of society. Even though H. G. Nägeli claimed that Pestalozzi was completely musically untalented, his pedagogical records show that he appreciated music and gave it special importance in the child's education and development (Rojko 2012). Dahlhaus (2007) stated that Pestalozzi did not refer to music education as a form of art education, but as education by music in order to achieve humanity. He thought that music, singing especially, had great value for the development of a child's character and the development of social relations; it decreased a child's feelings of nervousness or anxiety and spiritually enriched him or her (Chernin 1986). Given all that, he thought that music science should be taught as a separate subject in schools.
In the late nineteenth and the early twentieth century, the Art Education Movement (Pokret za umjetnički odgoj), Jugendbewegung and the Work School Movement (Pokret radne škole) had a significant role in the development of art education and music pedagogy as part of compulsory education. Various authors, such as M. Montessori, R. Steiner (Waldorf pedagogy), R. Agazzi, L. Malaguzzi, C. Freinet and A. S. Neill, gave special attention to these in their alternative conceptions of education. The Art Education Movement (Pokret za umjetnički odgoj) places art at the center of education, and the main aspiration of the movement was "upbringing for art with the help of art" (Jakopović 1984: 19). Artistic (aesthetic) upbringing became the principle that reflected on other school subjects, such as lessons in the mother tongue (experience of the text and text dramatization), physical education lessons (joy through movement, harmony of movements in gymnastics or dance), the beauty of handcrafting forms etc. (Gudjons 1994). Within the Work School Movement (Pokret radne škole), it is important to distinguish the approach which was advocated by Hugo Gaudig (1860-1923) and which indicated the importance of aesthetic and artistic upbringing.
The alternative conceptions of education from the beginning of the twentieth century by the authors Montessori, Steiner, Agazzi, Malaguzzi, Freinet and Neill give special attention to the development of the child's senses. Particular attention is paid to the development of hearing, as well as to encouraging the child's artistic sensibility in general. At the center of these pedagogical movements is the child, whose
development is adjusted to his or her individual potential, interests and needs, with an emphasis on the free and active way of acquiring knowledge. For instance, Maria Montessori (1890-1952) believed that education of children through hearing and their other senses contributed to their natural development. She thought it was especially important to expose the child to music and musical experiences from the age of two-and-a-half, until the age of five-and-a-half. In this period the child is particularly sensitive and receptive and can acquire some special forms of knowledge and skills, so she called it the sensitive period for learning (Montessori 1979).
Rudolf Steiner's (1861-1925) guiding point was that man is a musical being and that music creation is the foundation of experience. The music contained in the Waldorf curriculum awakens and nurtures the deep inner life of a child and accompanies the child's specific developmental stages (Lyman 2009).
Apart from Maria Montessori, Rosa Agazzi (1866-1951) also had a significant role in the development of pedagogical ideas in Italy in the early twentieth century. Just like M. Montessori, she observed musical and rhythmic abilities during the child's development (Hargreaves and North 2003). She gave special attention to the music arts, and at the beginning of the twentieth century she introduced the concept of "educational singing" (Zrilić 2014). Agazzi considered singing to be a human need: "A native sings when speaking to unknown forces; a mother sings when putting her child to sleep; a worker sings when he works; a farmer sings in the field and a child during playtime; an old man sings when the sun rises; one who loves and hopes, sings. And if humankind were forbidden to sing, then we would realize that singing is the need of human life" (Agazzi in Manasteriotti 1988: 5).
Among various principles, the foundational principles and practice of Reggio Emilia pedagogy express the importance of having an art studio or atelier in every institution whose work is based on this pedagogical approach. The author himself, Malaguzzi (1920-1994), described it as follows: "Art studio is a place where you explore with your hands and mind. It allows rich combinations and creative possibilities within different (symbolic) languages of children" (Edwards et al. 1993: 68). A studio run by local artists is equipped with a range of artistic media for children to use, such as musical instruments, puppets and costumes.
As one of the five important elements of Freinet's theory of education, alongside class self-government and student cooperation in the classroom, independent work and study and discovery learning, Laun (1982) emphasizes the child's "free expression" in the wider sense of the concept. Therefore, students are allowed free utterances and "free" painting, sculpting, dancing, staging, making music and writing songs, which are all ways to freely show what interests them. At the same time, they give guidance to the teacher so that he or she can form and write further plans for the class (Koitka 1977).
Alongside these movements, the late nineteenth and the early twentieth century were marked by the music education approaches of the authors Orff, Kodaly and Jaques-Dalcroz, whose guiding point was that music education should be available to everyone. That same idea guided Elly Bašić, a Croatian music teacher who emphasized in her musical pedagogical conception FMP (Functional Music Pedagogy) that every child had the right to acquire music culture.
Kodaly's interest in music education began in the period between the two World Wars (Baumann 2010) and was prompted by the low quality of music used in schools,
as well as the desire to preserve the Hungarian national heritage from German and Austrian influences (York 1998). He completely and successfully reformed the Hungarian music education system, and he believed that "acculturation had to begin with the establishment of one's own national cultural roots as the basis for further cultural development" (Madden 1984: 19). As the primary medium of music education, he featured the singing of Hungarian national songs, through which learning to read sheet music and learning the mother tongue would happen simultaneously. Nowadays, Kodaly's concept is used in other countries as well, and every country features its own traditional national music (Choksy 1974). He believed music education should start as early as possible, it should be acquired every day, and the child's love for music should be developed in the process (Brooke Bagley 2009). Kodaly's student Lois Choksy stated that "even though the goals, philosophy, and principles of his conception of music pedagogy were original, none of the procedures were originally his own, but rather they represent a synthesis of various sources" (Choksy et al. 2001: 81).
While Kodaly focused on vocal, i.e. choral, training with the use of onomatopoeia as a form of associative medium, Orff's approach was based primarily on movement, speech and making music on percussion instruments (Göktürk 2012). This is elementary music, which children naturally, spontaneously create; they do not need to practice it, but by doing so, they make a connection between natural music creativity and fundamental movement and rhythmic speech. Two basic aspects are contained in Orff's approach: exploration and experience (Mark and Madura 2010). These are based on play as a child's intrinsic need that contributes to musical and emotional development. Frazee (2012) describes the play in Orff's conception as active, socially grounded play, in which children make personal effort and experience engagement in their endeavors. The primary goal of Orff's system is to enable each child to express him or herself as an individual and as part of the group, regardless of their notation knowledge (Košta and Desnica 2013). Music activities are done in a non-competitive environment; therefore, children engage in these activities primarily for pleasure, regardless of their music abilities. Music is thus taught in an active and creative way by means of creation, exploration and improvisation (Choksy et al. 2001).
Unlike Kodaly's and Orff's conceptions of music pedagogy, in which the guiding points were singing and rhythmic speech, Jaques-Dalcroze began with body movement. He believed that every child has a natural sense of rhythm, and he noticed that rhythmic music performance is based on the senses that call for muscular and neural response by the entire organism (Jaques-Dalcroze 1980: 8). He wanted to use education to improve and stimulate the child's natural tendencies for rhythm and movement (Yelin 1994). Given these viewpoints, he developed eurhythmics, a system of learning music through natural body movement that enables rhythm training. It unites rhythm, phrases and expression and is applicable in the learning of music from early childhood until postgraduate study (Choksy et al. 2001). The most valuable objective of Dalcroze's pedagogy was to indicate the embodiment of the human being and the embodied ways of learning within music education (Juntunen 2004). From a contemporary perspective and in modern terminology, such ways of learning could be defined as holistic (Westerlund and Juntunen 2005).
Results and Discussion
Representation of the Concept of Music Education for Every Child in Contemporary Educational Practice
Any form of music education, whether individual or collective, is meaningful for the development of the child's whole personality. Considering the varied philosophical origins and the primary idea of the availability of music education for every child, Kodaly, Orff and Jaques-Dalcroze developed, established and elaborated on the music education systems in their concepts of music pedagogy. Nowadays, their ideas have been partially implemented in the curricula of various educational systems worldwide. As stated by the authors Juntunen and Westerlund (2011), these are seen as the embodiment of normative metanarrative, meta story connected to music education that can be used in today's teacher education and in the enrichment of teachers' reflective practice. Improvisation is emphasized as the primary methodological procedure, which, in Orff's opinion, provides the potential for each child to explore, create and experience music. For example, in the Croatian primary school curriculum (Nastavni plan i program za osnovnu školu 2006), improvisation of rhythm, music, melody units, as well as voice, percussion and movement improvisation and imitating sounds are emphasized as a means of stimulating the child's musical creativity. Such forms of improvisation also represent elements of musical creativity.
Jaques-Dalcroze's pedagogy is incorporated into music education in many countries. In Croatia this form of music pedagogy had no significant influence on music classes, both in the general educational system and in music education. The only exceptions are kindergartens and schools whose work is based on alternative concepts, such as Waldorf or Montessori schools.
Kodaly's ideas were disseminated in Croatia in the 1950s by Miroslav Magdalenić (1906-1969), who studied composition in Zagreb and continued his education under the mentorship of Z. Kodaly in Budapest. He published Solfeggio na osnovu narodnog muzičkog izričaja [Solfeggio Based on National Music Expression], a textbook which is based on music folklore (Magdalenić 1961), in a manner similar to Kodaly's concept of music education.
Elly Bašić's Functional Music Pedagogy
While Orff, Jaques-Dalcroze and Kodaly's approaches and ideas are nowadays implemented in current curricula or are realized through varied forms of education (classes, workshops, projects, private lessons etc.), the concept of music pedagogy by the Croatian music teacher Elly Bašić (1908-1998), Functional Music Pedagogy (FMP), was mostly confined to Croatia (The Solfeggio functional method is also used in some music schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina, since Elly Bašić worked as an Assistant Professor at the Sarajevo Music Academy), where it is conducted as a special educational program within the Department of Music Education at the Elly Bašić Music College in Zagreb and in a music school in Slavonski Brod. In her concept of music pedagogy, FMP, Bašić integrated Orff, Kodaly and Jaques-Dalcroze's general ideas, as well as their ideas on music pedagogy. "The functionalist method uses historically confirmed conventional forms of work, some of which the author has modified and upgraded in an entirely original way" (Kazić 2013: 82-83). Elli Bašić sought to humanize
the child's artistic upbringing, and her basic frame of reference for that was that every child has the right to gain music culture, which was also the primary motto of her music pedagogy concept. Therefore, the development of the child's entire personality through music is set as the primary goal of music education, not just acquiring music skills and knowledge (Bašić 1987). Elly Bašić's concept was modeled on Kodaly's concept and idea of music literacy being available to every child in general education schools. She had the same idea in mind, and it was incorporated into practice during her early years of work. With that in mind, in the Study of the Functional Music School (Elaborat Funkcionalne muzičke škole - srednje kadrovske s nižom školom i isturenim odjelima pri osnovnim školama) (Bašić 1962 in Perak Lovričević 2005), based on which the Functionalist music school was founded in 1963 at the primary school Gračani in Zagreb, the importance of their cooperation and mutual working relationship are emphasized. Elly Bašić (in Perak Lovričević 2005: 19) states that "the new school should be equal in meaning to the art and culture center of the local area." Wanting to elevate the culture of the area to a higher level, she pointed out the need to open kindergartens that would function within and under the supervision of the Functional Music School, as well as conducting evening lessons for adults and music clubs, which would have the same goal. She believed that every child has rhythm and therefore satisfies the necessary predisposition for engaging in any music. She also emphasized that rhythm was not the same as musicality. "It is a completely mistaken distinction and music schools still stand by it nevertheless. What we need to do is accept the state at which the child is currently and complexly develop it from there. Not the 'voice' or the 'ear,' but the entire child's personality" (Bašić 1994 in Letica 2014: 67). Moreover, compared to music schools that work according to a standard program, the system of not grading primary school students' knowledge is emphasized as a special advantage. This has particular importance in today's competitive world, given that this refers to art education.
The author gave special attention to the child creativity phenomenon, emphasizing that the child's creative forces can significantly contribute to the forming of his or her personality later in his or life and career (Bašić 1968). Nowadays, the ideas about parallel conduct and cooperation between music and general education schools, as well as the importance of having instruments available for every child, which the author has pointed out in the study, are no longer applicable. Therefore, regardless of the numerous advantages of the music pedagogy concept and its basic idea about the availability of music education to every child, it still demands that certain material resources be provided by the parents, such as tuition fees, which are symbolic compared to those in private music schools, and buying the necessary instrument.
El Sistema
El Sistema, the music education program which was started in 1975 by the economist, politician, musician and visionary José Antonio Abreu, is a unique example of collective music education available to every child. The foundational humanistic idea involved changing society through music, and the goal was to prevent problems which result from social difficulties, alcohol, drugs, marginalization and violence. Hundreds of thousands of children are included in this music education and are thus less exposed to crime and poverty. It is a form of educational inclusion, and it attracts children and young people from all layers of society, as well as children with developmental and learning difficulties. Since
its beginning, this music social project has fallen under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health and Welfare, and not the Ministry of Culture, which strategically aid in its survival. Specific pedagogical methods are not used in the strict sense of the curriculum (Govias 2011), but are adapted to the students' needs. The basic meaning and philosophy of this social project is best described in its slogan Tocary luchar (to play and to fight). The orchestra and the choir represent models of social community in which competition is replaced by the personal effort of each individual, which ultimately, after collective hard work and endeavor, leads to a greater accomplishment. Moreover, as opposed to the classic form of music education, Abreu believed that "it is necessary to develop passion and love first, and then comes perfection" (in Lui 2012: 37). He also emphasized that music should be recognized as the driving force that stands behind social development. It transmits values such as solidarity, harmony and empathy and contributes to the expression of positive emotions, as well as to community unification (in Fayer and Lohstöter 2013). The success and significance of this music pedagogy concept is confirmed by the fact that nowadays there are around 500 children and youth orchestras and choirs, as well as 30 professional ensembles in Venezuela. Altogether, they include around 400,000 children, among which over 70% come from low-income families. This social music project has grown to become the biggest youth music movement of this kind worldwide, which is confirmed by the fact that during the 39 years of its existence, around 2 million children have been musically educated in it (Fayer and Lohstöter 2013). It is also important to mention that, unlike the original social version of the Venezuelan music educational program, most of the versions that exist worldwide are not funded by the government, so in some states they are even partially funded by the parents.
The English government has recognized the importance of this project, so a program called In Harmony has been started, modeled on the music education program conducted in underdeveloped regions of England. The aim of In Harmony is to produce positive changes in the lives of children, young people and their communities. It includes over 3100 children in 12 schools, and it is financed by the Department for Education and Arts Council England. Accordingly, in 2011 the English government also published The Importance of Music, A National Plan for Music Education, in which they propose creating new music educational centers in order to enrich local communities with music programs and activities, so that children from varied backgrounds and social milieus could have the possibility of music education in all regions of England. The National Plan shows that the Department for Education, as well as the Department for Culture Media and Sport, has recognized the importance of music in young people's lives. Since they emphasize the importance of early music education, they plan to include children between the age of 5 and 18, in school and outside of it. Regardless of the original plan which was to have ended in 2015, the deadline for financing this program has been extended till 2020.
Advances in the American Education System - Music as the Main Subject
American Federal, state and local governments have introduced standardized testing in schools with the aim of improving the public education system. Since student achievement on these tests also represented a means for assessment and evaluation of the quality of the education system, it was necessary to spend extra time on student preparation, as well as to provide an adequate program for it. This has
caused a change in the curriculum: the subjects that are not tested (social subjects, history, civic education and art) are put in last place or are completely eliminated, so students have less chance of a rounded education. Not giving children the extra art education means not granting them the opportunity to learn important academic, creative and social skills that are by themselves characteristic of the artistic exercising of an individual (Ngai 2006). This has also been confirmed by research results which show that students who are involved in art activities achieve better results on tests later on, as well as have greater work accomplishments and better developed life skills, such as motivation, responsibility and team work (Catteral and Waldorf 1999). Since the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act (NCLBA), of which the primary goal was to secure high quality education for all children, did not clearly define what is understood by that, it has only strengthened the existing practice of testing knowledge with the aim of achieving better results on the state academic evaluation tests (Ngai 2006). This has meant that many generations of American teachers and parents did not cover art and music in their education, and because of it the National Association for Music Education (NAfME) put a major effort in July 2015 into the passing of the act for another change in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) (1965) by the Senate (The act was originally passed in 1965, but was re-authorized by the government every five years). Every Child Achieves Act (ECAA) (2015), which represents the new version of the ESEA, was passed. It has a special article called Literacy and Arts Education Program. For the first time in education history, music was recognized as a primary subject in the American Federal education policy plan and was unprecedentedly incorporated into Federal law. This is a significant step for American education policy, which has finally recognized the importance of making music education available to every child.
Conclusion
Although idea of offering music education to every child has been deemed a necessity by various authors since as early as the seventeenth century, music education today still is not recognized as a crucial factor in the child's development. In America, music was neglected as part of general education, with the aim of achieving better test results in other, more important subjects. Only the social music project El Sistema in Venezuela, where this idea has fully come to life, can be singled out as a unique example of good practice. It promotes the possibility of free classical music education for every child, regardless of his or her musical predispositions and economic status. Although various forms of this music initiative have emerged worldwide, unlike the original El Sistema and its English version, their work is not based on financial support by the state (Majno 2012), so they require some funding from the participants, i.e. the participants' parents.
In Croatia, there is still a special system of music education that is funded by the state. These exist in other European countries, but such forms of music education also contain certain factors which make music education for every child impossible. These factors include tuition fees, the cost of an instrument, and selection of students by their musical predispositions, as well as consideration of the distance from the home to the music school and the time needed for the parent to bring his or her child to music school etc. Functionalist music pedagogy by the Croatian music pedagogue Elly Bašić is a unique example of a form of music education that is not based on enrolment selectivity.
We can conclude that nowadays the ideal of music education for every child is dependent upon various factors, such as financial means, inclusion and the support of parents and communities, differences between various forms or programs of music education, some of which demand a certain musical predisposition in the child, as well as financial support, etc. Next to the cultural society awareness, the economic factor is frequently the key element that makes the implementation of this idea impossible, and makes music education available usually to children with better social status, i.e. music education is dependent on the parents' financial situation.
This idea will be fully implemented into practice only when we raise awareness about the significance of music education, not only for the children and citizens, but for the progress and prosperity of the entire society. Music sensitizes, enriches and affects the development of the child's creativity and universality. Only that kind of person can contribute to the creation of a better, more progressive, more humane and happier society, for the benefit of us all.
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Nataša Rizman Herga Samo Fošnarič
Coordination of School Science Classroom Furnishings with Anthropometric Parameters for 11-12 Year-Old Children
Original scientific article UDK: 37.091.64:616-071.3
ABSTRACT
The aim of the research was to explore the size suitability of school furnishings with the help of anthropometric measurements established on 11 - 12 year-old pupils. These pupils who have switched from single classroom teaching to teaching by subject and have lessons in specialized classrooms that are designed for a specific school subject. We were interested in the discrepancies between pupils' anthropometric dimensions and the size of school furniture in science classrooms. The study included 192 pupils (N = 192) in the 6th and 7th grades of primary schools in North-Eastern Slovenia. Readings were made of the pupils' anthropometric dimensions, including stature, popliteal height, buttock-popliteal length, elbow height sitting, thigh thickness, subscapular height and hip width. Measurements of the school furniture showed that the dimensions of desks designed according to ISO 5970 correspond to a size 6 (for those between 173 and 184 cm tall). Results of the anthropometric measurements have shown that 6th grade pupils are on average 152 cm tall, 7th grade pupils 160 cm. The research thus indicated a serious mismatch between school furnishings and the anthropometric dimensions, an issue which can have serious consequences for pupils' development.
Key words: interiors, school furniture, anthropometry, science, primary school
Usklajenost elementov šolskega interiera za poučevanje naravoslovja z nekaterimi antropometrijskimi parametri 11-12-letnih otrok
Izvirni znanstveni članek UDK: 37.091.64:616-071.3
POVZETEK
Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti ustreznost dimenzij šolskega pohištva z antropometrijskimi meritvami učencev, starih od 11 do 12 let. To so učenci, ki so z razredne stopnje prešli na predmetno stopnjo poučevanja in imajo pouk v specializiranih učilnicah, ki so namenjene za specifični predmet. Zanimala so nas neujemanja med antropometrijskimi merami učencev z dimenzijami šolskega pohištva, ki je nameščeno v naravoslovnih učilnicah. V raziskavo je bilo zajetih 192 učencev (N = 192) 6. in 7 razreda osnovnih šol iz severovzhodne Slovenije. Izmerjene so bile določene antropometrijske mere učencev, kot so telesna višina, poplitealna višina, kavdalna dolžina stegna, višina komolca, debelina stegna, subskapularna višina in bitrohanterična širina bokov. Opravljene meritve kažejo, da dimenzije stolov in miz, izdelanih po standardu ISO 5970, ustrezajo velikostnemu razredu 6 (za telesno višino uporabnikov med 173 in 184 cm). Povprečna višina učencev 6. razreda je 152 cm, učencev 7 razreda pa 160 cm. Raziskava je pokazala veliko neujemanje šolskega pohištva z antropometrijskimi merami 11-12-letnih otrok, kar ima lahko resne posledice v njihovem telesnem razvoju.
Ključne besede: interier, šolsko pohištvo, antropometrija, naravoslovje, osnovna šola
Introduction
Companies are increasingly aware that an adequate work environment is important to ensure employee working efficacy. It is now almost self-evident that the workspace should maintain the health and mental-physical wellbeing of employees from an ergonomic standpoint, while this is relatively neglected in schools. Since pupils spend a quarter of their day in school, and 80% of the time is spent doing their school work while seated, the pupils' work space and ergonomically designed furniture are of great importance. Classroom furniture affects children's posture, comfort, health and ability to learn.
Because of the many hours spent sitting in the classroom and studying at home, the motor abilities of pupils are decreasing, and owing to incorrect posture when sitting, their spines (Novak et al., 1995) are becoming curved. Even primary school children are turning into a more sedentary population. Classes, homework, school work and information technology are the reasons that children spend up to 10 hours a day sitting. A static-passive attitude has become typical for school children. Not surprisingly, analysis of systematic medical examinations of Slovenian children showed an increase in spinal (Fošnarič & Delčnjak Smrečnik, 2009) problems. There can be many causes, ranging from rapid and uneven growth and lack of exercise, to extensive sitting. What is more, this sitting may be incorrect, given the presence of un-ergonomically designed furniture.
If the school furniture is not ergonomically designed and does not meet pupils' anthropometric dimensions, it can cause physical strain, discomfort and poor physical posture (Novak et al., 1995; Lueder & Berg Rice, 2008). Inadequate school furniture is a co-influence on excessive muscle tension, the frequency of pain in the neck and back area, headaches and, as established, pupils' poor posture (Novak et al., 1995; Cardon et al., 2004). These problems may be exacerbated during the period of rapid growth -puberty. Pain in the lower spine occurs among taller teenagers. The use of mismatched furniture by adolescents poses a greater risk of spinal (Castellucci et al., 2010; Lueder & Berg Rice, 2008). problems. The mismatch of school furniture may also have other negative effects: learning may be ineffective because of an uncomfortable sitting position, pupils may lose interest, and this affects their mental health (Castellucci et al., 2010). In the case of improper seating, where the torso is bent forward, the strain on the spine is greater than when standing (Wilke et al., 2001). We can assume that, in the case of static sitting, the risk is greater of early degenerative changes in the spine and of back pain. In addition, individuals with a static sitting position experience a decrease in the stabilization of muscles in the lumbar-pelvic area. Research shows that there is often a mismatch between the various anthropometric measures of pupils and the school furniture that pupils use in class (Parcells et al., 1999; Castellucci et al., 2010; Panagiotopoulou et al., 2004; Gouvali & Boudolos, 2006; Fošnarič & Šterlek, 2008; Fošnarič & Obran, 2010; Saarni et al., 2007; Savanur & Altekar, 2007; Domljan et al., 2008). Of course, school furniture is not the only cause of pain and discomfort. However, research has shown that awkward and constrained sitting postures and poorly designed classroom furniture are important contributors to children's musculoskeletal discomfort. These considerations are particularly important given that childhood is a critical time to learn and develop good postural habits that can be practiced throughout a lifetime (Lueder & Berg Rice, 2008).
School furniture mainly consists of school desks, school chairs and a teacher's desk. Since education has no age limit, the population of users is diverse in all respects.
School furniture can be used by pre-school children as well as by adults. The school furniture is therefore expected to conform to a certain level of compatibility and to be age-appropriate to the user or his/her body height. Furniture that is used by a pupil for several consecutive hours has to meet the construction and design requirements of ergonomics as well as the requirements of each type of classroom organization. School furniture is divided into several size classes or groups. This area is covered by the standards for school furniture: the European standard SIST EN 1729-1:2006 and the international standard SIST ISO 5970:1996.
Primary school classrooms (pupils aged between 6 and 10) are today's traditional classrooms or the universal type of classroom and are ergonomically engineered specifically for pupils of that age. In the secondary school (pupils aged between 11 and 14), such universal classrooms are complemented by specialized classrooms intended for certain specific school subjects. School facilities must be designed according to modern ergonomics, and be particularly flexibly adaptable to different forms of school work and in line with certain physiological characteristics of children according to their age (Fošnarič, 2001). Although education in Slovenian primary school is divided in triads of teaching periods, classrooms in schools are divided into class teaching (from 1st to 5th grade) and subject teaching (from 6th to 9th grade). Although 6th grade pupils still belong to the second triad and have class teaching, certain school subjects are carried out in specialized classrooms designed for the specific subject. An example of such a classroom is the science classroom that is intended for teaching chemistry and biology and is therefore ergonomically adjusted to older pupils. In the system of subject teaching, one classroom is often alternately used by pupils from several grades and, consequently, of varied ages (from 11-to 15-year-old pupils) and body height, which makes equipping these rooms very complicated. This complexity of the biomedical and physical parameters in the system "furniture dimensions-pupil's measurements -classroom needs", calls for adjustability in order to preserve the pupil's health.
Children are currently subject to quite different sensory, cognitive and physical demands than they have faced before. Today's children are different from previous generations in many countries. They are often taller, heavier and less fit. Many children (particularly girls) are experiencing puberty earlier than previous generations, which can impact their potential for musculoskeletal pain and disorders (Lueder & Berg Rice, 2008). During puberty, teenagers gain about 15% of their ultimate stature and 45% of their final skeletal mass (Spear, 2002).
In early adolescence, the bones and spine are weak and vulnerable; adolescent growth is largely at the spine. In the early stages, the spine grows quickly, adding length without adding mass. Children and adolescents have varied back shapes and therefore require a range of backrest profiles (Lueder & Berg Rice, 2008).
Research aim
Research conducted among Slovenian children showed that the level of activity among pupils decreased with their age; the greatest decline is associated with the period of adolescence. Musculoskeletal system diseases are among the key health issues due to lack of activity. The Health Statistics Yearbook for 2009 indicates that 14.1% of children and adolescents have poor posture, and 8.7% of children and adolescents already have implied or expressed spinal deformities. At the same time, the prevalence of the sedentary
lifestyle is on the rise. Slovenian children aged around 11 years, are seated during the school week--in school and while doing homework—for a total average of around 9 hours.
Even in our schools we want to achieve a comfortable, functional, healthy and safe working environment for children. Since inadequate school furniture co-influences the frequency of pain in the neck and spine area, and because this mismatch in the period of puberty may pose a higher risk, we have attempted to establish the varied physical proportions of 6th- and 7th -grade pupils. Great interest was aroused by the anticipation that there exists a significant discrepancy between pupils' anthropometric dimensions and the size of school furniture, because the furniture accords with a specific subject meant for pupils in the senior classes.
Research Methodology
Participants
The study included 192 (N = 192) pupils: 89 boys and 103 girls. Anthropometric measurements were made at various schools in the northeast of Slovenia. These were made from December 2011 to June 2012. Pupils included in the study were attending the 6th and 7th grades of primary school. They were between 11 and 13 years old; the average age of participants was 12 years and 2 months. The research sample consisted of volunteer subjects. After giving written and verbal information about the study to the school principal, written authorization was obtained from the teachers, parents and pupils.
Dimensions of classroom furniture
The dimensions of school chairs in the tables (Figure 1) were taken in the science classrooms. The science classroom is equipped for science classes and biology, chemistry and physics classes in the 8th and 9th grades of primary school. All measurements of school furniture were executed by the same measurer, according to the criteria for the following measurements:
Seat Height (SH): measured as the distance from the highest point on the front of the seat to the floor.
Seat Depth (SD): measured from the back of the sitting surface of the seat to its front.
Seat Width (SW): measured as the distance from the left to the right point of the sitting surface of the seat.
Upper Edge of Backrest (UEB): measured as the vertical distance between the middle point of the upper edge of the backrest and the top of the seat.
Seat to Desk Clearance (SDC): measured as the vertical distance from the top of the front edge of the seat to the lowest structure point below the desk.
Desk height (DH): measured as the vertical distance from the floor to the top of the front edge of the desk.
Desk Width (DW): measured as the horizontal distance between the lateral edges of the desk.
Desk Depth (DD): measured as the distance from the back to the front of the top surface of the desk.
These are the common measurements considered in furniture design based on ergonomic principles (Parcells et al., 1999; Castellucci et al., 2010). All dimensions are expressed in centimetres and were taken by the same measurer with a metal tape.
Figure 1: Presentation of classroom furniture measurements
Anthropometric measurements considered
The anthropometric dimensions, with the exception of height, were taken in the sitting position. The pupils were sitting in a relaxed, upright posture, without using the arm- or back-rest. The pupils were seated erect on a flat horizontal surface, with knees bent at 90°, and feet flat on a horizontal surface. The following human body dimensions, which are essential for sitting and work surface design (Panero & Zeinik, 1979) and taken into account (Castellucci et al., 2010; Pheasant, 2003) (Figure 2) were measured for this research:
Stature (S): determined as the vertical distance between the floor and the top of the head, and measured with the subject erect and looking straight ahead.
Popliteal Height (PH): measured with 90° knee flexion, as the vertical distance from the floor to the posterior surface of the knee or popliteal space.
Buttock-Popliteal Length (BPL): measured with 90° knee flexion, as the horizontal distance from the posterior surface of the buttock to the popliteal surface.
Elbow Height Sitting (EHS): taken with 90° elbow flexion, as the vertical distance from the bottom of the tip of the elbow (olecranon) to the subject's seated surface.
Subscapular Height (SUH): the vertical distance from the lowest point of the scapula to the subject's seated surface.
Thigh Thickness (TT): the vertical distance from the highest uncompressed point of the thigh to the subject's seated surface.
Hip Width (HW): the horizontal distance measured at the widest point of the hip in the sitting position.
All dimensions are expressed in centimetres.
Figure 2: Explanation of the anthropometric measures
Application of the measurements
In order to establish the degree to which the parameters of school furniture and the pupil's dimensions were matching or mismatched, we analysed and tested the following criteria: Popliteal height and seat height mismatch
The PH should be higher than the SH 1 but does not have to be higher than four centimetres or 88% of the PH in order to avoid compression in the buttock region. Based on existing research (Parcells et al., 1999; Castellucci et al., 2010; Panero & Zeinik, 1979; Panagiotopoulou et al., 2004; Cotton et al., 2002; Gouvali & Boudolos, 2006), we defined a mismatch of popliteal and seat height as any seat height that is either >95% or <88% of the popliteal height. Buttock-popliteal length and seat depth
In order to be able to use the backrest of the seat to support the lumbar spine without compression, the match criterion was defined according to the equation (Parcells et al., 1999; Castellucci et al., 2010; Panagiotopoulou et al., 2004; Cotton et al., 2002) 0.80 BPL < SD < 0.95 BPL	(1)
Hip width against seat width
To properly fit in the seat, the HW should be narrower than the SW. The match criterion is when the: HW < SW	(2)
Thigh thickness and seat-to-desk clearance
Parcells (1999) proposed that the desk clearance should be 2 cm higher than knee height. The match criterion was defined according to the equation (Castellucci et al., 2010): TT + 2 < SDC	(3)
Elbow height sitting against seat-to-desk height
This match criterion was defined with a modified equation (Castellucci et al., 2010) that accepts the EHS as the minimum height of SDH, in order to provide a significant reduction on spinal loading and considering that the maximum height of SDH should not be greater than 5 cm above the EHS: EHS < SDH < EHS + 5	(4)
Subscapular height and upper edge of backrest
To be able to move the trunk and the arms correctly, the SUH should be higher than the UEB. The match criterion was defined according to the equation (Castellucci et al., 2010):
SUH > UEB	(5)
Because this was a preliminary study, we chose the most commonly used and recommended relationships in the literature, which are those in Equations (1)-(5). The relationships used in this research are not the only ones available, but were considered most appropriate for our research.
Statistical analysis
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows 16.0 statistical program was used for evaluation of the research data. In order to classify the data, frequency and percentage values were calculated. The arithmetic mean was calculated to identify the mean of the anthropometric measures. Standard deviation was calculated to identify the distance of the values in the distribution to the arithmetic
mean. An independent t-test (with 95% confidence interval) was performed to examine the differences in measurements between 6th and 7th grade. For the analysis of the match between classroom furniture and proposed furniture, the c 2 - test was used.
Results of research
Dimensions of classroom furniture
We measured the dimensions of school furniture in four primary schools in Slovenia. Measurements were performed in those classrooms adapted for the teaching of science subjects. The acquired measurements of science classroom school furniture are presented in Table 1 The measurements show that the dimensions of the chairs manufactured according to standard ISO 5970 in schools 1, 2 and 3 correspond to size 6 (for heights between 173 and 184 cm), in school 4 to size 7 (for body height above 185 cm). The school desks used for teaching science in all schools correspond to size 6. As shown in Table 1, we see a difference in the length of desks: 65 cm for a single desk and 130 cm for a double desk. The figures also reflect differences in the depth of desks, which does not affect the size according to the ISO standard, but the functionality of the usable surface. Desk width and depth are related to functional criteria such as the need for available surface, and not to any particular anthropometric measurement. In this case no criteria were defined to compare with anthropometric measurements.
Table 1. Dimensions offurniture (cm) in each school
FURNITURE DIMENSIONS	School 1	School 2	School 3	School 4
SH	46	45	44.5	50
SD	40	40	39	40
SW	38.5	38	38	38
SDH	31	31	30	26
SDC	12	11	28	12
UEB	40	40	40	40
DW	130	65	130	130
DD	60	50	50	50
DH	76	77	76	76
Legend: SH - Seat Height, SD - Seat Depth, SW - Seat Width, SDH - Seat-to-Desk Height, SDC - Seat-to-Desk Clearance, UEB - Upper Edge of Backrest, DW - Desk Width, DD - Desk Depth, DH - Desk Height
Anthropometric measurements of the pupils
The descriptive statistics for the seven anthropometric dimensions of the pupils are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Table 2 gives a summary of pupils' anthropometric measurements, and Table 3 shows the mean and standard deviation values for each class separately. As the data show, means and medians for most measures were almost identical, indicating highly symmetrical distributions. An Independent t-test (with a 95% confidence interval) was performed to examine the differences in measurements between 6th and 7th grade (pupils have science class in the same classroom and use the same furniture). The results show that there is a significant difference between 6th and 7th grade in Stature (t = -7.132; p = 0.000), Popliteal Height (t = -6.035; p = 0.000), Buttock-Popliteal Length (t = -4.030; p = 0.000), Hip Width (t = -4.215; p = 0.000), Thigh Thickness (t = -2.712; p = 0.007)
and Subscapular Height (t = -5.321; p = 0.000), but there isn't a significant difference in Elbow Height (t = -0.057; p = 0.9555). These results show that there is a difference between statures when considering different grades in primary school.
Table 2. Anthropometric measurements (cm)
PUPIL MEASUREMENTS (cm)	n	Mean	SD	Minimum	Maximum	Median
S	192	155.50	8.40	133	176.5	155.50
PH	192	42.17	2.07	37	52	42.00
BPL	192	43.48	3.38	34	53	43.00
EHS	192	18.97	2.66	12	27	18.50
HW	192	33.51	3.27	25	43	34.00
TT	192	13.09	2.09	9.5	20	13.00
SUH	192	35.89	2.54	29.5	44	36.00
Legend: S - Stature, PH - Popliteal Height, BPL - Buttock-Popliteal Length, EHS - Elbow Height Sitting, SUH -Subscapular Height, TT - Thigh Thickness, HW - Hip Width
Table 3 shows a consistent increase in mean by grade group. However, the standard deviations are almost the same, which isn't indicative of the greater variability that occurs as age increases.
There are two reasons, the first of which concerns the school system, where a 12-year-old pupil may be in the 6th or 7th grade. If these pupils are divided, instead of by grade, into age groups, the standard deviation increases. Thus, the average height of an 11-year-old pupil is 150.17 cm (SD = 7.18); the average height of a 12-year-old pupil is 157.47 cm (SD = 7.36). Since these are pupils in the period of early adolescence, which is characterized by accelerated physical growth, we found statistically significant differences in Stature between boys and girls. The girls sooner encounter the period of adolescence, and during this period they are taller than their male representatives. With 11-year-old pupils, we found a statistically significant difference in body height (t = -2.086, p = 0.040). Girls (159.01 cm) are taller than boys in this age group (155.87 cm). The difference according to gender is statistically significant for pupils in the 7th grade (t = -2.170; p = 0.033). Girls (161.26 cm) are taller than boys (158.01 cm).
Table 3. Anthropometric measurements between 6th- and 7h-grade pupils (cm)
	6th GRADE (n = 102)		7th GRADE (n = 90)	
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
S	151.88	7.68	159.6	725
PH	41.39	2.08	43.05	1.68
BPL	42.59	3.35	44.48	3.13
EHS	18.96	2.71	18.98	2.63
HW	32.63	3.52	34.51	2.67
TT	12.71	2.07	13.52	2.04
SUH	35.03	2.24	36.86	2.51
Legend: S - Stature, PH - Popliteal Height, BPL - Buttock-Popliteal Length, EHS - Elbow Height Sitting, SUH -Subscapular Height, TT - Thigh Thickness, HW - Hip Width
Comparison between pupil body dimensions and classroom furniture
Graph 1 shows the percentage of pupils whose measurements matched or did not match the dimensions of the school furniture.
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%
■ Mismatch Match
SeatHeight Seat Depth Seatwidth UpperEdgeof Seat to Desk SeattoDesk
Backrest	Height Clearance
Graph 1: Percentages of pupils by match / mismatch level for the one-way criteria
It is obvious that the furniture used by pupils in science classes is too large and does not correspond to their anthropometric dimensions. The seat height is suitable for only one pupil (0.5%); for all other pupils, it is too big. The depth of the chair is suitable for 61.4% of the pupils, the width of the chair for 91.1% of the pupils. This information should not mislead us because the criterion that determines the appropriateness of the width of the chair is one-way. Insofar as the width of the chair is larger than the Hip Width, we are talking about the consistency of furniture. From the data above on the height and the depth of the chair, we can determine that the chairs used by pupils in the classroom are too large. Therefore, in the majority of cases we satisfied the criteria on the width of the chair and the Hip Width. In the case of the armchair height, desk height and leg clearance under the table, we find a predominance of mismatches (over 90%) between the dimensions of the furniture and the anthropometric dimensions of the pupils who use this furniture.
In Table 4, three categories were defined in the case of the two-way equations: a "Match" level when the anthropometric measurement falls between the limits; a "Too big" level when the minimum limit of the criterion equation is greater than the anthropometric measurement, and a "Too small" level when the maximum limit of the criterion equation is lower than the anthropometric measurement.
The seat is too high for as many as 191 pupils (99.5%). The depth of the chair is too great for 71 (37%) pupils, while, for three pupils (1.6%), the depth of the chair, according to their anthropometric dimensions, is too small. Because of one-way criteria, the width of the chair may be appropriate or too small. In our case the width of the chairs (because they are too big) in most cases (91.1%) is appropriate. Table 4 shows that the height of the Backrest is too high for most pupils, as well as the Desk Height.
When talking about the mismatch of school furniture, we find that in most cases it is simply too big. What surprises us is the information that the leg clearance under the table is inappropriate for most pupils (96.4%): it is too small.
Table 4. Dimensions offurniture design and match percentages
			Mismatch	
Design parameter	Dimension	Match	Too big	Too small
	(cm)			
Seat Height	46	1	191	0
		0.5%	99.5%	0%
Seat Depth	40	118	71	3
		61.4%	37%	1.6%
Seat Width	38	175	0	17
		91.1%	0%	8.9%
Upper Edge of Backrest	40	15	177	0
		78%	92.2%	0%
Seat-to-Desk Height	30	4	188	0
		2.1%	979%	
Seat-to-Desk	12	7	0	185
Clearance		3.6%	0%	96.4%
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate how the dimensions of school furniture correspond to the anthropometric dimensions of pupils by age. We showed the consistency of two chair dimensions: the depth of the chair and Backrest height. In both cases we see that the suitability of the furniture increases with the pupils' age. This confirms our previous findings that the furniture used by pupils in science classes is too big and does not correspond with their anthropometric dimensions.
Research has shown that the school furniture used by pupils in science classes is inappropriate to their anthropometric dimensions. For their size, more appropriate furniture would be items in accordance with ISO standard size 4; this is for pupils that are between 143 and 157 cm tall. We have portrayed it in the table with the mark NEW 4. Or size 5 furniture would correspond; this furniture is intended for pupils that are between 158 cm and 172 cm tall, and we indicate it in the table with the mark NEW 5. Table 5 shows the consistency of old furniture dimensions with anthropometric measurements and the consistency of the proposed furniture for this population of pupils. The c 2 - test, proved a statistically significant difference in the case of Seat Height suitability (c 2 = 148.606, p = 0.000), where new furniture with a seat size of 4 would be adequate for more than half the pupils. It also showed a statistically significant difference in compliance between caudal thigh length and the depth of the seat (c 2 = 11.063, p = 0.001); a new set of seats in size 5 would fit 77.6% of the pupils. There would also be a greater difference in the number of pupils who would fit the previously mentioned new set of seats in terms of the height of the armchair (52.1%) in comparison with the existing set of furniture. There is a statistically significant difference (c 2 = 87.587, p = 0.000). With a new set of desks and chairs in size 4, compliance of Seat-to -Desk Height with Elbow Height Sitting would increase. The compliance level of the proposed set would be 24%, which compared with the existing furniture (2.1%), also shows a statistically significant difference (c 2 = 40.561, p = 0.000). In the case of the width of the chair, there is no statistically significant difference (c 2=3.491, p = 0.062). More pupils would fit this width of chair than is true for the present set of chair seats.
Table 5. Classroom furniture and proposed furniture design and match percentages and c2- test
Design parameter		Match	Mismatch	n	C2-test	P
Seat Height	OLD	1 0.5%	191 99.5%	192	148.606	0.000
	NEW 4	109 56.8%	83 43.2%	192		
Seat Depth	OLD	118 61.5%	74 38.5%	192	11.063	0.001
	NEW 5	149 77.6%	43 22.4%	192		
Seat-to- Desk Height	OLD	4 2.1%	188 9779%	192	40.561	0.000
	NEW 4	46 24.0%	146 76.0%	192		
Seat Width	OLD	175 91.1%	17 8.9%	192	3.491	0.062
	NEW 5	162 84.4%	30 15.6%	192		
Upper Edge of Backrest	OLD	15 78%	177 92.2%	192	87.587	0.000
	NEW 5	99 52.1%	93 479%	192		
Discussion
The results indicate a mismatch between the body dimensions of pupils participating in this study and the school furniture available in science classrooms. Our school furniture measurements showed that the dimensions of desks designed according to ISO 5970 correspond to size 6 (for heights between 173 and 184 cm). Results of the anthropometric measurements showed that 6th-grade pupils are on average 152 cm tall, 7th-grade pupils 160 cm tall. The dimensions of the school desks used in science classes are inappropriate according to their body height. Desk height is suitable for only 2.1% of these pupils. Similarly, a complete mismatch was also found by Castellucci (2010) in Chilean children, where Seat-to-Desk Height was too high, and there was a mismatch for 99% of the pupils. The mismatch in desk height was also proven for 99% of Gaza Strip students (Agha, 2007). Although pupils are using desks that are too high for them, the survey showed that the space clearance under the desk is inadequate, because it is too small. The cause of the mismatch between the under-desk clearance and the thickness of the thigh lies in the shelving or wire racks that are located under the desk and to serve for storage and retrieval of school supplies. Seat-to-Desk Clearance showed a mismatch for 96% of the pupils. This situation of mismatch produces mobility constraint because of contact between the thighs and the desk. Other studies from Parcells (1999) and Gouvali and Boudolos (2006) show 0% and 5.8% of pupils with desk clearance problems; this difference could be due to extra shelving and wire racks under the desks of Slovenian pupils. Seat Height, which is the starting point for the design of classroom furniture and also the measurement used for prescription of a set size, was not appropriate for this population of pupils. An example of a clear mismatch between the seat height and popliteal height is presented
in Figure 4. These pupils (99.5%) were using a higher seat that is appropriate for pupils with heights between 173 and 184 cm, so they would be unable to support their feet on the floor, and that increases tissue pressure on the posterior surface of the knee. So, we can talk about chairs that are too high or a height mismatch. These results are similar to those from a study done on Hong Kong school children aged 10-13, where 93% of pupils have chairs that are too high (Chung & Wong, 2007).
Over-sized chairs are also characteristic of pupils in Chile, where the mismatch was ranged between 72% and 86%, depending on the set of chairs (Castellucci et al., 2010). The majority of Greek pupils are sitting on chairs that are too high for them (Panagiotopoulou et al., 2004). Since the chairs used by pupils are too big, most of them have no problems with seat width, which complies in 91.1% of the pupils. Correlation between caudal thigh length and the depth of the chair is 61.4%. For more than a third of pupils, a chair of these dimensions is inadequate. Since the chairs used by pupils are too big and too high, they tend to place their buttocks forward on the edge of the seat, especially while reading and writing. The lack of back support in this position causes a slumped, kyphotic posture. Research studies (Wilke et al., 2001) have shown that in sitting with the torso bent forward, the burden on the spine increases even more than if the pupils were standing. The height of the backrest is suitable for only 7.8% of the pupils. Wilke (2001) demonstrated that the use of a backrest reduces pressure on the intervertebral spinal discs. In our case, where the height of the backrest is inappropriate for the pupils and there are no height-adjustable seats, this could be a major problem and the cause of subsequent back problems.
Figure 3: A clear mismatch between popliteal and seat height. Feet are not on the floor.
Since the dimensions of the desks and chairs used by pupils in the classroom are too big and because the independent t-test showed statistically significant differences in anthropometric measurements among 6th- and 7th-grade pupils, we can conclude
that furniture suitable for 6th-grade pupils is inappropriate for 7th-graders. We have also demonstrated a statistically significant difference between the existing and proposed set of furniture in favour of the proposed set. It is unacceptable that pupils who differ in height (from 133 cm to 176.5 cm) have furniture of the same size. The consequences of the inadequacy of school furniture can include negative effects on their development, particularly on children during the early adolescent period of rapid growth.
In the SIST EN 1729-1:2006 standard, those product dimensions are particularly specified that are important both forergonomic compliance with the user's height and for theirmutual coherence. School furniture is divided into eight size categories, but the Slovenian schools are equipped with school furniture of only four different size dimensions. Classrooms are generally equipped with one size of school furniture, regardless of the variability in pupils' height. In an ideal world, every pupil should have a height-adjustable, ergonomic chair and desk, but for very low costs we could improve the situation by installing furniture of various sizes in the existing classrooms. The aim of the research was not to demonstrate the mismatch between school furniture and the anthropometric dimensions of pupils, but to highlight the problem when the younger pupils, physically vulnerable early adolescents, attend lessons in subject-specific classrooms (such as the science classroom), aimed at the older, larger children. We believe that, with the exception of this particular problem, that there does not exist a large mismatch in Slovenia between school furniture dimensions and anthropometric measurements of the pupils.
For various reasons, we are increasingly becoming a sedentary population. Our children spend on average 9 hours a day seated in school and doing their homework during the week. It is necessary to reduce the daily physical demands on schoolchildren by changing the traditional mode of teaching for the dynamic method of teaching involving the movement of children. Research by Cardon (2004) evaluating the differences in classroom sitting habits during the "Moving School" project and in traditional schools showed that pupils in traditional schools spend 97% of classes being static. We can ask ourselves what may be the health consequences if pupils in these classes also have inadequate furniture. Purchasing ergonomic furniture represents for schools a major financial undertaking. It is also necessary to consider the structural and organizational resources that would make classes more dynamic through pupil mobility.
Conclusion and teaching implications
Research has shown that the school furniture used by Slovenian 6th- and 7th-grade pupils in science classrooms does not accord with their anthropometric dimensions. The furniture is inappropriate because science instruction takes place in classrooms specially set aside for biology, chemistry and physics, in classrooms that are designed and equipped for older pupils. Thus, the school furniture that pupils use is too large. As we found in the survey, pupils at this age vary greatly in their anthropometric dimensions, so it is unacceptable to use one-size furniture that does not match their anthropometric dimensions. Inadequacy in school furniture can result in back problems and poor posture and can have negative consequences on children's development.
The mismatch between pupils' anthropometric characteristics and the dimensions of school furniture would be eliminated or at least reduced by installing furniture in various sizes. This would reduce the physical burden in the school environment.
Teachers need to be educated to identify pupils in obviously ill-fitting school furniture and facilitate assignment to more appropriate seating whenever possible. It would be necessary to respect the basic principle that says that it is necessary to adapt the workplace to the human being and not vice versa. We could also reduce the burden on children by choosing appropriate or changed pedagogical methods of work that would balance the traditional form of school learning with dynamic posture and dynamic sitting. Children's need for movement must be met, so we should direct the teaching process so that we reduce static sitting and increase the methods of work that involve movement, walking around the classroom, learning to stand and dynamic sitting on and at height-adjustable chairs and desks.
A classroom should be based on a specific design that respects the ergonomic features adjusted to the anthropometric dimensions of pupils and fulfils the needs for active, dynamic and physical behaviour. Only in this way will we ensure the healthy physical, mental and emotional development of children.
Limitations
This research was carried out in 2012. Anthropometric measurements were made at various schools in the northeast of Slovenia. Anthropometric measurements can vary according to geographical region and year. Consequently, the fact that the sampling group constitutes only a small sample is a limitation of the study.
Acknowledgement
This research is supported by the Dr. Anton Trstenjak Foundation, Slovenia. REFERENCES
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Dr. Nataša Rizman Herga, Ormož Elementary School, natasa_herga@yahoo.com Dr. Samo Fošnarič, Faculty of Education, University of Maribor, samo.fosnaric@um.si
Tomaž Bratina
The Appeal and Applicability of ICT Study Materials - The Viewpoint of Generation-Z Pre-Service Teachers
Original scientific article UDK: 37.011-051:004 37.091.3:004
ABSTRACT
Effective contemporary teaching is closely connected to the inclusion of ICT, which comprises technological tools and the preparation and distribution of multimedia learning content. Therefore, one of the objectives of pre-service teacher education is to produce a technologically competent teacher. For this reason, the study programme includes a range of learning content where pre-service teachers engage in practical work in order to learn about the uses of ICT, tools and procedures for the production and distribution of multimedia learning content. Current generations of pre-service teachers are considered as belonging to Generation Z, or digital natives, and we can consequently expect experience, greater interest in studying the material and motivation to use ICT in their work. After the conclusion of the ICT in Education course, a study was prepared focusing on the learning materials that pre-service teachers find interesting, how they assess the applicability and transferability of this material and on the assessment of their own qualification for preparing multimedia learning materials. The results have shown that contemporary generations are familiar with working with ICT; however, they lack the experience and knowledge for using programs and tools. They want more knowledge and practical work in preparing multimedia learning material and in its distribution. The possibility of distributing multimedia learning content has resulted in a notable interest in working with Moodle, which is evident from the comparison of results from this year's generation and those from two years ago. Students believe that the syllabus provided is interesting and useful. The acquired knowledge will be useful in the production of future learning materials and for work in other courses. The findings of the study will be used in the updating and preparation of future syllabi.
Key words: ICT, ICT in education, pre-service teachers, Generation Z, study materials, digital competences
Zanimivost in uporabnost študijskih vsebin IKT - vidik bodočih učiteljev generacije Z
Izvirni znanstveni članek UDK: 37.011-051:004 37.091.3:004
POVZETEK
Sodoben in učinkovit pouk je tesno povezan z vključevanjem IKT, ki obsega tako tehnološke pripomočke kot pripravo in distribucijo multimedijskih učnih vsebin. Zato je med cilji izobraževanja bodočih učiteljev tudi tehnološko kompetenten učitelj. Študijski program v ta namen vključuje nabor učnih vsebin, pri katerih se bodoči učitelj skozi praktično delo seznani z možnostmi uporabe IKT, orodji in postopki za pripravo in distribucijo multimedijskih učnih vsebin. Generacije bodočih učiteljev sodijo v generacijo Z oziroma v t. i. digitalno generacijo (angl. digital natives), zato je pričakovati izkušnje, več zanimanja za učne vsebine in motiviranost za uporabo IKT pri svojem delu. Po končani izvedbi študijskega predmeta IKT v izobraževanju smo pripravili raziskavo, v kateri nas je zanimalo, katere študijske vsebine so bodočim učiteljem zanimive, kako ocenjujejo uporabnost in prenosljivost vsebin ter kako ocenjujejo lastno usposobljenost za pripravo
multimedijskih učnih gradiv. Rezultati so pokazali, da sodobne generacije sicer poznajo delo z I KT, manj pa imajo izkušenj in znanja pri uporabi namenskih programov in orodij. Želijo si še več znanja in praktičnega dela pri pripravi multimedijskih učnih vsebin in njihovi distribuciji. Zaradi možnosti distribucije multimedijskih učnih vsebin opažamo porast zanimanja za delo z Moodlom, kar kaže primerjava rezultatov med generacijama tekočega leta in izpred dveh let. Študenti menijo, da so ponujene vsebine zanimive in uporabne. Pridobljena znanja jim bodo koristila pri pripravi učnih vsebin in pri delu pri drugih študijskih predmetih. Spoznanja iz raziskave bodo uporabljena pri posodobitvi in pripravi bodočih študijskih vsebin.
Ključne besede: IKT, IKT v izobraževanju, bodoči učitelji, generacija Z, študijske vsebine, digitalne kompetence
Introduction
Nowadays, we can no longer imagine classroom support without the use of ICT. Using ICT in the classroom enables us to achieve greater illustrative value for and simpler management of topics on the syllabus. This has benefits for both the teacher and the student. Study topic management can mean the storage of learning materials as well as faster and more continuous updating and distribution. The use of ICT in teaching also includes the preparation of multimedia elements, their inclusion in multimedia learning materials and the distribution of materials. Multimedia elements comprise text, image, audio and video. Multimedia learning materials are study materials comprised of multimedia elements that are connected into a coherent whole. The contemporary teacher must be able to cope with these challenges, a requirement which can be fulfilled through the provision of appropriate syllabus content in the primary part of teacher education and later with continuous in-service training. An important objective of pre-service teacher education is the shaping of a technologically competent teacher. From the viewpoint of ICT use in teaching, the technological competence of a teacher is understood as digital competence, which can be classified into two aspects.
The first is the ability to effectively use ICT and multimedia learning materials in teaching. The second aspect is the ability to recognise the strengths and weaknesses of ICT and to observe the specific rules and ethics of its use (Duh, Bratina and Krašna, 2012).
In terms of concept, the available literature distinguishes between several different aspects of the term digital competence with reference to an individual. One concept presents digital competence as literacy and includes computer literacy, ICT literacy, e-literacy, information literacy and the attitude towards ICT. There is also a concept that joins all aspects of ICT use under the unified term digital literacy.
In the publication of the American Library Association on information literacy standards and indicators in higher education, the term digital literacy is replaced by the term information literacy. The term is discussed from the standpoint of the information literacy level of students, which is assessed on the basis of individual standards. The criteria cover five standards that determine what to assess with regard to students' information literacy. A student is information literate when they are able to do the following: (1) determine the nature and extent of the information needed; (2) access needed information effectively and efficiently; (3) evaluate information and its sources critically and make sensible use of them; (4) use information to accomplish a specific purpose, and (5) recognise the economic, legal and social issues surrounding the use of information, so as to access and use information ethically and legally. Success in achieving these standards is assessed by means of performance indicators for each individual standard (Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education, 2010).
Another interesting concept presents digital competence as e-skills. In 2006 the European Parliament joined these concepts into the term digital competence as one of the eight key competences (Ala-Mutka, Punie and Redecker, 2008). In simpler terms, digital competence can be understood as the ability to use different types of ICT equipment. From the perspective of its use in education, the term digital competence comprises a range of knowledge and experience: i.e., advanced text editing, work with tables and charts, image, video and audio processing, presentation techniques and the use of the Internet, as well as all forms of electronic communication. (Krašna, 2010). According to the European Qualifications Framework (EQF), there are three competence components: knowledge, skills and attitudes. Knowledge can be theoretical or practical and is acquired through learning. Skills are the ability to apply knowledge on our way to achieving a goal, which can be a product or an activity. Attitudes represent the responsibility for but also the desire or motivation to achieve a goal (Ala-Mutka, 2011). We estimate that the term digital competence is crucial from the viewpoint of teacher education, as it represents the teacher's ability to effectively use ICT and multimedia study materials in everyday teaching. Attaining the objective of shaping a technologically competent teacher is possible by using appropriate syllabus topics and by fostering an appropriate attitude among pre-service teachers towards the use of ICT. The requests and proposals of students with regard to the syllabus topics of the course and their experience must also be considered.
The process of acquiring digital competence
Purpose and assumptions
These students, pre-service teachers, have encountered the use of ICT in teaching throughout their previous years of schooling. Their experience with ICT in the classroom has been mostly limited to their experience as learners, or those receiving instruction. As pre-service teachers, they will soon find themselves in the role of the one providing the instruction. In order to effectively provide instruction and to support the learning process, pre-service teachers will exploit the potential of ICT. They will encounter learning through technology (Mayer, 2010). According to Mayer, learning but also teaching with technology can be classified into two different approaches with regard to their purpose: the technology-centred and the learner-centred approach. The technology-centred approach uses ICT to support teaching. The learner-centred approach uses ICT to assist (support) learning. Both approaches will be vital to the professional work of pre-service teachers.
The development of ICT brings revolutionary changes to teaching strategies and requires teachers to continuously adapt. The rapid development of the use of ICT in education is evident from the fact that at the beginning of the century, the possibility of personalised learning services was an upcoming trend (Dryden, Vos, 2001) that soon became something that can be implicitly assumed. Today, awakening students' interest in the study topics is often referred to as the greatest challenge in teaching, and ICT appears to be an appropriate tool. Strategies increasingly include gaming, which, if applied correctly, can result in a substantial increase of interest in the syllabus material and a higher level of acquired knowledge (Caligiuri and Ominelli, 2014). Interest in the study material also means motivation, which is a key factor for successful learning.
The use of ICT will not be limited to providing knowledge only during the lesson, since content will also be available to students later on. Given the possibilities offered by the use of ICT and its availability, parts of the learning process can also be transferred outside the classroom.
Syllabus topics in the ICT course
The development of digital competence among pre-service teachers is a process that requires the preparation of selective learning material related to the use of ICT in education. The ICT course taught at the Faculty of Education at the University of Maribor includes a selection of topics that allows pre-service teachers to engage in practical work to become familiar with the currently available ICT, learn about the possibilities and methods of using ICT in the classroom, test the tools and procedures for preparing multimedia elements and multimedia learning materials, become familiar with the operation of Moodle and use it as teachers and learn about Internet safety (Bratina and Dinevski, 2016). In terms of structure, the study syllabus corresponds to the proposed selection of knowledge and experience of a digitally competent teacher.
Content and Generation Z
The syllabus is continuously being modified and adapted to the development of ICT and to the fact that future generations of pre-service teachers are people who have been in contact with ICT from birth and throughout their previous years of schooling. The literature designates them as representatives of Generation Z or as digital natives.
Generation Z includes people born between 1995 and 2012, who enter the study process with a certain level of ICT knowledge and prior knowledge of the use of ICT. Furthermore, when completing their education, Generation Z pre-service teachers will teach children who are also part of this generation. This represents an additional challenge in preparing pre-service teachers for their job (Fernandez-Cruz and Fernandez-Dias, 2016).
The term digital natives was coined slightly earlier and also describes people who have been in contact with ICT from the start. The authors (Palfrey and Gasser, 2008) classify people born after 1980 into this group. They describe them as people who frenetically type messages into their mobile phones, tablets and similar devices in public places, who know what to do when emails crash, who are friends with people they have never met and who easily beat you at any video game.
The fact is that Generation Z has already developed the skills in and knowledge for using ICT, owing to their being in contact with ICT practically from birth. Consequently, they are not plagued by reservations or fear, which are evident in pre-1980 generations. Regardless of the skills and knowledge of Generation Z, as regards working with students, we see that this is mostly evident in using ICT as a tool for electronic communication, accessing information and/or study materials and for exchanging files, while less so in applied use.
The skills in and knowledge of using ICT which are brought to the study process by the students greatly facilitate the transition to the applied use of ICT in various fields. From the viewpoint of teachers, this relates to the use of ICT in education. The syllabus in the ICT in Education course is therefore intended to channel existing knowledge
and experience into professional use of ICT. Professional use of ICT encompasses a broad spectrum of activities, from theory to practical experience of using ICT in mock and actual situations. The final objective is a digitally competent teacher, who will be able to correctly and effectively use ICT in their work.
The anticipated use of ICT in teaching is nevertheless based on the assumption that pre-service teachers must already have expressed a certain interest in and desire to learn about the possibilities offered by the use of ICT during their education. At the same time, they also need to recognise the purpose and applicability of the syllabus topics. The opinions of students on the content of the ICT course were investigated in a study,the results of which are presented below.
Methods
Purpose
When preparing for the study, it was anticipated that our students (Generation Z, digital natives) would display a certain level of experience with the use of ICT and prior knowledge of some ICT work processes. It was assumed that, because of the content revision that is required in order to bring all students to the same level on which to build, certain syllabus items from the field of ICT would be less interesting to some students. We were further interested in whether students' opinions on syllabus topics change with new generations. The following research questions were posed:
•	What topics on the syllabus are the most popular?
•	How do students assess the applicability of individual study materials?
•	How do students assess the transferability of knowledge?
•	How do students assess their own skill in preparing multimedia learning materials?
The answers were compared for two generations of students at an interval of two years.
Sample
The sample includes 169 students from the 2016/17 and 2014/15 academic years attending the ICT in Education course at the Faculty of Education, Maribor. The structure of the sample is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: The sample structure by academic year
Generation (academic year)	f	f%
2016/17	90	53.3
2014/15	79	46.7
Data collection
Data were collected in the 2014/15 and the 2016/17 academic years. Data were collected using the online surveying tool, which was used to provide each generation of students with the questionnaire. Students received the questionnaires after completing the course and before taking the exam. This excluded the eventual effect of the course grade on the assessment of elements of the syllabus. Data were processed using SPSS statistical software. The statistical methods of descriptive
statistics and chi-squared test were used, while chosen non-parametric tests were also employed to process rating scales.
Results
Appeal of the study material
Students estimate the appeal of the syllabus topics by selecting the levels between Do not Like at All (value 1) and Like Very Much (value 5) at the five level on the Likert scale. Table 2 shows the perceived attractiveness of each particular topic on the syllabus. Table 3 shows the appeal of the topics by generation (study year).
Table 2: Appeal of Individual Syllabus Topics
Syllabus topics	M	SD	_	Friedman	
			R	Z2	P
Advanced text editing techniques	4.32	0.630	5.76		
Picture editing	4.03	0.713	4.95		
ICT in the classroom	3.97	0.762	4.88		
Working with Moodle	3.80	0.930	4.46	151.316	0.000
Video editing	3.78	0.815	4.28		
Digital presentations	3.77	0.831	4.26		
Audio editing	3.77	0.909	4.26		
Authoring tools	3.33	0.963	3.14		
The most attractive topic is the advanced text editing techniques. Although very similar content was presented in their previous elementary and secondary education, student's current knowledge of advanced text editing techniques is insufficient. Since advanced editing is required for thesis writing and beyond, this result is predictable. Picture editing is the second most attractive study topic. We assume that the reason lies in the simple acquiring of the images using smartphones or digital cameras and extended usage of images in electronic communication, presentations and social networks. Closely following is the material dealing with ICT in the classroom. This is another predictable outcome, since all students acquired some experience with ICT in the classroom during their earlier education, and they are keen to gain more knowledge and skills. Both will soon be required during their teaching practice and microteaching sessions. The students are familiar with some techniques for using Moodle but only in the learner's role. During the lessons, students have the opportunity to act as teachers and explore many functions within Moodle to which they have not previously had access. Therefore, the attraction of this material is understandable. The explanation for the slightly lower appeal of the topic concerning video and audio editing may lie in the more demanding software functions. When it comes to the production of multimedia learning materials, students have less experience and skill. The authoring tools are more complex to use; therefore, the lesser appeal of this topic is understandable and quite predictable.
The differences between estimations of the topics' appeal are statistically significant (P=0,000), which also indicates the varying level of complexity in given iCt items used in education.
Table 3: Appeal of the Syllabus Topics by generation
Syllabus topics	Academic year	R	U	P
Advanced text editing techniques	2014/15	86.71	3341.000	0.533
	2016/17	82.54		
Picture editing	2014/15	90.44	3046.500	0.103
	2016/17	79.23		
Audio editing	2014/15	79.73	3139.000	0.192
	2016/17	88.73		
Video editing	2014/15	76.82	2909.000	0.037
	2016/17	91.31		
Digital presentations	2014/15	80.80	3223.000	0.313
	2016/17	8779		
Authoring tools	2014/15	79.78	3142.500	0.211
	2016/17	88.69		
Working with Moodle	2014/15	64.13	1906.500	0.000
	2016/17	102.58		
ICT in the classroom	2014/15	72.77	2588.00	0.001
	2016/17	94.92		
The comparison of the perceived attractiveness of the study materials between the two generations shows the increasing appeal of some topics. The attraction of video editing procedures has increased to a statistically significant degree (P=0.037). The result is explainable by the existing simpler technical ways of acquiring and publishing videos and necessary modification demands prior to publishing. It does not matter whether publishing occurs on social media or as part of multimedia learning materials. The topic with the highest shift toward student appeal is working with Moodle. The difference between estimates of the two generations (R=64.13 and R=102.58) is statistically significant (P=0.000). The estimate by generation 2016/17 is much higher. The reason for the increased appeal is a consequence of the latest upgrade of Moodle from version 1.9 to the latest version 3.2. The latest version is more user-friendly. Students using version 3.2 were able to produce their own courses on Moodle much sooner than earlier generations. The topic concerning ICT in the classroom is more attractive among students of the 2016/17 generation. The difference in estimates between the generations is statistically significant and clearly shows the increasing interest of pre-service teachers in implementing ICT in the teaching process.
The applicability of the study materials
The attractiveness of the study material does not necessarily mean its applicability. How appealing the particular study topic is, depends on a range of factors, from the current attitude among users, every day extension of use, to ease of use etc. More important than the attractiveness of the study material is how its applicability is recognized. Applicability in this case means that students expect to see the application of the acquired knowledge and skills during their study period and later in the learning and teaching process.
Estimates of the applicability of the syllabus topics was acquired using the five-level Likert scale by selecting the levels between Not Applicable (value 1) to Very
Applicable (value 5). Table 4 shows the estimated applicability of the particular topic, and Table 5 shows the applicability of the topics by generation (study year).
Table 4: Applicability of syllabus topics
Syllabus topics	M	SD	_	Friedman	
			R	Z2	P
Advanced text editing techniques	4.79	0.464	6.13		
ICT in the classroom	4.49	0.657	5.15		
Digital presentations	4.46	0.647	5.06		
Working with Moodle	4.38	0.797	4.88	286.187	0.000
Picture editing	4.15	0.655	4.01		
Authoring tools	4.04	0.921	3.85		
Video editing	3.99	0.699	3.49		
Audio editing	3.96	0.747	3.43		
Estimates of the future applicability of the particular syllabus topics are rather high (from M=4.79 to M=3.96), which is considered a satisfying result. Students find the contents of the syllabus to be applicable, thus confirming the staff's efforts in selecting the study materials. The results for perceived applicability are in correlation with the estimated level of appeal. Those topics rated most applicable are all among the most appealing ones. Despite this correlation, there is a statistically significant difference between estimates (P=0.000) obviously, in the case of high estimates for the advanced text editing topic and the topic about ICT in the classroom. In general, the average estimates for all topics range between applicable and very applicable and are higher among the younger generations.
Table 5: Applicability of syllabus topics by generation
Syllabus topics	Academic year	R	U	P
Advanced text editing techniques	2014/15	79.75	3140.000	0.115
	2016/17	87781		
Picture editing	2014/15	81.83	3304.500	0.527
	2016/17	85.95		
Audio editing	2014/15	77761	2971.000	0.071
	2016/17	89.73		
Video editing	2014/15	78.97	3079.000	0.136
	2016/17	88.51		
Digital presentation	2014/15	79.82	3146.000	0.231
	2016/17	87.75		
Authoring tools	2014/15	87753	31977000	0.339
	2016/17	80.83		
Working with Moodle	2014/15	76.99	2922.000	0.048
	2016/17	90.30		
ICT in the classroom	2014/15	71.67	2502.000	0.000
	2016/17	95.07		
There are no statistically significant differences in estimates between generations for most of the syllabus topics (P>0.05), except in some cases. The estimate of applicability of the topic about ICT in the classroom is significantly higher (P=0.000) among the students of the 2016/17 generation. We can perceive an increasing awareness of an effective teacher performance as being one supported by implementation of ICT. Additional confirmation of this increasingly positive attitude is the higher applicability estimate for the topic about Moodle expressed by the younger generation of 2016/17. The difference in estimates for the Moodle topic between the generations is statistically significant (P=0.048). Analysis of the differences in applicability estimates for the audio editing topic by generations shows the tendency (P=0.071) toward increasing estimates of the applicability of audio editing techniques by the younger generation.
According to the results of these applicability estimates, we can expect increasing future interest in the study topics concerning ICT items like the interactive board, mobile devices and Moodle.
Transferability of knowledge
The study subject ICT in Education and its syllabus are not oriented to any specific technology item but oriented toward the implementation of ICT in any area of education. The study program of pre-service teachers includes a range of study materials where the implementation of acquired knowledge of and skills in ICT is useful and advantageous. Table 6 shows the analysis of opinions about the transferability of acquired ICT knowledge and skills to other study subjects.
Table 6: Knowledge transferability
Academic year	2014/15		2016/17		Total	
Do you find the acquired knowledge, usefulfor other study subjects?	f	f %	f	f %	f	f %
Yes	58	73.4	83	95.4	141	84.9
Partially	21	26.6	4	4.6	25	15.1
Total	70	100.0	109	100.0	166	100.0
The previous results about the applicability of study materials are additionally confirmed by the opinions about the transferability of the acquired knowledge and skills. Both generations share the opinion that acquired knowledge of and skills in ICT will also be useful in other study subjects. However, analysis shows a statistically significant difference in opinions between the two generations of students (x2=15.643, P=0.000). The usefulness of the acquired knowledge and skills is confirmed by about 73.4% of the older students and by about 95.4% of younger students. Considering all positive opinions, the acquired knowledge and skill are estimated as useful by about 84.9% of students from both generations. According to the results, the knowledge of and skills in ICT in education that were acquired through the course content are transferable to other areas in education.
Pre-service teachers production of multimedia learning materials
The acquired knowledge about ICT should enhance skills in the production of multimedia elements and multimedia learning materials. We expect that, after
completing the course, students should have acquired the knowledge, skills and motivation suitable for producing their own less complex multimedia learning materials. The estimates of pre-service teacher's current knowledge of and skills in production of their own multimedia learning materials is shown in Table 7.
Table 7: Production of multimedia learning materials
Academic year	2014/15		2016/17		Total	
Can you produce your own multimedia learning materials after completion of the course ?	f	f %	f	f %	f	f %
Yes	32	40.5	56	66.7	88	54.0
Partially	38	48.1	27	32.1	65	39.9
Only very simple forms	9	11.4	1	1.2	10	6.1
Total	79	100.0	84	100.0	163	100.0
Approximately about two-thirds (66.7%) of the younger students are sufficiently experienced to produce their own multimedia learning materials, and about 40.5% of older students share the same level of confidence. This result is encouraging but requires more staff effort during the course in the following study year. The increasing level of current experience is visible form the portion of students who are less (partially) experienced in the production of multimedia learning materials. The percentage of less experienced students has decreased from 48.1% of older students (generation 2014/15), to less than one-third (32.1%) of students from the 2016/17 generation. The difference in estimates of experience according to generation is statistically significant (x2=14.667, P=0.001). The younger students are more experienced than the older student in creating multimedia learning materials. According to the result, the future generation of teachers will be increasingly better prepared for the production of multimedia elements and multimedia learning materials. We also expect an increase in the quality and very likely, the complexity of these teacher-produced multimedia learning materials.
CONCLUSION
The preparation of a study syllabus for educating digitally competent teachers is directed towards the objective of didactically appropriate, reasonable and effective use of ICT in teaching. Generation Z pre-service teachers have no problem with using ICT; however, they need to be led in the right direction in order to achieve the intended objectives. The syllabus content plays an important role in this respect; however, it needs to be prepared following specific assumptions. We need to consider the previously acquired knowledge and experience of students and consequently adapt the complexity of the material, while the study topics must also be useful and interesting. A study was performed to investigate the popularity, interest and utility of the syllabus in the ICT in Education course among Generation Z students.
Regardless of the existing knowledge and skills of students, the results of the study show what additional knowledge Generation Z students desire in order to engage in more professional and complex use of ICT. Students classify complex and professional use of ICT among the most popular study topics. These are tools for advanced text
editing, the production of multimedia elements and multimedia learning materials and the communication of study materials via Moodle. These topics receive equally high rankings in terms of applicability. The comparison between two generations over a span of two years shows an equal level of interest in and assessment of applicability for text editing and the preparation of multimedia elements. There was an increase in interest in and assessment of applicability of knowledge for production and distribution of multimedia learning materials using Moodle and the use of ICT in the implementation of lessons.
An important aspect of the use of ICT in education includes its transferability to other fields of applied education, where its use contributes to easier work and greater effectiveness. The results show that students can usefully apply the skills acquired in the use of ICT to other courses. The assessment of transferability of knowledge to other fields of education is highest among the younger generation of students. More of the younger students see themselves as able to independently produce multimedia learning materials.
It is to be expected that with the generations to come, learning materials will become more extensive in terms of information and more complex in terms of the multimedia elements in use. A growing interest on the part of pre-service teachers in including ICT in their work is also anticipated. Owing to the continuous development of new technologies, the study syllabus in the ICT in Education course will need to be continuously updated, by including both new ICT and software tools.
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Fernandez-Cruz, F. J. and Fernandez-Dias, J. (2016). Generation Z's Teachers and their Digital Skills. Comunicar, XXIV/46 (Media Education Journal), 97-105. doi:10.3916/C46-2016-10 Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education. (2010). Merila in kazalci informacijske pismenosti v visokem šolstvu . (K. Stopar, M. Kotar, Z. Pejova, & N. Knap, Prev.) Ljubljana: Zveza bibliotekarskih društev Slovenije. Available at http://www.old.zbds-zveza.si/ dokumenti/merila-in-kazalci-informacijske-pismenosti-v-visokem-solstvu.pdf Krašna, M. (2010). Digital competences and multimedia: paper at the International Conference on New Horizons in Education, INTE 2010, June 23-25, 2010. Famagusta, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.
Mayer, E. R. (2010). Learning with technology. The Nature of Learning, 179-198.
Palfrey, J. and Gasser, U. (2008). Born Digital: Understanding the First Generation of Digital
Natives. New York: Basic Books.
Dr. Tomaž Bratina, Faculty of Education, University of Maribor, tomaz.bratina@um.si
Polonca Šek Mertük
Izvirni znanstveni članek UDK: 373.3:81'35
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(Ne)usvojeni cilji pravopisne zmoznosti v prvem vzgojno-izobraZevalnem obdobju
POVZETEK
Pravopisna zmožnost spada med temeljne sporazumevalne zmožnosti. Učenci jo začnejo sistematično razvijati z začetkom šole. Do konca prvega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja naj bi usvojili enajst operativnih ciljev, vezanih na pravopisno zmožnost. Raziskav, ki bi preverjale, koliko so učenci usvojili pravopisno zmožnost, je premalo. Prispevek prikazuje stanje (ne)usvojenosti pravopisne zmožnosti v raziskavo vključenih tretješolcev, na podlagi katerega lahko (bodoči) učitelji še bolj načrtno obravnavajo posamezne pravopisne teme.
Ključne besede: sporazumevalna zmožnost, pravopisna zmožnost, učni načrt za slovenščino, prvo vzgojno-izobraževalno obdobje, cilji pravopisne zmožnosti, standardi znanja
(Un)achieved spelling ability objectives in the first cycle of basic school
Original scientific article UDK: 373.3:81'35
ABSTRACT
Spelling ability is one of the basic communication abilities. Students begin to systematically develop with the beginning of school. By the end of the first cycle of basic school, students should achieve eleven operational objectives connected to spelling ability. There is a lack of studies dealing with the assessment of students' achievement of spelling ability. The paper presents the state of (un)achieved spelling ability for the tested third graders. The results have given (future) teachers the insight into the state of spelling ability and consequently an opportunity to consider in further educating students on individual orthographic subjects.
Key words: communication ability, spelling ability, Slovene course syllabus, first cycle of basic school, spelling ability objectives, standards of knowledge
Sporazumevalna zmoZnost
Človek je bitje komunikacije in uresničitev le-te nam omogoča usvojena sporazumevalna zmožnost.
Izraz zmožnost (angl. competence) je v jezikoslovje leta 1965 vpeljal Chomsky. Uveljavil je razlikovanje med »splošno zmožnostjo in individualno performanco« (Bešter Turk, 2011, str. 114). Usvojiti znanje svojega prvega (maternega) jezika pomeni zmožnost, da »na podlagi končne množice znamenj in pravil tvori neskončno število pravilnih povedi svojega jezika oz. prepozna tvorjene povedi kot pravilne oz. nepravilne. To, kar posameznik na podlagi svojega jezikovnega potenciala (zmožnosti) v prvem jeziku dejansko uporabi pri konkretnem govorjenju (sporazumevanju), pa
je uresničitev njegove zmožnosti — tj. njegova performanca (angl. performance).« V slovenski strokovni literaturi se v glavnem prevaja kot raba jezika (prav tam).
Hymes (1972, po Bešter Turk, 2011) je pojmovanje idealizirane (jezikovne) zmožnosti Chomskega nadgradil s sporazumevalno zmožnostjo (angl. communicative competence); pojmovanju (jezikovne) zmožnosti po Chomskem je dodal družbeno vlogo jezika, s poudarkom na rabi v različnih okoliščinah. Posledično je Chomsky kasneje (1980, po Bešter Turk, 2011) svoj pojem zmožnost preimenoval v slovnično zmožnost in vpeljal še pojem pragmatična zmožnost.
Kljub različnim poimenovanjem sporazumevalne zmožnosti je pojmovanje le-te pri sodobnih teoretikih precej enotno: »Sporazumevalna zmožnost je torej to, kar človek zna (ima na razpolago) za sporazumevanje (za opravljanje govornih dejanj) v raznih sporazumevalnih okoliščinah« (Bešter Turk, 2011, str. 115).
V	slovensko strokovno literaturo je pojem sporazumevalna zmožnost v 80. letih 20. stoletja vpeljala O. Kunst Gnamuš s predstavitvijo t. i. komunikacijskega modela jezikovne vzgoje. Kot temeljni cilj jezikovne vzgoje je postavila razvoj učenčevih sporazumevalnih zmožnosti in opozorila, da za sporazumevanje ne zadošča poznavanje pravil slovničnega oblikovanja, ampak da je treba poznati tudi okoliščine, v katerih je mogoče z izrekanjem posameznih povedi ali njihovih sklopov doseči sporočilni namen. Poudarila je, da je obseg pravil končen, zmožnost njihove uporabe pa neskončna (Kunst Gnamuš, 1984). M. Bešter (1992, str. 87) sporazumevalno zmožnost opredeljuje kot »zmožnost govorca in poslušalca, da se ob upoštevanju okoliščinskih dejavnikov različnih vrst lahko sporazumevata«. Po R. Zadravec Pešec (1994, str. 62) je sporazumevalna zmožnost sinteza jezikovne in pragmatične zmožnosti, »pri čemer pragmatična vključuje jezikovno«. Jezikovno zmožnost sestavljajo slovnične (besedotvorne, oblikoslovne in skladenjske), pomenoslovne ter pravopisne in pravorečne sestavine, pragmatična zmožnost pa pomeni zmožnost izbrati ustrezno jezikovno sredstvo glede na sporazumevalno namero in okoliščine. Nekoliko drugače sporazumevalno zmožnost pojmuje S. Krajnc (1999), saj meni, da jezikovno zmožnost tvorita slovnična (besedišče, pomenoslovje, skladnja, oblikoslovje, glasoslovje) in sporazumevalna zmožnost (kot sopomenka za pragmatično zmožnost); tako slovnična kot pragmatična zmožnost se pri otroku razvijata sočasno, do neke mere pragmatična celo pred slovnično (otrok se sporazumeva z okolico z nebesednimi prvinami, preden se nauči govoriti).
V	pedagoški praksi sporazumevanje razumemo kot nadpomenko za sporočanje in sprejemanje besedil, zato je sporazumevalna zmožnost »zmožnost tvorjenja ustreznih, razumljivih, pravilnih in učinkovitih besedil raznih vrst; gre torej za zmožnost sporočevalca in prejemnika besedil, da sodelujeta v dvosmernem (tj. v vlogi sogovorca in dopisovalca) ter v enosmernem sporazumevanju (tj. v vlogi poslušalca, bralca, govorca in pisca enogovornih besedil« (Križaj Ortar idr., 2009, str. 121).
Sporazumevalna zmožnost namreč sestoji: a) iz motiviranosti za sprejemanje in sporočanje, b) iz stvarnega/enciklopedičnega znanja prejemnika in sporočevalca, c) iz jezikovne zmožnosti prejemnika in sporočevalca, č) iz pragmatične/slogovne/ empatične zmožnosti prejemnika in sporočevalca, d) iz zmožnosti nebesednega sporazumevanja prejemnika in sporočevalca ter e) iz metajezikovne zmožnosti prejemnika in sporočevalca (Bešter Turk, 2011; Križaj Ortar idr., 2009).
Pomemben gradnik sporazumevalne zmožnosti je jezikovna zmožnost, to je obvladanje oz. znanje danega besednega jezika. Besedni jezik sestoji iz besed in iz pravil
za njihovo povezovanje (skladanje) in oblikovanje (slušno in vidno), zato je jezikovna zmožnost zgrajena iz »poimenovalne/besedne/slovarske, upovedovalne/skladenjske/ slovnične/, pravorečne in pravopisne zmožnosti« (Bešter Turk, 2011, str. 122). Po M. Križaj Ortar idr. (2009, str. 4) pa razvijanje sestavin sporazumevalne zmožnosti »vključuje razvijanje poimenovalne, upovedovalne, pravorečne, pravopisne, pragmatične in metajezikovne zmožnosti ter zmožnosti nebesednega sporazumevanja«.
Razvijanje sporazumevalne zmožnosti
Razvijanje sporazumevalne zmožnosti v slovenskem (knjižnem) jeziku je eden od temeljnih ciljev sodobnega (jezikovnega) pouka (zlasti) pri predmetu slovenščina na vseh stopnjah obveznega šolanja. »Namen jezikovnega pouka je razviti sporazumevalno zmožnost v slovenskem (knjižnem) jeziku, to je praktično in ustvarjalno obvladovanje vseh štirih sporazumevalnih dejavnosti pa tudi jezikovnosistemskih temeljev« (Učni načrt. Slovenščina, 2011, str. 4). Učenci sporazumevalno zmožnostnačrtno in sistematično razvijajo v okviru t. i. komunikacijskega modela pouka s sodelovanjem v štirih sporazumevalnih dejavnostih: s poslušanjem, govorjenjem, branjem in pisanjem (Bešter Turk, 2011).
Pouk slovenščine v osnovni šoli (Učni načrt. Slovenščina, 2011, str. 6—7) ima pet splošnih ciljev (od teh se na razvijanje sporazumevalne zmožnosti nanašajo kar trije, to so drugi, četrti in peti):
1.	Učenci si oblikujejo pozitivno čustveno in razumsko razmerje do slovenskega jezika ter se zavedajo pomembne vloge materinščine in slovenščine v svojem osebnem in družbenem življenju. Tako si oblikujejo jezikovno, narodno in državljansko zavest, ob tem pa tudi spoštovanje in strpnost do drugih jezikov in narodov ter si krepijo medkulturno in socialno zmožnost.
2.	Učenci razvijajo sporazumevalno zmožnost v slovenskem (knjižnem) jeziku, torej zmožnost kritičnega sprejemanja in tvorjenja besedil raznih vrst.
3.	Učenci ohranjajo in razvijajo pozitivni odnos do branja neumetnostnih in umetnostnih besedil. Stik z besedili je zanje potreba in vrednota, zato tudi v prostem času berejo/poslušajo besedila (objavljena v raznih medijih), obiskujejo knjižnico, filmske in gledališke predstave, literarne prireditve ipd.
4.	Učenci razvijajo tako imenovane sestavine sporazumevalne zmožnosti, torej stvarno/ enciklopedično znanje, jezikovno zmožnost (poimenovalno, skladenjsko, pravorečno in pravopisno), slogovno zmožnost, zmožnost nebesednega sporazumevanja in metajezikovno zmožnost.
5.	Učenci ob sprejemanju umetnostnih/književnih besedil razvijajo sporazumevalno zmožnost in tudi pridobivajo književno znanje. Umeščanje besedil v časovni in kulturni kontekst ter pridobivanje literarnoteoretskega znanja jim omogočata globlje doživljanje, razumevanje in vrednotenje umetnostnih besedil. Literarnoestetsko doživetje, podprto z literarnovednim znanjem, omogoča poglobljeno spoznavanje besedne umetnosti in estetskih izraznih možnosti, povečuje užitek ob branju in pripomore k razvijanju pozitivnega odnosa do besedne umetnosti (branja), ustvarjalnosti in (samo)izražanja v raznih medijih.
Jezikovne zmožnosti (podskupina sporazumevalne zmožnosti) vsi ljudje seveda nimamo enako razvite. »»Dosežene stopnje jezikovne sposobnosti so pri ljudeh različne.
Nekateri so za jezik posebej nadarjeni, nekaterim pa so se v razvoju te zmožnosti na pot postavile ovire in jezikovnih spretnosti ne morejo izrabljati tako kot večina ljudi. Jezikovne zmožnosti nedvomno močno vplivajo na učno uspešnost otrok, zato jezikovni primanjkljaji otroke ovirajo tudi pri učenju. Jezikovna zmožnost vpliva tako na učenje branja in pisanja kot na računanje in vse učne predmete, pri katerih se znanje ugotavlja s pomočjo jezika ali besedil« (Žerdin, 2003, str. 18).
V	nadaljevanju prispevka se posebej osredotočamo na pravopisno zmožnost. »Pravopisna zmožnost pomeni obvladanje pisanja besed/povedi/besedil, tj. zmožnost pisca, da pretvarja glasove, besede, povedi ... iz slušnega v vidni prenosnik, in zmožnost bralca, da obvlada branje besed/povedi/besedil, tj. da pretvarja črke, besede, povedi ... iz vidnega v slušni prenosnik prvin in pravil pisanja danega jezika« (Bešter Turk, 2011, str. 123). Kot učenci jo začnemo sistematično prejemati od začetka osnovne šole (Ropič, 2017).
Pisni jezik med drugim zahteva pravopisno znanje. Pomena pravopisne pismenosti bi se moral zavedati prav vsak. Že Šilih, priznan slovenski didaktik, je leta 1955 zapisal, da pravopis zadeva celega človeka in zahteva strnitev vseh njegovih sil, zato se že od nekdaj souporablja kot merilo za ocenitev izobrazbe.
»Pravopisna pismenost spada med zelo opazne in izpostavljene izobrazbene sestavine, saj zadošča za splošno presojo večkrat že pozdravna razglednica, bežen priložnostni opis, izpolnjen obrazec ali vprašalnik. Taki drobni zapisi veljajo navadno že kar kot nekakšen naravni vzorec piščeve pravopisne usposobljenosti in osveščenosti, a večinoma izzivajo obenem hote ali nehote tudi sodbo o delu šole« (Kotnik, 1982, str. 151).
Če učenci v prvem in drugem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju ne usvojijo dovolj dobro znanja pismenosti in s tem temeljnih pravopisnih zmožnosti, se lahko kasneje pojavijo težave pri nadgradnji pravopisnih zmožnosti. A. Valh Lopert (2017) z raziskavo dokazuje, da se neusvojena pravopisna pismenost odraža tudi v odrasli dobi.
Pravopisna zmožnost v učnem načrtu za predmet slovenščina v osnovni šoli
Učni načrt za slovenščino v osnovni šoli (Učni načrt. Slovenščina, 2011) prinaša že navedene splošne cilje predmeta, ne glede na razred ali vzgojno-izobraževalno obdobje. Vsebuje pa tudi operativne cilje in vsebine po posameznih vzgojno-izobraževalnih obdobjih (v prej veljavnem učnem načrtu iz leta 2008 so bili operativni cilji predstavljeni po razredih) ter posebej za področje jezik in posebej za področje književnost. Učni načrt vsebuje tudi standarde znanja (prav tako po obdobjih in ne po razredih), pri čemer so posebej označeni minimalni standardi.
V	raziskavi smo se osredotočili na pravopisno zmožnost učencev na koncu prvega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja, zato izpostavljamo samo operativne cilje in standarde znanja, ki se navezujejo na pravopisno zmožnost v prvem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju. Operativni cilji, ki se navezujejo na razvijanje pravopisne zmožnosti, so v učnem načrtu (tako kot drugi cilji) predstavljeni za posamezno vzgojno-izobraževalno obdobje in ne po razredih, zato je usvojeno pravopisno zmožnost najprimerneje preverjati na koncu posameznega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja. Za našo raziskavo (prvo vzgojno-izobraževalno obdobje) je to konec 3. razreda.
Operativni cilji, vezani na pravopisno zmožnost, v prvem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju
Pravopisno zmožnost učenci razvijajo zlasti na jezikovnem področju, in sicer v okviru operativnega cilja Razvijanje jezikovne in slogovne zmožnosti terzmožnosti nebesednega sporazumevanja (za izboljšanje sporazumevalne zmožnosti). V tem operativnem cilju je zapisano, kako učenci razvijajo poimenovalno, skladenjsko, pravorečno, pravopisno in slogovno zmožnost ter zmožnost nebesednega sporazumevanja.
Pri podcilju razvijanje pravopisne zmožnosti (Učni načrt. Slovenščina, 2011, str. 1112) je zapisano, da učenci pravopisno zmožnost razvijajo postopoma, sistematično in individualizirano spoznavajo, usvajajo in utrjujejo:
-	zapis besed z nekritičnimi glasovi,
-	zapis besed s kritičnimi glasovi,
-	ločeno pisanje predloga in naslednje besede,
-	ločeno pisanje nikalnice pred glagolom,
-	rabo velike začetnice na začetku povedi,
-	rabo velike začetnice v lastnih imenih bitij,
-	rabo velike začetnice v bližnjih zemljepisnih lastnih imenih,
-	rabo velike začetnice v svojilnih pridevnikih, izpeljanih iz lastnih imen bitij,
-	rabo končnih ločil (pike, vprašaja, klicaja),
-	rabo vejice pri naštevanju,
-	pisanje glavnih in vrstilnih števnikov (do 100) s številko.
Standardi znanja, vezani na pravopisno zmožnost v prvem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju
Med standardi znanja v učnem načrtu za slovenščino v osnovni šoli (Učni načrt. Slovenščina, 2011, str. 76) najdemo tudi standarde znanja, vezane na pravopisno zmožnost. Predstavljeni so v okviru standarda znanja Učenec ima skladno s cilji iz tega učnega načrta razvito jezikovno in slogovno zmožnost ter zmožnost nebesednega sporazumevanja. Minimalni standardi so označeni ležeče.
Pravopisno zmožnost pokaže tako, da:
-	pravilno piše besede z »nekritičnimiglasovi«, s polglasnikom (razen pred r) ter z u in z nezvočnikom na koncu in sredi besede,
-	piše predlog ločeno od naslednje besede,
-	piše nikalnico ne ločeno od glagola,
-	piše začetek povedi z veliko začetnico,
-	pravilno piše znana lastna imena bitij,
-	pravilno piše svojilne pridevnike, izpeljane iz lastnih imen,
-	pravilno piše bližnja zemljepisna lastna imena,
-	uporablja pravilna končna ločila,
-	pravilno uporablja vejico pri naštevanju,
-	pravilno piše glavne in vrstilne števnike (do 100) s številko,
-	piše čitljivo,
-	prepozna svoje in tuje tovrstne pravopisne napake ter jih odpravi.
Primerjava operativnih ciljev in standardov znanja glede razvijanja pravopisne zmožnosti v prvem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju je naslednja:
Operativni cilji glede na pravopisno zmožnost
•	zapis besed z nekritičnimi glasovi,
•	zapis besed s kritičnimi glasovi,
•	ločeno pisanje predloga in naslednje besede,
•	ločeno pisanje nikalnice pred glagolom,
•	rabo velike začetnice na začetku povedi,
•	rabo velike začetnice v lastnih imenih bitij,
•	rabo velike začetnice v bližnjih zemljepisnih lastnih imenih,
•	rabo velike začetnice v svojilnih pridevnikih, izpeljanih iz lastnih imen bitij,
•	rabo končnih ločil (pike, vprašaja, klicaja),
•	rabo vejice pri naštevanju,
•	pisanje glavnih in vrstilnih števnikov (do 100) s številko.
Standardi znanja glede na pravopisno zmožnost
(minimalni standardi so zapisani krepko)
•	pravilno piše besede z »nekritičnimiglasovi«, s polglasnikom (razen pred r) ter z u in z nezvočnikom na koncu in sredi besede,
•	piše predlog ločeno od naslednje besede,
•	piše nikalnico ne ločeno od glagola,
•	piše začetek povedi z veliko začetnico,
•	pravilno piše znana lastna imena bitij,
•	pravilno piše bližnja zemljepisna lastna imena,
•	pravilno piše svojilne pridevnike, izpeljane iz lastnih imen,
•	uporablja pravilna končna ločila,
•	pravilno uporablja vejico pri naštevanju,
•	pravilno piše glavne in vrstilne števnike (do 100) s številko,
•	piše čitljivo,
•	prepozna svoje in tuje tovrstne pravopisne napake ter jih odpravi.
Iz primerjave je razvidno, da je med standardi znanja samo pravilno piše besede z »nekritičnimi glasovi«, s polglasnikom (razen pred r) ter z u in z nezvočnikom na koncu in sredi besede, medtem ko sta operativna cilja dva, eden za zapis besed z nekritičnimi glasovi in drugi za zapis besed s kritičnimi glasovi. Drugi operativni cilji in standardi znanja se pokrivajo, sta pa med standardi znanja še dva, ki nista med operativnimi cilji, to sta: da učenec piše čitljivo in da prepozna svoje in tuje tovrstne pravopisne napake ter jih odpravi. Zanimivo je, da zadnji standard znanja, povezan s pravopisno zmožnostjo učencev v prvem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju (prepozna svoje in tuje tovrstne pravopisne napake terjih odpravi), ni označen kot minimalni, saj je na nek način povzetek (ali rezultat) vseh (usvojenih) obravnavanih operativnih ciljev.
Metodologija
Metoda raziskave
V raziskavi smo uporabili deskriptivno in kavzalno neeksperimentalno metodo empiričnega raziskovanja.
Namen raziskave
Namen raziskave je bil preveriti pravopisne zmožnosti učencev na koncu prvega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja, to je preveriti, ali oz. v kolikšni meri učenci na koncu prvega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja dosegajo operativne cilje in standarde znanja, ki so vezani na pravopisno zmožnost in zapisani v učnem načrtu za slovenščino (za prvo vzgojno-izobraževalno obdobje). Rezultate študije primera bomo predstavili; pokazali bodo stanje pravopisne zmožnosti v raziskavo vključenih
otrok, hkrati pa bodo tudi v pomoč študentom (bodočim profesorjem) in tudi učiteljem razrednega pouka kot vpogled v stanje (ne)razvite pravopisne zmožnosti pri učencih in v pomoč pri pripravi na obravnavo pravopisnih tem pri pouku slovenščine. Raziskav pravopisne zmožnosti je zelo malo (prevladujejo diplomska dela, pa še ta preverjajo pravopisno zmožnost v glavnem s pomočjo nareka), zato so tovrstne raziskave v slovenskem pedagoškem prostoru še kako potrebne.
Predmet raziskave
V raziskavi nas je zanimala (ne)usvojenost pravopisne zmožnosti otrok, ki so sodelovali v raziskavi. Le-to smo preverili na podlagi pravopisnih napak, ki so jih (ali ne) učenci popravili v preizkusu znanja.
Vzorec
Podatki so bili pridobljeni s študijo primera na štirih osnovnih šolah v severovzhodni Sloveniji (imena šol zaradi varovanja osebnih podatkov niso zapisana, hrani jih avtorica članka). V raziskavi je sodelovalo 159 otrok tretjega razreda, od tega 75 deklic (47 %) in 84 dečkov (53 %). Raziskava je bila izvedena na koncu šolskega leta 2015/16.
Pripomočki
Raziskava je bila izvedena s pomočjo preizkusa znanja, to je besedila, ki je bilo namensko sestavljeno tako, da je vključevalo pravopisne napake po enajstih operativnih ciljih prvega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja, vezanih na pravopisno zmožnost. Po S. Starc (2011) gre v našem testu za preverjanje učnih ciljev in tudi za preverjanje učne snovi. Izbrali smo si učne cilje iz učnega načrta (Učni načrt. Slovenščina, 2011), ki smo jih preverjali oz. ocenjevali. Po odločitvi, katere cilje bomo preverjali (cilje pravopisne zmožnosti za prvo vzgojno-izobraževalno obdobje), smo izbrali še učno snov (primere pravopisnih napak), s katerimi smo preverjali izbrane cilje. Preizkus znanja je bil anonimen. Vseboval je pravopisno napačno zapisane besede in pravopisno napačno zapisana ali manjkajoča ločila, ki naj bi jih učenci popravili. Vključene so bile tiste pravopisne napake (11 skupin glede na 11 operativnih ciljev), ki naj bi jih učenci glede na učni načrt po koncu prvega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja morali znati popraviti. Pri desetih operativnih ciljih sta bila po dva primera, pri operativnem cilju raba končnih ločil pa trije (ker se predvideva zapis pike, klicaja in vprašaja). Vseh napak pravopisne zmožnosti je bilo v besedilu 23.
Preglednica J: Količina napak (možnih popravkov)po operativnih ciljih
CILJ	ŠTEVILO NAPAK V BESEDILU
Zapis besed z nekritičnimi glasovi	2
Zapis besed s kritičnimi glasovi	2
Ločeno pisanje predloga in naslednje besede	2
Ločeno pisanje nikalnice pred glagolom	2
Raba velike začetnice na začetku povedi	2
Raba velike začetnice v lastnih imenih bitij	2
Raba velike začetnice v bližnjih zemljepisnih lastnih imenih	2
Raba velike začetnice v svojilnih pridevnikih, izpeljanih iz lastnih imen bitij	2
CILJ	ŠTEVILO NAPAK V BESEDILU
Raba končnih ločil	3
Raba vejice pri naštevanju	2
Pisanje glavnih in vrstilnih števnikov (do 100) s številko	2
Skupaj	23
Obdelava podatkov
Preizkuse znanja smo pregledali in rezultate po posameznih kategorijah in po spolu vnesli v program za statistično obdelavo SPPS. Rezultati so prikazani tabelarično, glede na posamezni operativni cilj pravopisne zmožnosti in glede na spol.
Raziskovalna vprašanja
V raziskavi nas je zanimalo, ali oz. v kolikšni meri v raziskavo vključeni učenci dosegajo operativne cilje in standarde znanja glede pravopisne zmožnosti za prvo vzgojno-izobraževalno obdobje, zapisane v učnem načrtu, in ali se usvojena pravopisna zmožnost v raziskavo vključenih učencev razlikuje glede na spol.
Rezultati in interpretacija
Preglednica 2: Aritmetična sredina odgovorov (popravkov) vseh v raziskavo vključenih tretješolcev
Cilj	N	Min	Max	Aritmetična sredina	Stand. odklon
Raba velike začetnice v lastnih imenih bitij	159	0	2	1,69	0,584
Ločeno pisanje predloga in naslednje besede	159	0	2	1,68	0,649
Zapis besed z nekritičnimi glasovi	159	0	2	1,62	0,570
Raba velike začetnice v bližnjih zemljepisnih lastnih imenih	159	0	2	1,58	0,609
Raba velike začetnice v svojilnih pridevnikih, izpeljanih iz lastnih imen bitij	159	0	2	1,40	0,796
Raba velike začetnice na začetku povedi	159	0	2	1,36	0,757
Zapis besed s kritičnimi glasovi	159	0	2	1,31	0,789
Pisanje glavnih in vrstilnih števnikov (do 100) s številko	159	0	2	1,09	0,913
Raba vejice pri naštevanju	159	0	2	0,74	0,686
Ločeno pisanje nikalnice pred glagolom	159	0	2	0,72	0,818
Iz preglednice 2 je razvidno, da so bili v raziskavo vključeni učenci najuspešnejši v doseganju cilja raba velike začetnice v lastnih imenih bitij (AS = 1,69), najmanj uspešni pa v pisanju nikalnice pred glagolom (AS = 0,72). Poleg rabe velike začetnice v lastnih imenih bitij so bili v raziskavo vključeni učenci skoraj enako uspešni (AS = 1,68) tudi pri pisanju predloga in naslednje besede. Med cilji pravopisne zmožnosti, pri katerih so bili v raziskavo vključeni učenci manj uspešni, sta pisanje glavnih in vrstilnih števnikov (do 100) s številko (AS = 1,09) in raba vejice pri naštevanju (AS = 0,74).
Ne preseneča, da so bili učenci najuspešnejši pri rabi velike začetnice v lastnih imenih bitij. Izbrani sta bili domači, učencem poznani imeni. Če bi bili imeni tuji ali nepoznani, bi bil rezultat zagotovo slabši. Vsekakor pa bi uspešnost učencev v tem cilju lahko bila še višja.
Da so bili skoraj enako uspešni tudi v pisanju predloga in naslednje besede, pa preseneča. Predvidevali bi, da gre za težjo pravopisno snov, sploh ker pri branju vadijo knjižno branje nezložnih predlogov (povezano z naslednjo besedo), pri pisanju pa se ti predlogi pišejo ločeno.
Pri zapisu besed z nekritičnimi glasovi bi učenci lahko bili uspešnejši. Prav tako pri rabi velike začetnice v bližnjih zemljepisnih lastnih imenih. V testu znanja sta bili izbrani zemljepisni imeni učencem poznanih in bližnjih krajev, zato rezultat neprijetno preseneča.
Pri pisanju glavnih in vrstilnih števnikov (do 100) s številko je rezultat verjetno slabši tudi zaradi tega, ker učencem nismo podali podrobnih navodil (namenoma), katere operativne cilje pravopisne zmožnosti preverjamo. Pri pisanju števnikov je v operativnem cilju izrecno poudarjen zapis le-teh s številko, zato smo kot pravilne upoštevali le popravke, v katerih so učenci pri glavnem števniku prečrtali piko, pri vrstilnem pa jo dodali. Rezultatov, v katerih so učenci števnik zapisali z besedo (žal v večini primerov črkovno in/ali pravopisno napačno), nismo upoštevali.
Raba vejice je za v raziskavo vključene učence očitno zelo trd oreh. Preverjanje tega cilja je bilo zastavljeno tako, da naj bi učenci dopisali eno manjkajočo vejico (med prvo in drugo enoto pri naštevanju) in prečrtali eno, ki je bila preveč (med predzadnjo in zadnjo naštevalno enoto, in to celo pred veznikom in). Odvečne vejice skorajda niso opazili, zato tudi toliko nižja uspešnost (oz. višja neuspešnost) pri tem cilju. Sicer pa tudi v dodajanju vejice niso bili posebej uspešni.
Očitno največji problem oz. najslabše usvojen cilj pravopisne zmožnosti je ločeno pisanje nikalnice ne pred glagolom. Gre za pravopisni problem, ki ni pereč samo pri osnovnošolcih, ampak žal tudi pri (izobraženih!) odraslih. Tej pravopisni temi bi učitelji morali namenjati še posebej veliko pozornosti, da bi se utrdila v zavesti učencev in se ne prenašala naprej.
Predvidevamo, da bi bili rezultati boljši, če bi učence, ki so sodelovali v raziskavi, pred reševanjem testa opozorili na to, katere cilje pravopisne zmožnosti bomo preverjali, toda tega namenoma nismo hoteli, saj smo želeli, da učenci popravljajo po lastni presoji, brez kakršnih koli sugestij ali navodil. Zagotovo pa bi bila uspešnost še večja, če bi test sestavili z nalogami po posameznih ciljih. Tako bi že z navodilom naloge učence usmerili na napake oz. na pravopisno temo, ki bi jo preverjali v posamezni nalogi. Naš test je bil namenoma v obliki besedila, s preprostim in jasnim navodilom, naj besedilo pravopisno popravijo. Učenci tako niso bili vodeni, popravili so tisto, kar se jim je na podlagi pravopisno usvojenega znanja zdelo potrebno popraviti.
Preglednica 3: Rezultati t-testa primerjave razlik med skupinama glede na spol
Spol	N	Aritm. sredina	Stand. odklon	t	P
deklice	75	16,92	5,245	1,863	0,064
dečki	84	15,21	6,190		
Primerjava v (ne)uspešnosti doseganja operativnih ciljev pravopisne zmožnosti glede na spol kaže, da so bile v raziskavo vključene deklice nekoliko uspešnejše od dečkov, vendar ne statistično značilno (P > 0,05). Med deklicami in dečki v pravopisni zmožnosti ni statistično značilne razlike, se pa kaže tendenca (P = 0,064), da je razlika statistično značilna.
Preglednica 4: Rezultati t-testa za posamezne cilje glede na spol
Cilj	Spol	N	Aritm. sredina	Stand. odklon	t	P
Zapis besed z nekritičnimi glasovi	deklice	75	1,63	0,564	0,084	0,933
	dečki	84	1,62	0,579		
Zapis besed s kritičnimi glasovi	deklice	75	1,39	0,769	1,091	0,277
	dečki	84	1,25	0,805		
Ločeno pisanje predloga in naslednje besede	deklice	75	1,72	0,648	0,747	0,456
	dečki	84	1,64	0,652		
Ločeno pisanje nikalnice pred glagolom	deklice	75	0,63	0,785	-1,411	0,160
	dečki	84	0,81	0,843		
Raba velike začetnice na začetku povedi	deklice	75	1,41	0,737	0,862	0,390
	dečki	84	1,31	0,776		
Raba velike začetnice v lastnih imenih bitij	deklice	75	1,75	0,496	1,137	0,257
	dečki	84	1,64	0,652		
Raba velike začetnice v bližnjih zemljepisnih lastnih imenih	deklice	75	1,61	0,567	0,555	0,580
	dečki	84	1,56	0,647		
Raba velike začetnice v svojilnih pridevnikih, izpeljanih iz lastnih imen bitij	deklice	75	1,51	0,742	1,663	0,098
	dečki	84	1,30	0,833		
Raba končnih ločil (pike, vprašaja, klicaja)	deklice	75	1,63	1,050	2,366	0,019
	dečki	84	1,23	1,079		
Raba vejice pri naštevanju	deklice	75	0,77	0,727	0,540	0,590
	dečki	84	0,71	0,651		
Pisanje glavnih in vrstilnih števnikov (do 100) s številko	deklice	75	1,29	0,882	2,647	0,009
	dečki	84	0,92	0,908		
Preglednica 4 prikazuje, kako uspešni oz. neuspešni so bili v raziskavo vključeni učenci pri posameznem cilju glede na spol. V to preglednico smo vključili tudi cilj raba končnih ločil, ki je bil pri preverjanju v preglednici 3 izvzet, saj je pri tem cilju bilo mogoče doseči največ tri točke, pri vseh drugih pa največ dve, zato glede aritmetične sredine ni bil primerljiv z drugimi cilji.
Pri desetih (od enajstih) operativnih ciljih pravopisne zmožnosti so bile deklice uspešnejše; od tega s statistično značilno razliko pri cilju pisanje glavnih in vrstilnih števnikov (do 100) s številko (P = 0,009) in pri cilju raba končnih ločil (pike, vprašaja, klicaja) (P = 0,019). Pri cilju raba velike začetnice v svojilnih pridevnikih, izpeljanih iz lastnih imen bitij (P = 0,098) se kaže tendenca, da so bile deklice statistično uspešnejše od dečkov. Deklice so bile uspešnejše (a ne s statistično značilno razliko) tudi pri ciljih: zapis besed z nekritičnimi glasovi, zapis besed s kritičnimi glasovi, ločeno pisanje predloga in naslednje besede, rabo velike začetnice na začetku povedi, rabo velike začetnice v lastnih imenih bitij, rabo velike začetnice v bližnjih zemljepisnih lastnih imenih, rabo vejice pri naštevanju.
Dečki so bili uspešnejši od deklic (vendar ne s statistično značilno razliko) le pri enem cilju, to je ločeno pisanje nikalnice ne pred glagolom. Rezultat zelo preseneča, saj gre za pravopisno zmožnost, v kateri so bili vsi učenci, ki so sodelovali v raziskavi, najmanj uspešni.
Preglednica 5: Rezultati pravopisne zmožnosti glede na standarde znanja (minimalni standardi so označeni ležeče)
Cilj	N	%
Pravilno piše besede z »nekritičnimi glasovi«	159	81 %
Piše predlog ločeno od naslednje besede	159	84 %
Piše nikalnico ne ločeno od glagola	159	36 %
Piše začetek povedi z veliko začetnico	159	68 %
Pravilno piše znana lastna imena bitij	159	85 %
Pravilno piše bližnja zemljepisna lastna imena	159	79 %
Pravilno piše svojilne pridevnike, izpeljane iz lastnih imen	159	70 %
Uporablja pravilna končna ločila	159	47 %
Pravilno uporablja vejico pri naštevanju	159	37 %
Pravilno piše glavne in vrstilne števnike (do 100) s številko	159	55 %
Piše čitljivo		
Prepozna svoje in tuje tovrstne pravopisne napake ter jih odpravi		
Ker je med standardi znanja glede pravopisne zmožnosti tudi uporaba pravilnih končnih ločil, v tej preglednici podatke predstavljamo v odstotkih in ne v aritmetični sredini, saj cilji niso primerljivi (opozorjeno je že bilo, da je samo pri tem cilju zaradi zahteve po zapisu treh končnih ločil mogoče doseči tri točke, pri vseh drugih pa največ dve).
Predzadnjega standarda znanja, da otrok piše čitljivo, nismo preverjali in ne ocenjevali, saj otrok nismo posebej opozorili, naj pazijo na čitljivo pisavo, pa tudi sicer bi preverjanje tega cilja bolj prišlo v poštev npr. pri nareku ali spisu.
Tudi za zadnji standard znanja nimamo številčnih rezultatov, na nek način pa predstavlja skupek vseh doseženih rezultatov pravopisne zmožnosti (v naši raziskavi 64 %).
Rezultati v raziskavo vključenih učencev so mestoma nekoliko v nasprotju z minimalnimi standardi, kot so označeni v učnem načrtu. Kot minimalni standard je npr. opredeljen cilj glede pisanja nikalnice ne ob glagolu, pri katerem pa so bili učenci najmanj uspešni (36 %). Nasprotno pa so bili precej uspešni (70 %) pri pisanju svojilnih pridevnikov, izpeljanih iz lastnih imen, ki pa ni označen kot minimalni standard. Z realnim stanjem in opredeljenostjo v učnem načrtu se še najbolj ujema pravilna raba vejice pri naštevanju, ki ni opredeljena kot minimalni standard in tudi učenci je (vsaj v naši raziskavi) ne obvladajo dovolj dobro.
Zaključek
Še posebej v današnjem času je poudarjanje in proučevanje pravopisne zmožnosti (ne samo otrok) še kako pomembno in potrebno. Ob poplavi multimedijskih pripomočkov, ki nam po eni strani sicer olajšujejo življenje, po drugi strani pa nas vedno bolj delajo pasivne, je skrb za pravopisno zmožnost in njeno razvijanje nujna. Na tem področju je narejenih premalo raziskav. Posledično tudi študenti razrednega pouka, bodoči profesorji, ne morejo poznati stanja pravopisne pismenosti učencev in se zato tudi ne primerno pripraviti na poučevanje tega dela jezikovnega pouka. Tudi zato smo se odločili, da izvedemo raziskavo, v kateri smo preverili pravopisno zmožnost učencev na koncu prvega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja. Podobne raziskave bi bile dobrodošle tudi ob koncih drugih vzgojno-izobraževalnih obdobij. Raziskava A. Valh Lopert (2017) kaže, da ni odveč oz. je celo nujno potrebno tudi pri starejših.
Rezultati so pokazali, da imajo v raziskavo vključeni tretješolci dokaj uspešno usvojene cilje pravopisne zmožnosti, res da nekatere bolj, druge manj. Najbolj uspešni so bili v zapisu velike začetnice v lastnih imenih bitij in v ločenem pisanju predloga od besede. Slabo so usvojili pravopisno znanje, vezano na zapis končnih ločil in vejice, najmanj uspešni pa so bili pri zapisu nikalnice pred glagolom.
Vsakršno preverjanje pravopisne zmožnosti učencev pokaže na stanje ter spodbuja k načrtnemu pristopu in obravnavi še posebej težjih pravopisnih tem.
Polonca Šek Mertük
(Un)achieved spelling ability objectives in the first cycle of basic school
The article introduces communication ability as the elementary ability of human functioning. The focus of this article is the spelling ability as a part of communication ability. The article presents eleven operational objectives for the first cycle of basic school from the Slovene course syllabus for basic school (2011), which refer to spelling ability. The article shows learning standards and minimum standards, connected to spelling ability. By the end of the first cycle of basic school, students should achieve the following operational objectives connected to spelling ability: writing words with uncritical sounds, writing words with critical sounds, writing preposition and the following word separately, writing the Slovene negation ne (Eng. no) and the following verb separately, using capital letters at the beginning of sentences, using capital letters for personal names, using capital letters for nearby geographic names, using capital letters for possessive adjectives derived from personal names, using end marks (full stop, question mark, exclamation mark), using the listing comma, writing cardinal and ordinal numbers (to 100) using numerals. We composed a test based on the listed operational objectives of spelling ability. For the purpose of this article, 159 students, who were in the third grade at the end of school year 2015/2016, were tested on their spelling ability. The chosen students were from four basic schools in the northeast of Slovenia. In the test, we expected that the students would find and appropriately correct the spelling mistakes. The test contained 23 mistakes.
The purpose of the research was to learn, if and to what extent the tested students would achieve the spelling ability's operational objectives and learning standards for the first cycle of basic school, which are determined in the syllabus. Furthermore, the purpose was to discover, if the achieved spelling ability of the tested students differentiates due to the students' gender.
The results showed that the tested students excelled at achieving the objective of using capital letters for personal names (AM = 1.69). The students were least successful in writing the Slovene negation ne (Eng. no) with the verb (AM = 0.72). The students were also successful at writing the preposition and the following word (AM = 1.68). Among the less successful spelling ability objectives were writing cardinal and ordinal numbers (to 100) with numerals (Am = 1.09) and using the listing comma (AM = 0.74). Using the comma was for the students a difficult task. For the listing comma objective, the students were asked to add a missing comma and to cross out the unnecessary
comma. Most of the students did not notice the unnecessary comma, therefore this objective's successfulness was lower (or the unsuccessfulness was higher). The least successful spelling ability objective was writing the Slovene negation ne (Eng. no) with the verb separately. This spelling mistake is a topical issue, not only among students, but also among adults. The teachers should devote more attention to this orthographic topic.
The gender comparison in (un)successfulness at achievement of spelling ability's operational objectives shows, that girls were more successful than boys, however, with no statistical significance. Merely, a tendency (P = 0.064) is illustrated, pointing to a statistical significance.
The results of the tested students are contradictory to the minimum standards marked in the syllabus. For instance, as a minimum standard is listed the objective regarding writing the Slovene negation ne (Eng. no) with the verb, although the students were at this task least successful (36%). On the contrary, the students were successful (70%) at writing possessive pronouns derived from personal names. However, this objective is not listed as a minimum standard. The use of the listing comma matches the reality and the syllabus description. This objective is not listed as a minimum standard and the students do not know how to place the comma correctly.
Testing the spelling ability of students is welcome, seeing as it shows the state of knowledge. Furthermore, testing can attract attention to individual problematic topics.
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Krajnc, S. (1999). Razvoj govora predšolskih otrok. Ljubljana: Znanstvenoraziskovalni inštitut Filozofske fakultete.
Križaj Ortar, M., Bešter Turk, M., Končina, M., Bavdek, M., Poznanovič, M., Ambrož, D. in Židan, S. (2009). Na pragu besedila 1. Priročnik za učitelje. Pridobljeno s http://www.srednja.net/index. php?r=downloadMaterial&id=689&file=1.
Kunst Gnamuš, O. (1984). Govorno dejanje - družbeno dejanje. Ljubljana: Pedagoški inštitut pri UEK. Ropič, M. (2017). Pravopisne zmožnosti učencev v 2., 3. in 4. razredu. V M. Jesenšek (ur.), Med didaktiko slovenskega jezika in poezijo (str. 54—62). Maribor, Bielsko-Biata, Budapest, Kansas, Praha: Univerzitetna založba Univerze v Mariboru.
Starc, S. (2011). Sestavljanje in ocenjevanje testov. Slovenščina v šoli, 6 (4), 8—15.
Šilih, G. (1955). Metodika slovenskega jezikovnega pouka. Ljubljana: Zveza pedagoških društev
LR Slovenije.
Valh Lopert, A. (2017). Lektoriranje kot učinkovita metoda učenja maternega jezika (za študente nesloveniste). V M. Jesenšek (ur.), Med didaktiko slovenskega jezika in poezijo (str. 76—93). Maribor, Bielsko-Biata, Budapest, Kansas, Praha: Univerzitetna založba Univerze v Mariboru. Učni načrt. Slovenščina. Program osnovna šola. (2011). Ljubljana: Ministrstvo RS za šolstvo in šport, Zavod RS.
Zadravec Pešec, R. (1994). Pragmatično jezikoslovje, temeljni pojmi. Ljubljana: Pedagoški inštitut, Center za diskurzivne študije.
Žerdin, T. (2003). Motnje v razvoju jezika, branja in pisanja: priročnik za pomoč specialnim pedagogom in učiteljem pri odpravljanju motenj v razvoju jezika, branja in pisanja. Ljubljana: Svetovalni center za otroke, mladostnike in starše.
Dr. Polonca Šek Mertük, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, polonca.sek@um.si
NAVODILA AVTORJEM
Revija za elementarno izobraževanje je recenzirana, prosto dostopna revija, ki objavlja izvirne in pregledne znanstvene članke s področja vzgoje in izobraževanja, zlasti na predšolski in osnovnošolski stopnji. Objavljeni članki strokovnjake na vzgojno-izobraževalnem področju seznan(ja)ijo in sooč(i)ajo s sodobnimi spoznanji in razpravami na področju izobraževanja. Osnovni namen revije je povezati širok spekter teoretičnih izhodišč in praktičnih rešitev v izobraževanju ter tako spodbujati različne metodološke in vsebinske razprave. Uredniški odbor združuje strokovnjake in raziskovalce iz več evropskih držav in s tem želi ustvariti možnosti za živahen dialog med raznovrstnimi disciplinami in različnimi evropskimi praksami, povezanimi z izobraževanjem.
Revija za elementarno izobraževanje torej objavlja prispevke, ki obravnavajo pomembna, sodobna vprašanja na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja, uporabljajo primerno znanstveno metodologijo ter so slogovno in jezikovno ustrezni. Odražati morajo pomemben prispevek k znanosti oziroma spodbudo za raziskovanje na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja z vidika drugih povezanih ved, kot so kognitivna psihologija, razvoj otroka, uporabno jezikoslovje in druge discipline. Revija sprejema še neobjavljene članke, ki niso bili istočasno poslani v objavo drugim revijam. Prispevki so lahko v slovenskem ali angleškem jeziku.
Sprejemanje člankov v objavo
Prejete prispevke najprej pregleda urednik/založniški odbor in ugotovi, ali vsebinsko ustrezajo konceptu in kriterijem revije.
1.	Če prispevek ustreza konceptu in kriterijem revije, ga uredniški odbor pošlje dvema anonimnima recenzentoma. Članek, ki je vsebinsko skladen s konceptom revije, vendar ne ustreza drugim kriterijem, lahko uredništvo vrne avtorju, da ga popravi.
2.	O sprejemu ali zavrnitvi članka je avtor obveščen približno tri mesece po njegovem prejemu.
3.	Avtor dobi recenzirani prispevek vključno z morebitnimi priporočili za izboljšave/ popravke, v primeru zavrnitve pa z navedenimi razlogi zanjo.
4.	Končno odločitev o objavi članka sprejme urednik na temelju priporočil recenzentov. Pri tem utemeljitve za svojo odločitev ni dolžan navesti.
5.	Besedilo prispevka mora biti pripravljeno v skladu z Navodili avtorjem.
6.	Avtor jamči, da so v prispevku predstavljeni podatki natančni, verodostojni in izvirni. Ko je članek sprejet v objavo, avtor podpiše Izjavo o etičnosti raziskovanja in Izjavo avtorja o izvirnosti prispevka. Vsi prispevki gredo skozi postopek za ugotavljanje plagiatorstva.
Navodila za oblikovanje besedila
Pri pripravi besedila prispevka upoštevajte naslednja navodila:
1.	Tipkopis oddajte kot dokument v programu Microsoft Word. Nabor pisave je Times New Roman, velikost črk 12 za osnovno besedilo in 10 za povzetka v slovenskem in angleškem jeziku, literaturo in citate, če so daljši od 3 vrstic, razmik med vrsticami pa 1,5. Vodilni naslovi naj bodo zapisani krepko, prvi podnaslovi ležeče, drugi podnaslovi pa navadno. Naslovov in strani ne številčite in ne uporabljajte velikih tiskanih črk.
2.	Besedilo prispevka naj ne presega 8.000 besed, vključno s povzetki, literaturo in ključnimi besedami.
3.	Naslov prispevka naj ne presega 15 besed in naj bo v slovenskem in angleškem jeziku.
4.	Prispevek naj ima na začetku povzetek v slovenskemjeziku ter njegov prevod v angleškem jeziku (oziroma obratno) in naj ne presega 100 besed. Za povzetkom naj bo 3-5 ključnih besed. Poleg povzetkov naj prispevek na koncu prispevka, pred literaturo, vsebuje daljši povzetek (500-700 besed) v angleščini, če je članek napisan v slovenščini.
5.	V prispevku ne uporabljajte ne sprotnih ne končnih opomb.
6.	Vire navajajte v skladu z American Psychological Association (AP) standardom. V literaturo vključite samo v tekočem besedilu navedene vire, ki jih uredite po abecednem vrstnem redu.
7.	Preglednice, fotografije, grafe, zemljevide ipd. pošljite vstavite v tekočem besedilo.
8.	V posebnem dokumentu pošljite naslednje podatke: ime in priimek avtorja, akademski naziv, organizacijo, kjer je avtor zaposlen tudi v angleškem jeziku, elektronski naslov, naslov bivališča in naslov prispevka.
Primeri:
Knjige: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov, kraj, založba.
Duh, M. (2004). Vrednotenje kot didaktični problem pri likovni vzgoji. Maribor: Pedagoška
fakulteta.
Članki v revijah: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov prispevka, ime revije, letnik, številka, strani.
Planinšec, J. (2002). Športna vzgoja in medpredmetne povezave v osnovni šoli. Sport, 50 (1), 11-15.
Prispevki v zbornikih: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov prispevka, podatki o knjigi ali zborniku, strani, kraj, založba.
Fošnarič, S. (2002). Obremenitve šolskega delovnega okolja in otrokova uspešnost. V M. Juričič (ur.), Solska higiena: zbornik prispevkov (str. 27-34). Ljubljana: Sekcija za šolsko in visokošolsko medicino SZD.
Vključevanje reference v tekst: če gre za dobesedno navedbo, napišemo v oklepaju priimek avtorja, leto izdaje in stran (Lipovec, 2005, str. 9), če pa gre za splošno navedbo, stran izpustimo (Lipovec, 2005).
Prispevke lahko avtorji pošljejo po elektronski pošti na naslov rei.pef@um.si ali jih natisnjene in na zgoščenki pošljejo na naslov:
UNIVERZA V MARIBORU
PEDAGOŠKA FAKULTETA MARIBOR
REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE
Koroška cesta 160
2000 MARIBOR
SLOVENIJA
MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION GUIDELINES
The Journal ofElementary Education (JEE) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal that publishes original research and review articles primarily but not limited to the area of elementary school education. JEE is especially committed to publishing research papers which inform educational researchers about issues of contemporary concern in education. The basic purpose of the journal is to cover a broad spectrum of education theory and its implications for teaching practice, seeking to bridge and integrate diverse methodological and substantive research. The Editorial Board brings together academics and researchers from different European countries, who seek to promote a vigorous dialogue between scholars in various fields both central and related to scientific enquiry in education.
Articles accepted for publication in JEE should address an important, up to date issue in education, apply appropriate research methodology, and be written in a clear and coherent style. Accepted articles should make significant contributions to the field. In addition, JEE accepts articles which promote advances in education from closely related fields, such as cognitive psychology, child development, applied linguistics and others. JEE does not publish articles that have appeared elsewhere or have been concurrently submitted to or are already under consideration for publication in other journals. The languages accepted for the papers eligible for publication in JEE are Slovene and English.
Paper Acceptance Procedure
After a paper is submitted to JEE, the editor/publishing board first establishes if it is within the journal's domain of interests and meets the journal's requirements for style and quality.
1.	If the paper meets the standard and the concept of the journal, it is sent to reviewers. JEE uses a double-blind review. Papers which are within the journal's domain but do not meet its requirements for style or quality, may be returned to the author for revision.
2.	Authors will be notified of acceptance or rejection of the article about three months after submission of the manuscript.
3.	The reviewed papers are returned to the authors with reviewers' feedback and suggestions for improvement or an indication of the reasons for a rejection.
4.	The decision regarding publication is made by the editor after considering the reviewers' recommendations. The editorial board is under no obligation to provide justification for its decision.
5.	The text of the paper should be edited in accordance with the Submission Guidelines.
6.	Authors must certify that the data cited in the article are, to the best of their knowledge, accurate, reliable and authentic. When the article is accepted for publication, the author has to sign the Publishing Ethics Statement and the Statement of Authenticity. Manuscripts will also be submitted to plagiarism detection software.
Preparation of Copy
Follow these instructions for the preparation of the manuscript:
1.	Submit your manuscript as a Word file. Use Times New Roman: 12 pt. for main text and 10 pt. for abstract in Slovene and English, and for references and quotations of three lines or more. All text must be 1.5 spaced and justified. Use boldface type for first level headings, italics for second level headings and regular type for all other headings. Do not number headings. Do not number headings or use uppercase.
2.	The length of your paper should not exceed 8,000 words including the abstracts, bibliography, and key words.
3.	The title of your article should not exceed 15 words. The title should be written in English and in Slovene.
4.	At the beginning of the manuscript include an abstract (up to 100 words) in the language of the article, and its translation into the other language, followed by 3-5 key words. In addition to the abstracts also include a longer summary (about 500-700 words) at the end manuscript, before reference - in English if the article is in Slovene and in Slovene if the article is in English.
5.	Do not use either footnotes or endnotes.
6.	Quote references in accordance with the American Psychological Association (AP) style. Include only the sources cited in current text, arranged in alphabetical order.
7.	Tables, figures and graphs should be numbered in the order in which they appear in the text (e.g. Table 1.) and should be referred to in the text. The title of the tables, figures and graphs should be 10pt and placed below the table.
8.	Send a separate document with the following information: author's name and family name, address, full title of the article, academic title, affiliation and e-mail address.
Example:
Books: last name and name of the author, year of publication, title, location, press.
Duh, M. (2004). Vrednotenje kot didaktični problem pri likovni vzgoji. Maribor: Pedagoška
fakulteta.
Articles from Magazines: last name and name of the author, year published, title of the article, name of the magazine, year, issue number, page(s).
Planinšec, J. (2002). Športna vzgoja in medpredmetne povezave v osnovni šoli. Sport, 50 (1), 11-15.
Academic Journals: last name and name of the author, year published, title of the article, information about the journal, page(s).
Fošnarič, S. (2002). Obremenitve šolskega delovnega okolja in otrokova uspešnost. V M. Juričič (ur.), Šolska higiena: zbornik prispevkov (str. 27-34). Ljubljana: Sekcija za šolsko in visokošolsko medicino SZD.
Citing sources in the body of the text: If a direct quotation is cited, write the last name of the author, year it was published and page number. Put this information in parenthesis (Lipovec, 2005, pg. 9). If the information is paraphrased, leave out the page number (Lipovec, 2005).
Manuscripts may be sent electronically to rei.pef@um.si or in printed form, sent with a saved version on a disk to the following address:
UNIVERZA V MARIBORU
PEDAGOŠKA FAKULTETA MARIBOR
REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE
Koroška cesta 160
2000 MARIBOR
SLOVENIJA