Dynamic Relationships Management Journal CONTENTS Volume 10, Number 1, May 2021 DRMJ Celebrates Ten Years Since Inception Matej Cerne, Tomislav Hernaus........................................................................................................... 1 Antecedents and Consequences of Work-life Balance: A Study of Selected Organizational Factors Among Female Bank Employees Mona Ratnesh, Gaitri Kumari .............................................................................................................. 5 Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair............................................................ 23 Explaining Leadership Behaviors in Private and Public Managers: The Public-Private Distinction Explanation Versus the Gender Explanation Jon Aarum Andersen ........................................................................................................................... 45 Business Incubation and Innovation Speed: Mediating Role of Absorptive Capacity Vinney Zephaniah Vincent, Zakkariya K.A............................................................................................ 57 Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar ...................................................................................................................... 73 Author Guidelines................................................................................................................................ 93 Aims & Scope The Dynamic Relationships Management Journal is an international, double blind peer-reviewed bi-annual publication of academics' and practitioners' research analyses and perspectives on relationships management and organizational themes and topics. The focus of the journal is on management, organization, corporate governance and neighboring areas (including, but not limited to, organizational behavior, human resource management, sociology, organizational psychology, industrial economics etc.). Within these fields, the topical focus of the journal is above all on the establishment, development, maintenance and improvement of dynamic relationships, connections, interactions, patterns of behavior, structures and networks in social entities like firms, non-profit institutions and public administration units within and beyond individual entity boundaries. Thus, the main emphasis is on formal and informal relationships, structures and processes within and across individual, group and organizational levels. DRMJ articles test, extend, or build theory and contribute to management and organizational practice using a variety of empirical methods (e.g., quantitative, qualitative, field, laboratory, meta-analytic, and combination). Articles format should include, but are not restricted to, traditional academic research articles, case studies, literature reviews, methodological advances, approaches to teaching, learning and management development, and interviews with prominent executives and scholars. Material disclaimer Responsibility for (1) the accuracy of statements of fact, (2) the authenticity of scientific findings or observations, (3) expressions of scientific or other opinion and (4) any other material published in the journal rests solely with the author(s). The Journal, its owners, publishers, editors, reviewers and staff take no responsibility for these matters. Information for Readers Dynamic Relationships Management Journal (ISSN 2232-5867 - printed version & ISSN 2350-367X - on-line version, available in (full text) at the DRMJ website) is published in 2 issues per year. For ordering the printed version, please contact the editor at matej.cerne@ef.uni-lj.si. Call for papers The Dynamic Relationships Management Journal (DRMJ) is inviting contributions for upcoming issues. The manuscript can be submitted per e-mail to the editor (matej.cerne@ef.uni-lj.si). Before the submission, authors should consult Author Guidelines. There is no submission or publication fee. Open Access statement This is an open access journal which means that all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the BOAI definition of open access. Please read »Copyright / licensing conditions« statement for addition info about legal use of published material. Copyright / licensing conditions Authors of the articles published in DRMJ hold copyright with no restrictions and grant the journal right of first publication with the work. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.) Articles published in DRMJ are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International Public License (CC BY-NC 4.0; http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). Under this license, authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content for NonCommercial purposes as long as the original authors and source are cited. I@ ®® 1 DRMJ CELEBRATES TEN YEARS SINCE INCEPTION Matej Cerne University of Ljubljana Tomislav Hernaus University of Zagreb Volume 10, Number 1 of the Dynamic Relationships Management Journal (DRMJ) is ahead of you - making for a wonderful opportunity to reflect on its progress over the years, and look ahead into its future. It is now almost five years since the current editorial team took the journal over, following previous editors Adrijana Rejc Buhovac and Jože Kropivšek - the current President of the Slovene Academy of Management (SAM). Five years later, the editors still feel a sense of excitement and immense responsibility to the journal, SAM, and the management and organization community in order to ensure that DRMJ not only continues, but further expands and affirms its role as a valued publication home for relevant and rigorous research in our field. At the same time, it is time to start thinking about our potential successors. Topic-wise, the journal is focused on the dynamic relationships management; while we would like to see even more articles directly targeting this theme, we do recognize this is a rather narrow category of theoretical or methodological perspectives, and do continue accepting a broader set of organization and management articles. We do, however, emphasize, that manuscripts directly targeting dynamic relationships management are a priority and we will continue soliciting such papers. When the current editorial team took over, we set a clear aim to increase the quality, quantity and international nature of submissions. We can say that with over 120 submissions in 2020, a much more rigorous review process, multiple handling editors involved across multiple stages of the editorial process (editors screening, associate editor screening, review, decision), a very small portion of articles published by authors in Slovenia and neighboring countries (less than 20% last year), and a very quick editorial turnaround (desk rejections were done on average in a day, while time to first decision for manuscripts that made it into review was less than 30 days), we have definitely steered the journal towards this aim. Inclusion into the Scopus database in 2019 definitely helped in achieving visibility and being more interesting to the worldwide authorship teams. Nevertheless, we will continue to impose further rigor into the review process, hopefully resulting in even better publications and ultimately achieve additional objective goals, such as being included into the AJG journals list or the Emerging SSCI list. In the future, there are two clear avenues that we would like to emphasize, one is related to article types that we are publishing, while the other to expanding presence in social media. It is clear that DRMJ is an international academic journal, primarily publishing original academic articles - double-blind peer-reviewed full-length manuscripts that focus on a theoretically driven empirical contribution (all research strategies and methods, quantitative and qualitative, are considered) or on a theoretical contribution that can shape future research in the fields of management and organization, with a particular focus on dynamic relationships. These are and will be the predominant article types published in the DRMJ that are indexed in international academic databases. In addition, we encourage scholars to prepare research notes, that is, brief discussion papers seeking to advance either a new research model or theoretical construct, a novel methodological approach or to present either preliminary or replication data findings. These would also be peer reviewed and included as an original academic contribution. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 1 Nevertheless, if there would be interest and prior coordination with the editorial team, or based upon invitations of editors, we would be open to publishing other article types as well - those would be published in the printed and online version of the journal, but not indexed in the Scopus database. Namely, these could be perspectives - shorter pieces presenting a new and unique viewpoint on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or prevalent notions on a specific topic, propose and support a new hypothesis, or discussing the implications of a newly implemented innovation. Perspective pieces may focus on current advances and future directions on a topic, and may include original data as well as personal opinion. Another article type that could potentially be interesting is opinion piece - presenting the author's viewpoint on the strengths and weaknesses of a hypothesis or scientific theory. These articles promote scientific discourse that challenges the current state of knowledge in a particular field. Typically, these would be based upon invitations from the editors. Furthermore, commentaries as an article type could draw attention to, review or present criticism on a previously published article, book, or report, often using the findings as a call to action or to highlight a few points of wider relevance to the field. Commentaries do not typically include original data and are heavily dependent on the author's perspective or anecdotal evidence from the author's personal experience to support the argument. In most cases, they would be invited by Editors from reviewers or experts in the field. Finally, a professional outreach article type is designed to disseminate academic knowledge to management practice and the broader public. They would be written in non-academic, simpler (yet still expert) language and might be based on existing published research, or on expertise reports from the industry. In addition to those potential additional article types, we would also like to go along the general trend in the world and current activities within SAM and further expand presence on SAM social media channels. In particular, LinkedIn, where SAM has a new page and an increased momentum in promot- ing activities of its membership, including conferences, debate evenings, and journal publications (both DRMJ and Management Challenges - Izzivi managementu, an expert/professional outlet disseminating research into practice in Slovene language). DRMJ will follow these trends and let the interested public know what is being published in the journal. Let us now focus on the current issue, which consists of five articles. The first one is a study of Mona Ratnesh and Gaitri Kumari, who embarked on a mission of identifying the most relevant organizational-level antecedents and consequences of work-life balance. Using multiple regression analyses, the results of a study on 300 female bank employees revealed that organizational culture and technology are the most important antecedents of work-life balance, because these variables influence work performance, job satisfaction, quality of work life, and job autonomy, whereas work load and work expectation have an impairing effect on turnover. The second article included in this issue is a paper by Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad and Shreekumar K. Nair, and is based on four separate studies to develop the scale measuring self-awareness triggers, and analyse their impact on authentic leadership. Their findings suggest that organizations proactively can enhance authentic leadership through self-awareness triggers. The third article included in this issue, by Jon Aarum Andersen, assesses the theoretical explanations for similarities and differences in managers' leadership behaviors as well as their empirical support. Specifically, the paper juxtaposes two different explanations for leadership behavior and finds that the public-distinction explanation appears to outweigh the gender-based explanation. The fourth article of this issue, written by Vin-ney Zephaniah Vincent and Zakkariya K.A., uses a resource-based view and organizational learning theory to explore the effect and mechanism of incubation on the absorptive capacity and innovation speed of startups in the Indian context. Using survey data from a sample of 344 technology intensive incubator firms, the authors demonstrated that the incubation mechanisms, namely business incu- 2 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 2 bator selection performance, monitoring, and business assistance intensity and resource munificence, help startups to explore, transform, and exploit knowledge and information to bring technology and products to market quickly. Finally, the fifth article included in this issue is prepared by Mr. Attaullah and Bilal Afsar, and investigates the relationship between workplace ostracism and nurses' tendency to engage in counterproductive work behaviours (CWB). A time-lagged survey was conducted in public-sector hospitals of Pakistan to collect data from the nursing staff. Providing extremely timely findings in the current pandemic situation, workplace ostracism was found to be positively related to nurses' feelings of job stress and their tendency to engage in CWB. Similarly, job stress was positively related and emotional intelligence was negatively related to nurses' tendency to engage in CWB, and mediate the relationship between workplace ostracism and CWB. Emotional intelligence was found to moderate this mediated relationship. To conclude, we continue our effort in increasing the visibility and international nature of the DRMJ, but most importantly increasing the quality of articles published in the journal. By applying different research and article types, we hope to stimulate further ideas and endeavors worth exploring. Matej Cerne and Tomislav Hernaus Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 3 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 4 Vol. 10, No. 1, 5-22 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2021.v10n01a01 ANTECEDENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF WORK-LIFE BALANCE: A STUDY OF SELECTED ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AMONG FEMALE BANK EMPLOYEES Mona Ratnesh Amity Business School, Amity University Jharkhand mratnesh@rnc.amity.edu Gaitri Kumari Usha Martin University Ranchi gaitri11@gmail.com - Abstract - This study identified the most relevant organizational-level antecedents and consequences of work-life balance (WLB). The sample consisted of300female bank employees working in different private banks. The data were collected with a carefully designed questionnaire using the convenient random sampling technique. Data were analyzed using multiple regression analysis. The study identified certain organizational-level antecedents of work-life balance, such as work load, organizational culture, job involvement, work expectation, and technology; work performance, turnover, job satisfaction, quality of work life, and job autonomy were considered as consequences of WLB in the existing research. The results revealed that organizational culture and technology are the most important antecedents of work-life balance, because these variables influence work performance, job satisfaction, quality of work life, and job autonomy, whereas work load and work expectation have an impairing effect on turnover. Keywords: Work-life balance; Women; Private bank; Organizational factors; India. 1. INTRODUCTION Work-life balance (WLB) is an orientation of an individual toward how well his or her role in life is balanced (Haar, Russo, Sune, & Ollier-Malaterre, 2014). Work and life outside work are the two prominent domains in any individual's life, and the convergence that exists between an individual's work demands and family demands is a well-defined area of research in its own right (Frone, 2003). Concern over work-life balance has increased in response to the changes in which work has been described and exemplifies in terms of modernization and industrialization, along with the participation of women in the labor force. The changing social structures of dual-career couples have changed the dynamics of both the workplace and the home environment (Munn & Chaudhuri, 2015), so there is a perceptible need to align and integrate family and life requirements (Sturges & Guest, 2004). Women's participation in the workforce in urban India increased from 25.8 % in 1983 to 33.3 % in 2000, and the labor force participation rate is expected to reach 361 per 1,000 women in 2026, and banking sector is not an exception (Valk & Srinivasan, 2011). The banking sector in India largely was dominated by male employees until the 1980s. Women started to join banks in the late 1970s, specifically at the clerical levels. They represent slightly over 11 % of the workforce in the banking industry. Financial sector reforms in India in 1991 significantly changed the definition of Indian banking system. Since then, this sector has witnessed a surge in the participation of women; it has been observed that the participation of women in Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 5 Mona Ratnesh, Gaitri Kumari: Antecedents and Consequences of Work-life Balance: A Study of Selected Organizational Factors Among Female Bank Employees banking significantly increased from 14 % in 2005 to 24 % in 2014 (Reserve Bank of India, 2014). In any transforming nation, including India, the conventional obligations of women as homemakers and caregivers are intensely entrenched. Women's employment has become the symbol of economic viability and social status in modern society, but the dissemination of modernism still prevails with traditional perception about women. Progress has affected their professional lives; however, it has not touched their domestic lives (McGinn & Oh, 2017). In recent years, the Indian labor force has witnessed the significant contribution of female employees in the workforce, and the banking sector is not an exception. Because of the increasing number of women in the banking sector, work-life balance is a challenge for female employees as well as for their employers (Pradhan, 2016). Therefore, the phenomenon of the work-life balance of Indian women banking professionals must be examined in greater depth. Research in the area of WLB indicates that organizations usually ignore the effect of spill-over in workplaces and fail to balance the expectations of their employees beyond their working lives (Bar-doel, Tharenou & Ristov, 2000; Pocock, 2003). This results in decreased performance and productivity by the employees at work. This paper identifies the various organizational factors which influence the work-life balance of female banking professionals and their consequences in a comprehensive manner. This study examined various factors associated with work-life balance and their impact on certain organizational-level outcomes, such as work performance, job satisfaction, quality of work life (QWL), turnover, and job autonomy. Extensive effort has been made to identify the antecedents of WLB. Many researchers studied situational, dispositional, and demographic variables (Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, & Brinley, 2005; Frone, 2003), whereas others focused on the importance of work and family roles (Carlson & Kacmar, 2000). These antecedents illustrate many organizational attributes that affect the presence or absence of WLB, along with their impact on certain organizational-level consequences. The participation of women in the workforce has increased globally. Since the economic reform period, India's banking sector has seen explosive growth and expansion. This growth has created a new path for women to find employment in the banking sector. Simultaneously, it is a challenge for female employees because they have many home and office tasks as primary caregivers. When female employees get married and become mothers, they have to bear the added responsibilities of childrea-ring and extended families as well. Therefore, they are under great pressure to remain on a career path. Today's female employees have family obligations and are fully involved in their respective careers, and have challenging burdens of their diverse roles. The effort of working women to amalgamate, systematize, and balance the different issues and activities with respect to their multiple roles concurrently puts them under constant stress. Subsequently, the family becomes the stakeholder of an organization, and this improbable social pattern represented the start of the WLB paradigm shift. Furthermore, there is a notion in Indian organizational culture that more hours spent in the workplace are associated directly with higher levels of productivity, which leads to increased work load for women and leaves them with less time to fulfil their family obligations effectively. This affects their efficiency At work. However, there is little understanding of the effect of poor work-life balance on work-related factors. Therefore, this study examined the impact of organizational-level factors and their effect on WLB among female employees of private banks. The prime purpose of this study was to identify the most relevant organizational-level factors in the form of antecedents and consequences and their relationship with work-life balance. Specifically, the objectives were: 1. To identify the organizational-level antecedents responsible for WLB among female employees of private banks in India. 2. To identify the organizational-level consequences responsible for WLB among female employees of private banks. 3. To determine the impact of the identified antecedents on consequences of WLB among female employees of private banks. 4. To suggest important measures to improve WLB among female employees of private banks. 6 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Synthesizing various factors at the organizational level via a model is the rational approach in recognizing their complex relationships with work-life balance. This section briefly discusses the antecedents and consequences of WLB variables to establish the relationships among the identified antecedents and consequences of work-life balance. Organizational variables have a substantial effect on how employees are able to administer the boundaries between their personal and professional lives (Rothbard & OllierMalaterre, 2015). 2.1 Work Load Specific characteristics of the job affect the conflict between work and family. Work load is a strong predictor of work-family balance. Major, Klein, & Earhart (2002) found that the increased time-based conflict between work and family is related to working more hours due to work load. Similarly, Noor (2002) analyzed the impact of long work hours and workload in a sample of 310 Malaysian women in relation to work-life conflict and found that both more working hours and work load were positively linked to work-family conflict. Many studies in the literature examined concerns about the effects of working hours due to work load. Research on US workers has shown that the number of hours at work increases the conflict between work and family and the negative work-to-family spill-over (Berg, Kalleberg, & Appelbaum, 2003; Grzywacz & Marks, 2000). Harr et al. (2014) investigated the direct impact of work load on WLB and confirmed that work hours and work demands both were adversely related to WLB. Moen (2000) found that job-related stress due to heavy workloads can stimulate feelings of personal fulfilment and accomplishment, but these work conditions also are expected to increase negative spill-over from work to home. 2.2 Organizational Culture The culture is the essence of any organization, and constitutes the collective values of the individ- uals who form the organization. The perception of a relationship between organizational culture and the balance between work and life is based on the idea that workplace culture can confine or facilitate the work-life balance of an employee (Kirchmeyer, 2000). Research has emphasized that work-life balance is established through a strong system of organizational support, which is built by organizational culture (Rife & Hall, 2015). According to Schneider, Ehrhart, & Macey (2013), "organizational culture is the shared basic assumptions, values, and beliefs that symbolize a workplace and are picked up and taught to newcomers." Thompson, Beauvais, & Lyness (1999) identified three facets of work-life culture: "perceived managerial support for WLB, perceptions of career consequences with the use of work-family benefits and time expectations of organization that may conflict with non-work activities." They found that supportive work-family culture was linked to higher levels of organizational commitment, lower intention to leave the organization, and less work-life conflict (Thompson, Beauvais, & Lyness, 1999). They also argued that organizations contribute stress to the personal domains of their employees if they do not promote a balanced work-life culture, which can have negative effects on both employees and the organization. In the same vein, Clark (2001) developed a work culture measurement and examined the effects of work culture on five dimension of work-family balance in a wide variety of family and workplace situations: work satisfaction, home satisfaction, work functioning, family functioning, and role conflict. 2.3 Job Involvement Job involvement has been identified as a significant organizational antecedent by which a person psychologically identifies with the work and the importance of the work to the self-image and self-concept. Research has indicated that there is a positive relationship between job involvement and work-family conflict (Darry & McCarthy, 2007). This signifies that employees with elevated levels of psychological involvement in their job roles can devote an extreme quantity of energy to their job roles at the cost of their family roles, which ultimately Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 7 Mona Ratnesh, Gaitri Kumari: Antecedents and Consequences of Work-life Balance: A Study of Selected Organizational Factors Among Female Bank Employees leads to conflict between work and family. Tharma-lingam & Bhatti (2014) studied the administrative staff of the University of Utara, Malaysia, and examined the influence of job involvement on work-family conflict. The results showed that work-life conflict is negatively and positively correlated with job involvement, and is linked positively to job demand. 2.4 Work Expectation Work expectations refers to the pressure perceived by an individual in accepting increased job responsibilities. High work expectations are significantly related to high levels of work-family conflict (Green-haus & Beutel, 1985). Moreover, it significantly influences the performance of employees (Ratnasari, 2015). Career-oriented women cannot accommodate their family time to meet the expectations of work. Lingard (2003) found that whether or not an employee meets the expectations of their family role, job expectations are emphasized on both domains of life. However, the essentials of professional life intrude on personal life, and vice-versa. Job expectations may lead to role overload, time pressures, and strain, which may spill over into the family domain, creating work interference with family. Organizations have specific expectations and demands, such as long working hours even on the weekends and holidays; and compromising with family commitments for the sake of work obligations has an adverse effect on work-life balance (Abdus, 2015). 2.5 Technology Technological advancement has many contradictory consequences for employees in terms of balancing their work and personal lives. Towers, Duxbury, Higgins, & Thomas (2006) studied the benefits that technology can bring to individuals and their families, whereas others stressed the potential distraction from work-life balance (Salazar, 2001). Towers, Duxbury, Higgins, & Thomas (2006) explained that technology gives control over workability and permeability in terms of time and location. The ability to work at an employee's own speed and in their choice of locations may serve as a powerful stimulus to accept technology. There- fore, the internet and new communication technologies greatly can facilitate the ability of an employee to balance work and personal life (Adkins & Premeaux, 2014). However, these technologies intrude greatly into the home domain, which causes conflict between both domains of life. The reality that the employee can be reached at any time through electronic devices contributes to the blurring of the border between the professional and personal domains. Employees may feel obliged to check email and work throughout the day, the evening, weekends, and holidays (Adkins & Pre-meaux, 2014). The inevitable concern is that time is taken away from friends and family, which leads to conflict between work and life. 2.6 Work Performance Employees of organization are considered to be the major stakeholders in determining the performance of an organization. Kruse (2017) found that work-life balance is concerned with enhanced efficiency, creativity, and performance. Arulrajah & Opatha (2012) contend that the performance of an organization depends directly on the employees it hires. Consequently, organizations are forced to give attention to improving employees' work performance in order to increase organizational efficiency. Smith, Smith, & Brower (2016) emphasized that there is a significant relationship between work-life balance and employee work performance. The work life of an employee plays a significant role in improving job performance (Naithani, 2010; Karatepe, 2013), because it is focused on the ability of employees to balance work and life outside of work, and may include health, family, and others that are primarily relevant to the employee's productivity (Shadab & Arif, 2015). Nawab & Iqbal (2013) found that WLB in organizations has become more vital because it has positive outcomes such as low turnover, work engagement, in-role performance, increased employee productivity, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment which turns lead to enhance the job performance of an employee. 8 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Hypothesis 1a: Organizational culture is positively related to work performance. Hypothesis 1b: Technology is positively related to work performance. 2.7 Turnover In the work-family literature, turnover is the most studied job-related outcome. This is the extent to which an employee intends to leave the organization or stay with it (Bothma & Roodt, 2013; Jacobs & Roodt, 2011). For any organization, employee turnover is associated with significant costs and negative consequences. The separation of extremely capable employees can have destructive consequences, including reduced operational efficiency, service delivery, and management (Bothma & Roodt, 2012). Work-family conflict has a significant impact on withdrawal behavior (Greenhaus, Parasuraman, & Collins, 2001). Haar (2014) suggested that conflict, whether work-family conflict or family-work conflict, is responsible for withdrawal behavior among employees. Suifan, Abdallah, & Diab (2016) concluded that manager support was the most important WLB practice that had a significant negative direct impact on turnover intentions. Similar findings were reported by Duxbury & Higgins (2003), who found that employees with high levels of work-family conflict and family-work conflict had the highest intention of turnover. When asked why they thought they would leave the organization, they conceded that they wanted to spend more time with their friends, families, and themselves, and that their work expectations were unrealistic. Cail-lier (2016) found a significant association of both flexible work schedules and child-care programs with reduced turnover intentions. Hypothesis 2: Work load is positively related to turnover. 2.8 Job Satisfaction Absence of balance between work and life leads to reduced job satisfaction. Brough et al. (2014) concluded that WLB is related significantly to work-family and job satisfaction, and adversely related to psychological strain and turnover intentions. These results were observed in a large Australian sample. Specific findings also were observed in a sample of New Zealand workers (Haar et al., 2019). However, a positive element of work-family balance is that work-family enrichment has a moderating effect on job satisfaction. Ayree, Srinivas, & Tan (2005) assumed that job satisfaction is positively related to the enrichment part of work-family balance. Their results confirmed that both types of enrichment—work-family and family-work enrichment-were significantly related to job satisfaction. It is a backbone on which employee performance depends (Agbozo, Owusu, Hoedoafia, & Atakorah, 2017). Hypothesis 3a: Organizational culture is positively related to job satisfaction. Hypothesis 3b: Work expectation is positively related to job satisfaction. Hypothesis 3c: Technology is negatively related to job satisfaction. 2.9 Quality of Work Life QWL refers to the quality of human experience when interacting in the relationship between employees and organizations (Saklani, 2004). Well-being, happiness, and satisfaction with life are the most relevant human desires of QWL (Ruzevicius & Valiukaite, 2017). Establishing WLB leads to increased productivity and motivation, decreased absenteeism, and reduced psychological problems among employees, which eventually contribute to quality of work life (Younesi & Jad, 2015). Balance between work and family is a very good indicator to predict QWL (Beh, 2006). Shadab & Arif (2015) stated that proper balance between work and life gratifies employees' emotional needs and consequently contributes to better results regarding their QWL. Hussain & Saleem (2014) found that WLB actually affects the overall quality of working life and, in turn, affects the commitment of employees. They concluded that work balance policies provide a solid foundation for building an extremely conducive culture in a company in Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 9 Mona Ratnesh, Gaitri Kumari: Antecedents and Consequences of Work-life Balance: A Study of Selected Organizational Factors Among Female Bank Employees which employees feel valued. It also enhances the employees' voluntary involvement in the workplace. Quality of work life is a result of good job design (Zare & Janani, 2015). This means that employees perceive high QWL if their jobs are challenging and enjoyable. Moreover, the establishment of QWL requires interaction between the worker, job content, and the working environment (Bagtasos, 2011). Hypothesis 4: Organizational culture is positively related to QWL. 2.10 Job Autonomy Job autonomy is "the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence and discretion in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out" (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). Studies have revealed that job autonomy is related to a low level of reported work-life imbalance (Lapierre & Allen, 2012). This is not surprising, because autonomy allows an individual to control the time and even the place of work to achieve a better balance between the demands of the family and the job. Job autonomy is a job characteristic or work domain variable which influences work-life balance. Job autonomy is a capability of employees which can help them to devise a certain flexibility which empowers employees to become involved in the non-work domain. Furthermore, more work flexibility also may help employees to confront the stress created by work demands (Walia, 2014). Voydanoff (2004) considered job autonomy to be a resource for work and found that it is positively related to work-family facilitation and negatively related to work-family conflict. Schedule control is control over the timing and location of paid work, and can be particularly significant in implementing flexibility related to work-life balance (Glavin & Schieman, 2012). Hypothesis 5a: Organizational culture is positively related to job autonomy. Hypothesis 5b: Technology is negatively related to job autonomy. 3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Model Hypotheses The study used an exploratory framework employing survey research to examine the antecedents and consequences of work-life balance in an organizational context. To examine the relationships among the antecedent and the consequence variables of work-life balance, the aforementioned hypotheses were examined. 3.2 Sample and collection of data The data were collected from 300 female employees of private sector banks. All the respondents were randomly selected through purposive sampling from different private banks in India. Data were collected from female employees of the following private sector banks: ICICI, HDFC, Axis Bank, Kotak Mahindra, Yes Bank, Indusind Bank, and Bandhan Bank. The survey respondents belonged to top, middle, and lower levels of the hierarchy. The age of the participants ranged between 25 and 50 years. Their marital, social, and economic status was not taken into consideration. To eliminate prejudices, the anonymity and confidentiality of participants were established. A total of 380 questionnaires were distributed to the female employees; 318 completed questionnaires were received from the respondents, a return rate of 83.6 %. Of the 318 questionnaires, 18 questionnaires were eliminated due to insufficient data, leaving an overall sample size of 300. Therefore, for the final analysis, 94.3 % of the returned survey forms were used. 3.3 Measures A self-developed WLB questionnaire, presented in the Appendix, was used to evaluate different organizational factors which constitute work-life balance, because the existing scale of WLB was used in a different cultural context with different variables. The organizational factors were workload, organizational culture, job involvement, work expectation, technology, work performance, turnover, quality of work life, job satisfaction, and job autonomy. This scale contained 50 items spread over 10 dimensions. All the items were rated on five-point scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree, with a total score ranging from 50 to 250. 10 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 3.4 Reliability of Variables 3.5 Factor Analysis A self-made questionnaire measured the variables. The result indicated that most of the variables met the threshold for internal consistency among variables (Cronbach's alpha = 0.7). The Cronbach's alpha values were as follows: work load = 0.71; organisational culture = 0.84; job involvement = 0.69; work expectation = 0.68; technology = 0.80; work performance = 0.67; turnover = 0.76; QWL = 0.65; job satisfaction = 0.66, and job autonomy = 0.70. Cronbach's alpha for a few variables was above 0.60 but less than 0.70; we decided to keep all the items because measures with Cronbach's alpha over 0.60 are considered reliable (DeVellis, 2012). The Kaiser-Meyer-Oklin (KMO) score was 0.783, which indicates that the sample was appropriate (Table 1). The p-value (significance) of 0.000 was less than 0.05, and hence factor analysis could be done. The approximate chi-squared was 2005.199 with 80 degrees of freedom (Df), which is significant at the 95 % level of significance. a. Total Variance Explained It was found that 5.71 % of the variance was explained by the first factor considered to summarize 10 variables for organizational culture, the second Figure 1: Research model with hypotheses. Table 1: KMO and Bartlett's Test. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy 0.783 Approximate chi-squared 205.199 Bartlett's test of sphericity Df 80 0.000 Significance Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 11 Mona Ratnesh, Gaitri Kumari: Antecedents and Consequences of Work-life Balance: A Study of Selected Organizational Factors Among Female Bank Employees factor which was considered to summarize nine variables was able to explain 4.96 % for technology, the third factor was considered to summarize eight variables and explained 4.89 % of the variance for work load, 4.69 % of the variance was explained by the fourth factor considered to summarize seven variables for work performance for job satisfaction, the fifth factor which was considered to summarize six variables explained 3.50 % of the variance for work performance, the sixth factor was considered to summarize five variables and explained 3.48 % of the vari- ance for job autonomy, 3.40 % of the variance was explained by the seventh factor considered to summarize four variables for work expectation, the eighth factor was considered to summarize three variables explained 3.23 % of the variance for turnover, the ninth factor which was considered to summarize two variables explained 3.21 % of the variance for QWL, and the remaining variables explained 2.89 % of the variance forming the 10th factor for job involvement. All together, these 10 factors were able to explain 71.72 % of the variance. Table 2: Total Variance Explained Component Initial eigenvalues Extraction sum of squared loadings Rotation sum of squared loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % 1 6.097 11.725 11.725 6.097 11.725 11.725 2.971 5.713 40.816 2 3.554 6.835 18.560 3.554 6.835 18.560 2.581 4.963 44.676 3 2.959 5.691 24.251 2.959 5.691 24.251 2.546 4.896 48.391 4 2.710 5.211 29.462 2.710 5.211 29.462 2.443 4.697 52.015 5 1.335 2.567 60.570 1.335 2.567 60.570 1.823 3.505 55.520 6 1.322 2.542 63.111 1.322 2.542 63.111 1.812 3.485 59.004 7 1.261 2.425 65.536 1.261 2.425 65.536 1.768 3.400 62.405 8 1.117 2.147 67.684 1.117 2.147 67.684 1.673 3.238 65.622 9 1.062 2.042 69.725 1.062 2.042 69.725 1.671 3.213 68.835 10 1.041 2.001 71.727 1.041 2.001 71.727 1.504 2.892 71.727 11 0.995 1.913 73.640 12 0.964 1.854 75.494 13 0.872 1.676 77.170 14 0.795 1.530 78.700 15 0.770 1.481 80.181 16 0.751 1.445 81.626 17 0.719 1.382 83.008 18 0.656 1.261 84.268 19 0.625 1.203 85.471 20 0.603 1.160 86.632 21 0.543 1.044 87.675 22 0.495 0.952 88.627 23 0.482 0.928 89.555 24 0.477 0.917 90.472 25 0.446 0.857 91.329 26 0.416 0.799 92.128 27 0.391 0.751 92.879 28 0.363 0.699 93.578 29 0.343 0.659 94.237 30 0.304 0.585 94.822 12 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 31 0.294 0.565 95.387 32 0.275 0.529 95.916 33 0.263 0.505 96.421 34 0.246 0.473 96.894 35 0.221 0.425 97.319 36 0.215 0.413 97.732 37 0.203 0.390 98.122 38 0.181 0.348 98.470 39 0.161 0.310 98.781 40 0.156 0.300 99.080 41 0.135 0.259 99.339 42 0.130 0.251 99.590 43 0.111 0.214 99.804 44 0.102 0.196 100.000 Extraction method: Principal component analysis. 4. RESULTS The results of multiple regression analyses are presented in Table 3. To examine the significant impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable, a set of models was developed and tested with stepwise multiple regression analyses. Model 1 showed that organizational culture (P = 0.38) significantly predicted work performance and explained 15.8 % of the variance (F = 55.73, p < 0.001), confirming Hypothesis 1a regarding the positive relationship between organizational culture and work performance. It has been found that culture results in a competitive edge and continues to remain as a positive influence on work performance (Bog-danowicz, 2014). When the culture of an organization imposes greater emphasis on the well-being of their employees, it could lead to a substantial benefit for the organization in terms of productivity and performance improvements, while reducing attrition, absences, and recruitment costs (Bhavani et al., 2015). The findings also revealed that technology (P = 0.18) is positively and significantly related to work performance (Hypothesis 1b), and explained 19 % of the variance (F = 34.81, p < 0.01). The result was expected, and was consistent with previous research. Technology enables greater efficiency and mobility at work, permitting employees to work from any place and at any time (Chatterjee et al., 2017). High-quality advanced technology enhances employee satisfaction and ultimately improves the performance of employees (Obeng & Mkhize, 2017). Model 2 showed that work load (P = 0.30) had a significant positive impact on the criterion variable turnover and explained 9 % of the variance (F = 29.61, p < 0.001). The results support the hypothesised relationship (Hypothesis 2) between work load and turnover. Workload is a consequence of role overload, which has increased from personal work to various roles in an organization and not only creates stress and job dissatisfaction but also leads to turnover. The result was supported by previous studies; Cho (2011) also asserted that workload and role ambiguity had a significant influence on turnover. Excessive workload may affect health and cause negative emotions, leading to burnout, and would influence turnover of employees (Deepak 2013). Model 3 involved the findings regarding job satisfaction and showed that organisational culture (P = 0.36) significantly influences job satisfaction, and explained the 16 % of the variance (F = 58.34, p < 0.001). Thus, the result supported Hypothesis 3a. A supportive culture of an organization affects an employee's attitude towards their work, which ultimately leads to job satisfaction. Organizations in which employees believe that their performance is appreciated have a high level of job satisfaction (Platonova et al. 2006). Silverthorne (2004) also confirmed that employee job satisfaction is determined by the supportive organizational culture. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 13 Mona Ratnesh, Gaitri Kumari: Antecedents and Consequences of Work-life Balance: A Study of Selected Organizational Factors Among Female Bank Employees The results also indicated that work expectation (P = 0.16) positively predicted job satisfaction (Hypothesis 3b) and explained 18 % of the variance (F = 34.47, p < 0.05). Employees have aspirations for jobs, and employers should address these expectations, which will provide an opportunity for employees to adopt and exhibit acceptable work behavior, which would enhance job satisfaction (Ayinla, 2006). Technology (P = -0.10) significantly but negatively predicted job satisfaction and explained 20 % of the variance (F = 24.61, p < 0.05). Thus, the hypothesis of a negative relationship between technology and job satisfaction (Hypothesis 3c) was supported. Technological advancement provides an unprecedented extent of electronic vigilance and supervision of employees and work (Holland, Cooper, & Hecker, 2015). This leads to significant negative effects on employees and work, which influences job satisfaction. Model 4 indicates the model summary of a single independent variable in the model. The findings indicated that organizational culture (P = 0.24) positively related to QWL and explained 9.1 % of the variance (F = 29.84, p < 0.001), confirming Hypothesis 4 about the positive relationship between organizational culture and QWL. Organizational culture forms the cultural environment to which individuals are exposed and respond. The findings were expected, and were consistent with those of previous studies. Baitul Islam (2012) found that an effective organizational culture, appropriate compensation policy, career development, and relative amenities ensure employee satisfaction and enrich QWL, resulting in overall organizational efficiency. Model 5 involved the findings regarding job autonomy and showed that organizational culture significantly predicted job autonomy (P = 0.26), explaining 11 % of the variance (F = 37.28, p < 0.001). Thus, the results support the hypothesized relationship (Hypothesis 5a) between organizational culture and job autonomy. Autonomy is an expression of a supportive organizational culture and trust, permitting the employee to carry out their tasks independently, split time, and work according to their preference. The result was supported by previous studies, which found that employees perceive autonomy as support and trust which is embedded in the culture of an organization (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Coyle-Shapiro & Conway (2005) also found a significant association between supportive organizational practices, such as autonomy, and organizational culture. The results also indicated that technology significantly but negatively predicted job autonomy (P = -0.11), explaining 16 % of the variance (F = 17.57, p < 0.05). Thus, Hypothesis 5b regarding a negative relationship between technology and job autonomy is supported. Technology is a double-edged sword. On the one hand, technology is appreciated as empowering employees by emancipating their jobs from time and space constraints (Chatterjee et al., 2017); on the other hand, through consistent communications and control mechanisms, the same technologies have been found to escalate absolute control over work, (Mazmanian et al., 2013; Shklovski, Troshynski, & Dourish, 2015). When technology is used to control and monitor remotely, it has a significant negative impact on job autonomy (Shklovski et al., 2015). 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This study enhances the understanding of WLB by identifying organizational-level factors in the form of antecedents and consequences among female employees of private banks in India. Specifically, the study identified the significance of organizational-level antecedents and their consequences. On the basis of an extensive literature survey and the relevance of the factors, work load, organizational culture, job involvement, work expectation, and technology were taken as antecedents, and work performance, turnover, job satisfaction, quality of work life, and job autonomy were considered as consequences of WLB in the existing research. The results obtained through multiple regression analysis revealed that organizational culture and technology are the most important antecedents of work-life balance, because these variables influence work performance, job satisfaction, quality of work-life and job autonomy. The outcome suggests that an organization might ensure the WLB of their employees by improving their organizational culture and by controlling electronic vigilance and supervision of employees and work. 14 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Table 3: Regression results Criterion variable * Work performance Turnover Job satisfaction QWL Job autonomy Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 ß SE ß SE ß SE ß SE ß SE Predictor variable 4 Workload 0.30*** 0.039 Organizational culture 0.38*** 0.031 0.36*** 0.062 0.24*** 0.052 0.26*** 0.049 Job involvement Work expectation 0.16* 0.069 Technology 0.18** 0.048 -0.10* 0.094 -0.11* 0.074 R2 0.158 0.190 0.090 0.164 0.188 0.200 0.091 0.111 0.151 Adjusted R2 0.155 0.184 0.087 0.161 0.183 0.192 0.088 0.108 0.143 F 55.73 34.81 29.61 58.34 34.47 24.61 29.84 37.28 17.57 Notes: *Significant at the 0.05 level; ***Significant beyond 0.01 level. that banks in the private sector should attempt to evaluate and analyze the current status of WLB. This result indicates that policymakers in India should consider legalizing employee-friendly policies to increase WLB in general among employees. The findings of this study should be interpreted with consideration of the following limitations. This study focused only on female employees, with a sample size of only 300; a larger sample is needed to enhance the scope and generalizability. Future research should focus on comparative and cross-cultural study to create a more holistic view of WLB. This study examined the organizational factors of work-life balance through the employee perspective only. It is highly desirable to have a matched-sample approach that examines the perspective of both employees and employers. A further limitation of the study is that the data were from only private sector banks. Future studies should collect data from various public sector banks and other financial institutions to have a more holistic view. However, other organizational factors had a partial impact on different dimensions of work-life balance, and likely have positive benefits on mental and physical health and on improved job outcomes, including performance. Understanding WLB is likely to become more important as it becomes more difficult to create a healthy balance in this increasingly fast-paced world. This study has certain theoretical and practical implications. This study provides exploratory research aimed at understanding organizational factors in the form of antecedents and consequences responsible for WLB of female employees in private banks. Our findings suggest that organizations should ensure a supportive organizational culture which enables female employees to balance their personal and professional lives (Hammer et al., 2011). Furthermore, identifying organizational-level antecedents may be key for achieving WLB that results in greater job satisfaction, work performance, and QWL. This has significance for organizations that, in addition to assessing their work-life conflict, should ensure that their workers' WLB is measured. The findings also suggest Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 15 Mona Ratnesh, Gaitri Kumari: Antecedents and Consequences of Work-life Balance: A Study of Selected Organizational Factors Among Female Bank Employees EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Študija opredeljuje najpomembnejše dejavnike, ki vplivajo na ravnotežje med delom in zasebnim življenjem (WLB) in posledice le-teh na organizacijski ravni. Vzorec je sestavljalo 300 žensk, zaposlenih v različnih zasebnih bankah. Podatki so bili zbrani s skrbno oblikovanim vprašalnikom, pri čemer je bila uporabljena tehnika naključnega vzorčenja, podatki pa so bili analizirani z multiplo regresijsko analizo. Študija je opredelila nekatere organizacijske vidike ravnotežja med delom in zasebnim življenjem, kot so delovna obremenitev, organizacijska kultura, vključenost v delo, pričakovanje o delu in tehnologija. Kot posledice WLB pa je obravnavala delovno uspešnost, fluktuacijo pri delu, zadovoljstvo na delovnem mestu, kakovost ravnotežja med delom in zasebnim življenja in avtonomijo delovnega mesta. Rezultati so razkrili, da sta organizacijska kultura in tehnologija najpomembnejši predpostavki ravnotežja med delom in življenjem, saj te spremenljivke vplivajo na delovno uspešnost, zadovoljstvo delovnih mest, kakovost delovnega življenja in avtonomijo delovnih mest, medtem ko delovna obremenitev in pričakovanje o delu škodljivo vplivajo na fluktuacijo pri delu. REFERENCES Abdus, A. (2015). Impact of Life and Job Domain Characteristics on Work Life Balance of Textile Employees in Pakistan. Science International (Lahore), 27(3), 2409-2416. Adkins, C. L. & Premeaux, S. F. (2012). Spending Time: The Impact of Hours Worked on Work-Family Conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80, 380-389. Agbozo, G., Owusu, I., Hoedoafia, M. & Atakorah, Y. (2017). The Effect of Work Environment on Job Satisfaction: Evidence from the Banking Sector in Ghana. Journal of Human Resource Management. 5(1), 12-18. Anis, A., Rehman, K., Rehman, I., Khan, M. A., & Humay-oun, A. A. (2011). "Impact of Organizational Commitment on Job Satisfaction and Employee Retention in Pharmaceutical Industry." African Journal of Business Management, 5, 7316-7324. Arulraja, A. & Opatha, H. (2012). An Exploratory Study on the Personal Qualities/Characteristics Expected by the Organizations for Key HRM jobs in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan Journal of Human Resource Management, 3(1), 32-48. Aryee, S., Srinivas, E. S. & Tan, H. H. (2005). Rhythms of Life: Antecedents and Outcomes of Work-Family Balance in Employed Parents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(1), 132-146. Ayinla. (2006). Strategic Human Resource Management: A Process Approach. Mulink Publishing House, Lagos. Bagtasos, M. R. (2011). Quality of Work Life: A Review of Literature. DLSU Business & Economics Review, 20(2), 1-8. Beh, L. (2006). "Predicting Quality of Work Life: The Implications of Career Dimensions," Proceedings of the International Conference on Business and Information. Academy of Taiwan Information Systems Research, 3(1). Baitul Islam, M. (2012). Factors Affecting Quality of Work Life: An Analysis on Employees of Private Limited Companies in Bangladesh. Global Journal of Management and Business Research, 12(18): 22-31. Bardoel, A., Tharenou, P. & Ristov, D. (2000). The Changing Composition of the Australian Workforce relevant to work-family issues. International Human Resource Issues, 1(1), 58-80. Berg, P., Kalleberg, A.L. & Appelbaum, E. (2003). Balancing Work and Family: The Role of High Commitment Environment. Industrial Relations A Journal of Economy and Society, 42(2), 168 - 188. Bhavani, G. S., et. al. (2015). Novel and recurrent mutations in WISP3 and an atypical phenotype. Americal Journal of Medical Genet part, 167A(10), 2481-2484. Bogdanowicz, M. (2014). Organizational Culture as a Source of Competitive Advantage - Case Study of a Telecommunication Company in Poland. International Journal of Contemporary Management, 13, 53-66. Bothma, F.C. & Roodt, G. 2012. 'Work-Based Identity and Work Engagement as Potential Antecedents of Task Performance and Turnover Intention: Unravelling a Complex Relationship'. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 38(1). Bothma, F.C. & Roodt, G. (2013). 'The Validation of the Turnover Intention Scale'. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(1), 507-519. Brough, P., Timms, C., O'Driscoll, M., Kalliath, T., Siu, O.L., Sit, C. & Lo, D. (2014). Work Life Balance: A Longitudinal Evaluation of a New Measure across Australia and New Zealand Workers. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(19), 2724-2744. 16 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Caillier, J. G. (2016). Does Satisfaction with Family-Friendly Programs Reduce Turnover? A Panel Study Conducted in U.S. Federal Agencies. Public Personnel Management, 45 (3), 284-307. Carlson, D. & Kacmar, K. (2000). Work-Family Conflict in the Organization: Do Life Role Values Make a Difference? Journal of Management, 26, (5), 1031-1054. Chatterjee, S., Sarker, S. & Siponen, M. (2017). How Do Mobile ICTs Enable Organisational Fluidity: Toward a Theoretical Framework. Information & Management, 54(1), 1-13. Cho, S. H. (2011). An influence of care giver's job characteristics on organizational effectiveness: Focus on moderating role of growth needs and mediating role of self-efficacy (Doctorate thesis). Hoseo University Graduate School, Asan. Clark, S. (2001). Work Cultures and Work/Family Balance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58, 348-365. Coyle-Shapiro, J. A. & Conway, N. (2005). Exchange Relationships: Examining Psychological Contracts and Perceived Organizational Support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(4), 774. Darcy, C. & Carthy, A. M. (2007). Work-family conflict: An exploration of the differential effects of a dependent child's age on working parents. Journal of European Industrial Training, 31 (7), 530-549. Dauda, D.Y. & Akingbade, W.A. (2011). Technology Innovation and Nigeria Banks Performance: The Assessment of Employee's and Customer's Response. American Journal of Social and Management Sciences, 2(3), 329-340. Deepak, B.A. (2013). Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorders Among Hospital Nurses in Rural Maharashtra, India: A Multi Centre Survey. Int J Res Med Sci, 2320-6012. DeVellis, R. (2012). Scale Development Theory and Applications (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. Duxbury, L. & Higgins, C. (2003). Work-life conflict in Canada in the new millennium: A status report. Retrieved June 28, 2005, from the Public Health Agency of Canada. Eby, L. T., Casper, W. J., Lockwood, A., Bordeaux, C., & Brinley, A. (2005). Work and family research in IO/OB: Content analysis and review of the literature (19802002). Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66(1), 124-197. Frone, M. R. (2003). Work-family balance. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 143-162). Fu, C. K. & Shaffer, M. A. (2000). The Tug of Work and Family: Direct and Indirect Domain-Specific Determinants of Work-Family Conflict. Personnel Review, 30(5), 502-522. Glavin, P., & Schieman, S. (2012). Work-Family Role Blurring and Work-Family Conflict. Work and Occupations, 39(1), 71-98. Gonzalez, J. & Grazzo, T. (2006). Structural Relationships between Organizational Service Orientation, Contact Employee Job Satisfaction and Citizenship Behavior. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 17(1), 23-50. Greenhaus, Jeffrey., & Beutell, Nicholas. (1985). Sources of Conflict between Work and Family Roles. Academy of Management Review, 10, 76-88. Greenhaus, J. H., Parasuraman, S. & Collins, K. M. (2001). Career Involvement and Family Involvement as Moderators of Relationships between Work-Family Conflict and Withdrawal from a Profession. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6(2), 91-100. Grzywac, J.G. & Marks, N.F. (2000). Reconceptualizing the Work-Family Interface: An Ecological Perspective on the Correlates of Positive and Negative Spillover between Work and Family. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 111-126. Haar, J., Russo, M., Sunyer, A. & Ollier-Malaterre, A. (2014). Outcomes of Work-Life Balance on Job Satisfaction, Life Satisfaction and Mental Health: A Study across Seven Cultures. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 85, 361-373. Haar, J., Sunyer, A., Russo, M. & Ollier-Malaterre, A. (2019). A Cross-National Study on the Antecedents of Work-Life Balance from the Fit and Balance Perspective. Social Indicators Research, 142(9). Hackman, J. R. & Oldham, G. R. (1975). Development of the Job Diagnostic Survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(2), 159-170. Hammer, Leslie & Kossek, Ellen & Anger, W Kent & Bodner, Todd & Zimmerman, Kristi. (2011). Clarifying Work-Family Intervention Processes: The Roles of Work-Family Conflict and Family-Supportive Supervisor Behaviors. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 134-50. Hill, E. J., Yang, C., Hawkins, A. J. & Feiris, M. (2004). A Cross-Cultural Test of the Work-Family Interface in 48 Countries. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 1300-1316. Holland, P., Cooper, B. & Hecker, R. (2015). Electronic Monitoring and Surveillance in the Workplace: The Effects on Trust in Management, and the Moderating Role of Occupational Type. Personnel Review, 44, 1-27. Hussain, T. & Saleem, S. (2014). Do Employees' Job Satisfaction, Involvement and Commitment Mediate Relationship Between Quality of Work Life and Employees' Retention? World Applied Sciences Journal, 30(2), 245-252. Jacobs, E.J. & Roodt, G. (2011). The Mediating Effect of Knowledge Sharing between Organisational Culture and Turnover Intentions of Professional Nurses. SA Journal of Information Management, 13(1). Karatepe, O. M. (2013). High-Performance Work Practices and Hotel Employee Performance: The Mediation of Work Engagement. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 32, 132-140. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 17 Mona Ratnesh, Gaitri Kumari: Antecedents and Consequences of Work-life Balance: A Study of Selected Organizational Factors Among Female Bank Employees Khani A., Jaafarpour, M. & Dyrekvandmogadam, A. (2007). Quality of Nursing Work Life. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 2(6), 1169-1174. Kinnunen, U., Feldt, T., Mauno, S. & Rantanen, J. (2010). Interface between Work and Family: A Longitudinal Individual and Crossover Perspective. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(1), 119-137. Kirchmeyer, C. (2000). Work-Life Initiatives: Greed or Benevolence Regarding Workers' Time? In C. L. Cooper & D. M. Rousseau (Eds.), Trends in organizational behavior, Vol. 7. Time in organizational behavior (pp. 7993). New York, NY, US: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Konrad, A. M., & Mangel, R. (2000). "The Impact of Work-Life Programs on Firm Productivity". Strategic Management Journal, 21(12), 1225-1237. Kruse, K. (2017, January 23). Work-Life Balance: Tips From 24 Entrepreneurs Boiled Down To 1. Retrieved from https://www.forbes. com/sites/kevinkruse/2017/-01/23/work-life-balance-tips-from-24- entrepreneurs-boiled-down-to-1/#317d20b23023 Lambert. (Eds.), Work and Life Integration: Organizational, Cultural, and Individual Perspectives. (pp. 4359). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Lapierre, L. & Allen, Tammy. (2012). Control at Work, Control at Home, and Planning Behavior: Implications for Work-Family Conflict. Journal of Management, 38(5), 1500-1516. Lingard, H. (2003). The Impact of Individual and Job Characteristics on Burnout among Civil Engineers in Australia and the Implications for Employee Turnover. Construction Management and Economics, 21(1), 69-80. Major, V. S., Klein, K. J. & Ehrhart, M. G. (2002). Work Time, Work Interference with Family, and Psychological Distress. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 427-436. Mazmanian, M., Orlikowski, W. J. & Yates, J. (2013). The Autonomy Paradox: The Implications of Mobile Email Devices for Knowledge Professionals. Organization Science, 24(5), 1337-1357. McGinn, K. & Oh, E. (2017). Gender, Social Class, and Women's Employment. Current Opinion in Psychology. 18, 84-88. Michelle, T. (2013),"The Development of a Work-Life Fit Model: A Demands and Resources Approach". International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 6(4), 792 - 801. Milliken, F. J. & Dunn-Jensen, L. M. (2005). The changing time demands of managerial and professional work: Implications for managing the work-life boundary. In E. E. Kossek., & S. J. Moen, P. & Yu, Y. (2000). Effective Work/Life Strategies: Working Couples, Work Conditions, Gender, and Life Quality. Social Problems, 47, 291-326. Mumford, M.D. (2000), Managing Creative People: Strategies and Tactics for Innovation. Human Resource Management Review, 10(3), 313-351. Munn, S. & Chaudhuri, S. (2015). Work-Life Balance: A Cross-Cultural Review of Dual-Earner Couples in India and the United States. Advances in Developing Human Resources. 18(1), 1-15. Naithani, P. (2010). Recession & Work Life Balance Initiatives. Romanian Journal of economic forecasting, 13 (37), 55-68. Nawab, S. & Iqbal, S. (2013). Impact of Work-Family Conflict on Job Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction. Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 3(7), 101-110. Noor, N. M. (2002). The Moderating Effect of Spouse Support on the Relationship between Work Variables and Women's Work-Family Conflict. Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient, 45(1), 12-23. Obeng, A. Y. & Mkhize, P. L. (2017). An Exploratory Analysis of Employees and Customers' Responses in Determining the Technological Innovativeness of Banks. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 80(1), 1-23. Platonova, E. A., Hernandez, R. S., Shewchuk, R. M. & Leddy, K. M. (2006). Study of Relationship between Organizational Culture and Organizational Outcomes Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling Methodology. Quality Management in Health Care, 15 (3), 200-209. Pocock, B. (2003). The work-life collision: what work is doing to Australians and what to do about it, Le-ichardt. Federation Press. Pradhan, G. (2016). Work-Life Balance among Working Women- A Cross-Cultural Review (Working Paper No. 365). Rajadhyaksha, U. & Velgach, S. (2009). Gender, Gender Role Ideology and Work-Family Conflict in India. Academy of Management, Chicago, IL, USA. Ratnasari, D. (2015). Effect of Expectation Levels and Service Performance on Community Satisfaction Levels through Confirmation as Intervening Variables (Study on Surabaya Municipality Population and Civil Registry Service). Public Policy and Management, 3(1), 1-12. Rhoades, L. & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived Organizational Support: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 698. Rife, A. A.,& Hall, R.J. ( 2015) Work-Life Balance, Re-treived from the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology data base, Retrieved from www.siop.org/WhitePapers/WorkLifeBalance. pdf. Rothbard, N. P. & Ollier-Malaterre, A. (2015). Boundary management. In T. D. Allen & L. T. Eby (Eds.), Oxford handbook of work and family (pp. 109-124). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 18 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Ruzevicius, J. & Valiukaite, J. (2017). Quality of life and quality of work life balance: Case study of public and private sectors of Lithuania. Quality - Access to Success, 18, 77-81. Sabherwal, R. & Chan, Y. E. (2001). Alignment between Business and IS Strategies: A Study of Prospectors, Analysers and Defenders. Information Systems Research, 12(1), 11-33. Saklani, D.R. (2004). Quality of Work Life in the Indian Context: An Empirical Investigation. Decision. Decision, 31,101-135. Salazar, C. (2001). Building Boundaries and Negotiating Work at Home. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 43, 162-170. Saltzstein, A.L., Ting, Y. & Saltzstein, G.H. (2001). Work-Family Balance and Job Satisfaction: The Impact of Family-Friendly Policies on Attitudes of Federal Government Employees. Public Administration Review, 61, 452-467. Samad, S. (2007). Assessing the Effects of Job Satisfaction and Psychological Contract on Organizational Commitment among Employees in Malaysian SMEs. The 4'" SMEs in a Global Economy Conference, 2007. Schneider, B., Ehrhart, M. & Macey, W. (2012). Organizational Climate and Culture. Annual review of psychology, 64, 361-388. Shadab, M. & Arif, K. (2015). Impact of Work - Life Balance on Job Satisfaction: A Case of Health Care Services in Pakistan. Developing Country Studies, 5 (9), 132-139. Sharma, J.P., & Bajpai, N. (2010). Organizational Commitment and its Impact on Job satisfaction of Employees: A Comparative Study in Public and Private Sector in India. International Bulletin of Business Administration, 9, 7-19. Shklovski, I., Troshynski, E. & Dourish, P. (2015). Mobile Technologies and the Spatiotemporal Configurations of Institutional Practice. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 66(10), 2098-2115. Silverthorne, C. (2004). The Impact of Organizational Culture and Person Organization Fit on Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction in Taiwan. Leadership amp; Organization Development Journal, 25, 592-9. Smith, K., Smith, M. & Brower, T. (2010). An Examination of Work Life Balance Perspectives of Accountants. International Journal of Critical Accounting, 3, 367-383. Suifan., Abdallah. & Diab. (2016). The Influence of Work Life Balance on Turnover Intention in Private Hospitals: The Mediating Role of Work Life Conflict. European Journal of Business and Management, 8, 126-139. Sturges, J. & Guest, D. (2004). Working to Live or Living to Work? Work/Life Balance Early in the Career. Human Resource Management Journal, 14(4), 5-20. Tharmalingam, S. D. & Bhatti, M. A. (2014). Work-Family Conflict: An Investigation on Job Involvement, Role Ambiguity and Job Demand: Moderated by Social Support. Journal of Human Resource Management, 2(3), 52-62. Thompson, C., Beauvais, L. L. & Lyness, K. S., (1999). When Work-Family Benefits are not Enough: The Influence of Work-Family Culture on Benefit Utilization, Organizational Attachment, and Work-Family Conflict. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 54, 392-415. Towers, I., Duxbury, L., Higgins, C. & Thomas, A. (2006). Time thieves and space invaders: Technology work and the organization. Organisation Change Management, 19, 593-618. Valk, R. & Srinivasan, V. (2011). Work-Family Balance of Indian Women Software Professionals: A Qualitative Study. IIMB Management Review, 23(1), 3-3. Valcour, P. M., & Hunter, L. W. (2005). Technology, organizations, and work-life integration. In E. E. Kossek., & S. J. Lambert (Eds.), Work and life integration: Organizational, cultural, and individual perspectives. (pp. 61-84). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Voydanoff, P. (2004). The Effects of Work Demands and Resources on Work-to-Family Conflict and Facilitation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(2), 398-412. Walia, P. (2014). Work-Life Balance in Relation to Task Variety and Task Autonomy: A Study of Bank Employees. Journal of Strategic Human Resource Management, 3(1), 10-15. Wang, Wei. & Zhang, Yi. (2015). "From ITS Satisfaction to Job Satisfaction: Understanding the Role of User-Technology Fit". PACIS 2015 Proceedings. Paper 154. Wang, P. & Walumbwa, F.O. (2007). "Family Friendly Programs, Organizational Commitment and Work Withdrawal: The Moderating Effect of Transformational Leadership". Personnel Psychology, 60(2), 397-427. Wesley, J.R. & Muthuswamy, P.R. (2005). Work Family Conflict in India- An Empirical Study. SCMS Journal of Indian Management, 2(4), 95-102. Younesi, AD. & Jad, M. (2015). Surveying the Effect of Work-Life Balance on Quality of Life (Case Study: Hospitals of Sanandaj). Hospital, 14(1), 85-96. Yousef, D. A. (2000). The Interactive Effects of Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity on Job Satisfaction and Attitudes toward Organizational Change: A Moderated Multiple Regression Approach. International Journal of Stress Management, 7(4), 289-303. Zare, K. & Janani, H. (2015). Correlation between Quality of Work Life and Efficiency of Managers of Sports Clubs in City of Tabriz. International Journal of Sport Studies, 5, 410-414. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 19 Mona Ratnesh, Gaitri Kumari: Antecedents and Consequences of Work-life Balance: A Study of Selected Organizational Factors Among Female Bank Employees Appendix Work-Life Balance Factors Questionnaire Instructions: The following statements are possible feelings about your work as well as your life. Please read each statement carefully and give your response in a manner given below: - Assign '5' to the statement of "high agreement" - Assign '4' to the statement of "agreement" - Assign '3' to the statement for which you have "neutral" opinion - Assign '2' to the statement of "disagreement" - Assign '1' to the statement of "high disagreement" Work Load S. No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 1 My responsibility at work increases my workload. 2 I feel physically drained when I get back to home from the work. 3 I am in a hurry to get everything done each day. 4 I feel that family life interferes with my work. 5 My time of work does not match well with other family members' schedule. 6 I plan my work and perform them orderly without any delay. Organizational Culture S. No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 1 The atmosphere in this organization is very friendly and people spend enough time in informal social relations. 2 Here people have high concern for one another and help each other spontaneously when such help is needed. 3 Through regular meetings and joint forums, employees are actively involved in solving day to day problems. 4 Before taking any important decision, the management always consults the employees here. 5 Our organization has a set of rules and regulations which are followed more by the job. Job Involvement S. No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 1 The most important things that happen to me are related to my present job. 2 I willingly accept all the assignments given to me. 3 Quite often I cut short my lunch hour to complete the job. 4 I do not mind over exerting myself on the job. 5 It annoys me to leave work unfinished. 20 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Work Expectation S. No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 1 I am ready to take more challenging opportunities at work. 2 I expect to receive adequate training when new systems are introduced in the organization. 3 I wish to get respect and work well with co-workers, customers and superior from diverse backgrounds 4 I want to segregate both my professional and personal life without any conflicts. 5 I hope that quality of work increases with adequate work-life balance. Technology S. No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 1 Using technology blurs boundaries between my job and my home life. 2 I do not get everything done at home because I find myself completing job-related work due to technology. 3 I am not able to fulfil my family roles because I am doing technology enabled work activities from home. 4 Use of technology enhances my effectiveness on the job. Work Performance S. No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 1 In my organization performance is always measured on target perspective. 2 I make rigorous attempts to achieve objectives and set targets. 3 I make rigorous efforts to improve my work skills. 4 My decisions and suggestions are supported/appreciated by my superiors. 5 Employees in my organization are always rewarded appropriately for their performance. Turnover/Attrition S. No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 1 Attrition is more because employees are getting better opportunity. 2 Authorities can fire anyone due to non-fulfilment of targets. 3 In this organization undue work pressure generally leads to turnover. 4 Employees leave organization because of family commitments. Job Satisfaction S. No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 1 I am satisfied with the challenging opportunities I get in the organization 2 I feel satisfactory with the training when new systems are introduced in the organization. 3 I am more satisfied with the flexibility of timings and targets 4 In my organization, communication of all rules, policies and procedures are very good. 5 I get proper feedback about my work performance from my superior. 6 I am satisfied with the separation of both my professional and personal life without any conflicts 7 I am satisfied with the career growth I have in my job. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 21 Mona Ratnesh, Gaitri Kumari: Antecedents and Consequences of Work-life Balance: A Study of Selected Organizational Factors Among Female Bank Employees Quality of Work Life S. No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 1 Organization gives us opportunity in decision making pertaining company's policies and functions. 2 Seniors generally encourage people to make use of their best efforts for good performance. 3 Seniors invite suggestions, opinions and ideas from their employees and consider them for improving organizational functioning. 4 Employees are trained & developed for additional duties & increased responsibilities. 5 There is a high cooperation between work groups in my organization Job Autonomy S. No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 1 I have a lot of freedom to perform work activity in my own best way. 2 I have a say in deciding how to schedule my work. 3 I can personally decide how much time I need for a specific activity. 4 I can interrupt my work for a short time if find it necessary. 22 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Vol. 10, No. 1, 23-44 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2021.v10n01a02 SELF-AWARENESS TRIGGER LEADING TO AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP: CONCEPTUALIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF RELIABLE AND VALID SELF-AWARENESS TRIGGER SCALE Beena Prakash Nair National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India beenani99@gmail.com Teegalapelly Prasad National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India tprasad@nitie.ac.in Shreekumar K. Nair National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India shreekumar@nitie.ac.in - Abstract - Various researchers have emphasized the role of self-awareness triggers (SATs) and their impact on authentic leadership, but a review of the literature shows a lack of conceptualisation and reliable scales to examine self-awareness triggers. Thus, this study developed a reliable and valid scale, and examined the role of self-awareness triggers in authentic leadership. The research was based on four separate studies to develop the scale and analyse the impact of the SAT on authentic leadership. In Study 1, the self-awareness trigger was operationalized, and items were generated using qualitative research. Study 2 conducted exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to examine the factor structure of the construct. Study 3 conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was to examine construct validity. Reliability and construct validity were assessed based on composite reliability, convergent validity, and divergent validity. Scale development led to a two-dimensional self-awareness trigger scale. Study 4 examined the impact of the SAT on authentic leadership. We collected data on authentic leadership from team members, and self-awareness trigger data from team leaders. Data were collected from full-time employees in the financial sector of India. The study had 471 dyads of team leaders and team members. Findings indicated that SAT is related positively to authentic leadership. Findings suggest that organizations proactively can enhance authentic leadership through SAT. Keywords: Authentic Leadership, Self-Awareness Triggers, Interpersonal Triggers, Internal Triggers 1. INTRODUCTION Over the last decade, an increasing number of academicians and practitioners have noted the need to adopt authentic leadership (AL) for sustainable business performance (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Cov-elli & Mason, 2017; George, 2003; Malik & Khan, 2019). There also is a demand from society for organizational leaders to not only emphasize generating profit, but maintain high levels of integrity and morality (Avolio, Walumbwa & Weber, 2008). Authentic leadership behavior provides not only the means to build an effective follower-leader relationship, but also to rebuild employee trust and foster corporate employee behavior (George & Sims, 2007). Authentic leadership is characterized by a leader's transparency, genuineness, openness, self-awareness, and clarity in behavior (Luthans & Avolio, 2003; Wang et al., 2014). Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 23 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale Defining the genuineness of leaders, George and Sims (2007) described authentic leaders as genuine individuals who do not act as per the expectations of others: "true to themselves and to what they believe in. Rather than letting the expectations of other people guide them, they are prepared to be their own person and go their own way" (p. xxxi). Wong and Cummins (2009) stated that "authentic leaders value and work to achieve transparency and truthfulness in their relationships by asking for feedback, listening and accepting other viewpoints, and acting on suggestions" (p. 2). Further explaining the openness and transparency of authentic leaders, Shrivastava (2018) and Tapara (2011) stated that authentic leaders tend to demonstrate openness and transparency by not hiding their vulnerability but by illustrating their ability to accept different views from various stakeholders. Kernis (2003) defined self-awareness as "having awareness of, and trust in, one's motives, feelings, desires, and self-relevant cognitions' (p. 13). This implies that through self-reflection, individuals become aware of their strengths, weakness, motives, and values. Nielsen, Mearns, and Larsson (2013) stated that "transparency, self-awareness, balanced processing, and moral perspectives are integrated parts in the leader-follower exchange that can contribute to worker perceptions of safety climate" (p. 322). Various studies have examined the positive impact of authentic leadership on individual and organizational outcomes, for example, organizational performance (e.g., Laraib & Hashmi, 2018; Ling et al., 2017; Luu, 2020; Ribeiro, Duarte & Filipe, 2018; Wong & Laschinger, 2013), job satisfaction (Rahimnia & Sharifirad, 2015; Wong & Laschinger, 2013), organizational commitment (e.g., Emuwa, 2013; Baker, 2020), trust in the leader (Wong et al., 2010; Maximo, Stander & Coxen, 2019), and unique vision (Loci, 2016). However, comparatively, few studies have examined antecedents of authentic leadership—e.g., psychological capital (Petersen & Youssef-Morgan, 2018) or emotional intelligence (Miao, Humphrey & Qian, 2018). A lifespan perspective requires analyzing leadership development to better understand the role of critical events or triggers that stimulate positive growth in leaders (Luthans & Avolio, 2003). Triggers were described by Luthans & Avolio (2003) as both positive and negative events that can lead to leadership development. Luthans and Avolio (2003) argued that "traditionally negative trigger events are considered to contribute significantly to leadership development, but we also believe that positive events can trigger leadership development" (p. 247). Substantiating this argument, drawing from the life stories approach, Shamir and Eilam (2005) stated that "reflection into key life events over the time facilitates positive self-development" (p. 398). Furthermore, a conceptual framework for authentic leadership and the follower's development model proposed by Gardner et al. (2005) postulates that "personal history and key trigger events as antecedents for authentic leadership development" (Gardner et al., 2005). Although various researchers have postulated the positive role of trigger events (e.g., Gardner et al., 2005; Luthans & Avolio, 2003; Shamir & Eilam, 2005), based on the authors' best knowledge, there is a lack of empirical study examining the relationship between self-awareness triggers and authentic leadership. Shannon (2020) explored trigger events and authentic leadership development through critical incident technique. Loci (2016, p. 46) described various factors that can contribute toward further "developing the unique vision of the authentic leaders are (e.g., past experience, education, modified identity, cognitive skills, self-awareness, self-regulation, self-integrity, level of creativity, level of ration)." A review of authentic leadership studies indicated a lack of conceptualization of self-awareness triggers. Gardner et al. (2011) call for examination of the role of self-awareness triggers by. We consider it a significant research gap that needs to be addressed. As leaders strive for self-excellence, self-awareness can play an important role and help the leaders to unlock their potential (Caldwell & Hayes, 2016). Drawing from positive organizational behavior (POB) (Luthans, 2002) and moral perspective-taking capacity and development, Luthans and Avolio (2003) described a positive organizational context as "culture [that] would itself be transparent, energizing, intellectually stimulating, and supportive of developing leaders and followers to their full potential" (p. 256). Positive organization context, life challenges, and trigger events can lead to positive self-development. The leader faces various difficulties in life and strives 24 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 through them. Furthermore, Yaacoub (2016) describes "authentic leaders venture into an in-ward journey to digest their experiences, learning from their ascriptive, biographical, and societal life challenges to explore their values and beliefs" (p.48). This leads to greater self-awareness. Further positive self-development provides self-awareness and self-regulation, leading to authentic leadership development in an individual (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Previous studies indicated that leaders in their lifespan experience both positive events—"for example, a new project that has never been done before; meeting a significant other in one's life who has an entirely different worldview; traveling to a distinctly different culture; working with a new associate who brings a new direction to your work" (p. 247)—and negative trigger events (such as the loss of a loved one, loss of a business deal, failure in business, and conflict). In such a context, Luthans and Avolio (2003) stated that, based on positive psychology and POB, leaders reflect on negative events to strengthen their authenticity through learned capacities such as confidence, hope, optimism, and resiliency, leading to self-awareness. Therefore, drawing from self-awareness theory and authentic leadership framework, we propose three key objectives of this study: (1) conceptualize self-awareness triggers; (2) develop a reliable and valid SAT scale; and (3) examine the impact of SAT on AL. To achieve the stated research objectives, we conducted four separate studies. In Study 1, self-awareness triggers were operationalized, and items were generated using narrative research and interviews with practicing senior leaders in the industry. Because the narrative approach assumes that a person feels, thinks, and acts from a "meaning system" which helps the narrator to analyze and interpret reality in a way that gives it a personal meaning (Kegan & Lahey, 1984), it was considered an appropriate qualitative method to generate items for developing the SAT scale. Study 2 conducted exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to examine the factor structure of the construct. Study 3 conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine construct validity. Reliability and construct validity were assessed based on composite reliability, convergent validity, and divergent validity. Study 4 examined the impact of the SAT on authentic leadership. This study makes an important theoretical and practical contribution to the authentic leadership literature. First, the study makes an important theoretical contribution by developing a self-awareness trigger scale. Second, by examining the role of SAT and authentic leadership, the study expands the nomological network of authentic leadership literature. Third, limited studies have examined authentic leadership constructs in the Indian context. As proposed by Cooper, Scandura & Schriesheim (2005), understanding and applying trigger events can become important pathways to develop authentic leadership development. Thus, this study is an important practical contribution for HR managers to develop authentic leaders through diverse programs using triggers and critical incidents through iterative loops and through subsequent reflections. This paper begins with a discussion of the theoretical background of authentic leadership and self-awareness. The second section presents Study 1 were SAT was operationalized, and items were generated using narrative research. In the third section, Study 2 applies EFA to examine the factor structure of the construct is presented. It is followed by Study 3, conducted to examine construct validity. Next session presents Study 4, analysing the impact of the SAT on authentic leadership. The paper concludes with a discussion of results, theoretical and practical contributions, limitations, and future research directions. 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Authentic Leadership Authentic leadership theories have emerged from the intersection of leadership, ethics, and the positive organizational behavior and scholarship literature over the past several years (Avolio, 2004; Cameron, Dutton & Quinn, 2003; Cooper & Nelson, 2006; Luthans & Avolio, 2003). Luthans and Avolio (2003) defined authentic leadership "as a process that draws from both positive psychological capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development" (p. 243). The concept of authenticity Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 25 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale can be traced back to the 1950s, when humanistic psychologists regarded authenticity as a reflection of the congruence between one's self-concept and immediate experiences (Rogers, 1963) or attainment of self-actualization (Maslow, 1968). Additionally, Erickson (1995) and Harter (2002) comprehensively reviewed the literature on authenticity. Recent conceptualizations of authenticity were influenced by self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1995). Based on the positive organizational scholarship theory, Luthans and Avolio (2003) proposed the developmental model of authentic leadership. According to their model, authentic leadership development is a dynamic lifespan process. Various trigger events during the different stages of life help to shape authentic leadership development. These experiences in life lead to the development of positive psychological capacities (confidence, hope, optimism, and resiliency). Likewise, Shamir and Eilam (2005) and Michie and Gooty (2005) proposed four key components of authentic leadership development, encompassing the development of a leader's identity as a central component of the person's self-concept, development of self-knowledge and self-concept clarity, development of goals that are concordant with the self-concept, and increasing self-expressive behavior. Luthans and Avolio (2003) stated that an authentic leader is driven by a set of terminal values that describes "what is right and fair and such leaders identify with their followers' by leading from the front, openly discussing their vulnerabilities and those of the followers, and constantly emphasizing the growth of followers" (p. 248). Thus, we argue that authentic leaders do not create a negative attitude toward their followers. Further substantiating the preceding argument, authentic leaders foster positive expectations and trust among followers so that leaders and followers can discuss issues openly and have transparency. Life stories help describe the relationship between life experiences and organized stories of the storyteller (Shamir & Eilam, 2005, p. 396). Kegan and Lahey (1984) stated that life stories provide leaders with a meaning system from which they can act authentically, that interprets reality and act in a way that gives their interpretations and actions a personal meaning (p. 220). Substantiating the preceding statement, Shamir and Eilam (2005) stated that "to develop an authentic leadership component, leaders must first have self-knowledge, self-concept clarity, and personal-role merger, which are derived from an understanding of the leader's life-story" (p. 406). Authentic leadership has been studied extensively by various researchers (Baker, 2020; Cha et al. 2019; Eriksen, 2009; Shannon, 2020; Vogel, Reichard, Batistic & Cerne, 2020; Weiss, Razinskas, Backmann & Hoegl, 2018). Some of the antecedents leading to the manifestation of authentic leadership are psychological capital, optimism, self-monitoring (Alilyyani et al., 2018; Peus et al., 2012). Additionally, studies have found that authentic leadership has a positive relationship with job satisfaction (Cerne et al., 2014; Penger & Cerne, 2014; job performance (Wei et al., 2018), organizational commitment (Gatling et al., 2016; Hassan & Ahmed, 2011; Stander et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2020), and the meaningfulness of work (Ashley & Reiter-Palmon, 2012; Monat, 2017; Morin, 2011). 2.2 Self-Awareness Most research conducted on self-awareness before 1972 was phenomenological in nature (Rime & LeBon, 1984). Drawing from self-awareness theory, Duval and Wicklund (1972) stated that any stimuli in one's environment that focus one's attention on the self can lead to a motivational state of self-awareness. Franzoi and Davis (1999) described self-awareness as the transient state of self-focus, and it can be either public or private. Public self-awareness considers the self as a social object, whereas private self-awareness considers it to be the inner self. Self-focus leads to a comparison of self with an ideal or standard, resulting in discrepancy (Franzoi, Davis & Markwiese, 1999). The discrepancy can motivate someone to escape, if possible, or reduce the discrepancy by regulating either standards or the self (Dana, Lalwani & Duval, 1997). An effective leader needs to integrate the standards of relevant stakeholders into their self (Tsui & Ashford, 1994). Carver and Scheier (1981) argued that self-awareness triggers a comparison between self and standards but that the regulation 26 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 is automatic and not motivational. Furthermore, private self-awareness leads to a comparison between the self and personal values, whereas public self-awareness results in a comparison between the self and others' values. For example, public self-awareness increases conformity, whereas private self-awareness leads to relative independence from the majority (Froming & Carver, 1981; Forming, Walker & Lopyan, 1982; Ashley & Reiter-Palmon, 2012; Eurich, 2018; Goukens et al., 2009; Monat, 2017; Morin, 2011; Showry, 2014) To study self-awareness. scales developed by Fenigstein, Scheier, and Buss (1975), Burnkrant and Page (1984), and Trapnell and Campbell (1999) were considered. The self-consciousness scale developed by Fenigstein, Scheier, and Buss (1975) describes self-consciousness as stable enough to be considered as a personality trait (Davis & Franzoi, 1991). The self-consciousness scale consists of three subscales: Private and public self-consciousness, and social anxiety. Trapnell and Campbell (1999) reassessed the psychometric characteristics of the self-consciousness scale. They showed that the private self-consciousness subscale measures two different constructs: self-reflection and self-rumination (Morin, 2002). Self-reflection represents a genuine curiosity in which an individual is interested in understanding their values, emotions, thought processes, and attitude, leading to self-knowledge and self-regulation. During self-rumination, a person keeps focus on self and is anxious as they keep wondering about their self-worth (Joire-man, Parrott & Hammersla, 2002). Spontaneously occurring fluctuations in self-awareness can be measured with the Situational Self-Awareness Scale developed by Govern and Marsch, (2001). The scale developed by Fenigstein, Scheier, and Buss (1975) recognized the aspects of self-reflection and attention but lacks factors leading to self-awareness. Although the self-awareness literature describes various self-awareness scales, for example, those of Burnkrant and Page (1984) and Trapnell and Campbell (1999), no empirical studies have examined self-awareness triggers. To address the research gap, the present research focused on conceptualizing and developing the SAT scale. 3. STUDIES 3.1 Study 1: Conceptualization and Item Generation for the Development of the Self- Awareness Trigger Scale Studies examining the role of self-awareness and authentic leadership are limited. Studies examining types of self-awareness triggers also are very few, and qualitative in nature. Furthermore, the authentic leadership literature also lacks operational-ization of self-awareness trigger constructs. Hence, this study conceptualized and generated items for the SAT scale, using both the deductive and the inductive methods. The inductive method adopted a qualitative study to explore items using the narrative research approach and interview method. The deductive method involved item generation based on an extensive literature review. By integrating objective self-awareness theory (Duval & Wicklund, 1972) and positive organizational behavior (Seligmann), this study explored the role of SAT and authentic leadership. According to the theory of objective self-awareness, self-awareness is a state in which an individual focuses on themself as an object of attention. An examination of the effects of self-awareness on self-regulatory behavior by social psychologists such as Duval and Wicklund (1972) proposed that self-directed behavior helps to align behavior with salient behavioral standards or values. In the authentic leadership development model, self-awareness, the self-regulation process, and positive modeling play an important role in achieving authenticity in both leaders and followers. Through self-reflection, a leader achieves greater self-awareness and becomes more aware of their values, identity, emotions, motives, and goals. The theory further states that when individuals focus attention inward, attention shifts to salient aspects of self. Drawing from the authentic leadership development framework (Avolio et al., 2005; Cooper et al., 2005; Turner et al., 1978), trigger events are described as a catalyst which can be perceived as positive or negative, leading to a heightened level of self-awareness (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans & May 2004). Cooper et al. (2005) asserted that individuals need time to experience Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 27 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale various trigger events and then to reflect upon them, which influences moral development. Highly self-conscious people use imagery as a mechanism for self-reflection (Turner et al., 1978). The impact of the role of trigger events on authentic leadership can be affected by various moderators such as the psychological capital of the leader, the socio-moral climate of the organization, a climate of trust, and core self-evaluation. Previous studies examined the moderating role of psychological capital (Woolley, Caza & Levy, 2011), organization culture (Zubair & Kamal, 2016), trust (Erkutlu & Chafra, 2013), and self-efficacy of the leader in an authentic leadership context. Traditionally, trigger events have been viewed as negative events involving crisis, trauma, loss of a loved one, health problems, or financial hardship, but positive events (for example, a voluntary decision to change careers, a major promotion with expanded responsibility, or an international assignment) likewise can trigger self-awareness leading to leadership development (Avolio et al., 2005). Both positive and negative triggers continuously shape the development of a leader based on the extent to which they are reflected upon and interpreted in terms of the self. Puente, Crous & Venter (2007) explored the role of the positive trigger, because most of the triggers assumed are ma-jorly negative. Their findings indicated that appreciative inquiry has potential as a positive trigger for authentic leadership development. Additionally, Shannon (2020) examined the role of the trigger on authentic leadership development using qualitative interviews and critical incident tech-nique(CIT). The result indicated that trigger events were experienced, and characteristics of authentic leadership were present in the participants. Based on the preceding discussion, it can be concluded that self-awareness triggers can be either subtle or intense and overwhelming events, and they can be either positive or negative events. Moreover, based on the ability of the leader and the extent to which the leader thinks about such events, leadership development occurs. Thus, a self-awareness trigger is operationally defined as "the ability of an individual to use the events as a trigger leading to self-awareness where trigger event can be a dramatic event or subtle, profound moment." 3.1.1 Sample and collection of data In addition to drawing indicators from the academic literature, we also adopted a narrative research and interview method to understand self-awareness triggers experienced by leaders throughout their lives. Because the narrative approach assumes that a person feels, thinks, and acts from a "meaning system" that enables him or her to analyze and interpret reality in a way that gives it a personal meaning (Kegan & Lahey, 1984), it was considered to be an appropriate qualitative method to understand trigger experienced by leaders. Denzin (1989) stated that biographic narrative writing should identify an objective set of experience in the subject's life. Narrative qualitative research mostly considers purposive sampling (Creswell, 2003) in which the inquirer selects individuals for study because they purposefully can inform an understanding of the research problem and central phenomenon in the study. Patton (2002) explained that purposeful sampling involves selecting information-rich cases. Hence, we selected a purposive sampling strategy for the study which adopted critical case sampling. To select the cases for narrative research, we prepared a list by selecting leaders from the diverse field, which was vetted by a panel of experts. Of eleven leaders, three leaders were shortlisted by asking the panel to rank the three most authentic leaders. We did not limit ourselves to a single sample, but selected autobiographies (Table 1) of three recognized leaders. The leaders thus shortlisted were Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (freedom fighter), Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha (Director of TIFR), and Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (former President of India and Project Director, ISRO). Step 1: Narrative Research We included in the analysis all sections of the life story that we thought expressed something about the leaders' development, even if the teller did not provide an explicit link between the told events and his or her development. We approached the stories as "depositories of meaning" (Gabriel, 2000) and read them from the perspective of asking about the meaning of the story from a leadership development point of view. Drawing from narrative inquiry, some of the examples of events leading to self-awareness across three cases are as follows. 28 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Gandhi narrated an event in which he committed a mistake and confessed to his father by writing a note. Gandhi handed the note and waited for his father's reaction, Gandhi stated that "for a moment he closed his eyes in thought and then tore up the note, I also cried. I could see my father's agony" (Gandhi, 2008, p. 26). Observing the agony experienced by his father was an overwhelming moment for Gandhi, and it led to further introspection and self-awareness. Kalam also narrated, his experience post rejection from the pilot interview profile, thathe felt dejected and dragged himself out of the selection panel and stood at the edge of the cliff; he went to an ashram where Guruji told him "when the student is ready, the teacher will appear. Here was a teacher to guide a student who had nearly gone astray. Accept your destiny and go ahead with your life. Search for the true purpose of your existence" (Kalam & Tiwari, 1999, p. 25). The incident depicts how rejection in life led to self-examination and greater self-awareness. A similar event occurred when Homi Bhabha experienced a dilemma in making a critical decision that could decide the future course of his life: "He could return to Europe and resume the purely scientific career that was assured to take him to great achievements or stay back in India and contribute to the development of Indian science" (Deshmukh, 2010, p. 3). The decision-making process led to greater self-analysis. In narrative research, autobiographical and biographical data are considered a very important source of data because they capture the experiences of the narrator (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). Because narrative research is driven by sense of the whole, thus, the researcher has to glean the overall narratives to arrive at themes to understand the phenomena (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). The researchers analyzed the texts by asking the questions presented in the succeeding section and coded the data. The researchers read the text in the first iteration and asked questions, for example: 1. What are the actions demonstrated by the leaders? 2. What are the events experienced by the leader? 3. How leaders react to various events? 4. What are the outcomes experienced by their followers? 5. What are the personality qualities demonstrated by the leaders? A similar method has been followed in narrative research work (e.g., Shamir et al., 2005; Colton, 2018; Van der Vyver & Marais, 2015). Based on the preceding questions, the text was coded (for example, determination, calm, rejection, duty, commitment, evaluation). The autobiography of Abdul Kalam, Wings of Fire (Kalam & Tiwari, 1999), had 180 pages; Biography of Jehangir Homi Bhabha (Deshmukh, 2010) had 135 pages, and My Experiment with Truth (Gandhi, 2008) had 490 pages. The text was coded using computer-assisted qualitative analysis software QDA Miner Lite. Additionally, semi-structured interviews with industry leaders were conducted for item generation to further enhance in-depth understanding of trigger events and triangulation of data. We interviewed leaders from diverse fields. Inclusion criteria were leaders with more than 10 years' experience in a leadership position. After completing five interviews, a saturation of data was arrived as the same Table 1: Study 1 sample characteristics of leaders considered for narrative research Leader Position held Lifespan Biography Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi National Activist (freedom fighter), President of the Indian National Congress 2 October 1869-30 January 1948 My experiment with truth (Gandhi, 2008) Homi Jehangir Bhabha Director of TIFR and AEET Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) 30 October 1909-24 January 1966 Biography of Jehangir Homi Bhabha (Deshmukh, 2010) A. P. J. Abdul Kalam President of India Project director, ISRO, Chief Scientific Adviser to the Prime Minister 15 October 1931-27 July 2015 Wings of Fire (Kalam & Tiwari, 1999) Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 29 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale themes were appearing. The interviews were conducted during the period November-December 2017. The profiles of the respondents are presented in Table 2. Interview questions for item generation for the self-awareness trigger questionnaire are presented in the following section. Questions asked during the interviews were: 1. What does the term self-awareness mean to you? 2. What leads to self-awareness? 3. Have you experienced events/ triggers leading to self-awareness? Describe it. 4. Have you experienced self-awareness triggers as a continuous or onetime event? 5. What is the nature of stimuli experienced by you, are they positive or negative triggers leading to self-awareness? Triggers from narrative research were obtained in two categories (Table 3), individual triggers and interpersonal triggers. Triggering events drawn from the interviews with leaders led to the identification of triggers in two categories (Table 3). The interview responses were analysed and coded; a sample in- terview response is presented in Appendix 2. The study also adopted the deductive method and drew triggers refereed by previous studies, for example, from the research work of Luthans and Avolio, (2003) and Gardner et al. (2005). Two additional sources of data—letters and articles published by leaders and their team members for triangulation— were considered. Based on the preceding categories of triggers, the study generated 40 items. Step 2: Content Validity The item content must be deemed valid to instil confidence in all consequent inferences (Nunnally, 1978). Thus, content validity assessment was conducted, because inferences were made based on the final scale items. To ensure the content validity, opinions from panel members were sought. The panel comprised three experts with Ph.D.s in psychology and expertise in scale development. Step 3: Psychometric Analysis As per DeVellis (2003), reliability is a measure of score consistency, usually measured by internal consistency, test-retest reliability, split-half, item-total Table 2: Study 1 profiles of the participants interviewed (for item generation for self-awareness trigger) Respondent no. Type of organization Profile of respondent 1 Private bank Cluster head 2 Construction firm Sr. V. P. (commercial) 3 Logistics Firm M.D. 4 Research and Development (R&D) Sr. V. P. (production) 5 Waste treatment Sr. V. P. (R&D) Method Categories of triggers Events Narrative research Individual triggers Interpersonal triggers Rejection, trauma, theatre play, financial hardships, stimulating work, cheating, repent, confession, experiment, fasting, Dandi March, struggle for independence, challenging assignment, failure, agony, thought-provoking incidences, inspiring work Interview Individual triggers Interpersonal triggers Failure in a project, rejection, struggle, promotion, career progression, lack of acceptance, difficult project Challenging group assignment, group conflict, feedback, resolving the dispute, financial challenges faced by my brother, negotiation, trauma faced by my friend Table 3: Study 1 categories of SAT from narrative research and interviews with leaders 30 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 correlation/interitem reliability, and interobserver reliability. Construct validity can be assessed using exploratory factor analysis; confirmatory factor analysis and convergent, discriminant, predictive/nomo-logical, criterion, internal, and external validity (Podsakoff et al., 2013, Hair et al.; 2010). For this study, Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability were examined for reliability and average variance extracted for discriminant validity (Hair et al.; 2010). 3.2 Study 2: Exploratory Factor Analysis The goal of factor extraction is to identify the number of latent dimensions (factors) needed to account accurately for the common variance among the items. The factor extraction method adopted in this study was principal component analysis because of its strength relative to other techniques. The rotation type adopted was varimax because it is the most widely used rotation method. Findings are presented in section "Study 2: Results and Discussion." 3.2.1 Sample and collection of data To study the psychometric properties of scale, full-time employees working in different organizations in the Mumbai Region were approached. Data were collected for three months, from June to August, 2017. All the participants who gave consent were briefed about the objectives of the study. All the participants were assured of the confidentially of their responses. Data were collected using a paper-and-pencil survey. Respondents were asked to reflect on each item and select the most appropriate option using a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). One hundred seventy-two responses were received. Twenty questionnaires were rejected because the data were incomplete. The sample (n = 152), comprised 63% males and 37% females; 30% of the sample belonged to the 31-40 age group, and 46% of the sample belonged to the 41-50 age group. 3.2.2 Item Purification Based on responses received, data were organized and processed for item purification. For item purification, corrected item-total correlation (CITC) was used because it helps to remove garbage items (Churchill, 1979). Furthermore, Clark and Watson (2016) recommended retaining items with mean a interitem correlation within the range 0.40-0.50 for those measuring narrow characteristics. As recommended by Wolfinbarger and Gilly (2003), items with a factor loading of 0.50 or more on a single factor were retained and items loading on two or more factors were deleted. Post EFA (Table 4) items S4, S9, S7, S18, S32, and S36 were retained. The Cronbach's alpha for the scale was 0.75, which was more than the recommended value of 0.6 (Hair, 2010). Mean, standard deviation, and interitem correlation matrix are presented in Table 4. The interitem correlation matrix indicated that all items were positively and significantly correlated with each (Table 4). 3.2.3 Results and Discussion The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure for sampling adequacy was 0.729, which was more than 0.6, as prescribed. Bartlett's test of sphericity Table 4: Study 2 means, standard deviations, and inter-item correlation matrix Item Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 S4 3.59 1.12 1.000 2 S9 3.61 1.08 0.20** 1.00 3 S7 3.61 0.85 0.18** 0.35** 1.000 4 S18 3.82 0.84 0.38** 0.67** 0.33** 1.00 5 S32 3.34 0.92 0.53** 0.24** 0.13** 0.36** 1.00 6 S36 3.59 0.60 0.54** 0.31** 0.16** 0.38** 0.42** 1.00 Note: n = 152. Item S9 is reverse coded. **p < 0.01. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 31 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale was found to be significant, which indicated that the sample was suitable for factor analysis. EFA using principal component analysis and varimax rotation obtained two components with a cumulative variance of 66.2%. The factor loading for each item obtained was above 0.5 (Table 5). Based on the results of EFA, the factor structure is presented in which Factor 1 items related to misery, physical agony, financial challenges faced by parents, and ordeals and trauma experienced by individuals have loaded. It shows self-awareness triggers are experienced by observing challenges faced by parents, siblings, and others. Thus, Factor 1 is termed "Interpersonal triggers." In Factor 2, items related to handling challenging problems, resolving the dispute, denial of rights have loaded. This shows that self-awareness is achieved by experiencing challenges faced by the self at the workplace. Thus, the second factor is termed "Challenges faced by self." Table 5 presents the dimension and description of each factor. 3.3 Study 3: Confirmatory Factor Analysis To confirm the exploratory model and study construct validity, CFA was conducted using Analysis of Moment Structure (AMOS) software (Ar-buckle, 2006). The study was conducted on a new Table 5: Study 2 results of EFA Items Component a Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 1 S4: Financial challenges faced by my parents have led to my self-awareness 0.727 0.848 S32: Ordeals faced by people have led to my self-examination. 0.793 S36: Observing trauma experienced by individuals has led to my self-awareness. 0.759 Factor 2 S7: After denial of my rights, I introspected, leading to my self-awareness. 0.714 0.706 S18: I have become more self-aware after resolving organizational disputes. 0.768 S9: Acceptance of mistakes does not enhance my self-awareness. 0.849 Factors Dimension Description Factor 1: Interpersonal triggers (Observing challenges faced by others has led to self-awareness) Financial challenges faced by my parents has led to my self-awareness The ordeal faced by people has led to my self-examination Observing trauma experienced by individuals has led to my self-awareness Observing various challenges and difficulties faced by parents and others, such as trauma, financial crisis, physical agony, and ordeals, has led to self-awareness Factor 2: Individual triggers (Experiencing challenges faced by self has led to self-awareness) After denial of my rights, I introspected, leading to my self-awareness I have become more self-aware after resolving organizational disputes Acceptance of mistake does not enhance my self-awareness Facing personal challenges such as handling difficult problems, resolving disputes, denial of rights, and rejection has led to self-awareness, Source: Author's findings. Source: Authors findings. Note: n = 152. Item S9 is reverse coded. **p < 0.01. Table 6: Study 2 factor structure self-awareness trigger 32 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 set of samples, comprising employees working in different organizations in Mumbai. The study tested and compared two measurement models, the one-factor model and the two-factor model. To examine which model fit better to self-awareness triggers, five indices were used: the goodness of fit index (GFI), the Trucker-Lewis index (TLI) (Trucker & Lewis, 1973), the comparative fit index (CFI) (Bentler, 1990), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the chi-squared/df ratio. Values of 0.90 and above for TLI, CFI, GFI are considered acceptable for the model. The chi-squared/df ratio indicates how perfectly the model is achieved; values less than 3 generally indicate a good model fit. For RMSEA, a parsimony-adjusted index, values less than 0.05 indicate appropriate fit (Hu & Bentler, 1998). 3.3.1 Sample and collection of data To examine the construct validity, full-time employees working in different organizations in India were approached through email. The email addresses were obtained by contacting and seeking permission from HR managers of different organization. Participants who agreed to the study were briefed about the objective of the study. The six-item scale was administered to a sample of 530 respondents as a paper-and-pencil survey. Respondents were asked to reflect on each item and give their responses on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Responses were received from 468 respondents; the sample comprised 50.2% males and 49.8% females. The average age of the participant was m = 38 (SD = ±6.4) and the average tenure was m = 8 (SD = ±5.1). 3.3.2 Results and Discussion CFA was conducted to study the two-factor model of self-awareness trigger that emerged based on EFA. Factor 1 was interpersonal triggers, and Factor 2 was individual triggers. Figure 1 presents the self-awareness trigger construct. To analyze the construct dimensionality, the one-factor model was compared to the two-factor model. CFA of the one-factor model gave a poor fit compared with the two-factor model. The results of the one-factor model (Table 7) were CMIN/df = 3.12, GFI = 0.98, CFI = 0.94, SRMR = 0.06, TLI = 0.90, and RMSEA = 0.07. Results of the two-factor model were CMIN/df = 1.80, GFI = 0.99), SRMR = 0.04), TLI = 0.96), and RMSEA = 0.04). Convergent and discriminant validity was calculated for each factor. After establishing the dimensionality of the scale, reliability and validity indices were determined. The criterion of Fornell and Larcker (1981) commonly is used to assess the degree of shared variance between the latent variables of a model. The scale was found to be reliable (Table 8); the composite reliability, 0.84, was more than the recommended value of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2010), and the discriminant validity, 0.70, also was above the threshold limit of 0.5 (Hu & Bentler, 1998; Hair, 2010). 3.4 Relationship of SAT with Authentic Leadership To examine the impact of the SAT on authentic leadership, a separate study was conducted. Avolio & Gardner, (2005) stated that authentic leadership development in individuals occurs with the help of positive self-development which further enhances self-awareness and self-regulation. Substantiating this, Caldwell & Hayes, (2016) proposed that self-awareness and self-efficacy helps leaders to achieve Table 7: Study 3 CFA model fit indices Model CMIN/df GFI CFI SRMR TLI RMSEA One-factor model 3.12 0.980 0.941 0.058 0.902 0.067 Two-factor model 1.80 0.990 0.977 0.044 0.957 0.042 Source: Author's findings. Note: n = 468. CMIN/df = chi-squared/degrees of freedom; CFI = comparative fit index; GFI = goodness of fit index; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; TLI = Trucker-Lewis index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 33 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale Figure 1: Self-awareness trigger construct .22 Source: Author's findings. Note: IP Triggers = interpersonal triggers; IV Triggers = individual triggers. Table 8: Study 3 convergent validity and discriminant validity Factors Composite reliability Average variance extracted Discriminant validity Factor 1 Interpersonal triggers 0.80 0.57 0.75 Factor 2 Individual triggers 0.65 0.40 0.63 Scale 0.84 0.48 0.69 Source: Author's findings. Note: n = 468. 34 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 self-excellence. Individuals need to enhance their understanding of self-efficacy and self-awareness for personal growth. This can help leaders empower themselves, followers, and their organization (Caldwell & Hayes, 2016). Thus self-efficacy is considered to be an essential leadership competence (Mayer et al., 1995), and leaders can put themselves and others in peril by inadequately comprehending these competencies. Manz (2015) and Burke (1991) stated that self-awareness requires leaders to truthfully and precisely self-observe themselves. Self-awareness results in self-efficacy, further substantiating Smith and Woodworth's (2012) statement cited by Caldwell and Hayes (2016) that "a leader's perceptions of his/her values, duties, and roles are directly related to making a difference in the lives of others." Luthans and Avolio (2003) postulated that triggers can "stimulate positive growth in leaders" (p. 247). Shannon et al. (2020) also examined self-awareness triggers and authentic leadership using the critical incident technique. Harvey, Martinko, and Gardner (2006) and Covelli, and Mason (2017) provided primary findings indicating the relationship between SAT and authentic leadership. Thus, we can hypothesize: Hypothesis 1: SAT is positively related to authentic leadership. 3.4.1 Sample and collection of data To collect the data, 52 organizations listed on National Stock Exchange in Mumbai, India were considered and invited to participate. Data were collected during four months, from January to April, 2018. Mumbai was selected as the location because it is considered to be the financial hub of India and because it facilitated repeated data collection and follow-up surveys. Senior HR managers were approached in the 52 organizations via telephone, email, and face-to-face meetings. Thirty-two organizations (response rate = 61%) agreed to participate in the study. These organizations included banks, financial institutions, and Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFC). Researchers collected data on authentic leadership from team members, and self-awareness trigger data from team leaders. The study objectives, data collection procedures, instructions for leaders and followers, and key implications of the study were explained to HR managers and branch managers. Leaders and team members were briefed about the anonymity and confidentiality of the information. Each team leader reflected on self-awareness triggers. Likewise, each team member independently rated the authentic leadership of their team leader. To facilitate the matching of the questionnaires of team leaders and team members, the questionnaires were coded. Post eliminating missing information from data obtained from various team members,the study had 471 dyads of team leaders and team members. Participants at the leader level were 53% males and 47% females. The average age of the leaders was 38 years (SD = ±6.6), and the average organization tenure was 8.01 years (SD = ±5.3). In addition, 57% of the participants were married, and 43% were single. Among leaders, 45.5% of participants were from senior levels, 51.2% were from middle levels, and 3.3% were from supervisor levels. Among team members, 41% were females, and 59% were males. The average age of the participants was 32 years (SD = ±7.5), and the average organizational tenure was 4.32 years (SD = ±2.8). Regarding educational qualification, 76% of team members were undergraduates, and 24% were postgraduates. Data were collected in single point in time itself over 16 weeks. 3.4.2 Measurements Authentic Leadership Walumbwa et al. (2008) developed and validated the 16-item Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) scale to measure authentic leadership. The instrument measures authentic leadership across four first-order factors: relational transparency, self-awareness, balanced processing, and internalized moral perspective. Followers rated this item on a five-point Likert scale using anchors ranging from 0 = not at all to 4 = frequently, if not always. A sample item was "solicit views that challenge my deeply held positions." The scale is considered to be fairly robust, with Cronbach's alphas for each sub-scale and the overall scale higher than 0.70 in a cross-cultural validation study (Walumbwa et al. 2008). The Cronbach's alpha for the scale was 0.90 in the present study. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 35 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale Self-Awareness Trigger SAT was measured using a six-item scale developed in the present study. The team leaders reflected on SAT items and scored them on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A sample item was "I have become more self-aware after resolving organizational disputes." The Cronbach's alpha for the scale was 0.89. 3.4.3 Data Analysis and Results The data were analyzed using correlation and hierarchical regression analysis techniques using SPSS version 21. Table 9 lists the mean, standard deviation, and correlation measures of the study variables. There was a significant positive correlation between SAT and authentic leadership (r = 0.09, p < 0.05). To examine the impact of the SAT on authentic leadership, a hierarchical regression analysis was conducted. In Step 1, control variables, and gender and age of the leader were entered. In the second step, the independent variable SAT was entered. Results indicated (Table 10) that SAT is positively and significantly related to authentic leadership (6 = 0.06, p < 0.05). The R-squared was significant (1.4%, and F-change = 0.04 was significant at p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H1 is supported. 4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 4.1 General discussion This research work focused on understanding and further conceptualizing and developing a reliable and valid scale to measure self-awareness triggers in the leadership context. Using narrative research, Study 1 gathered triggers leading to self-awareness amongst authentic leaders. Items were generated based on information from narrative research, interviews, and a literature review. In Study 2, using an exploratory analysis, factor structure was obtained. Study 3 assessed the construct validity was. Thus, a reliable and valid scale was developed. Two factors of self-awareness triggers that emerged from the study are interpersonal Table 9: Study 4 means, standard deviations, and correlation matrix M SD 1 2 1. AL 2.63 0.66 1 2 SAT 3.43 0.97 0.09* 1 Source: Survey data. Note: TL = 102; TM = 471; dyads = 471. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. Unstandardized coefficients Collinearity statistics Model B Error Beta t Sig, Tolerance VIF Model 1 (Constant) 2.69 0.11 24.08 0.00 Gender -0.09 0.06 -0.07 -1.51 0.13 0.99 1.008 Age -0.00 0.04 -0.00 -0.20 0.84 0.96 1.008 Model 2 (Constant) 2.51 0.145 17.26 0.00 Gender -0.08 0.06 -0.06 -1.44 0.15 0.99 1.009 Age -0.02 0.04 -0.02 -0.50 0.61 0.96 1.032 SAT 0.06 0.03 0.09 2.00 0.04 0.97 1.024 Source: Survey data. Note: TL = 102; TM = 471; dyads = 471. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. Table 10: Study 4 path coefficient between SAT and AL 36 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 triggers and individual triggers. Further corroborating the findings of Gardner et al. (2005); Harvey, Martinko & Gardner (2006); and Avolio and Gardner (2005), this study found a significant, positive impact of SAT on authentic leadership. Previous study illustrates when leaders and followers demonstrate their true self and act as per their internalized values, it leads to increased productivity, employee engagement, and employee well-being (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Data triangulation necessitates gathering data from different sources, at different times, or under different conditions. The construction of the questionnaire needs data triangulation. In Study 1, data were collected using two different methods—the narrative approach, and the interview method. For the remaining three studies, this research considered different samples in Study 2, Study 3, and Study 4. In Study 2, the sample (n = 152) comprised 63% males and 37% females. In Study 3, responses were received from 468 respondents—the sample comprised 50.2% males and 49.8% females. In Study 4, the sample comprised 471 dyads of team leaders and team members. Participants at the leader level consisted of 53% males and 47% females. Common method variance (CMV) refers to a situation in which the method of data gathering itself introduces a bias, leading to spuriously elevated correlations between the concepts being measured. Options for assessing common method bias in a study that employs only one method are limited. Harman's single factor test is a widely used option (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986). The present study examined Harman's single factor and found a single factor extracted 35.68% of variance, which is less than 50%. Hence, it can be concluded safely that the study did not experience common method bias. The study addressed the quality of research designs after establishing the dimensionality of the scale by examining reliability and validity indices The criterion of Fornell and Larcker (1981) commonly is used to assess the degree of shared variance between the latent variables of a model. The scale was found to be reliable (Table 7), with a composite reliability (0.84) greater than the recommended value of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2010) and a discriminant validity of 0.70, which was greater than the threshold limit of 0.5 (Hu & Bentler, 1990; Hair, 2010). 4.2 Theoretical Contributions The study makes a significant theoretical contribution by further expanding the authentic leadership and self-awareness trigger literature. Previous the authentic leadership studies proposed the role of trigger events leading to authentic leadership, but the lack of a scale led to the limited examination of the role of self-awareness triggers. First, this study helped conceptualize the self-awareness trigger construct. Second, the study developed a reliable and valid self-awareness trigger scale (Appendix 1). The findings indicated that a self-awareness trigger is a higher-order two-factor structure. Third, the study examined the positive relationship between SAT and AL. The development of the scale addressed the call by Gardner et al. (2011) to examine the role of triggering events and authentic leadership. The SAT scale will help further expand the nomological network of authentic leadership behavior by examining it as a significant boundary condition for the manifestation of authentic leadership behavior. 4.3 Practical Implications At the individual and organizational levels, there is growing evidence supporting the need to be authentic in the workplace in the face of growing financial fraud and unethical practices (Aguilera, 2005; George, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2001). Thus, it is imperative to explore the antecedents and moderators of authentic leadership behavior. Based on the findings of the study, the researchers propose that management can enhance the manifestation of authentic leadership behavior by having planned interventions focused on interpersonal triggers as well as individual triggers. HR practitioners can conduct workshops and assessments based on self-awareness triggers; this will lead to self-examination and self-awareness. Moreover, organizations can develop and use semi-structured roleplaying and case studies in a planned long-term training program based on conflict management and ethical decision making to explore self-awareness triggers. Further management can embed the role with triggers, for example, challenging tasks and stretch assignments based on the organizational context. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 37 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale 4.4 Limitations of the Study and Scope for Future Research Work Despite significant contributions, the study has some limitations. First, the study used only three leaders in the narrative research to develop indicators for the SAT. Future, studies can consider more leaders to explore and validate self-awareness triggers. Second, there is a limitation is the way the data were collected. The study relied on cross-sectional and self-reported data to measure psychometric properties of the scale, which are bound to have biases. For this study, self-reporting was appropriate because the variables studied were self-awareness triggers and authentic leadership. Narrative research was used to overcome this bias. Although the self-awareness trigger scale was developed with different samples in both the stages, future research should test the questionnaire with a more diverse sample. Another limitation of the study is the use of Harman's single factor to examine common method bias. Hence, we propose that future studies should examine CMV with the correlational marker technique (Lindell & Whitney, 2001), which has garnered much attention from researchers. This research is likely to open various promising avenues for future research. We explored work by Duval and Wicklund (1972), which focused conceptually on objective self-awareness. The narrative study in the present research adds to the body of knowledge by providing instances of both objective and subjective self-awareness. Future work can further extend the body of literature. Future studies can explore whether demographic variables have any moderating impact on a self-awareness trigger variable. In addition, the scale needs to be examined in the Western context to extend the validation of scale across different contexts. 4.5 Conclusion This research focused on the relationship between SAT and AL. The study first conceptualized and developed a reliable and valid scale to study self-awareness triggers in the leadership context, and then conducted a separate empirical study to examine the impact of SAT on authentic leadership. This research is likely to open various promising avenues for further expanding literate on authentic leadership and self-awareness triggers. The study will help management to focus on individual and interpersonal triggers to enhance the manifestation of authentic leadership. EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Različni raziskovalci so predhodno že poudarili vlogo sprožilcev samozavedanja (angl. self-awareness trigger; SAT) in njihov vpliv na avtentično vodenje. Kljub temu pregled literature kaže na pomanjkanje konceptualizacije in zanesljivosti lestvice za preučevanje sprožilcev samozavedanja. Ta študija je zato razvila zanesljivo in veljavno lestvico ter preučila vlogo sprožilcev samozavedanja pri avtentičnem vodenju. Raziskava je temeljila na štirih ločenih študijah za razvoj lestvice in analizo vpliva SAT na avtentično vodstvo. V študiji 1 je bil sprožilec samozavedanje operacionaliziran, elementi pa so bili ustvarjeni s pomočjo kvalitativnih raziskav. V študiji 2 smo izvedli odkrivalno faktorsko analizo (EFA), katere namen je bil preučiti faktorsko strukturo konstrukta. V študiji 3 smo za preučitev veljavnosti konstrukta izvedli potrditveno faktorsko analizo (CFA). Zanesljivost in veljavnost konstrukta smo ocenili na podlagi sestavljene zanesljivosti, konvergentne veljavnosti in divergentne veljavnosti. Razvoj lestvice je pripeljal do dvodimenzionalne lestvice sprožilcev samozavedanja. Študija 4 je preučevala vpliv SAT na avtentično vodenje. Podatke o avtentičnem vodenju smo zbirali s strani članov ekipe, podatke o SAT pa s strani vodij ekip. Podatki so bili zbrani na podlagi redno zaposlenih v indijskem finančnem sektorju. Študija je imela 471 diad vodij ekip in članov ekipe. Ugotovitve so pokazale, da je SAT pozitivno povezan z atentičnem vodenjem, kar pomeni, da lahko organizacije s pomočjo SAT proaktivno okrepijo avtentično vodenje. 38 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 REFERENCES Aguilera, R. V. (2005). Corporate governance and director accountability: An institutional comparative perspective. British Journal of Management, 16, S39-S53. Alilyyani, B., Wong, C. A. & Cummings, G. (2018). Antecedents, mediators, and outcomes of authentic leadership in healthcare: A systematic review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 83(9), 34-64. Arbuckle, J. (2006). Amos 7.0 user's guide. Marketing Division, SPSS Incorporated. Ashley, G. C. & Reiter-Palmon, R. (2012). Self-awareness and the evolution of leaders: The need for a better measure of self-awareness. Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management, 14(1), 2. Avolio, B. J. (2004). Examining the full range model of leadership: Looking back to transform forward. In Leader development for transforming organizations (pp. 91-118). Psychology Press. Avolio, B. J. & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 315-338. Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O. & Weber, T. J. (2008). Leadership: Current theories, research, and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 421-449. Baker, N. (2020). Authentic Leadership, Leader Optimism, and Follower Affective Commitment: An Experimental Study. In Leadership Styles, Innovation, and Social Entrepreneur-ship in the Era of Digitalization (pp. 329-344). IGI Global. Bentler, P.M., (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychometrika 107, 238-246. Burke, R. J. (1991). Early work and career experiences of female and male managers and professionals: reasons for optimism?. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences/Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration, 8(4), 224-230. Burnkrant, R. E. & Page Jr, T. J. (1984). A modification of the Fenigstein, Scheier, and Buss self-consciousness scales. Journal of personality assessment, 48(6), 629-637. Caldwell, C. & Hayes, L. A. (2016). Self-efficacy and self-awareness: moral insights to increased leader effectiveness. Journal of Management Development. 5(9),1163-1173 Cameron, K. S., Dutton, J. E. & Quinn, R. E. (2003). An introduction to positive organizational scholarship. Foundation of a new discipline.(pp. 3-13). San Francisco:Berrett-Koehler. Carver, C. S. & Scheier, M. F.(1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior. Cerne, M., Dimovski, V., Marie, M., Penger, S. & Skerlavaj, M. (2014). Congruence of leader self-perceptions and follower perceptions of authentic leadership: Understanding what authentic leadership is and how it enhances employees' job satisfaction. Australian journal of management, 39(3), 453-471. Cha, S. E., Hewlin, P. F., Roberts, L. M., Buckman, B. R., Leroy, H., Steckler, E. L. & Cooper, D. (2019). Being your true self at work: Integrating the fragmented research on authenticity in organizations. Academy of Management Annals, 13(2), 633-671. Church, A. H. (1997). Managerial self-awareness in high-performing individuals in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(2), 281-292. Churchill Jr, G. A. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of marketing research, 16(1), 64-73. Clark, L. A. & Watson, D. (2016). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Methodological issues and strategies in clinical research (pp. 187-203). American Psychological Association. _ Colton, R. G. (2020). Modeling Leadership in Tolkien's Fiction: Craft and Wisdom, Gift and Task. Journal of Business Ethics, 163(3), 401-415. Connelly, F. M. & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational researcher, 19(5), 2-14. Cooper, C. D., Scandura, T. A. & Schriesheim, C. A. (2005). Looking forward but learning from our past: Potential challenges to developing authentic leadership theory and authentic leaders. Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 475-493. Cooper, C. & Nelson, D. (Eds.). 2006. Positive organizational behavior. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Covelli, B. J. & Mason, I. (2017). Linking theory to practice: Authentic leadership. Academy of Strategic Management Journal, 16(3), 1-10. Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research Design Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks. Dana, E. R., Lalwani, N. & Duval, T. S. (1997). Objective self-awareness and focus of attention following awareness of self-standard discrepancies: Changing self or changing standards of correctness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 16(4), 359-380. Davis, M. H. & Franzoi, S. L. (1991). Stability and change in adolescent self-consciousness and empathy. Journal of research in Personality, 25(1), 70-87. Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 31-49). New York, Plenum Press. Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive biography (Vol. 17). Sage. Deshmukh, C. (2010). Homi Jehangir Bhabha. National Book Trust. DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: theory and applications (2nd ed.). Newbury Park: Sage Publications. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 39 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale Duval, S. & Wicklund, R A. (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness. New York: Academic Press. Emuwa, A. (2013). Authentic leadership: Commitment to supervisor, follower empowerment, and procedural justice climate. Emerging Leadership Journeys, 6(1), 45-65. Erickson, R. J. (1995). The importance of authenticity for self and society. Symbolic Interaction, 18(2), 121-144. Erkutlu, H. & Chafra, J. (2013). Effects of trust and psychological contract violation on authentic leadership and organizational deviance. Management Research Review, 36(9) 828-848 Eurich, T. (2018). What self-awareness really is (and how to cultivate it). Havard Business Review, 1-9. Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M. F. & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43(4), 522-527. Fornell, C. & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research,18(3), 382-388 Franzoi, S. L. & Davis, M. H. (1999). Self-awareness and self-consciousness. Personality: Contemporary theory and research, 27(2), 281-308. Franzoi, S. L., Davis, M. H. & Markwiese, B. (1990). A motivational explanation for the existence of private self-consciousness differences. Journal of Personality, 58(4), 641-659. Froming, W. J. & Carver, C. S. (1981). Divergent influences of private and public self-consciousness in a compliance paradigm. Journal of Research in Personality, 15(2), 159-171. Froming, W. J., Walker, G. R. & Lopyan, K. J. (1982). Public and private self-awareness: When personal attitudes conflict with societal expectations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18(5), 476-487. Gabriel, Y. (2000). Storytelling in organizations: Facts, fictions, and fantasies: Facts, fictions, and fantasies. OUP Oxford. Gandhi, M. (2008). My experiments with truth: An autobiography. Jaico Publishing House. Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R. & Walumbwa, F. (2005). "Can you see the real me?" A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 343-372. Gardner, W. L., Cogliser, C. C., Davis, K. M. & Dickens, M. P. (2011). Authentic leadership: A review of the literature and research agenda. Leadership Quarterly, 22(6), 1120-1145. Gatling, A., Kang, H. J. A. & Kim, J. S. (2016). The effects of authentic leadership and organizational commitment on turnover intention. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 37(2), 181-199. George, B. (2003). Authentic leadership: Rediscovering the secrets to creating lasting value. SanFrancisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. George, B., Sims, P., McLean, A. N. & Mayer, D. (2007). Discovering your authentic leadership. Harvard Business Review, 85(2). Goukens, C., Dewitte, S. & Warlop, L. (2009). Me, myself, and my choices: The influence of private self-awareness on choice. Journal of Marketing Research, 46(5), 682-692. Govern, J. M. & Marsch, L. A. (2001). Development and validation of the situational self-awareness scale. Consciousness and cognition, 10(3), 366-378. Hair, J. F, Black, W. C, Babin, B.J. & Anderson, R. E.(2010). Multivariate Data Analysis (7th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Harter, S. (2002). Authenticity. In C. S. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 382394). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harvey, P., Martinko, M. J. & Gardner, W. L. (2006). Promoting authentic behavior in organizations: An attri-butional perspective. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 12(3), 1-11. Hassan, A. & Ahmed, F. (2011). Authentic leadership, trust and work engagement. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 80, 750-756. Hu, L.T. & Bentler, P.M. (1998), Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: sensitivity to under parameterized model misspecification, Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424-453. Joireman, J. A., III, L. P. & Hammersla, J. (2002). Empathy and the self-absorption paradox: Support for the distinction between self-rumination and self-reflection. Self and Identity, 1(1), 53-65. Kalam, A. P. J. A. & Tiwari, A. (1999). Wings of fire: An autobiography. Universities press. Kegan, R. & Lahey, L. L. (1984). Adult Leadership and Adult Development: A Constructivist View In B. Keller-man (ed.) Leadership: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological inquiry, 14(1), 1-26. Laraib, A. & Hashmi, S. H. (2018). An empirical study to examine the relation of authentic leadership on employee performance; moderating role of intrinsic motivation. International Journal of Business and Administrative Studies, 4(4), 137-145. Lindell, M. K. & Whitney, D. J. (2001). Accounting for common method variance in cross-sectional research designs. Journal of applied psychology, 86(1), 114. Ling, Q., Liu, F. & Wu, X. (2017). Servant Versus Authentic Leadership: Assessing Effectiveness in China's Hospitality Industry. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 58(1), 53-68. 40 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Loci, S. (2016). Authentic leadership: how personal legacy, education, and identity contribute to the level of unique vision. Dynamic Relationships management Journal, 6(1), 35-49. Luthans, F. (2002). The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 695-706. Luthans, F. & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Authentic leadership: A positive developmental approach. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship (pp. 241-261). San Francisco. Luu, T. T. (2020). Linking authentic leadership to salespeople's service performance: The roles of job crafting and human resource flexibility. Industrial Marketing Management, 84, 89-104. Lyu, Y., Wang, M., Le, J. & Kwan, H. K. (2019). Effects of authentic leadership on work-family balance in China. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 34(2), 110-123 Malik, M. F. & Khan, M. A. (2019). "Tracking Engagement through Leader" Authentic Leadership's Consequences on Followers' Attitudes: A Sequential Mediated Mode. International Journal of Public Administration, 43(10),1-8. Manz, C. C. (2015). Taking the self-leadership high road: Smooth surface or potholes ahead?. Academy of Management Perspectives, 29(1), 132-151. Maslow, A. (1968). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). New York: Harper. May, D. R., Chan, A. Y. L., Hodges, T. D. & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Developing the moral component of authentic leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 32(3), 247-260. Miao, C., Humphrey, R. H. & Qian, S. (2018). Emotional intelligence and authentic leadership: a meta-analysis. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 39(5),679-690. Michie, S. & Gooty, J. (2005). Values, emotions, and authenticity: Will the real leader please stand up?. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 441-457. Morin, A. (2002). Self-awareness review Part 1: Do you "self-reflect" or "self-ruminate"? Science & Consciousness Review, 1. Morin, A. (2011). Self-awareness part 1: Definition, measures, effects, functions, and antecedents. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(10), 807-823. Nielsen, M. B., Eid, J., Mearns, K. & Larsson, G. (2013). Authentic leadership and its relationship with risk perception and safety climate. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 34(4), 308-325. Nunally, J. C. & Bernstein, I. (1978). Psychometric theory. Ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Nunnally, J. C. (1994). Psychometric theory 3E. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Penger, S. & Cerne, M.(2014). Authentic leadership , employees ' job satisfaction , and work engagement : a hierarchical linear modelling approach. Economic Re-search-Ekonomska Istrazivanja, 27(1), 508-526. Petersen, K. & Youssef-Morgan, C. M. (2018). The "left side" of authentic leadership: contributions of climate and psychological capital. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 40(4), 520-531. Peus, C., Wesche, J. S., Streicher, B., Braun, S. & Frey, D. (2012). Authentic Leadership: An Empirical Test of Its Antecedents, Consequences, and Mediating Mechanisms. Journal of Business Ethics, 107(3), 331-348. Podsakoff, N. P., Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B. & Klinger, R. L. (2013). Are we really measuring what we say we're measuring? Using video techniques to supplement traditional construct validation procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(1), 99. Puente, S., Crous, F. & Venter, A. (2007). The role of a positive trigger event in actioning authentic leadership development. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 5(1), 11-18. Rahimnia, F. & Sharifirad, M. S. (2015). Authentic leadership and employee well-being: The mediating role of attachment insecurity. Journal of Business Ethics, 132(2), 363-377. Ribeiro, N., Duarte, A. P. & Filipe, R. (2018). How authentic leadership promotes individual performance. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management. Rime, B. & Lebon, C. (1984). The concept of self-consciousness and its operationalizations. Annee Psychologique, 84(4), 535-553. Rochat, P. (2003). Five levels of self-awareness as they unfold early in life. Consciousness and cognition, 12(4), 717-731. Rogers, C. R. (1963). The actualizing tendency in relation to motives and to consciousness. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 1-24). Lincoln, NE7 University of Nebrasksa Press. Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eu-daimonic well-being. Annual review of psychology, 52(1), 141-166. Shamir, B. & Eilam, G. (2005). "What's your story?" A life-stories approach to authentic leadership development. Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 395-417. Shannon, M. R., Buford, M., Winston, B. E. & Wood, J. A. (2020). Trigger events and crucibles in authentic leaders' development. Journal of Management Development, 39(3), 324-333 Showry, M. (2014). Self-Awareness - Key to Effective Leadership. IUP Journal of Soft Skills, 8(1), 15-26. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 41 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale Shrivastava, A. (2018). A small initiative in the journey of making leaders with the help of authentic leadership model. Kybernetes. 47(10),1956-1972. Smith, I. H. & Woodworth, W. P. (2012). Developing social entrepreneurs and social innovators: A social identity and self-efficacy approach. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 11(3), 390-407. Stander, F. W., de Beer, L. T. & Stander, M. W. (2015). Authentic leadership as a source of optimism, trust in the organization and work engagement in the public health care sector. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(1), 1-12. Tapara, P. L. (2011). Authentic leadership: Organizational outcomes and leader and follower develop-ment.(Master Thesis), Massey University, Albany, New Zealand. Trapnell, P. D. & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of personality and social psychology, 76(2), 284-304. Tsui, A. S. & Ashford, S. J. (1994). Adaptive self-regulation: A process view of managerial effectiveness. Journal of management, 20(1), 93-121. Tucker, L. R. & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychome-trika, 38(1), 1-10. Turner, R. G. (1978). Consistency, self-consciousness, and the predictive validity of typical and maximal personality measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 12(1), 117-132. van der Vyver, A. G., Williams, B. & Marais, M. A. (2015). Using social media as a managerial platform for an educational development project: Cofimvaba. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 5(12), 910-913. Vogel, B., Reichard, B., Batistic, S. & Cerne, M. (2020). A bibliometric review of the leadership development field: How we got here, where we are, and where we are headed. The Leadership Quarterly, [101381]. Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Wernsing, T. S. & Peterson, S. J. (2008). Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of management, 34(1), 89-126. Wang, H., Sui, Y., Luthans, F., Wang, D. & Wu, Y. (2014). Impact of authentic leadership on performance: Role of followers' positive psychological capital and relational processes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(1), 5-21. Wei, F., Li, Y., Zhang, Y. & Liu, S. (2018). The interactive effect of authentic leadership and leader competency on followers' job performance: The mediating role of work engagement. Journal of Business Ethics, 153(3), 763-773. Weiss, M., Razinskas, S., Backmann, J. & Hoegl, M. (2018). Authentic leadership and leaders' mental well-being: An experience sampling study. The Leadership Quarterly, 29(2), 309-321. Wolfinbarger, M. & Gilly, M. C. (2003). eTailQ: dimension-alizing, measuring and predicting retail quality. Journal of retailing, 79(3), 183-198. Wong, C. A. & Laschinger, H. K. (2013). Authentic leadership, performance, and job satisfaction: the mediating role of empowerment. Journal of advanced nursing, 69(4), 947-959. Wong, C. A., Spence Laschinger, H. K. & Cummings, G. G. (2010). Authentic leadership and nurses' voice behavior and perceptions of care quality. Journal of nursing management, 18(8), 889-900. Wong, C. & Cummings, G. (2009). Authentic leadership: a new theory for nursing or back to basics? Journal of health organization and management. 23(5), 22-538. Wong, C., Walsh, E. J., Basacco, K. N., Mendes Domingues, M. C. & Pye, D. R. (n.d.). Authentic leadership and job satisfaction among long-term care nurses, 33(3), 247-263 Woolley, L., Caza, A. & Levy, L. (2011). Authentic leadership and follower development: Psychological capital, positive work climate, and gender. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 18(4), 438-448. Zhang, S., Bowers, A. J. & Mao, Y. (2020). Authentic leadership and teachers' voice behavior: The mediating role of psychological empowerment and moderating role of interpersonal trust. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. Zubair, A. & Kamal, A. (2016). Perceived authentic leadership, work-related flow, and creative work behavior: Moderating role of organizational structures. Abasyn Journal of Social Sciences, 9(2), 426-441. 42 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Appendix 1 Self-Awareness Trigger Scale Instructions: Several statements are presented below with which you may agree or disagree. Using the response scale below, indicate your agreement or disagreement by circling the appropriate number for each item. (1= strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, 5= strongly agree) Financial challenges faced by my parents have led to my self- 1 2 3 4 5 awareness. Ordeals faced by others have led to my self-examination. Observing trauma experienced by individuals has led to my self-awareness. After denial of my rights, I introspected, leading to my self-awareness. Acceptance of my mistake does not enhance my self-awareness. I have become more self-aware after resolving organizational disputes. 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 Note: Item 5 is reverse coded. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 43 Beena Prakash Nair, Teegalapelly Prasad, Shreekumar K. Nair: Self-Awareness Trigger Leading to Authentic Leadership: Conceptualization and Development of Reliable and Valid Self-Awareness Trigger Scale Appendix 2 Self-Awareness Triggers: Analysis of Interview Responses Respondents Profile Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 What does the term self-awareness mean to yon? What leads to self- awareness? Have you experienced events or triggers leading to self-awareness? Describe them. Have you experienced self-awareness triggers as a continuous or onetime event? What is the nature of stimuli experienced by you—are they positive or negative triggers leading to self-awareness? Respondent 1 Cluster head Self-awareness is more learning about myself, Also understanding my strength and weakness. How 1 come up with situations. Various events like feedback, challenges in life. Specifically, those decisions which help make important decisions Personally, 1 would say, financing for higher studies as well as challenges faced by my brother. Feedback from my Boss as well as various organizational projects. Also, I think when my neighbor, only earning member of the family was unwell ... critical ... when I see such hardships experienced by others Yes, in fact, I think individuals keep experiencing various triggers. I too at the individual level have experienced across my life Both of kind triggers at various phases Both positive as well as negative as just discussed. Both help to understand about strength as well as areas of weakness. 1 think I have learned more from negative events or triggers Respondent 2 M.D. Knowing more about myself ... also, what I am capable of. How should 1 handle situations and about my inner beliefs Both success as well as failures in life ... at the stage in life we face such events which have helped me introspect and know more about myself Difficult assignments, which requires a lot of interpersonal skills as well as networking and rounds of negotiations to resolve problems, also career progression. Even when my friend lost her husband, it was painful ... the Throughout my life, various events have occurred, so Yes. continuously. I have experienced both but 1 think, 1 have experience negative triggers ... which has led to my self-awareness Example of Self-Awareness Triggers: Analysis of Interview Responses Theme Main categories Subcategories Types of triggers Individual triggers Failure in a project, rejection, struggle, promotion, career progression, lack of acceptance, difficult project Interpersonal triggers Challenging group assignment, group conflict, feedback, resolving a dispute, financial challenges faced by my brother, negotiation, trauma faced by my friend 44 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Vol. 10, No. 1, 45-56 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2021.v10n01a03 EXPLAINING LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS IN PRIVATE AND PUBLIC MANAGERS: THE PUBLIC-PRIVATE DISTINCTION EXPLANATION VERSUS THE GENDER EXPLANATION Jon Aarum Andersen Linneaus University, Sweden jon.andersen@lnu.se - Abstract - This paper assessed the theoretical explanations for similarities and differences in managers' leadership behaviors as well as their empirical support based on data from 222 corporate managers in eight companies and 385 public managers in three public agencies in Sweden. Two explanations for similarities and differences in male and female public managers' leadership behaviors have been suggested in previous studies. The public-private distinction says that public and private organizations are distinctly different, and thus explains differences between public and private managers leadership behaviors. Gender theory argues that the ratios of male to female managers explain of differences in leadership behaviors. However, this explanation did not explain similarities in leadership behaviors in the three Swedish public organisations investigated. The leadership behaviors of public managers were the same even though there was a female majority in management in one organization and a male majority in the other two. It is suggested that the distinct characteristics of public organizations explain the similarities in leadership behaviors of both male and female public managers. The public-distinction explanation appears to outweigh the gender-based explanation. Keywords: Private Management, Public Management, Gender, Leadership Behaviors 1. INTRODUCTION Leadership theories can be grouped into three main categories: (1) leadership as personality, (2) leadership as behavior and action, and (3) leadership as symbol. Three types of managerial behavior have dominated leadership scholarship: (1) leadership styles (e.g., Blake and McCanse 1991), (2) motivation profiles (e.g., McClelland 1990), and (3) decisionmaking styles, (e.g., Keegan, 1984). The universal theorists claim that there is one best way to lead, whereas the contingency theorists claim that leadership effectiveness is dependent on the situation (Blake and McCanse 1991). To find similarities and differences between managers in terms of behaviors, three types were selected and were tested empirically with a large number of managers in Sweden. Leadership styles, motivation profiles and decision-making styles were measured using instruments frequently applied in leadership research (Table 1). The concept of prime beneficiary (Blau and Scott 1962) captures the basic distinction between these organizations. Some organizations are established in which the owners are the prime beneficiary, namely business enterprises. In public organizations (service organizations) such as hospitals, educational institutions, and social-welfare agencies, the citizens are the primary beneficiaries. In private schools, the goal is profitability and the means are education. The goal of public schools is to increase the level of knowledge in society, whereas the means are education. The notions of prime beneficiaries inspired what is known as the public-private distinction research tradition (e.g., Rainey, Backoff, and Levine, 1976). Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 45 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Leadership Behaviors in Private and Public Managers: The Public-Private Distinction Explanation Versus the Gender Explanation Table 1: Causes, study object (leadership behaviors), and measurements applied Causes Study objects (leadership behaviors) Measurements Attitudes Leadership styles: Separated, dedicated, related, integrated Management Style Diagnosis Test (Reddin, 1987) Motivation (needs) Motivation profiles: Achievement, affiliation, power motivation Andersen Motivation Profile Indicator (Andersen, 2018). Personality Decision-making styles: Sensing, intuition, thinking, feeling Keegan Type Indicator, form B (Keegan, 1982). The main goal of a specific business enterprise is a description of a permanent, future state giving a specific degree of profitability and risk desired by the owners based on their investment time horizon. Public organizations also are based on goals, determined by the citizens through a democratic process. Shareholders, members of associations, and citizens are all "owners" or "principals" of organizations because they exclusively can decide on and change the main goals of their organizations. In other words, the goals of an organization are the goals of the prime beneficiaries. The main task of managers, whether they are in charge of private or public organizations, is to contribute to organizational goal attainment, e.g., organizational effectiveness. To do so, managers need to act. Only by acting and behaving can managers influence others, whether subordinates, clients, customers, financiers, citizens, patients, or students. McClelland and Burnham (1976, p. 105) wrote "After all, management is an influence game." Goal attainment (effectiveness) is a basic issue for both private and public managers, and thus for management scholars. Thus, studies of behaviors and behavioral patterns of managers are called for, and have attached the attention of numerous scholars for years. Many behavioral concepts have been developed, defined, measured, and tested empirically (e.g., Yukl et al., 2019) Comparing managers in three public organizations and one private organization in Sweden, Andersen (2010a) found significant differences in leadership behavioral patterns between private and public managers. However, no significant differences in leadership behaviors were discovered among the public managers. To solve the problem of behavioral differences between managers, a two-step approach has been applied. The first step is to present theoretical arguments and empirical studies regarding differences in leadership behaviors between male and female managers in public organizations according to the scholarship on the public-private distinction thesis. The second step addresses empirical support for the gender explanation of behavioral differences. The study of influences of national culture and socialization (society) on managers' behavior is a specific research tradition which was and is still to a large extent lacking the perspective of gender. It is based mainly on data from corporate managers. However, several studies across nations have shown significant national differences between managers' leadership behaviors (Hofstede, 1980a, 1980b; Smith, Peterson, and Schwartz, 2002; Smith and Peterson, 2005; House et al. 2014). All in all, these studies have shown that national cultures and cultural values explain differences in managers' behavioral patterns across nations. However, these international comparisons have no direct relevance for studies of gender in public organizations in a specific country. Leadership behavior is a central theme in the literature on management, and still is regarded as a factor in explaining organizational effectiveness. McClelland and Burnham (1976) pithily stated that "management is an influence game." To influence other people, managers have to act. This is a basic point of departure, because leadership-behavior theories focus on behavior as such, and especially on the organizational consequences of leadership behaviors, and less on the reasons for the behaviors. Personality traits may explain behavior, but personality is an inborn and stable characteristic. In contrast, factors such as attitudes, experiences, values, 46 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May Z0Z1 and needs (motivation) also explain leadership behaviors. Formal leaders (managers) can influence only others through their actions. 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 The Private-Public Distinction Explanation Two competing perspectives are prominent in the study of public and private organizations. On the one hand, researchers advocating the generic perspective claim that public and private organizations face similar constraints and challenges. On the other hand, others argue that public and private organizations are distinct in important respects. The private-public distinction captures what some scholars address theoretically as "the nature of the organization." Rainey, Backoff, and Levine (1976) stated that there are indications of a number of important differences between private and public organizations that cannot be ignored in management research. Rainey, Backoff, and Levine (1976) also claimed that there are significant differences in purposes, objectives, and planning; in selection, management, and motivation; and in controlling and measuring results between these groups of managers. Bower (1977) claimed that public management is different not just in degree, but also in quality from corporate management. These differences have important implications for public managers and how they view their jobs. Rainey (1979) claimed that his study might be taken as support for the generalization that, compared with most business organizations, governmental organizations in the United States operate under greater procedural constraints on the administration of extrinsic incentives. Wittmer (1991) stated that previous research indicated that public managers and employees were different from their private-sector counterparts in terms of work-related values, reward preferences, needs, and personality types. Rainey, Pandey, and Bozeman (1995) found a striking difference between public and private managers in terms of personnel rules and constraints. Public agencies have sharply higher levels of formalization of certain functions, such as personnel and purchasing. Cook (1998) argued that it is the character of public administration as a political institution that should be at the conceptual centre of public management. What makes public administration and public management public, and thus distinctive, is that politics of the most fundamental sort are at the heart of the enterprise. Rainey and Bozeman (2000) referred to the almost universal agreement among scholars that public organizations are marked by more complexity and ambiguity. If the conclusion that there are profound differences between public and private organizations is sound, then these differences may explain differences in leadership behaviors. Researchers have found that the demands placed on public and private organizations vary to the extent that different practices are recommended for each sector (e.g., Nutt 2006). Public management scholarship suggests that public organizations are fundamentally different from private organizations as a consequence of the functions they provide to society. If public and private organizations are different in significant ways, these differences may explain the differences between male and female managers' leadership behaviors. Interestingly, Andersen (2010b) found when investigating 343 managers' behaviors in two public organizations and one private organization that public managers were more change-oriented than managers in business organizations. 2.2 The Gender-in-Management Explanation 2.2.1 Introduction Some management studies are based on gender theory and address the behavioral patterns of male and female managers. A number of scholars have stressed the differences between women and men in formal leadership positions, claiming that female managers are inherently different from male managers. Brenner, Tomkiewics, and Schein (1989) asserted that women possess certain characteristics, attitudes, and temperaments that differ from those of male managers. Fondas (1997, p. 275) argued that "gender is part of the very conceptualization of management." Trinidad and Normore (2005, p. 574) claimed that "women leadership styles are Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 47 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Leadership Behaviors in Private and Public Managers: The Public-Private Distinction Explanation Versus the Gender Explanation presented as alternative to traditional leadership models." The gender theory consists of both the argument that gender does determine leadership behaviors and the counterargument that gender does not (Pounder and Coleman, 2002). Wilson (1999, p. 12) noted that "gender is something more than an individual characteristic or a certain set of social roles. The gender differences we can observe between men and women are not basic or essential for either of the sexes." The issue at hand is gender differences in public organizations in relation to leadership behaviors. When studying the role of gender in management in one specific nation, it is important to assess first whether there are differences in behavior between public and private managers. Once this question has been answered, the study of gender in public managers can be addressed. Pounder and Coleman (2002, p. 129) listed five probable influences on gender differences in management: (1) national culture, (2) socialization (society), (3) socialization (workplace), (4) nature of organization, and (5) organizational demographics, including factors such as "tenure in the organization and in the job, experience of senior management responsibilities, and the composition of the managerial peer group." 2.2.2 Organizational Demographics Pounder and Coleman's (2002) concept of "organizational demographics" included a gender-based explanation. They suggested that the organizational demographics have a probable influence on leadership behavior. This concept may include the distribution of males and females in the organization because both the proportion (ratio) of male to female managers and the male-to-female ratio of all employees are important. Korac-Kakadadse et al. (1998) and Hanbury, Sapat, and Washington (2004) argued that organizational demographics, such as tenure in the organization and experience of senior-management responsibilities, largely determines leadership behavior. Burke, Mc-Keen, and McKenna (1993) also included tenure in the organization and tenure in present job in their study of organizational demographics. The foundation of research on organizational demography is based on theories that emphasize the importance of numbers and proportions of managers and subordinates in order to understand the interaction processes in organizations. These positions most often are defined by demographic attributes such as age, tenure, occupation, gender, and ethnicity. Korac-Kakadadse et al. (1998) noted that some scholars have suggested that similarities between male and female managers far outweigh their differences because managers are a self-selected population. Those who choose managerial careers share a great deal in common. Within an organization individuals prefer to interact with those who belong to their own identity group rather than with those of other groups. Group demography highlights similarity and dissimilarity among individuals, such as the level and extent of within-group communication, as well as outcomes of group dynamics, including such phenomena as the level of consensus within a group, innovation, and turnover of personnel within the organization. The degree of an individual's similarity or dissimilarity to others—in terms of the male-to-female ratio—in a work group may influence processes such as employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and level of communication. O'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell (1991, p. 492) wrote that "new entrants are then further socialised and assimilated, and those who don't fit leave." One of the characteristics of strong cultures is the intensity on the part of the organization's members displaying approval or disapproval toward those who act in certain ways. On the basis of the aforementioned references, it is reasonable to assume that the male-to-female ratio of managers and the gender ratio of all employees within an organization strongly captures the influences of organizational culture. It also may be an indication of organizational culture itself, especially in cases in which the ratios are distinctive and the ratios have been distinctive over a long period. Similarity in leadership behaviors of men and women thus are likely to outweigh gender-based differences. 48 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May Z0Z1 2.2.3 Socialization (Workplace) Theories on socialization at the workplace address the organizational structure and the prevalence of professions, specialist tasks, work experience, and period of employment in the same department or work group. Organizations and groups, according to Gibb (1969, p. 271), are characterized by "a set norms and values, which integrate rather than differentiate; that is, they are shared by all (or many) of the members of the system." Kanter (1977) showed that the proportion of men and women in corporations affected group processes and individual outcomes. Katz and Kahn (1978, p. 385) used the terms norms and values to refer to common beliefs of an evaluative type. Group norms make explicit the forms of behavior appropriate for those who work in organizational departments or groups. Gardner (1987, p. 5) noted that "the group create norms that tend to control the behavior of its members, and these norms constitute the social order." Group norms are shared norms, and thus social norms. Group norms are most likely to reflect the composition of males and females in the groups. Additionally, subordinates and managers generally are prepared to comply with the group norms of their profession or in formal positions. Group norms and group cohesiveness impact the behavior of individuals at work (Katz & Kahn, 1978). The behaviors of male and female subordinates and those of managers thus are influenced by the process of socialization taking place in the organization. The work norms and values of the majority of managers and the majority of subordinates are what the minorities need to adjust to. 2.2.4 Person-Organization Fit Theories of person-organization fit also address the antecedents and consequences of compatibility between people and the organizations in which they work. This approach often includes models of person-vocation fit and person-group fit (Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Guyot (1962) assumed that there is a relationship between an individual and his or her occupational role. The person-vocation fit theories may predict vocational choice (Kristof, 1996). However, other studies focused on the fit between specific characteristics of an organization and the people in it. The two major theories of vocational choice referred to by O'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell (1991) both postulated that an individual will select a career or occupation that is similar to or that fits that person's self-concept. Their study offers support for the validity of assessment of person-organization fit on the basis of value congruence. Hanbury, Sapat, and Washington (2004) found that leadership behaviors and personality were correlated strongly with years of service for city managers in the United States. The choice of profession and career, according to McClelland (1990), is related to the power motive. Some professions and vocations give people more opportunity to exercise power and exert influence. According to McClelland (1971), the power motive may explain why some individuals are attracted to managerial positions. The differences found in work-related values may result from the personal characteristics of those selecting public service or from socialisation and organizational culture (Wittmer, 1991). Individuals have different values, orientations, and goals, and make organizational choices accordingly. Knowledge about the differences in work-related values can be useful, for example, in recruiting, selecting employees, and promoting managers (Wittmer, 1991). 3. METHODOLOGY Data on managers' leadership behaviors from 222 corporate managers in eight companies and 385 public managers in three public agencies in Sweden were collected using three instruments. Leadership style refers to the concept of leadership styles proposed by Reddin (1970), which consist of task-orientation and relationship-orientation with two main styles each, giving four overall leadership styles: separated style, related style, dedicated style and integrated style. These styles were measured by a forced-choice instrument (MSDT) consisting of 56 statement (Reddin, 1982). McClelland applied the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in all his empirical studies on motivation profiles. This instrument was described by McClel- Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 49 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Leadership Behaviors in Private and Public Managers: The Public-Private Distinction Explanation Versus the Gender Explanation land and Steele (1972). The respondents to be tested must be present in the same room, which makes data collection time-consuming and costly. For this reason, an instrument (AMPI) was developed and applied by Andersen (1994). This measurement (1) measures achievement, affiliation, and power motivation; (2) measures the relative strengths of these factors; (3) rests explicitly on the definitions of McClelland (1990); and (4) measures managers' work motivation. The questionnaire has been described and tested for reliability and validity with responses from 580 managers (Andersen, 2018). The Keegan Type Indicator Form B was applied, which measures decision-making styles in terms of sensation, intuition, thinking, and feeling using 44 statements/questions (Keegan, 1980, 1982). Sixteen items refer to the functions sensing and intuition, and 16 items refer to the functions thinking and feeling. Of the 32 items measuring the functions, 24 are bipolar statements, and eight items are statements to be ranked on a scale from 1 to 4. 4. EMPIRICAL STUDIES 4.1 Public Organizations In leadership scholarship, the concepts of leadership style, motivation profile, and decision-making style are well established and are used widely in contemporary empirical research (e.g., Bass, 2008; Liebowitz, 2020). The explanations of similarities and differences in leadership behaviors between men and women in management can be divided into two groups. One group focuses on factors based on individuals and groups, whereas the other concentrates on organizational differences (private versus public organizations). The individual arguments are based on the fact that behavior is an individual characteristic. The group and organizational arguments are found in gender theory, in the private-public distinction theory, the organizational demographics including the emphasis on male-to-female ratio, and theories of person-organization fit. The gender theory consists of both argument that gender does determine leadership behavior and the counterargument that gender does not (Pounder and Coleman, 2002). This research field includes studies of similarities and differences in managers' behaviors which are independent of gender. Andersen and Hansson (2011) found no significant differences between male and female public managers in leadership behaviors (leadership styles, decision-making styles, and motivation profiles) based on responses from 385 managers (148 female and 237 male managers) in three public organizations. Martin (2015) found no differences between male and female public managers, but women were more likely to use idealized attributes and inspirational motivation. No differences were found in leadership styles by type of public institution. A strong correlation was found between the number of years of administrative experience. 4.2 Male-to-Female Ratios of Managers and of Subordinates The gender distributions of all employees, of all subordinates, and of all managers in organizations also may offer an explanation. Kanter (1977) argued that the leadership style of the few women in leadership positions (at that time) should be studied as a function of membership in a male-dominated group in which men shape work behavior. If the masculine model represents the universal and dominant model of leadership, then women would understand that they would have to conform to it in order to rise through the ranks. Women repeatedly use the same strategies for gaining influence that have proven successful for men (Trinidad and Nor-more, 2005). Male professionals are more likely to be similar to senior male managers than are female professionals when gender distribution is considered. The managerial profession involves a number of behaviors that appear to override the impact of gender (Fierman, 1990; Moss and Jensrud, 1995). The male-to-female ratios of all employees and the male-to-female ratios of managers in organizations may explain gender differences in leadership behavior. This is an important observation because private organizations with mostly female managers are hard to find. No studies of gender differences are found which include such organizations. To explore the effects of organizational demographics, Table 2 lists data on three of the four possible categories of male-to-female ratios in public and private organizations. 50 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May Z0Z1 Table 2: Public and private organizations: male/female ratio of all employees and all managers Mostly men employed, with mostly male managers Private sector: Private corporations: 222 male managers in 8 companies (Andersen, 2010a). Mostly women employed, with mostly female managers Public sector: Public schools: 171 school headmaster and deputy headmasters in 214 schools (Hansson & Andersen, 2007). Mostly men employed, with mostly female managers No such organization known Mostly women employed, with mostly male mangers Public sector: (1) Public insurance agencies: 61 managers in 61 regional agencies. (Andersen & Mansson, 2004). (2) State church: 153 vicars in 153 parishes (Andersen & Hansson, 2008). There are four combinations of male-to-female ratios of all employees and of managers in an organization: (1) mostly men are employed, and mostly men are managers; (2) mostly women are employed, and mostly women are managers; (3) mostly women are employed, and mostly men are managers; and (4) mostly men are employed, and mostly women are managers. The fourth combination is hard to find, if it exists at all. With respect to the effects of differences in gender distribution of all employees and gender distribution of managers in the organization, significant differences in leadership behaviors did not arise in the comparison of organizations in which "women lead women-intensive organizations"—e.g., schools—and few differences were found when "men lead more women than men"—e.g., social-insurance offices and the state church (Andersen & Hansson, 2011). These findings contradict what some researchers have suggested (e.g., Kantar, 1977; Trinidad & Normore, 2005). Marvel (2015) investigated the effects on work effort (not leadership behavior) when school principals and teachers were of the same gender and when they were not. 4.3 Experience of Management Responsibilities and Tenure in the Organization and Job Korac-Kakadadse, Korac-Kakadadse, and Mayers (1998) and Hanbury, Sapat, and Washington (2004) argued that leadership behavior is determined largely by organizational demographics, such as tenure in the organization and experience of senior-management responsibilities. However, it is hard to find studies which contain this kind of data. The study by Hansson and Andersen (2008) is an exception with regard to data on years as manager in Swedish schools and vicars in the church. Among the vicars who responded, 50% had been in a managerial position for more than 10 years and 35% had been in a managerial position for more than 15 years. Among school principals, 35% had been in their present position for more than 10 years and 15% had been in their present position for more than 15 years. The tenure in the organization and in the job of all employees and the experience of management responsibilities are variables that may contribute to the explanation of gender similarities and differences in public organizations. Data on managers' experience and subordinates' tenure in the job and organization are hard to find in management studies. 4.4 Gender Explanation Tested Hansson and Andersen (2007) studied leadership behaviors of managers in three public organizations and identified three different types of organizations: (1) public schools, in which more females than males were headmasters; (2) social-insurance agencies, in which more males than females were managers; and (3) the Church of Sweden, in which more males were vicars than females. Hansson and Andersen (2007) analyzed responses from 171 principals and deputy principals in primary and secondary schools in Sweden. Of the principals, 58% were women and 42% were men. The study by Andersen and Mansson (2004) contained data from 61 senior officials, constituting 31% of all officials in charge of local social-insurance offices in Sweden. Of the managers investigated, 56% were men and 44% were women. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 51 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Leadership Behaviors in Private and Public Managers: The Public-Private Distinction Explanation Versus the Gender Explanation Hansson and Andersen (2001) investigated leadership behaviors based on responses from vicars (rectors) employed by the Church of Sweden. At the time of data collection, Sweden had a state church which was a public organization. The vicars were civil servants and the local managers of parishes. At the time of data collection, there were 1,044 vicars, 240 of whom, randomly determined, received the questionnaires. Of the 153 vicars who responded, 76% were males and 24% were females. As a consequence of the findings of differences in managers' leadership styles due to the private-public distinction, Andersen and Hansson (2011) focused exclusively on women and men—as indicated by the respondents' references to their gender—in managerial positions in public organizations. Data from 385 managers (223 males and 162 females) were analyzed. Of the 30 pair-wise comparisons of means for the samples of managers in three different public organizations, only five comparisons (17%) yielded significant differences in leadership behavior between women and men as managers (p < 0.05). Only one case was significant at a level of 1%. Andersen and Hansson (2011) concluded—as have other studies—that no or only small and inconsistent differences existed between male and female managers in terms of behavior. Andersen and Hansson (2011) suggested that organizational differences and characteristics modify the phenomenon of leadership itself, which may explain the similarities of behavior regardless of gender. In this respect, a germane development is the rising trend that emphasizes the need to help women and men move away from gender stereotypes (Ferrario, 1991). The knowledge that there are no differences in leadership behaviors between female and male managers in the public sector may contribute to this movement. Pounder and Coleman (2002) observed that education is dominated numerically by women, but managers in education are predominantly male, although there is some evidence of a growing willingness of women to take up leadership positions in education. Moss and Jensrud (1995) suggested that men and women in educational organizations have common conceptions of what headmasters should try to accomplish and of their ideal qualities. Now, almost 20 years later, the situation has changed, at least in Sweden. The male-to-female ratio of headmasters in Swedish public schools who took part in the study by Andersen (2010a) was 65% female headmasters and 35% male headmasters in 2008. In the school year 2018/19 the Swedish national figures for all headmasters and deputy headmasters in senior secondary schools were 57% female headmasters and 43% male headmasters. The gender ratio of teachers was 52% women and 48% men in senior secondary schools, whereas the ratio of teachers in primary schools the same year was 70% females and 30% males (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2018). When the majority of headmasters are women, it does not seem appropriate to argue that women have adapted to a male culture or leadership behaviors. Moreover, it is incorrect to claim that male headmasters have adopted a female leadership behavior in Swedish schools, because no differences in behaviors were found. Analysis of the sample of principals yielded no significant differences regarding the leadership variables. The findings by Franzen (2006) on Swedish principals were in line with the results reported by Andersen and Hansson (2011). We are justified in asserting that all teachers in public schools (including principals, who are former teachers) have been influenced by the same organizational demographics for several years. This may explain the similar pattern of leadership behavior among the school principals. In the social-insurance agencies, 56% of managers were male and 44% were female, according to data from 2002 (Andersen and Mansson, 2004). In 2017, the situation was reversed in the social-insurance agencies. That year, only 31% of the managers were male, and the majority (69%) were female. The gender ratio for all employees was 76% females and 24% males (Swedish Social Service Agency, 2018). Of the Church of Sweden vicars who responded, 76% were male and 24% female vicars (Hansson and Andersen, 2001). On April 1, 2018, the proportion of male vicars had decreased to 63% and the proportion of females had increased to 37% (Matrikel, 2018). An update on the gender ratios in these three public organizations challenges the gender-based ex- 52 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May Z0Z1 planation. The strong increase in the proportion of female managers in Sweden gives no support to the presence of gender discrimination suggested by Rowley et al. (2010) in the United States. Thus we argue that specific studies need both to specify the male-to-female ratio of managers and of subordinates, and to specify whether the study relates to (1) an organization in which mostly men are employed with mostly male managers, (2) one in which mostly women are employed with mostly female managers, or (3) one in which mostly women are employed with mostly male managers. The quality of gender research also would be improved if data on the average tenure of managers and subordinates were collected and presented as a mediating factor for gender differences or similarities. On January 1, 2000, the Church of Sweden was disestablished and ceased to be a public organization, becoming what Blau and Scott (1962) called a mutual-benefit association. The Church of Sweden is now an organization similar to a public organization because all citizens, not only church members, are beneficiaries according to the Church Order (the ecclesiastical constitution). 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The Swedish studies reported here showed significant differences between public and private managers with respect to leadership behaviors. Public managers appeared to have virtually the same behavioral patterns. These findings are explained in light of two prominent theoretical traditions—the public-private distinction, and gender theory—linked to the organizational demographic perspective. The argument here is that the proportion of males and females in an organization cannot explain the similarities in leadership behavior found in the Swedish studies. Subsequent research on gender in public organization may benefit from the inclusion of the objective variable of tenure, that is, the average number of years in managerial or subordinate positions. This may increase the explanatory power of differences and similarities because it is based firmly on the organizational demographic tradition. In addition to the public-private distinction and the argument of person-organization fit, the criteria used when selecting applicants or promoting employees to managerial positions also may explain the similarities found. The public managers investigated in three different types of organizations appeared to have almost the same leadership behaviors, independent of the gender majority in management (Andersen, 2010). Burke, McKeen, and McKenna (1993) noted that there is some support for cross-gender effects. Andersen and Hansson (2011) suggested that organizational differences and characteristics modify the phenomenon of leadership itself, which could explain the similarities of behavior regardless of gender. Differences in gender proportion of all employees and gender proportion of managers did not explain leadership behavior in the Swedish public organizations investigated. The knowledge that there are few or no differences in leadership behaviors between male and female managers in public organizations may contribute to this movement away from gender stereotypes. Bowling et al. (2006) noted more than 10 years ago the increasing trends of female access to and presence in governmental managerial positions in the United States. They found that women faced fewer blockages in attaining top positions owing to solid educational, career, and organizational foundations. Burke et al. (1993) found that male professionals were more likely to be similar to senior male managers than were female professionals. Connell (2006) observed that gender divisions (i.e., the ratio of male to female managers) persisted in several forms, and that the rising number of women in public management resulted in local turbulence in gender relations. However, there are no studies from Sweden of these issues. Regardless of whether there are more women or more men in public management, the consequences of leadership behaviors of public managers remain the same. The behavior of the managerial majority— whether they are male or female—becomes the leadership behavior of "all" managers. It is not female managers who adopt male managers' behavioral pattern or the converse. It is not male or female dominance in public organizations which induce managers to behave in specific ways. The behavioral patterns of the gender that is in the majority do not explain the leadership behaviors of public managers. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 53 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Leadership Behaviors in Private and Public Managers: The Public-Private Distinction Explanation Versus the Gender Explanation Kotter (1982) found that corporate managers typically spent most of their careers in one industry. It is extremely unusual to find a person who has held senior managerial positions in both the private and public sector. Theories of person-organization fit, which address the antecedents and consequences of compatibility between people and the organiza- tions in which they work, may contribute to the explanation of similarities in public managers' leadership behaviors. The leadership behaviors of public managers were the same, independent of a male or female majority of managers in the organizations in which they worked. The public-distinction explanation appears to outweigh the gender explanation. EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Članek preučuje teoretična pojasnila o podobnostih in razlikah v načinu vodenja menedžerjev. Pojasnila temeljijo na podatkov pridobljenih s strani 222 menedžerjev, zaposlenih v osmih korpora-tivnih podjetjih, in 385 javnih menedžerjev, zaposlenih v treh javnih agencijah na Švedskem. V prejšnjih študijah sta bili predstavljeni dve teoriji podobnosti in razlik v vodenju: teorija javnega-zasebnega razlikovanja pojasnjuje, da razlike med načinom vodenja menedžerjev javnih in zasebnih organizacij izvirajo iz razlik med organizacijami. Teorija spola trdi, da razlike v načinu vodenja organizacij izvirajo v številu ženskih in moških zastopnikov v vodstvu podjetja. Pomankljivost slednje teorije je, da ne pojasni podobnosti v načinu vodenja v eni iz med raziskav, v katero so bile vljučene tri švedske javne organizacije. Način vodenja v omenjenih javnih organizacij je bil enak, čeprav je bilo vodstvo v eni organizaciji sestavljeno večinoma iz ženskih predstavnic, vodstvo drugih dveh organizacij pa večinoma iz moških predstavnikov. Na podlagi teh rezultatov avtorji zaključujejo, da teorija javnega-zasebnega razlikovanja prevlada nad teorijo spola. REFERENCES Andersen, J. A. (2010a). Public versus private managers: How public and private managers differ in leadership behaviour. Public Administration Review, 70(1), 131-41. Andersen, J. A. (2010b). Assessing public managers' change-oriented behaviour: Are private managers caught in the doldrums? International Journal of Public Administration, 33(6), 335-345. Andersen, J. A. & Mansson, J. (2004). Forsakringskassor-nas effektivitet. (Effectiveness of Social Insurance Offices) (Swedish). Vaxjo: Vaxjo University. Andersen, J. A. & Hansson. P. H. (2011). At the end of the road? On differences between women and men in leadership behaviour. Leadership & Organizational Development Journal, 32(5), 428-41. Bass, B. M. (2008). The Bass handbook of leadership. Theory, research & managerial applications. Free Press, New York, NY. Blau, P. M. & Scott, W. R. (1962). Formal Organizations. San Francisco: Chandler. Bower, J. L. (1977). Effective public management. Harvard Business Review. March April, p. 131-140. Bowling, C. J., Kelleher, C. A., Jones, J. & Wright, D. S. (2006). Cracked ceilings, firmer floor, and weakening walls: Trends and patterns in gender presentation among executives leading American State Agencies, 1970-2000. Public Administration Review, 66(6), 823-836. Brenner, O. C., Tomkiewics, J. & Schein, V. E. (1989). The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics revisited. Academy of Management Journal, 32(3), 662-69. Burke, R. J., McKeen, C. A. & McKenna, C. (1993). Correlates of mentoring in organizations. The mentor's perspective. Psychological Reports, 72(3), 883-96. Connell, R. (2006). Glass ceilings or gender institutions? Mapping the gender regimes of public sector worksites. Public Administration Review, 66(6), 837-49. Cook, B. J. (1998). Politics, political leadership, and public management. Public Administration Review, 58(3), 225-230. 54 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May Z0Z1 Ferrario, M. (1991). Sex differences in leadership style: Myth or reality? Women in Management Review & Abstracts, 6(3), 16-21. Fierman, J. (1990). Do women manage differently? Fortune, 17 December, pp. 115-118. Fleishman, E. A. & Harris, E. F. (1962). Patterns of leadership behaviour related to employee grievances and turnover. Personnel Psychology, (15), 43-56. Franzén, K. (2006). "Is i magen och ett varmt hjarta": konstruktionen av skolledarskap i ett konsperspektiv ["Keeping a cool head and a warm heart": The construction of school leadership from a gender perspective]. Umea, Pedagogiska institutionen, Umea University. Fondas, N. (1997). Feminization unveiled: management qualities in contemporary writings. Academy of Management Review, 22(1), 257-82. Gardner, J. W. (1987). Leaders and followers. Liberal Education, 73(2), 4-6. Gibb, C.A. (1969). Leadership. In Lindsey, G. & Aronson, E. (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology, Vol. 4. (pp. 205-282). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Guyot, J. F. (1962). Government bureaucrats are different. Public Administration Review, 22 (4), 195-202. Hanbury, G. L., Sapat, A. & Washington, C. W. (2004). Know yourself and take charge of your own destiny: The "fit model" of leadership. Public Administration Review, 64(5),566 576. Hansson, P. H. & Andersen, J. A. (2001). The Swedish Vicar and Change. A problematic mismatch. Journal of Empirical Theology, 12(1), 43-56. Hansson, P. H. & Andersen, J. A. (2007). The Swedish Principal - Leadership style, decision making style and motivation profile. International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, 14(1), 47-60. Hansson, P. H. & Andersen, J. A. (2008). Vicars as managers revisited. A comparative study. Nordic Journal of Religion and Society, 21(1), 91-111. Hofstede, G. (1980a). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills. Hofstede, G. (1980b). Motivation, leadership and organization: Do American theories apply abroad? Organizational Dynamics, 9(1), 42-63. House, R. J., Dorfman, P. W., Javidan, M., Hanges, P. J. & Sully de Lugue, M. (2014). Strategic leadership across the culture: The Globe study of CEO leadership behaviour and effectiveness in 24 countries. Sage Publishing, New York. Kanter, R. M. (1977). Men and Woman of the Corporation, Basic Books, New York, NY. Katz, D. & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social Psychology of Organizations. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Keegan, W. J. (1980). How to Use the Keegan Type Indicator (KTI) and the Keegan Information Processing Indicator (KIPI). Warren Keegan Associates Press, New York. Keegan, W. J. (1982). Keegan Type Indicator Form B. Warren Keegan Associates Press, New York. Keegan, W. J. (1984). Judgements, Choices and Decisions. Wiley, New York, NY. Korac-Kakadadse, A., Korac-Kakadadse, N. & Mayers, A. (1998). Demographics and leadership philosophy: exploring gender differences. Journal of Management Development, 17(5), 351-88. Kotter, J. P. (1982). The General Managers. New York: The Free Press. Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-Organization Fit: An integrative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49(1), 1-49. Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D. & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals' fit at work: a meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 281-342. Liebowitz, J. (Ed.). (2020). Developing Informed Intuition for Decision-making. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton. Martin, J. (2015). Transformational and transactional leadership: An exploration of gender, experience, and institution type. Libraries and the Academy, 15(2), 331-351. Marvel, J. D. (2015). Gender congruence and work effort in manager-employee relationships. Public Administration Review, 75(3), 455-68. Matrikel for Svenska kyrkan (2019). Verbum, Stockholm. McClelland, D. C. (1971). To know why men do what they do. Psychology Today, January, pp. 35-75. McClelland, D. C. (1990). Human motivation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McClelland, D. C. & Steele, R. S. (1972). Motivation workshops. General Learning Press, Morristown. McClelland, D. C. & Burnham, D. H. (1976). Power is the great motivator. Harvard Business Review, 54(2), 100-10. Moss, J. jr. & Jensrud, Q. (1995). Gender, leadership and vocational education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 33 (1), 6-23. Nutt, P. C. (2006). Comparing public and private sector decision-making practices. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 16(2), 289-318. O'Reilly III, C. A., Chatman, J. & Caldwell, D. F. (1991). People and organizational culture: A profile comparison approach to assessing person-organization fit. Academy of Management Journal, (34), 487-516. Pounder, J. S. & Coleman, M. (2002). Women - better leaders than men? In general and educational management it still "all depends". Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 23(3), 122-33. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 55 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Leadership Behaviors in Private and Public Managers: The Public-Private Distinction Explanation Versus the Gender Explanation Rainey, H. G. (1979). Perceptions of incentives in business and government: Implications for civil service reform. Public Administration Review, 39(5), 440-448. Rainey, H. G., Backoff, R. W. & C. H. Levine. (1976). Comparing public and private organizations. Public Administration Review, 36(2), 233-44. Rainey, H. G., Pandey, S-J & and Bozeman, B. (1995). Research Note: Public and private managers' receptions of red tape. Public Administration Review, 55(6), 567-73. Rainey, H. G. & Bozeman, B. (2000). Comparing public and private organizations: Empirical research and the power of the a priori. Journal of Public Administration Research & Theory, 10(2), 447-469. Reddin, W. J. (1970). Managerial effectiveness. McGraw-Hill, New York. Reddin, W. J. (1987). How to make your leadership style more effective. McGraw-Hill (UK), London. Rowley, S., Hossain, F. & Barry, P. (2010). Leadership trough a gender lens. How cultural environments and theoretical perspectives interact with gender. International Journal of Public Administration, 3(2), 81-87. Smith, P. B., Peterson, M. F. & Schwartz, S. H. (2002). Cultural values, sources of guidance and their relevance to managerial behaviour: A 47 nation study. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 33(2), 188-208. Smith, P. B. & Peterson, M. F. (2005). Demographic effects on the use of vertical sources of guidance by managers in widely differing cultural contexts. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 5(1), 5-26. Swedish National Agency for Education (2018). Annual Report 2017, Stockholm. Swedish Social Service Agency (2018). Annual Report 2017, Stockholm. Trinidad, C. & Normore, A. H. (2005). Leadership and gender: a dangerous liaison? Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 26(7), 574-90. Wilson, F. (1999). Organizational behaviour: A critical introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Wittmer, D. (1991). Serving the people or serving for pay: Reward preferences among government, hybrid sector, and business managers. Public Productivity & Management Review, 14(4), 369-383. Yukl, G., Mahsud, R. & Prussia, G. (2019). Effectiveness of broad and specific leadership behaviors. Personnel Review, 48(3), 774-783. 56 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May Z0Z1 Vol. 10, No. 1, 57-72 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2021.v10n01a04 BUSINESS INCUBATION AND INNOVATION SPEED: MEDIATING ROLE OF ABSORPTIVE CAPACITY Vinney Zephaniah Vincent Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India vinneyzephaniah@gmail.com Zakkariya K.A. Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India zakkariya@gmail.com - Abstract - Startups suffer from very high mortality rates—much higher than those of larger, well-established companies. Many researchers believe that business incubation (BI) acts as a helping hand and encourages entrepreneurial development by creating a network of knowledge and resources. Still, few have studied the effect of the incubation on knowledge gain, which leads to quicker innovation compared to their competitors. This study used a resource-based view and organizational learning theory to explore the effect and mechanism of incubation on the absorptive capacity (ACAP) and innovation speed (IS) of startups in the Indian context. Using survey data from a sample of344 technology intensive incubator firms in India, we demonstrated that the incubation mechanisms, namely business incubator selection performance, monitoring, and business assistance intensity and resource munificence, help startups to explore, transform, and exploit knowledge and information to bring technology and products to market quickly. Data were analyzed using hierarchical regression, and mediation was tested using Baron and Kenny's (1986) method and a Process macro developed by Hayes (2013). The results of this study prove that absorptive capacity dimensions such as exploratory, transformative, and exploitative learning among startups are augmented by business incubation services, which results in the rapid commercialization of technological products. Keywords: Business Incubation, Startups, Innovation Speed, Absorptive Capacity 1. INTRODUCTION Technology startups have been identified by academicians and policymakers as an essential source of innovation and economic growth for local, regional, and national levels (Dee et al., 2019). Because startups are more susceptible to failure due to their liability of newness, policymakers widely promote business incubation as a protective mechanism for early-stage firms (Eveleens et al., 2017). Entrepreneurship scholars thus have shown a keen interest in understanding the types and effects of business incubation services over the last decade (Bruneel et al., 2012; Mian et al., 2016; Hausberg & Korreck, 2020; Bollingtoft & Ulhoi, 2005). Incubator firms vigorously have pursued opportunities for profitability and growth through business incubators (Chen, 2009). However, research evidence of the quantifiable benefits of business incubation services has been contradictory (Al-Mubaraki & Busler, 2013). This paper examined a critical performance criterion for the incubator startups, namely their innovation speed. Innovation speed, also called speed to market, represents the time elapsed between innovative ideation and the final market launch of the innovation (Kessler & Chakrabarti, 1996). Although innovation speed is a significant performance criterion for incubator firms, little empirical research has Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 57 Vinney Zephaniah Vincent, Zakkariya K.A.: Business Incubation and Innovation Speed: Mediating Role of Absorptive Capacity been conducted on this topic (Clausen & Kor-neliussen, 2012). Therefore, a better understanding of how incubator startups can achieve the required innovation speed is imperative. Business incubators act as hubs through which emerging young firms can network (Hughes et al., 2007), and thus exposes developing young startups to synergetic opportunities to collaborate, learn, and acquire knowledge (Dee et al., 2019). Learning refers to the ability of the organization to gain new skills, which it can use in its processes (Lichtenthaler, 2009; Lane & Lubatkin, 1998). Grounded on the resource-based view and organizational learning perspective, incubation opens the door to new networking contexts of various organizational systems and structures, causing businesses to learn the best practices in global markets (Wu, 2007). Business incubators also improve the capacity of an organization to leverage its established capacities and resources when exploring innovative options (Pettersen et al., 2015). Exploitative learning among startups focuses on using the existing information, abilities, and resources of the organization in existing and first-hand markets, as well (Zahra, 2005). However, excessive emphasis on transforming new and existing capacities can lead to organizational clinkers and roll-back (Lichtenthaler, 2009). Business incubation lessens this risk by stimulating exploration activities among young firms (Hughes et al., 2007). This can promote innovation and expand the variety of strategic options open to the firm (Hackett & Dilts, 2004; Bruneel et al., 2012). The preceding argument indicates that merely registering with a business incubator or engaging in business incubation activities does not ensure innovation speed (Clausen & Kornelieussen, 2012) and performance (Voisey et al., 2006). Much depends on the ability of the startup to find effective ways of exploiting its skills and capabilities (Hughes et al., 2007) and acquiring new knowledge (Theodorakopoulos et al., 2014) from the networked business incubator (Pena, 2004) and the startup's competing markets (Mian, 2016). This ability depends to a certain extent on the absorptive capacity of the startup firm (Jansen et al., 2005; Zahra, 2005; Lane et al., 2006). Consequently, innovation speed, which is a significant criterion for firm performance, depends on the firm's absorptive capacity and its applications, and it has major implications for the early-stage development of firms, mainly firms which have limited business resources and network experience (Wu, 2007). Such constraints limit the accumulation of resources which could extend the firm's knowledge base, which, in effect, limits the entrepreneurial capacity of the startup firm (Zahra et al., 2009). Compared to other stable factors such as the founder's education qualifications and experience, the absorptive capacity of a firm can be changed and developed (Zahra et al., 2005; Zahra et al., 2009). Business incubation is considered to be one solution to these constraints, because it provides access to a variety of on-site live resources, services, mentoring, and training (Hackett & Dilts, 2004a; Hackett & Dilts, 2004b). Although the ability of incubation to help early-stage firms is implicit and convincing, the extent to which it supports the startups in knowledge exploration and transformation of opportunities by exploiting new and existing information is unknown (Eveleens & Rijnsoever, 2017). This study examined how the incubation process can augment the knowledge attribute of absorptive capacity to help improve the innovation speed of new technology startups. The study examined the mechanism by which a technology business incubator increases the startup's absorptive capacity by allowing the exploration of knowledge and critically promoting the transformation of information into resources that supports business performance through innovation, creating sustainable development. Empirically, this study is built on survey data collected from a sample of 344 technology-intensive incubator firms registered with government-supported technology business incubators in India. We used the lens of organizational learning to suggest that startups participate in business incubation activities to gain new skills and capabilities that allow them to leverage new opportunities and innovation in competitive markets effectively. Consequently, businesses should build a stock of relevant information within their own innovative operations. This paper discusses the topic in greater depth. The paper is arranged in four sections. First, we clarify the concepts of business incubation, absorptive capacity, and innovation speed. Secondly, we propose a relationship between them. The third section discusses the research methodology and the empirical results. Lastly, managerial and theoretical implications are discussed. 58 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Business Incubation and Innovation Speed The key objective for both business incubators and incubated startups is the speedy commercialization of new technology and innovation (Grimaldi & Grandi, 2005). The success of the incubator depends on the ability of its tenant ventures to develop and market new products and processes quickly (Patton et al., 2009). Rapid commercialization is critical for incubator firms to achieve the required market share, early sales, growth, and survival (Chen, 2009; Clausen & Korneliussen, 2012). Most of India's technology incubators are supported in whole or in part by the government, which provides a learning ground for startups, and they are focused on the commercialization of science- and technology-oriented processes and applications rather than on the generation and growth of the general business. The creation of technology-based incubators in India stems from the government's belief that fostering such mentoring practices promotes the development of a knowledge-based economy that is competitive enough to compete on the global marketplace (NASSCOM, 2018). Innovation speed is a capability that can yield a significant competitive advantage for a firm when combined with core practices (Kessler & Chakrabarti, 1996). Consequently, by increasing the speed of effective innovation, companies can fully exploit research-related assets, amortize research project costs through the more-efficient introduction of new products, and thus maximize profit (National Research Council, 2003). Due to unpredictable markets and systemic let-downs that restrict the ability of small technology-based startups to survive and overcome the complexity and challenges associated with the early stages of ideation and development, policymakers widely promote a business incubation environment (Eveleens et al., 2017; Dee et al., 2019). Although policymakers have acknowledged that the incubation process can bring a competitive advantage by expanding the knowledge base of incubator firms (Hillermane et al., 2019), the majority of the literature to date has concentrated on recording the effects of incubator outcomes, and not on the aftermath of incubation (Hackett & Dilts, 2004; Hackett & Dilts, 2008; Bergek & Norman, 2008; Stephens & Onofrei, 2012). Therefore, several studies have called for more incubatee- incubator research that explores incubation through the lens of incubator firms (Voisey et al., 2006, Stephens & Onofrei 2012; Hackett & Dilts, 2008; Patton et al., 2009), incubator best practices (Bergek & Norrman, 2008), the process within startups (Ayatse et al., 2017), networking among startups (Pettersen et al., 2015), and interactions with incubation networks (Bollingtoft & Ulhoi, 2005; Pettersen et al., 2015). There is no consensus about what constitutes the quality of successful business incubation services and how these services can generate the requisite value-added outcomes (Mian, 1996; Patton et al., 2009; Dee et al., 2019; Hillemane et al., 2019). A major gap in the literature on innovation is that most innovation speed studies are conducted at the process level, and the firm level should be considered. Therefore, we focused on the firm-level innovation speed and, in particular, the position of external and strategic constructs that can promote faster innovation speed. From the literature on speed to market, which is synonymous to innovation speed (Claussen & Kornelieussen, 2012), we take the view that it is especially important to examine constructs that directly affect the organization and are subject to firm-level influence. The role of strategic support' is among the factors highlighted as areas for future research. Established on the resource-based view, business incubation is a construct that illustrates the role of strategic approaches and the role of management support as a driving force behind the rapid commercialization of new products (Hackett & Dilts, 2008; Voisey et al., 2006, Patton et al., 2009; Pettersen et al., 2015; Eveleens & Rijnsoever; 2017) in new and emerging firms. This study argues that business incubation can be a significant antecedent of innovation speed. Hypothesis 1: Business incubation is positively related to the innovation speed of startups. 2.2 Business Incubation and Absorptive Capacity Business incubation provides an essential systematic environment for startups to acquire knowledge for innovation and growth, and it provides access to critical resources, which relates to the underlying concept of the resource-based view. Based on organizational learning theory, a sustainable en- Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 59 Vinney Zephaniah Vincent, Zakkariya K.A.: Business Incubation and Innovation Speed: Mediating Role of Absorptive Capacity vironment is necessary for continuous learning. Business incubation leads to continuous learning of new skills and capabilities that significantly improve the ability of a firm to innovate, take risks, and develop new revenue streams (Bruneel et al., 2012; Etzkowitz, 2002; Arshad et al., 2020). It also acts as a guiding mechanism that enhances a firm's ability to explore new knowledge, transform useful and adequate information, and exploit its new and existing capabilities and resources for achieving growth and innovation (Al-Mubaraki & Busler, 2013; Freund et al., 2020). Emerging startups obtain their knowledge and perform their learning mainly through network relations (Hughes et al., 2007), and such learning manifests the logic underpinning incubators (Pena, 2004). Incubators should help develop and coordinate such dynamic linkages to ensure that firms learn to explore, transform, and exploit the knowledge acquired (Patton, 2014; Borges & Beuno, 2020). Absorptive capacity is a key dynamic capability which refers to the ability of the startup to gain new knowledge that it can utilize in its innovation and venturing operations (Zahra & Hayton, 2008). Every piece of new knowledge that a firm has gained will contribute to performance and innovation, and thus represents a potential source of competitive advantage (Zahra & Hayton, 2008; Xin et al., 2020) among incubator firms. Absorptive capacity consists of three dimensions, encompassing exploratory learning via new knowledge, the exploitation of the existing knowledge, and the combination of the two through transformative learning (Lane et al., 2006). This study employed the framework of Lane et al. (2006) to describe absorptive capacity, because it is useful in the specific context of incubator startups that promote technology advancements through innovative new products and services (Gebauer, Worch & Truffer, 2012). Exploratory learning is a way of discovering and comprehending new external knowledge (Jansen et al., 2005). When the approach of a firm guides its efforts, the firm's previous knowledge, which is a function of prevailing models, affects the vital assessment of new external information (Tzokas et al., 2015). Transformative learning necessitates many mechanisms that influence how the newly acquired knowledge and the existing are integrated (Jansen et al., 2005; Lane et al., 2006). Knowledge management methods influence how such knowledge is disseminated and passed to various areas of the firm (Argote, McEvily & Reagans, 2003). The inclusive outcome of these processes is a transformation of the combined nature of various organizational divisions arising from the assimilation of new knowledge (Tzokas et al., 2015; Jansen et al., 2005; Lane et al., 2006). The last dimension reveals how exploitative learning is used to apply the assimilated external knowledge (Lane et al., 2006). Companies do not simply achieve the absorptive capacity they need to thrive, primarily because of their liability of newness. In reality, it takes an adequate and critical climate to help improve the requisite absorptive capacity required to achieve a competitive edge. Business incubation exposes the companies to varying networked environments, operating in a world marked by rapid and persistent transition, which provides the opportunity for persistent learning from the incubator network (Hutabarat & Pandin, 2014). This type of transition makes room for startups to learn continuously to survive, let alone succeed (Patton, 2014). Inevitably, this routine allows firms to learn continuously from highly experienced experts, mentors, and peer networks to advance their knowledge, skills, and capabilities (Grandinetti, 2016). Thus, the incubator environment allows the firms to improve the techniques of exploration, transformation, and exploitation of knowledge to achieve their commercial ends (Jansen et al., 2005). Such exposure makes it possible for a firm to forecast more accurately the nature and commercial prospect of technological advances (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990) and to develop specialized innovative products (Tzokas et al., 2015). Therefore, it is best to assume that business incubation will have a positive impact on absorptive capacity, which can be understood as a combination of exploratory, transformative, and exploitative learning. Based on these arguments, we propose the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 2: Business incubation positively relates to a startup's absorptive capacity in terms of three dimensions, exploratory learning, transformative learning, and exploitative learning. 60 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 2.3 Absorptive Capacity and Innovation Speed Current success and future sustainability in a rapidly changing world rely on continuously learning to do things differently and better (Talwar et al., 2015). Knowledge is both the raw material that underpins learning and the outcome of it, offering new opportunities and new revenue streams (Gibb, 2002). Economic growth always has been driven by the desire to invent and evolve, which is to create new knowledge and ideas realized through processes, products, and ventures (Al-Mubaraki & Busler, 2013). Current thinking goes beyond merely recognizing it as a source of competitive advantage for a new venture; instead, it is argued that the conversion of knowledge into innovation is the main reason for startups to exist and establish. Startups operating in global markets need to absorb tremendous knowledge rapidly to leverage new business opportunities in those markets and gain an economical advantage (Zahra & Hayton, 2008; Paliokaite, 2019). This challenge is complicated by the fact that the knowledge gained often is complex and contextual, and represents the cultures and locations in which it was created (Talwar et al., 2015). A startup's ability to absorb, transform, and exploit this knowledge can influence the extent to which it rapidly can innovate and generate profits or growth in revenues in the presence of supporting external mechanisms (Zahra & Hayton, 2008). Absorptive capacity can accelerate innovation processes in small firms, which can confer strategic advantage (Huang & Rice, 2009). Accelerating innovation is important, because any window to exploit technological advances is shrinking continually due to the spillover of information, the replication of processes and operations by rivals, and technological obsolescence that makes most of the benefits temporary (Huang & Rice, 2009). Despite differences in terms of organizational knowledge, there is increasing consensus in the new venture literature that absorbing capacity explains new venture innovation at the firm level. Cohen and Levinthal (1990) described absorptive capacity as the ability of a startup to explore, understand, transform, and assimilate the knowledge acquired from external sources. Consistent with this definition, we focused on the antecedent effect of absorptive capacity on innovation speed at the level of the startup firm in a business incubator by focusing on the sources of knowledge fostered through incubation activities and networks. Although much has been written about absorptive capacity and its value, very little attention has focused on how absorptive capacity is created and used in a new venture to accelerate innovation. Whereas the majority of the literature focused on the absorptive capacity of established firms (Zahra & George, 2002; Lichtenthaler, 2009; Zahra et al., 2009), the present study focused on its influence on incubated early-stage firms' growth and development, because absorptive capacity is the knowledge which is acquired externally (Zahra & George, 2002). Based on these arguments, the following hypothesis is proposed: Hypothesis 3: Absorptive capacity dimensions such as exploratory learning, transformative learning, and exploitative learning are positively related to innovation speed. 2.4 Mediating Role of Absorptive Capacity Organizational learning, described here as absorptive capacity, is a firm's collaborative and iterative processes to acquire new technologies and know-how from business incubation (Lane & Lu-batkin, 1998). Based on organizational learning theory, business incubation facilitates the development of new skills and capacities that strongly enhance the capacity of a company to innovate, take risks, and build new revenue streams (Patton et al., 2009). Absorptive capacity is the ability of a firm to utilize knowledge held externally through the three processes of exploratory learning, transformative learning, and exploitative learning (Tzokas et al., 2015). It involves a path from identifying and acquiring external knowledge (exploratory learning) through assimilation, understanding, and retention (transformative learning), to its transmutation and application (exploitative learning) (Tzokas et al., 2015; Jansen, 2005). Business incubation introduces a startup to new opportunistic market environments with untapped potential, which encourages companies to explore, transform, and exploit in order to survive the competitive market (Patton et al., 2009). Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 61 Vinney Zephaniah Vincent, Zakkariya K.A.: Business Incubation and Innovation Speed: Mediating Role of Absorptive Capacity The diversity of mentors, investors, university networks, client groups, peer startups, and political systems associated with business incubation also can expand a startup's search for new knowledge (Scillitoe & Chakraborti, 2010). Business incubation often links startups in their fields of business or other sectors with allied companies and networks (Bruneel et al., 2012). According to the theory of organizational learning, the introduction of such specific and diverse expertise into the operations of small firms enhances and accelerates the absorptive capacity, augmenting their innovative output (Zahra & Hayton, 2008). Business incubation services paves way to ACAP's exploratory, transformative, and exploitative learning (Hillemane et al., 2019). To achieve rapid innovation, incubator startups require strong technological support, mentoring and assistance, and allied services from incubators for the exploration of new knowledge and technologies (Lalkaka, 2001). When an incubator firm is in a new product development process, it is more likely to be open to new external knowledge available from its incubator network (Scillitoe & Chakraborti, 2010). This receptivity further increases the speed of innovation by allowing the firm to access new technological developments, workshops, and live interactive sessions as a reinforcing cycle of exploratory innovation (Lane et al., 2006; Lichtenthaler, 2009). Thus it offers a lean process which increases the speed with which the firm is able to discover new opportunities and decreases the cycle time of build, measure, and learn (Carayannis & Zedtwitz, 2005; Ghezzi, 2019). Therefore, the higher the degree of assistance and resources offered by the incubator, the greater is the potential for start-ups to participate in exploratory innovation (McAdam & McAdam, 2008). At the same time, business incubators should ensure that the knowledge acquired by the tenant firms is accumulated and stored for the sustainable growth and development before and after the cycle time of new product development (Schwartz & Hornych, 2008; Lalkaka, 2002). The accumulation of knowledge not only increases product innovation skills, but also a firm's ability to engage in the transformation learning process through assessment, use, and application of new technologies (Gebauer et al., 2012; Tzokas et al., 2015). Similarly, an entrepreneurial venture with strong incubation support tends to engage in more exploitation alliances to gain access to complementary assets (Hughes & Morgan, 2007). As firms accumulate more knowledge and skills from the incubator, they become more effective in deploying their existing knowledge, and thus develop more exploitative activities due to the obvious self-reinforcing nature of learning (Kowalski, 2018). Thus, the higher the level of incubation support, the greater is the probability of catalyzing more exploitation in that field (Klofsten et al., 2019). At the same time, innovation speed also can be associated with a firm's performance (Claussen & Kornelieussen, 2012). In the context of rapid technological innovations, a strong resourceful environment, along with ACAP, enhances the benefits of novel innovations and contribute positively to a firm's innovative and financial performance (Zahra & George, 2002; Lane et al., 2006; Hughes & Morgan, 2007; Patton, 2014). Despite the prospective value addition of business incubation services, they may not guarantee boosting a startup's knowledge (Dee et al., 2019). Unwillingness to share knowledge by team members and the reluctance of peer startup teams to share information might be the reason for this problem (Cardon et al., 2017). Even if team members and peer startup groups share their skills, the recipient startup may not have the absorptive capacity necessary to explore, transform, and exploit the knowledge (Cardon et al., 2017) it acquires from business incubation. We argue that the greater the absorptive capacity, the stronger is the relationship between a firm's use of business incubation services and innovative performance. Therefore: Hypothesis 4a: Exploratory learning mediates the relationship between business incubation and innovation speed. Hypothesis 4b: Transformative learning mediates the relationship between business incubation and innovation speed. Hypothesis 4c: Exploitative learning mediates the relationship between business incubation and innovation speed. 62 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Figure 1: Research model with hypotheses The relationships expressed through the four formulated hypotheses are represented in the research model with continued associations (Fig. 1). 3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Sample and collection of data To test the hypothesized relationships between BI, ACAP, and IS empirically, the researchers adopted a descriptive research design using survey data obtained from incubator firms. Survey data were gathered in the context of government-supported technology business incubators in India. These incubators are open to enterprises with a new product idea and are established for less than five years. An important goal of the technology business incubator system is a technology development and the commercialization of new innovative products (Claussen & Kornelieussen, 2012). This background is appropriate in testing the influence of business incubation on startup innovation speed in the context of absorptive capacity. Hence the population of the study was CEOs of technology-based startups incubated in government-supported technology business incubators in the state of Kerala, India. There were 540 such startups incubated in 32 technology business incubators established within the major cities of the state of Kerala. A list of firms with the names and email addresses of the CEOs was obtained from respective incubator managers, and also from the government agency that supports the technology business incubators. Following a census survey method, survey questionnaires were administered directly to all 540 CEOs (and emailed to those who were not physically present in the incubator during the time of data collection) to collect the required data. All incubator managers were asked to motivate the founder CEOs in their incubation facilities to respond to the survey questionnaire. The researchers collected 344 valid responses out of 540 incubated businesses, following numerous follow-ups and visits. This is a response rate of 64%, which is a much higher rate than in most other survey-based research aimed at new ventures and startup firms. The survey data were gathered from September to December, 2019. Some of these respondents started ventures immediately after college; a few are still in college; the majority of them worked for corporations before starting their own businesses. The demographic profile of the respondents is given in Table 1. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 63 Vinney Zephaniah Vincent, Zakkariya K.A.: Business Incubation and Innovation Speed: Mediating Role of Absorptive Capacity Table 1: Demographic profile of respondents Variable Category N Percentage Firm age (years) <2 229 66.6 >2 115 33.4 Gender Male 315 91.6 Female 29 8.4 Education Completed 284 82.6 Not completed yet 60 17.4 Previous startup experience Had previous startups 272 79.1 No previous startups 72 20.9 Previous work experience No work experience 66 19.2 Work experience 278 80.8 Family-owned business Family has business 97 28.2 No family business 247 71.8 3.2 Measurement Independent Variable The items to measure business incubation were adopted from Khalid et al. (2012), which was based on the seminal work by Hackett and Dilts (2008). The items were measured from the incubator firm perspective, taking into account the Indian startup and business incubation environment, which resulted in a set of measures that encompassed business incubator selection performance, monitoring, business assistance intensity, and resource munificence involving 31 items. The items were measured using a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree, with greater values representing higher amounts. Mediating Variable The new venture literature identifies three important indicators for absorptive capacity: exploratory, transformative, and exploitative learning. The measurement of absorptive capacity followed the method used by Tzokas et al. (2015), which is a summated scale including all three dimensions which includes 11 items, was adopted for this study. All items were measured using a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Dependent Variable We began by synthesizing scales from the literature in developing measures that reflect product speed, speed to market, and innovation speed. We considered speed to market to be synonymous with innovation speed (Claussen & Kornelieussen, 2012) Thus, to measure innovation speed, we adopted the scale of Fang (2008), which consisted of four items. The items were measured using a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Control Variables Data were collected for several control variables: firm age, CEO gender, education, prior startup experience, prior work experience, and family entrepreneurial experience. Firm age and gender are two significant basic features that may be associated with innovation speed. We controlled for education, because it may lead to better business performance because the founders can use their knowledge from formal education to better exploit resources needed to develop and market the product faster. We also controlled for prior startup experience by measuring whether the founding CEO had started a previous new venture. According to the lit- 64 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 erature, prior work experience of the founding team also has a significant impact on small-firm innovation. Family business and entrepreneurial family has a significant influence on startup founders. We used binary variables 0 and 1 to measure all the control variables. We sought to reduce common method bias because each questionnaire came from one respondent. We also implemented corresponding control measures in research design and statistical analysis, as suggested by Podsakoff et al., (2003). In line with our research design, we assured participants that their responses would be anonymous, that there would be no correct or incorrect answers, and that they should answer questions as fairly as possible. We applied Harman's single-factor method for statistical remedies. A variance inflation factor (VIF) test was conducted using SmartPLS 3, because it is one of the most reliable tests and can spot the presence of this bias if single-factor analysis fails (Kock, 2015). The variance inflation factor test it is an automatic procedure in SmartPLS 3 which allows the full collinearity test for all the latent variables in the model. A VIF higher than 3.3 indicates the presence of an unacceptable level of common method bias. In this study, the VIF values of all latent variables were under the prescribed limit. We subjected all the main variables to factor analysis and then assigned the number of factors that accounted for the variance in the measures. In addition, the reliability of the multi-item scales was assessed with Cronbach's alpha. All variables had reliability scores above 0.7 (Table 2), and hence the subsequent step in the analysis could be performed. Table 2: Results of reliability test Variable No. of items Total variance accounted for (%) Cronbach's alpha Business incubation 31 14.43 .923 Exploratory learning 4 27.73 .850 Transformative learning 3 39.82 .857 Exploitative learning 4 50.11 .876 Innovation speed 4 55.68 .777 Table 3: Descriptive statistics and correlations No. Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 Startup age 1.33 0.472 1 2 Gender 1.08 0.278 0.015 1 3 Education 1.18 0.382 0.008 -0.012 1 4 Prior startup experience 1.21 0.425 -0.182 -0.393 -0.030 1 5 Prior work experience 1.81 0.393 -0.052 0.123 -0.054 -0.019 1 6 Family-owned business 1.71 0.460 -0.024 -0.049 0.031 0.043 -0.054 1 7 Business incubation 3.63 0.915 -0.005 0.089 -0.031 -0.044 0.124* -0.044 1 8 Exploratory learning 3.95 0.830 -0.043 -0.079 -0.128* 0.029 0.071 -0.032 0.293** 1 9 Transformative learning 3.89 0.790 -0.027 -0.028 -0.118* -0.025 0.103 -0.103 0.312** 0.726** 1 10 Exploitative learning 3.85 0.815 0.003 -0.013 -0.080 -0.004 0.102 -0.062 0.383** 0.619** 0.692** 1 11 Innovation speed 3.11 0.900 -0.063 0.039 -0.044 -0.060 0.067 -0.068 0.505** 0.378** 0.314** 0.340** 1 Note: SD = standard deviation. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p<.001 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 65 Vinney Zephaniah Vincent, Zakkariya K.A.: Business Incubation and Innovation Speed: Mediating Role of Absorptive Capacity 4. RESULTS Table 3 reports the means, standard deviations, and coefficients of Pearson correlation for the major variables. The results showed that the correlations between the key research variables were significantly interrelated. These were in line with the aforementioned research hypotheses. The potential presence of multicollinearity was investigated using SPSS software using the variance inflation factor estimated for each variable in the ordinary least squares (OLS) regression. VIF statistics greater than 10 indicate multicollinearity issues. VIF statistics ranged from 1.005 to 1.714, indicating multicollinearity is not an issue in our analysis. We followed the procedure recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986) to test the mediation hypothesis. First, the dependent variable was regressed on the independent variable. Subsequently, the mediating variable (separate dimensions) was regressed against the independent variable. Finally, the dependent variable was regressed against both the independent variable and the mediating vari- Table 4: Business incubation regressed on innovation speed Variable Unstandardized coefficients Startup age -0.140 -0.140 Gender -0.133 -0.097 Education -0.165 -0.145 Prior startup experience 0.118 -0.005 Prior work experience 0.006 -0.068 Family-owned business -0.121 -0.097 Business incubation - 0.494*** R2 0.019 0.265 Adjusted R2 0.001 0.250 AR2 - 0.246 F 1.067 17.338*** Table 5: Business incubation regressed on absorptive capacity Exploratory learning Transformative learning Exploitative learning Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Star-up age -0.071 -0.071 -0.054 -0.054 0.009 0.009 Gender -0.371 -0.351 -0.319 -0.300 -0.217 -0.193 Education -0.040 -0.029 -0.114 -0.103 -0.032 -0.018 Prior startup experience 0.140 0.073 0.180 0.115 0.190 0.106 Prior work experience -0.206 -0.245 -0.135 -0.174 -0.072 -0.122 Family-owned business -0.053 -0.040 -0.164 -0.151 -0.096 -0.080 Business incubation - 0.267*** - 0.262*** - 0.336*** R2 0.031 0.115 0.037 0.127 0.020 0.159 Adjusted R2 0.014 0.097 0.020 0.109 0.002 0.142 F 1.784 6.251*** 2.171 6.983*** 1.140 9.093*** 66 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Table 6: Mediation analysis Innovation speed Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Startup age -0.140 -0.140 -0.121 -0.130 -0.142 -0.124 Gender -0.133 -0.097 -0.001 -0.040 -0.061 -0.004 Education -0.165 -0.145 -0.137 -0.126 -0.142 -0.141 Prior startup experience 0.118 -0.005 -0.025 -0.027 -0.025 -0.026 Prior work experience 0.006 -0.068 -0.001 -0.035 -0.045 -0.002 Family-owned business -0.121 -0.097 -0.086 -0.069 -0.082 -0.089 Business incubation 0.494*** 0.422*** 0.445*** 0.432*** 0.416*** Exploratory learning 0.272*** 0.273*** Transformative learning 0.189*** -0.047*** Exploitative learning 0.187*** 0.054*** R2 0.019 0.265 0.321 0.289 0.289 0.322 Adjusted R2 0.001 0.250 0.305 0.250 0.272 0.302 F 1.067 17.338*** 19.797*** 17.053*** 17.053*** 15.835*** able dimensions. If there was a mediation effect, the effect of the independent variable would decrease or even become insignificant. Tables 4-6 present the results of hierarchical multiple regressions. Table 4 reports the regression results of business incubation and innovation speed. The results showed that the incubation mechanism had a significant impact on innovation speed. This empirical result firmly supports H1. Table 5 shows the regression analysis results of business incubation and absorptive capacity dimensions. Models 1, 3, and 5 involved only the control variable, whereas Models 2, 4, and 6 indicated that business incubation had a significant impact on absorptive capacity dimensions such as exploratory learning, transformative learning, and exploitative learning. Thus H2, H2a, H2b, and H2c are supported by the data. Overall, there was a significant positive effect of business incubation on absorptive capacity dimensions. Table 6 presents the mediating effect of absorptive capacity dimensions on the relationship between business incubation and innovation speed. Model 1 involved only control variables, and Model 2 tested the effect of business incubation on innova- tion speed. On the basis of the two models, exploratory, transformative, and exploitative learning were added to the analysis. Compared with Model 2, the results of Models 3-5 indicated that exploratory learning (6 = 0.272, p < 0.001), transformative learning (6 = 0.189, p < 0.001), and exploitative learning (6 = 0.187, p < 0.001) had a direct effect on innovation speed and had a significant positive mediating effect. Therefore H3, H4a, H4b, and H4c are supported. In Model 6, when the three types of learning were included, each had a significant effect on innovation speed, whereas transformative learning had a negative effect (6 = -0.047, p < 0.001). To further test Hypothesis 4 to determine the mediation effect of absorptive capacity, we followed the bootstrapping method recommended by Hayes (2013), using a Process macro. We bootstrapped 5,000 samples to obtain a 95% bias-corrected confidence interval for the mediation effect. The path (direct effect) from business incubation to absorptive capacity was positive and significant (b = 0.2929, standard error = 0.0600, p = <0.001), indicating that if improved business incubation facilities are provided, the absorptive capacity of startups increases. The direct effect of absorptive capacity on innovation speed also was positive and significant (b = 0.2858, Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 67 Vinney Zephaniah Vincent, Zakkariya K.A.: Business Incubation and Innovation Speed: Mediating Role of Absorptive Capacity standard error = 0.0566, p < 0.001), indicating that greater absorptive capacity and knowledge building ability of startups increases rapid technology commercialization and innovation speed. The results obtained prove that the indirect effect of business incubation on innovation speed through absorptive capacity dimensions (indirect effect = 0.2041; 95% confidence interval = 0.1014, 0.3003) is significantly positive. The results again prove H4a, H4b, and H4c. 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION We found that business incubation and absorptive capacity dimensions (mediator) are positively and directly associated with innovation speed. From a theoretical perspective, our study provides additional empirical evidence that giving young startups effective business incubation may lead to higher levels of innovation and product success. The results are consistent with those of previous studies by Patton (2014) and of Scillitoe and Chakraborti (2009) regarding the incubator knowledge ecosystem and its impact on innovative outcomes of startups. It also addresses a call made by Eveleens and Rijnso-ever (2016) related to the need to examine the quality of relationships within the incubator ecosystem in order to better understand the dynamics of knowledge sharing for generating innovation among incubator firms. Additionally, the findings provide an understanding of how entrepreneurial learning influences small-firm innovation. In their pursuit of knowledge, intellectual entrepreneurs push their firms to achieve rapid innovation through the incubation network. However, the pursuit of rapid innovation by intellectual entrepreneurs requires an entrepreneurial process that leads to fulfilling the goal. ACAP realizes this role (Zahra & George, 2002). Through its emphasis on exploratory, transformative, and exploitative learning in the pursuit of new opportunities, ACAP enables the identification and development and of creative ideas for small-firm performance (Jansen et al., 2005). One of the major objectives of this study was to analyze the mediating effect of absorptive capacity, and the study found a significant mediating effect of absorptive capacity, which is consistent with previous studies (Aljanabi, 2018; Hernandez-Perlines & Xu, 2018). Unlike previous research that focused on the nature of business incubators (Hackett & Dilts, 2008; Voisey et al., 2006; Grimaldi & Grandi, 2005), this study highlighted the content that flows through the relationship between an incubator and incubator firm, specifically the internal and external knowledge flow. Although the type, model, and use of services may differ among incubator firms (Voisey et al., 2006), as previous research suggests, the resources that every startup seek within incubators and the use they make of these resources may be the same. This finding is also consistent with those of Voisey et al. (2006) and Claussen and Kornelieussen (2012), which indicates that all startups receive a similar type of support from their business incubators, but they excel differently due to their varying capabilities in learning to explore, transform, and exploit. Thus the study used the concept of learning to develop the theoretical arguments concerning how a learning strategy such as ACAP (Engelens et al., 2014) can enhance faster innovation in a resourceful environment, thereby addressing Hackett and Dilts' (2008) call for research on how to improve business incubation mechanisms for fruitful outcomes. 5.1 Theoretical and Practical Implications This study could be the starting point for proposing new or improved public policies to invest in the world of innovation and entrepreneurship through the role of incubators. From a theoretical point of view, this manuscript has advanced the organizational learning literature by highlighting the role of incubation as an antecedent for learning and innovation. One of the study's key propositions is that business incubation induces and enhances organizational learning. The results are equally important for incubators and incubator firms because it documents the various types of knowledge a firm might gain from incubation. This finding indicates that potential market speed depends on having the requisite absorptive capacity. Therefore, startups need to identify gaps within their knowledge, receive adequate incubation support to resolve these gaps, and eventually, through learning, apply their enhanced competencies to attain rapid innovation. Incubation acts as a tool for startups, mentors, and managers to collaborate effectively to build the required absorptive capacity. 68 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Therefore, absorptive capacity is connected not only to new entry but also to how easily new entry is achieved. This paper highlighted and confirmed that absorptive capacity is one such source of startup innovation performance. Another important aspect is that we concentrated on incubator companies rather than on incubators to explain why incubator companies vary in terms of performance (i.e., innovation speed). It has been argued (Ayatse et al., 2017; Dee et al., 2019) that much research has been done at the incubator level on the economic performance of incubators, whereas few studies have examined the driving forces behind incubator firm performance. Our findings suggest that such a firm-level outlook is indeed useful and that more work should be conducted at the firm level to better understand incubator outcomes. We also seek to open a new research area focusing solely on the innovation speed of incubator firms. Most previous research focused on incubator and incubator firm performance by contrasting and comparing incubator firm performance with that of non-incubator firms as a controlled group. As an alternative to focusing on economic performance, which is similar to the measure of large companies, this study explained the driving force for performance. We assume that this is a significant strand of literature that provides interesting insights into whether incubator programs have their intended effects on startups to achieve the required momentum for innovation. Furthermore, we contend that it is important to focus solely on incubator firms and to explain the innovation performance, which provides parallel insights and interpretations in contrast with research focusing solely on incubator economic performance. Insight into how incubator managers can better assist and enhance their tenant firms' growth, speed, and performance can be obtained when researchers analyze performance sources within incubated firms. 5.2 Limitations and Future Research This paper adopted the Hackett and Dilts (2008) model of business incubation, which includes three factors explaining the business incubation process. Although it is the most-accepted framework of in- cubation, there may be additional mechanisms affecting incubated firms depending on the nature of business incubation services offered by a specific country. Therefore future research should consider other attributing mechanisms, mainly due to varying country contexts that require investigation and develop contributing relationships. In addition, because the results are based on business incubation survey measures, other sources of data should be considered. Although we presented results of reliability and validity, secondary data can contribute to the accuracy of our empirical findings. The study used the exploratory, transformative, and exploitative measures of the firm to evaluate the function of the absorptive capacity, which is a common measure in the literature. The robustness of our findings can be established by alternative measures of absorptive capacity. These measures might include a firm's ability to absorb, assimilate, transform, and exploit available knowledge. One of the main propositions of the study is that business incubation facilitates organizational learning. Learning is not an automatic outcome of business incubation, and incubators have to dedicate the resources necessary to form the processes that initiate and encourage learning among startups. Therefore, researchers need to explore a generalized incubator model that can enhance learning through business incubation. Because in this study business incubation consisted of selection criteria, monitoring and assistance, and resource munificence, it would be helpful to determine whether these areas can be improved, augmented, and altered by the incubator managers to cater to the specific requirements of incubated firms. Another important question is whether business incubation, absorptive capacity, and innovation speed are connected with an incubator firm's economic performance. It is important to examine this relationship. In the end, what is important is the actual economic results produced by incubator firms. Another limitation of our study is that all the main variables were measured based on a single survey, which might lead to common method bias. However, the data were collected in a cross-sectional design, measured as a paper-and-pencil exercise, and Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 69 Vinney Zephaniah Vincent, Zakkariya K.A.: Business Incubation and Innovation Speed: Mediating Role of Absorptive Capacity some were collected through online survey. By using two different modes of data collection, our design can mitigate the bias resulting from common method variance. Furthermore, a comparative study of incubator and non-incubator firms will lead to more insights on the various differences in absorptive capacity and innovation speed among startups, which can establish the need of incubators to promote the startup community for economic growth and innovation. Future research can consider comparative studies that will further substantiate our findings. EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Za zagonska podjetja (angl. startups) je značilna visoka stopnja »umrljivosti« - le-ta je veliko višja kot pri večjih, že dobro uveljavljenih podjetjih. Številni raziskovalci verjamejo, da podjetniški inkubatorji pomagajo kot podpora in spodbujajo podjetniški razvoj z ustvarjanjem mreže znanja in virov. Kljub temu jih je vpliv podjetniških inkubatorjev na pridobivanje znanja, ki vodi do hitrejših inovacij v primerjavi s konkurenco, proučevalo le nekaj. Ta študija je s pomočjo različnih virov in teorije organizacijskega učenja raziskovala učinek ter mehanizem podjetnniških inkubatorjev na absorpcijsko sposobnost in hitrost inovacij zagonskih podjetij na področju Indije. Z uporabo anketnih podatkov iz vzorca 344 tehnološko intenzivnih inkubatorskih podjetij v Indiji smo pokazali, da inkubacijski mehanizmi, kot na primer uspešnost izbire podjetniškega inkubatorja, spremljanje in intenzivnost poslovne pomoči ter pomembnost virov, pomagajo zagonskim podjetjem pri raziskovanju, preoblikovanju in izkoriščanju znanja ter informacij za hitro uvedbo tehnologije in izdelkov na trg. Podatki so bili analizirani s pomočjo hierarhične analize, me-diacija pa je bila preizkušena z uporabo metode Barona in Kennya (1986) in PROCESS makrom, ki ga je razvil Hayes (2013). Rezultati študije dokazujejo, da so razsežnosti absorpcijske zmogljivosti, kot so ek-splorativno, transformacijsko in eksploatacijsko učenje med zagonskimi podjetji, povečane s storitvami podjetniških inkubatorjev, kar rezultira v hitri komercializacija tehnoloških izdelkov. REFERENCES Aljanabi, A. R. A. (2018). The mediating role of absorptive capacity on the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and technological innovation. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 24(4), 818-841. Al-Mubaraki, H. M. & Busler, M. (2013). Business incubation as an economic development strategy: A literature review. International Journal of Management, 30(1), 362-373. Arshad, M. Z., Ahmad, M. J., Ali, M. & Khan, W. A. (2020). The role of government business support services and absorptive capacity on SME's performance. International journal of advanced Science and Technology, 29(3), 1492-1499. Ayatse, F. A., Kwahar, N. & lyortsuun, A. S. (2017). Business incubation process and firm performance: an empirical review. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 7(1), 2. Bergek, A. & Norrman, C. (2008). Incubator best practice: A framework. Technovation, 28(1- 2), 20-28. B0llingtoft, A. & Ulh0i, J. P. (2005). The networked business incubator—leveraging entrepreneurial agency? Journal of business venturing, 20(2), 265-290. Borges, M. R. & Bueno, J. M. (2020). Does the incubation process assist adaptive, absorptive and innovative capacity development? Multiple cases studies in the triangulo mineiro and alto paranaiba region. Revista de Empreendedorismo e Gestao de Pequenas Empresas, 9(2), 31-62. Bruneel, J., Ratinho, T., Clarysse, B. & Groen, A. (2012). The Evolution of Business Incubators: Comparing demand and supply of business incubation services across different incubator generations. Technovation, 32(2), 110-121. Carayannis, E. G. & Von Zedtwitz, M. (2005). Architecting gloCal (global-local), real-virtual incubator networks (G-RVINs) as catalysts and accelerators of en- 70 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 trepreneurship in transitioning and developing economies: lessons learned and best practices from current development and business incubation practices. Technovation, 25(2), 95-110. Cardon, M. S., Post, C. & Forster, W. R. (2017). Team entrepreneurial passion: Its emergence and influence in new venture teams. Academy of Management Review, 42(2), 283-305. Chen, C. J. (2009). Technology commercialization, incubator and venture capital, and new venture performance. Journal of Business research, 62(1), 93-103. Clausen, T. & Korneliussen, T. (2012). The relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and speed to the market: The case of incubator firms in Norway. Technovation, 32(9-10), 560-567. Cohen, W. M. & Levinthal, D. A. (1990). Absorptive capacity: A new perspective on learning and innovation. Administrative science quarterly, 128-152. Dee, N., Gill, D., Lacher, R., Livesey, F. & Minshall, T. (2019). A review of research on the role and effectiveness of business incubation for high-growth startups. Etzkowitz, H. (2002). Incubation of incubators: innovation as a triple helix of university-industry-government networks. Science and Public Policy, 29(2), 115-128. Eveleens, C. P., van Rijnsoever, F. J. & Niesten, E. M. (2017). How network-based incubation helps startup performance: a systematic review against the background of management theories. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 42(3), 676-713. Fang, E. (2008). Customer participation and the trade-off between new product innovativeness and speed to market. Journal of marketing, 72(4), 90-104. Freund, D., Lee, R., Tuselmann, H. & Cao, Q. (2020). International high-tech SMEs innovative foreign knowledge inflows: effects of host country weak network ties and absorptive capacity. Multinational Business Review, 28(3), 333-354. Gebauer, H., Worch, H. & Truffer, B. (2012). Absorptive capacity, learning processes and combinative capabilities as determinants of strategic innovation. European Management Journal, 30(1), 57-73. Ghezzi, A. (2019). Digital startups and the adoption and implementation of Lean Startup Approaches: Effectuation, Bricolage and Opportunity Creation in practice. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 146, 945-960. Gibb, A. (2002). In pursuit of a new 'enterprise' and 'en-trepreneurship'paradigm for learning: creative destruction, new values, new ways of doing things and new combinations of knowledge. International journal of management reviews, 4(3), 233-269. Grimaldi, R. & Grandi, A. (2005). Business incubators and new venture creation: an assessment of incubating models. Technovation, 25(2), 111-121. Hackett, S. M. & Dilts, D. M. (2004). A real options-driven theory of business incubation. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 29(1), 41-54. Hackett, S. M. & Dilts, D. M. (2004). A systematic review of business incubation research. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 29(1), 55-82. Hackett, S. M. & Dilts, D. M. (2008). Inside the black box of business incubation: Study B—scale assessment, model refinement, and incubation outcomes. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 33(5), 439-471. Hausberg, J. P. & Korreck, S. (2020). Business incubators and accelerators: a co-citation analysis-based, systematic literature review. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 45(1), 151-176. Hayes, A. F. (2013). Mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach edn. New York: Guilford Publications, 1-20. Hernández-Perlines, F. & Xu, W. (2018). Conditional mediation of absorptive capacity and environment in international entrepreneurial orientation of family businesses. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 102. Hillemane, B. S. M., Satyanarayana, K. & Chandrashekar, D. (2019). Technology business incubation for startup generation. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research. Huang, F. & Rice, J. (2009). The role of absorptive capacity in facilitating" Open innovation" outcomes: A study of Australian SMEs in the manufacturing sector. International Journal of Innovation Management, 13(02), 201-220. Hughes, M., Hughes, P. & Morgan, R. E. (2007). Exploitative learning and entrepreneurial orientation alignment in emerging young firms: Implications for market and response performance. British Journal of Management, 18(4), 359-375. Hughes, P., Hodgkinson, I. R., Hughes, M. & Arshad, D. (2018). Explaining the entrepreneurial orientation-performance relationship in emerging economies: The intermediate roles of absorptive capacity and improvisation. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 35(4), 1025-1053. Kessler, E. H. & Chakrabarti, A. K. (1996). Innovation speed: A conceptual model of context, antecedents, and outcomes. Academy of Management Review, 21(4), 1143-1191. Klofsten, M., Fayolle, A., Guerrero, M., Mian, S., Urbano, D. & Wright, M. (2019). The entrepreneurial university as driver for economic growth and social change-Key strategic challenges. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 141, 149-158. Kowalski, S. P. (2018). Establishing Appropriate Best Practices in Intellectual Property Management and Technology Transfer in the United Arab Emirates: Building Human Capital, Global Networks and Institutional Infrastructure to Drive Sustainable Knowledge-Based, Innovation-Driven Development. Indian JL & Tech., 14, 77. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 71 Vinney Zephaniah Vincent, Zakkariya K.A.: Business Incubation and Innovation Speed: Mediating Role of Absorptive Capacity Lalkaka, R. (2001). Best practices in business incubation: Lessons (yet to be) learned. In International Conference on Business Centers: Actors for Economic & Social Development. Brussels, November 2001. Lane, P. J. & Lubatkin, M. (1998). Relative absorptive capacity and interorganizational learning. Strategic management journal, 19(5), 461-477. Lane, P. J., Koka, B. R. & Pathak, S. (2006). The reification of absorptive capacity: A critical review and rejuvenation of the construct. Academy of management review, 31(4), 833-863. Lichtenthaler, U. (2009). Absorptive capacity, environmental turbulence, and the complementarity of organizational learning processes. The Academy of Management Journal, 52(4),822-846 Lumpkin, G. T. & Lichtenstein, B. B. (2005). The role of organizational learning in the opportunity-recognition process. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 29(4), 451-472. McAdam, M. & McAdam, R. (2008). High tech start-ups in University Science Park incubators: The relationship between the start-up's lifecycle progression and use of the incubator's resources. Technovation, 28(5), 277-290. Mian, S., Lamine, W. & Fayolle, A. (2016). Technology Business Incubation: An overview of the state of knowledge. Technovation, 50, 1-12. National Research Council. (2003). Government-Industry Partnerships for the Development of New Technologies. National Academies Press. Paliokaité, A. (2019). An innovation policy framework for upgrading firm absorptive capacities in the context of catching-up economies. Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 15(3), 103-130. Patton, D. (2014). Realising potential: The impact of business incubation on the absorptive capacity of new technology-based firms. International Small Business Journal, 32(8), 897-917. Patton, D., Warren, L. & Bream, D. (2009). Elements that underpin high-tech business incubation processes. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 34(6), 621-636. Pena, I. (2004). Business incubation centers and new firm growth in the Basque country. Small Business Economics, 22(3-4), 223-236. Pettersen, I. B., Aarstad, J., H0vig, 0. S. & Tobiassen, A. E. (2015). Business incubation and the network resources of startups. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 5(1), 7. Schwartz, M. & Hornych, C. (2008). Specialization as strategy for business incubators: An assessment of the Central German Multimedia Center. Technovation, 28(7), 436-449. Sciascia, S., D'oria, L., Bruni, M. & Larraneta, B. (2014). Entrepreneurial Orientation in low-and medium-tech industries: The need for Absorptive Capacity to increase performance. European management journal, 32(5), 761-769. Scillitoe, J. L. & Chakrabarti, A. K. (2010). The role of incubator interactions in assisting new ventures. Technovation, 30(3), 155-167. Stephens, S. & Onofrei, G. (2012). Measuring business incubation outcomes: an Irish case study. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 13(4), 277-285. Talwar, R., Leonhard, G., Scott, G., Murphy, B. J., Pearson, I., Goodrich, L., ... & Chace, C. (2015). The Future of Business: Critical Insights Into a Rapidly Changing World from 60 Future Thinkers. Fast Future Publishing Ltd. Theodorakopoulos, N., Kakabadse, N. K. & McGowan, C. (2014). What matters in business incubation? A literature review and a suggestion for situated theorising. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 21(4), 602-622. Tzokas, N., Kim, Y. A., Akbar, H. & Al-Dajani, H. (2015). Absorptive capacity and performance: The role of customer relationship and technological capabilities in high-tech SMEs. Industrial Marketing Management, 47, 134-142. Voisey, P., Gornall, L., Jones, P. & Thomas, B. (2006). The measurement of success in a business incubation project. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 13, 454-468. Wang, C. L. & Rafiq, M. (2014). Ambidextrous Organizational Culture, Contextual Ambidexterity and New Product Innovation: A Comparative Study of UK and Chinese High-tech Firms. British Journal of management, 25(1), 58-76. Wu, L. Y. (2007). Entrepreneurial resources, dynamic capabilities and startup performance of Taiwan's high-tech firms. Journal of Business research, 60(5), 549-555. Xin, L., Tang, F., Zhang, S. & Pan, Z. (2020). Social Capital and Sustainable Innovation in Small Businesses: Investigating the Role of Absorptive Capacity, Marketing Capability and Organizational Learning. Sustainability, 12(9), 3759. Zahra, S. A. (2005). A theory of international new ventures: a decade of research. Journal of international Business studies, 36(1), 20-28. Zahra, S. A. & George, G. (2002). Absorptive capacity: A review, reconceptualization, and extension. Academy of management review, 27(2), 185-203. Zahra, S. A. & Hayton, J. C. (2008). The effect of international venturing on firm performance: The moderating influence of absorptive capacity. Journal of business venturing, 23(2), 195-220. Zahra, S. A., Filatotchev, I. & Wright, M. (2009). How do threshold firms sustain corporate entrepreneurship? The role of boards and absorptive capacity. Journal of business venturing, 24(3), 248-260. 72 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Vol. 10, No. 1, 73-92 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2021.v10n01a05 WORKPLACE OSTRACISM AND COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIORS IN THE HEALTHCARE SECTOR: A MODERATED MEDIATION ANALYSIS OF JOB STRESS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Mr. Attaullah Hazara University, Pakistan attaullah.hu@gmail.com Bilal Afsar Hazara University, Pakistan bilalafsar@hu.edu.pk - Abstract - This study investigated the relationship between workplace ostracism and nurses' tendency to engage in counterproductive work behaviours. The healthcare sector worldwide, and especially in developing countries, faces serious problems because the demand for healthcare professionals is increasing due to rapid population growth. Nursing staff plays an important role in this regard, especially in the current COVID-19 pandemic. However, nursing staff sometimes tends to engage in counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs), aggravating the problem. Workplace ostracism and job stress may be the factors associated with the tendency of nursing staff to engage in CWB. Therefore, this problem needs further investigation so that appropriate strategies may be developed to control their engagement in CWB. A time-lagged survey was conducted in public-sector hospitals of Pakistan to collect data from the nursing staff. Workplace ostracism was found to be positively related to nurses' feelings of job stress and their tendency to engage in CWB. Similarly, job stress was positively related and emotional intelligence was negatively related to nurses' tendency to engage in CWB. Job stress was found to mediate the relationship between workplace ostracism and CWB. Emotional intelligence was found to moderate the positive association between workplace ostracism and CWB mediated by job stress. Keywords: Workplace Ostracism (WPO), Job Stress, Emotional Intelligence, Counterproductive Work Behaviors (CWBs) Nurses, Hospitals 1. INTRODUCTION In the healthcare system, the significant role of nurses is paramount. Nurses are in frequent contact with patients, and they have to ensure quality service to patients (De Cieri et al., 2019). Nurses face heavy workloads, long working hours, role stress, emotional labor, low salary, work-family conflict, and patients' rude and aggressive behavior (e.g., Admi & Eilon-Moshe, 2016; Hong & Lee, 2016; Rhéaume & Mullen, 2018; Riskin et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2018). More importantly, nurses suffer from ostracism in the workplace (e.g., Gkorezis, Panagiotou & Theodorou, 2016; Qi et al., 2020; Shafique et al., 2020). Ostracism is "the extent to which an individual perceives that he or she is ignored or excluded by others" (Ferris et al., 2008, p. 1348). Ostracism is prevalent among nurses, who always need quality interaction to perform their jobs effectively (Shafique et al., 2020). Therefore, when nurses are ostracized by their colleagues, they start to feel helplessness, dejection, alienation, and unworthiness (Jones et al., 1981), which ultimately lead to counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs) (Chung & Yang, 2017; Gkorezis et al., 2016; Shafique et al., 2020). Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 73 Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar: Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence Pakistan, being one of the most densely populated countries of the world, faces severe healthcare problems. There is a sharp increase in demand for healthcare professionals due to the rapid increase in population. Nursing staff, an important segment of healthcare professionals, play an important part in fulfilling the ever-increasing demand for the healthcare sector. However, at times, the nursing staff engage in CWBs, adding to the severity of the problem. CWB refers to any deliberate behavior on the part of an organizational member which is considered to be contrary to the legitimate interests of the organization or its members (Sackett, 2002). Involvement of the employees in CWB is detrimental to organizational success. This especially is true in the case of hospitals, because if nurses engage in CWBs, the quality of care to patients might be compromised. Therefore, it is extremely important for the hospital administration and frontline nursing managers to have a thorough understanding of the factors that may influence nurses' tendency to engage in CWB. Moreover, the nature and quality of interpersonal relationships among co-workers have important individual- and organizational-level consequences, because positive interpersonal relationships lead to positive outcomes. However, workplace ostracism is an inevitable issue (Fox & Stallworth, 2005) which negatively affects interpersonal relationships. In other words, a cooperative work environment is highly desired in organizations, yet employees may recall events in which they have been ignored or excluded by others in social contexts, including even their place of work. This phenomenon is known as ostracism in the literature. Workplace ostracism occurs "when an individual or a group omits to take actions that engage another organizational member when it is socially appropriate to do so" (Robinson, O'Reilly & Wang, 2013, p. 207). In other words, a situation in which individuals are aware of being neglected or isolated by others in their place of work is called workplace ostracism (Williams, 1997). The extant research shows that ostracism has serious negative consequences (Williams, 2009), for instance, increasing emotional burden that may result in poor work attitudes, increased turnover intentions, and high turnover rate (Pierre et al., 2019). In the nursing context, we know that nursing is one of the most demanding vocations, because nurses must deal directly with patients, patients' relatives, and physicians. Likewise, emergency duties, night shifts, emotionally exhausting jobs, patients' rude behavior, and physicians' pressure all make it an extremely challenging job. This can be witnessed in the current outbreak of COVID-19, in which nurses are at the forefront of the fight against this contagious virus. In such tiring situations, nurses need support from their co-workers and supervisors to regain their energy and motivation in order to serve patients at their best. Nevertheless, if the nursing staff feels isolated or ignored at their workplace, they might engage in negative workplace behaviors. For example, the nursing literature has shown that workplace ostracism has a negative impact on nurses' work attitudes and behavioral responses (Gkorezis, Panagiotou & Theodorou, 2016; Tsai, 2011), by arousing the antisocial and aggressive behaviors (Rajchert & Winiewski, 2016), and increasing the levels of CWB, harassment, and workplace conflicts (Chung, 2015; Zhao, Peng & Sheard, 2013). Therefore, this paper examined the relationship between workplace ostracism and the tendency of nursing staff to engage in CWB. The nursing profession was studied because the literature shows that the nursing profession is one of the most key but stressful professions in the healthcare sector (Hunsaker et al.,2015; Martos et al., 2018). This is because at times nurses are exposed to emotionally arousing and challenging situations. They have to provide a good quality of compassionate and sympathetic care to patients, mostly in unpleasant circumstances (Bolton, 2001). Therefore, one of the fundamental requirements of the nursing profession is that they should have not only the ability to regulate their own feelings/emotions but also the ability to ease the pain of their patients and the concerns of patients' families (Diefendorff et al., 2011). Moreover, if nurses feel stressed on the job, their stressful mental state may be related negatively to the level of care patients receive. This may cause substantial medical errors that may result in detrimental consequences not only for the patients but also for the entire organization (hospital). Therefore, it is extremely important that nursing staff recover as quickly as possible from the stressful state so that individuals' wellbeing and healthiness can be maintained (Geurts & Sonnen- 74 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 tag, 2006). This means that the nursing staff must have emotional intelligence so that they are able to control the negative emotional state resulting from job stress. In recent times, job stress is becoming a serious problem. Due to its prevalence in the work environment, many contemporary studies have explored its causes and consequences. Cropanzano et al. (1997) found that job stress has a detrimental impact at the individual and organizational levels. Some of the negative consequences associated with job stress include poor job performance, absenteeism, job dissatisfaction, loss of memory, increased medical bills, lateness to work, low productivity, etc. Similarly, job avoidance and job dissatisfaction are associated with job stress and poor interpersonal relationships respectively (Banerjee & Mehta, 2016). The literature has documented several factors that cause job stress; the major factors include work overload, insecurity of the job, and the increasing pace of life. In the view of Wilton (2011), job stress is associated with poor workplace experience, lack of autonomy, lack of control over the job, no role in decision-making, and no input in work processes. Moreover, job stress depends directly on the level of inability of an employee to meet job demands (Jamal, 2005). In the context of this study, if nurses are ignored or isolated in their workplace, they will be unable to cope with the situation, job demands, patients' expectations, and physicians' prescriptions. Performing their duties inefficiently due to the lack of crucial job resources (social acceptance) results in an increasing level of job stress. Similarly, in the context of the conservation of resources (COR) theory, we expect that workplace ostracism might result in job stress in nurses, and the negative effect of this stress may lead to negative behavioral responses (Chung, 2018) directed toward their patients. Therefore, we expect that workplace ostracism among nurses may increase their levels of job stress, engendering negative outcomes. However, nurses' level of emotional intelligence may influence the relationship between workplace ostracism and CWB. Emotional intelligence is a term used to denote a number of skills and abilities including the ability to be aware of one's own as well as others' emotions, and being capable of managing them (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Essentially, emotional intelligence demonstrates the extent to which individuals are able to identify, process, and effectively manage emotions to attain goals, adapt in a better manner, and cope with challenges. Emotional intelligence has been found to be associated with significant individual- and organizational-level consequences. Emotional intelligence produces a positive (dampening) impact on the negative consequences associated with job stress and job burnout (Schneider, Lyons & Khazon, 2013). It is associated with the effective identification, regulation, and use of emotions to reduce the adverse outcomes associated with unfavourable workplace events. Similarly, it affects work behaviors, increases altruistic behaviors, promotes work outcomes, and reduces interpersonal conflicts and the resultant stress (Carmeli, 2003). Furthermore, there is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence and perceived stress (Bao, Xue & Kong, 2015), and it works as a potential factor to manage stress effectively in general (Zysberg et al., 2017). Therefore, we expect that emotional intelligence may have a dampening effect on the tendency of the employees to engage in CWB in response to the stress they feel when exposed to workplace ostracism. In short, the role of workplace ostracism as an interpersonal stressor (Jahanzeb and Fatima; 2017, Williams, 1997) has been well examined in previous studies. However, the effect of emotional intelligence as a moderating variable in the association of workplace ostracism, job stress, and CWB largely is unknown, specifically in the nursing context. It is extremely important to know the association between workplace ostracism, job stress, and its related behavioral outcomes to improve the quality of the service nurses provide to their patients. In addition, this study addresses calls for research identifying the various boundary conditions associated with workplace ostracism and its behavioral consequences (Lyu & Zhu, 2017; Zhu et al., 2017; Abubakar et al., 2018; Chung, 2018), specifically in the services sector in the context of a developing country (Abubakar et al., 2018). Therefore, we used emotional intelligence as a potential moderator that might play a mitigating role in preventing nursing staff from engaging in CWB in the face of job stress due to workplace ostracism in a developing country such as Pakistan. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 75 Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar: Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence In summary, this study examined whether workplace ostracism influences employee behavior. Specifically, it examined the relationship between workplace ostracism and the tendency of employees to engage in CWB, using job stress and emotional intelligence as mediating and moderating variables, respectively. 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Workplace Ostracism and CWB Workplace ostracism is a problem that generates serious individual- and organizational-level consequences. According to Huang et al. (2017), ostracism is an annoying situation which puts at stake the meaningful existence of its victims and leads them to feelings of self-worthlessness. Hence, ostracism is considered to be a social death by its victims (Einarsen, Skogstad & Glas0, 2013). Previous studies concluded that ostracism adversely affects employees' attitudes and behaviors. For example, according to Yan, Zhou, Long, and Ji (2014), workplace ostracism has a positive impact on employees' tendency to engage in CWB. Likewise, ostracism intensifies the knowledge-hiding behavior of workers engaged in the services sector (Zhao et al., 2016). Workplace ostracism negatively affects employees' tendency to engage in OCB (Wu, Liu, Kwan & Lee, 2016), and motivates them to engage in CWB (Yang & Tread-way, 2018). In addition to the individual-level consequences, some outcomes of workplace ostracism that may negatively affect organizational performance include low levels of motivation on the part of its victims to engage in organizational citizenship behavior (Wu et al. 2016), lower job performance, and high turnover rate (Renn, Webler & Wiedemann, 2013). Moreover, the victims of ostracism have a greater tendency to engage in antisocial and aggressive behaviors (Rajchert & Winiewski, 2016). These factors ultimately have a negative effect on organizational performance. Therefore, we suggest the following hypothesis. Hypothesis 1: Workplace ostracism is positively related to employees' tendency to engage in CWB. 2.2 Workplace Ostracism and Job Stress As mentioned previously, workplace ostracism has been found to generate severe negative consequences, including task conflict, reduced engagement in OCB, increased involvement in CWB, and knowledge hiding. Moreover, according to Chung (2015), ostracism motivates its victims to engage in CWB while demotivates them to engage in OCB, because they feel themselves to be misfit in their workplace. This feeling of being misfit in the work environment creates job stress for the individual concerned. Ostracism negatively affects employee's attitudes and emotions (Ferris, Brown, Berry & Lian, 2008). Similarly, ostracism is associated with negative affect (Williams et al., 2002) and with negative emotional states such as sadness, depression, loneliness, jealousy, guilt, shame, embarrassment, and social anxiety (Gruter & Masters, 1986; Leary, Koch & Hechenbleikner, 2001). Furthermore, ostracism can be regarded as an interpersonal stressor leading to stress. Ostracism puts at stake the fulfilment of four fundamental needs of its victims, i.e., the need for self-esteem, the need to belong, the need for control, and the need for a meaningful existence. When these needs are not fulfilled, stress at the workplace is likely to ensue (Williams, 2001). In the context of this study, nursing staff who have supportive co-workers and supervisors tend to experience less stress on the job (Albar Marin & Garcia-Ramirez, 2005), because co-workers' and supervisors' support (social support) has a direct negative effect on the level stress felt on the job (Yang et al., 2016). However, we know that workplace ostracism signifies the lack of social support, and it is logical to suggest that it will generate job stress. Therefore, we suggest the following hypothesis. Hypothesis 2: There is a positive relationship between workplace ostracism and job stress. 2.3 Job Stress and CWB Job stress is a significant factor with a strong influence on employees' behavioral tendencies. A stressful wok environment is associated with several problems, for example, reduction in 76 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 worker effectiveness and productivity, loss of interpersonal coordination among co-workers, increased frequency and severity of accidents, and rising levels of absenteeism (Ganster & Schaubroeck, 1991; Golembiewski et al., 1996). Likewise, according to Haq (2014), job stress leads to increasing turnover intention. Job stress motivates employees to engage in withdrawal, deviant, and hostile behaviors toward their clients (Mojoyinola, 2008). Job stress and stressful working conditions damage the mental health (Schonfeld, Bianchi & Luehring-Jones, 2017) and the physical health (Goswami, 2015) of employees. Cardiovascular disease, one of the major causes of death, especially in the western societies, also was found to be associated with job stress (Serrano & Costa, 2018). Furthermore, job stress has a significant effect on employees' engagement in CWB; specifically, stress resulting from work overload and role ambiguity were found to be significant predictors, and work overload was the strongest predictor (Silva & Ranasinghe, 2017). Raza, Hussain, Azeem, and Aziz (2017) established that there is a significant positive relationship between job stress and CWB. Similarly, work overload and role conflict also have been found to have a significant positive impact on CWB, of which role conflict is the major contributor. According to Spector and Fox, (2005), stressful work conditions can activate anger, anxiety, and other negative emotions that may result in violence under some circumstances. Furthermore, the victims of job stress tend to apply different coping strategies to combat their stress. For example, employees adopt different coping behaviors in response to job stress, e.g., direct actions, avoidance behaviors, resignation, and the use of alcohol (Wong, Leung & Lam, 2001). Other negative coping strategies include absenteeism, arriving late to work, apathy, carelessness, dissatisfaction, dejection, irritability, and withdrawal behaviors. Because these behaviors and strategies are negative in nature and fall under the concept of CWB, we suggest the following hypothesis. Hypothesis 3: Job stress is positively associated with employees' tendency to engage in CWB. 2.4 The Mediating Role of Job Stress between Workplace and CWB Workplace ostracism works as a stressor by putting at stake crucial job resources needed by employees to perform their duties, and thus is a major source of stress on the job (Wu, Yim, Kwan & Zhang, 2012). Social support works as a crucial job resource for employees to perform their duties and to engage in contextual performance, such as OCB. However, workplace ostracism signifying the absence of social support leads to the lack of these crucial job resources. Hence, ostracised employees feel stressed and have a tendency to engage in avoiding behaviors to escape ostracism. Moreover, as mentioned previously, workplace ostracism is a negative workplace experience that leads to the generation of negative emotions. Having negative emotions generally leads to job stress that may entice employees to engage in CWB. In order words, job stress is the outcome of workplace ostracism, whereas CWB is the outcome of job stress. Hence, job stress may be regarded as a bridge transmitting the effect of workplace ostracism to CWB. According to Farrastama, Asmony, and Hermanto (2019), job stress works as a mediator to transmit the effect of negative workplace events to CWB. Because workplace ostracism is a negative workplace event, we suggest the following hypothesis. Hypothesis 4: Job stress mediates the relationship between workplace ostracism and CWB. 2.5 The Moderating Role of Emotional Intelligence Different individuals have different skills, abilities and competencies to identify their own feelings and the feelings of others and to adapt their behavior in response to these emotional cues. These competencies have been organized into a framework called emotional intelligence (Salovey, Woolery & Mayer, 2001). Emotional intelligence is an umbrella term for a number of skills and abilities, including the ability to be aware of one's own as well as others' emotions, and being capable of managing them (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Emotional intelligence is an important personality variable that has a significant effect on employees' behavioral tendencies. Individuals who are emotionally intelligent tend to handle stress more Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 77 Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar: Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence effectively (Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler & Mayer, 1999). Likewise, emotional intelligence dampens the negative behavioral response to job stress (Jordan, Ashkanasy & Hartel, 2002). Emotionally intelligent people are able to handle negative emotions positively, and they perceive situations to be less stressful (Salovey et al., 1999). Similarly, emotional intelligence affects work behaviors, increasing altruistic behaviors, promoting work outcomes, and decreasing interpersonal conflicts (Carmeli, 2003). As stated in the literature, workplace ostracism has severe a negative effect on nurses' job performance and workplace behaviors. According to Kam-meyer-Mueller et al. (2013), nursing staff exposed to ostracism experience loss of resources in the form of lack of social support, which ultimately results in negative effects such as mental stress. Moreover, tension between nurses and patients increases (Zhang et al., 2017). Ostracism negatively affects nurses' work attitudes and work behaviors, endangering patient care by preventing them to provide opinion and suggestions pertinent to patient safety (Gkorezis et al., 2016). Furthermore, nursing staff generally engage in a high level of emotional labor because they are required to display emotions that are in line with their job demands (Delgado et al., 2017). They constantly regulate their emotions to ensure that they do not contradict organizational norms, causing them to engage in more emotional labor. In fact, most nurses think of emotional labor as a basic feature of patient care (Gray 2010), because they have to face many undue behaviors from patients. Moreover, according to Farrastama et al. (2019), CWB and job stress both are affected negatively by stress-induced CWB. Hence, job stress is related positively to employees' engagement in CWB, but emotional intelligence may dampen the relationship. In summary, nursing staff are bound to feel stressed in the face of workplace ostracism due to their feelings of loss of resources in the form of lack of social support. They tend to respond negatively by having an increased tendency to engage in CWB. However, whether they respond as expected depends on their level of emotional intelligence. Stating it more vividly, workplace ostracism and the resultant stress may not provoke them to engage in CWB if they are emotionally intelligent. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis. Hypothesis 5: Emotional intelligence moderates the positive relationship between workplace ostracism and CWB mediated by job stress, such that the relationship is dampened when emotional intelligence is high. Figure 1 illustrates the proposed conceptual model of the study. 3. METHODOLOGY This study was quantitative in nature, based on a questionnaire-based-survey technique. Two waves of questionnaire survey were conducted to collect data. Figure 1: Research model with hypotheses Emotional Intelligence • HS 78 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 3.1 Sample and collection of data The nursing staff of five public sector hospitals in Mansehra district, Pakistan, participated in the study. The survey was conducted in two phases. In the first phase, data were collected through a questionnaire which contained "demographic information," "workplace ostracism," and "job stress" scales with a total of 23 questions; 320 questionnaires were distributed (self-administered), and 254 were returned. Nine were incomplete, leaving 245 usable questionnaires. In the second phase, data were collected through a questionnaire which contained "demographic information," "emotional intelligence," and "CWB" scales with a total of 26 questions. The 245 respondents of the first phase were requested to complete the questionnaire, and 245 questionnaires were distributed among them. Of the distributed 245 questionnaires, 160 were returned complete in all respects (66% response rate). These 160 questionnaires were used for the final analysis of the study. 3.2 Measurements All constructs were measured using 5-point Lik-ert scales. The workplace ostracism and CWB scales were anchored on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 = never to 5 = always. Job stress and emotional intelligences were anchored on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Workplace ostracism was measured using a 10-item workplace ostracism scale developed by Ferris et al. (2008). A sample item is "others ignored me at work." The Cronbach's alpha for the scale was 0.85. This scale has been used widely to measure workplace ostracism, for example, by Sarfraz et al. (2019), Riaz et al. (2019), and Kanwal et al. (2019) with Cronbach's alpha values ranging from 0.85 to 0.97. Job stress was measured using a 13-item scale developed by Parker and DeCotiis (1983). A sample item is "working here makes it hard to spend enough time with my family." The Cronbach's alpha for the scale was 0.87. This scale has been used frequently to measure job stress, for example, by Al-ghamdi (2017), Hussain and Chaman (2016), and Kouchi, Hashemi, and Beshlideh, (2016) with Cronbach's alpha values ranging from 0.86 to 0.95. Emotional intelligence was measured using Wong and Law's (2002) EI scale, which contains 16 items. A sample item is "I have a good sense of why I have certain feelings most of the time." The Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.86. This is considered to be a reliable instrument and has been used widely by researchers, for example, by Zych, Ortega-Ruiz, and Marin-Lopez, (2017), La-Palme et al., (2016), Pacheco, Rey, and Sanchez-Âl-varez (2019), Iliceto and Fino, (2017), and Kong (2017) with Cronbach's alpha values ranging from 0.87 to 0.91. CWB was measured using a 10-item scale developed by Sjoberg and Sjoberg (2007). Sample items are "I have seen to private affairs during work hours (CWB-O)" and "I have made fun of co-workers (CWB-I)." The Cronbach's alpha for the overall scale was 0.88. This scale has wide application and has been used by many researchers, for example, by Jensgârd (2009) with Cronbach's alphas of 0.73 and 0.71 for interpersonal and organizational CWBs, respectively. Control Variables In addition to job stress and emotional intelligence, variables such as age, sex, job experience, and the level of education may affect employees' behavioral responses to ostracism. For example, workplace ostracism may have more influence on men than on women (Cross & Madson 1997). Likewise, junior employees may expect some degree of inattention, and hence might overlook ostracism more readily than their senior counterparts (Greenglass & Burke 1988). Moreover, Chung (2018) and Lee & Ok (2014) demonstrated that variables such as age, education, and experience do affect the outcomes associated with workplace ostracism. Therefore, we used them as control variables. 3.3 Ethical Considerations The study was allowed by the medical superintendent of each hospital. In addition, we sought the permission of each participant and ensured that their identity would not be disclosed and the information would be used for research only. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 79 Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar: Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence 3.4 Data Analysis and Results Data were analyzed using statistical techniques such as frequency tables, correlation, and regression. A Process macro by Hayes (2013) was used to perform the mediation and moderation analyses in SPSS (version 20). The fitness of the measurement model was assessed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), using different fitness indicators, i.e., chi-squared, goodness-of-fit index (GFI), comparative fit index (CFI), (standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). The overall fitness of the model was assessed through the chi-squared, with a threshold value of 0.05 (Barrett, 2007). Furthermore, any value of chi-squared divided by degrees of freedom (x2/df) below 3 and with a significant p-value indicated a good fit of the model. Likewise, a value of standardized root mean square residual below 0.08, RMSEA ranging from 0.06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999) to 0.07 (Steiger, 2007), CFI above 0.92, and GFI equal to or greater than 0.9 were considered as acceptable values indicating a good fit of the model. All measurement scales applied in the study were passed through CFA. Our measurement model consisted of four latent variables (workplace ostracism, job stress, emotional intelligence, and counterproductive work behaviors), which were measured with separate scales. Four separate models were tested with different configurations (Table 1). In the single-factor model, workplace ostracism, job stress, emotional intelligence, and counterproductive work behaviors were combined into a single factor (X = 129.31; df = 160; p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.034; CFI = 0.84; GFI = 0.85 and SRMR = 0.124). In the two-factor model, counterproductive work behaviors, job stress, and emotional intelligence were merged into one factor, and workplace ostracism was treated as the second factor (x2 = 131.24; df = 159; p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.046; CFI = 0.86; GFI = 0.89 and SRMR = 0.101). In the three-factor model, job stress and emotional intelligence were merged into one factor, counterproductive work behavior was treated as the second factor, and workplace ostracism was taken as the third factor X = 137.23; df = 158; p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.058; CFI = 0.88; GFI = 0.92 and SRMR = 0.08). Lastly, in the four-factor model, each of the variables was treated as a separate factor. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis for the four-factor model demonstrated a good fit to the data (X = 143.45; df = 157; p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.065; CFI = 0.93; GFI = 0.95 and SRMR = 0.061). Hence, it is proved that the four-factor model resulted in the best fit indices compared with the other three models, and was the best-fit model to the data. Table 2 shows that 66.9% (107/160) of the study participants were female, and 31.1% (53/160) were male. Likewise, 81.25% (130/160) of respon- Table 1: Confirmatory factor analysis Model X2 df RMSEA CFI GFI SRMR Single-factor model 129.31 160 0.034 0.84 0.85 0.124 Two-factor model 131.24 159 0.046 0.86 0.89 0.101 Three-factor model 137.23 158 0.058 0.88 0.92 0.080 Four-factor model 143.45 157 0.065 0.93 0.95 0.061 Table 2: Demographic information (n = 160) Gender Frequency Experience (years) Frequency Education (years) Frequency Male 53 1-10 130 10 8 Female 107 11-20 18 12 22 21-30 12 14 55 16 75 X2 = chi-squared, df = degree of freedom, RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CFI = comparative fit index; GFI = goodness-of-fit index; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; p < 0.01 80 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 dents had 1-10 years of work experience, 11.25% (18/160) had 11-20 years, and 7.5% (12/160) had 21-30 years; 5% of the respondents had 10 years of education, 13.7% had 12 years of education, 34.4% had 14 years of education, and 46.9% had 16 years of education. This means that majority (81%) of respondents had 14-16 years of education. The analysis of correlation is reported in Table 3. There were significant positive correlations between CWB and job stress (r = 0.65, p = 0.05), CWB and workplace ostracism (r = 0.69, p < 0.01), job stress and emotional intelligence (r = 0.27, p < 0.01), and job stress and workplace ostracism (r = 0.58, p < 0.05). There were significant negative correlations between emotional intelligence and CWB (r = -0.30, p < 0.01), and emotional intelligence and workplace ostracism (r = -0.20, p < 0.05). The Cronbach's alpha values were 0.88 for CWB, 0.87 for job stress, 0.86 for emotional intelligence, and 0.85 for workplace ostracism. Hence, all the scales had Cronbach's alpha values well above the threshold level (0.70) indicating that the scales were reliable. Table 4 lists the regression path coefficients. The path coefficients were used to assess the direct effects of independent variable on dependent variables. Workplace ostracism had a significant direct positive effect on both CWB (6 = 0.69, p < 0.01, 48% of variance explained) and job stress (6 = 0.58, p < 0.05, 34% of variance explained). Therefore, H1 and H2 are supported. Job stress had a direct positive significant effect on nurses' tendency to engage in CWB (6 = 0.65, p < 0.05, 42% of variance explained). Therefore, H3 also is supported. The first part of Table 5 reports the Table 3: Descriptive statistics and correlations Variable Mean (SD) Cronbach's alpha 1 2 3 4 1. CWB 1.87 (0.701) 0.88 1 2. Job stress 3.24 (0.779) 0.87 0.65* 1 3. Emotional intelligence 3.91 (0.533) 0.86 -0.30** 0.27** 1 4. Workplace ostracism 1.57 (0.525) 0.85 0.69** 0.58* -0.20* 1 ** p < 0.01, *p < 0.05. Table 4: Regression path coefficient (direct effects) Regression path Standardized coefficient (beta) R2 P WPO^CWB 0.69 0.48 p < 0.01 WPO^Job stress 0.58 0.34 p < 0.05 Job stress^CWB 0.65 0.42 * p < 0.05 Table 5: Indirect effect and moderated mediation effect Indirect effect Effect size LLCI ULCI Job stress 0.213 0.0287 0.0517 Moderated mediation effect Index size LLCI ULCI Job stress x emotional intelligence -0.106 0.0435 .0852 Note: Dependent variable = counterproductive work behavior; independent variable = workplace ostracism; mediator = job stress; and moderator = emotional intelligence. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 81 Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar: Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence indirect effect of workplace ostracism on CWB though job stress. The second part demonstrates the moderated mediation effect of job stress and emotional intelligence on the relationship of workplace ostracism and CWB. The indirect effect of workplace ostracism on CWB through job stress was statistically significant [indirect effect size = 0.213, CI95 (0.0287, 0.0517)]. Therefore, H4 is supported. Finally, emotional intelligence had a significant moderating effect on the relationship of workplace ostracism and CWB mediated by job stress [moderated mediation index = -0.106, CI95 (0.0435, 0.0852)], showing that the moderated mediation was statistically significant. Therefore, H5 is also supported. 4. DISCUSSION This study investigated the relationship between workplace ostracism and employees' tendency to engage in CWB. In addition to the direct effect, we also examined the indirect effect of workplace ostracism on CWB through job stress; and whether emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between workplace ostracism and CWB mediated by job stress. Job stress (mediator) and emotional intelligence (moderator) were used to explain the underlying mechanism through which workplace ostracism may be related to employees' tendency to engage in CWB. Our results revealed that workplace ostracism positively affects employees' tendency to engage in CWB. This result is similar to the findings of previous studies which is established that the feeling of being ostracized enhances the victim's tendency to engage in the antisocial and aggressive behaviors (Poon, Chen & DeWall, 2013); Rajchert & Winiewski, 2016; Yan et al., 2014). We also found a positive relationship between workplace ostracism and job stress. Our result is similar to the findings of Vui-Yee, and Yen-Hwa (2019) that employees' perceived workplace ostracism leads to job stress. This result also is in line with the huge stock of the literature that reveals that ostracism results in psychological distress, for example, Williams' (2009) temporal-need threat model of ostracism. Our findings further revealed that job stress positively affects employees' tendency to engage in CWB. This result is in line with the findings of Fox and Stallworth (2010) that job-related tension and anxiety inspire employees to engage in CWBs. Our result also is similar to the findings of Silva and Ranasinghe (2017) and Raza et al. (2017) that job stress has a significant positive impact on employees' tendency to engage in CWB. Moreover, we found that job stress mediates the relationship between workplace ostracism and CWB. This result is in line with the finding of Ferris, Yan, Lim, Chen & Fatimah (2016) that avoidance-oriented CWB is associated with workplace ostracism through a negative emotional impact, i.e., anxiety (an outcome of job stress). This result also is similar to the finding of Chung (2018) that perceived job stress links workplace ostracism with employee behaviors. Our result also is similar to the findings of Mahfooz, Arshad, Nisar, Ikram, and Azeem (2017) that job stress works as a mediator between workplace ostracism and employee turnover intention (a dimension of CWB). Our finding also supports the findings of Vui-Yee, and Yen-Hwa (2019) that workplace ostracism results in job stress, which in turn results in negative behavioral outcomes. Lastly, we found that emotional intelligence moderated the relationship between workplace ostracism and CWB mediated by job stress. This result is in line with the findings of Sun, Li, and Chang, (2019) that employee tendency to engage in deviant behaviors is affected positively by job stress, but emotional intelligence dampens this relationship. Our finding also supports the findings of Naseem (2018) that employees' emotional intelligence has a moderating effect on their stress management, such that they can cope better with their level of perceived job stress, and can protect themselves from being affected negatively. Moreover, our result reinforces the findings of Farras-tama et al. (2019), that emotional has a negative effect on CWB mediated by job stress. In short, our results support findings of the previous literature relating to the effects of workplace ostracism, for example, the findings of Ferris et al. (2008) that workplace ostracism is an agonizing and disliked experience, and therefore is associated with significant negative effects on the wellbeing of its victims. Similarly, our findings also support the idea that ostracism is associated with negative emotional states such as sorrow, despair, solitude, envy, culpability, indignity, embarrassment, and social apprehension (e.g., Gruter & Masters, 1986; Leary, Koch & Hechenbleikner, 2001). Moreover, our results also 82 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 support the findings of Williams (1997, 2001) that ostracism may be regarded as an interpersonal stressor that ultimately results in stress. 4.1 Theoretical Foundation The conservation of resources theory was used as the basis of the model in our study. This theory rests on the idea that people strive to attain, preserve, foster, and defend the belongings they centrally value (Hobfoll, 1989). According to this theory, "stress occurs when; (a) central, or key resources are threatened with loss, (b) central or key resources are lost, or (c) there is a failure to gain central or key resources following significant effort" (Hobfoll et al., 2018; p.104). Because the feelings of affiliation, belonging-ness, and support from co-workers and supervisors represent a critical social and job resource, whenever employees face ostracism, they realize a loss of valuable resource and resultantly feel stressed. This is because ostracism demonstrates the absence of affiliation, belongingness, and social support from coworkers which, in fact, is very irritating for its victims. In addition to the COR theory, the need-threat model (Williams, 1997) also can be used as a theoretical basis for our study's model. In light of the need-threat model, ostracism prevents its victims from satisfying their fundamental needs, i.e., be-longingness, self-esteem, meaningful existence, and control. Among these needs, deprivation of control and meaningful existence are considered to be associated with the provocation of antisocial thoughts and antisocial behaviors. The idea that a threat to belongingness and self-control needs instigates a series of maladaptive behavioral reactions from the victims of ostracism was supported by Gerber & Wheeler (2009) and Warburton et al. (2006). In addition to the aforesaid theoretical basis, our model is supported by the relevant literature, concluded that stress is associated positively with employee engagement in CWB. For example, according to Raza, Hussain, Azeem & Aziz (2017), there is a significant positive relationship between job stress and CWB. Similarly, job stress provokes employees to engage in withdrawal, deviant, and hostile behaviors directed toward their clients (Mojoyinola, 2008). Furthermore, a stressful environment is associated with several problems, such as reduction in workers' effectiveness and productivity, loss of interpersonal coordination, increase in the frequency and severity of accidents, and increase in the level of absenteeism (Ganster & Schaubroeck, 1991; Golembiewski et al., 1996). Moreover, ostracism arouses affective or emotional responses in its victims, including sadness, hurt, and anger. These negative feelings prompt them to retaliate to even the score (Buckley, Winkel & Leary, 2004; Chow, Tiedens & Govan, 2008). For example, avoidance-oriented CWBs are linked with ostracism through anxiety (Ferris et al., 2016), which is an outcome of continuous job stress. Therefore, these findings also support our proposed model, which treats job stress as the outcome of workplace ostracism, and treats CWB as the outcome of job stress. 4.2 Emotional Intelligence as a Moderating Variable We included emotional intelligence as a moderating variable in our model because it has significant individual- and organizational-level consequences. It has a significant influence on employee behaviors, specifically in shaping employees' behavioral responses in the face of negative workplace events. For example, emotional intelligence affects work behaviors such as increasing altruistic behaviors, promoting work outcomes, and defusing interpersonal conflicts and their related stress (Carmeli, 2003). Similarly, workers who are high in emotional intelligence perceive minimum job stress (e.g., Extremera, Duran & Rey, 2007; Gohm, Corser & Dalsky, 2005; Mikolajczak, Balon, Ruosi & Kotsou, 2012; Vesely, Siegling & Saklofske, 2013), and as a result have a lesser tendency to react negatively. Moreover, highly emotionally intelligent individuals tend to engage in positive rather than negative coping strategies. For example, individuals with high emotional intelligence are able to retrieve their pleasant past memories during stressful events, helping them to regulate their mood, unlike those with low emotional intelligence (Ciarrochi, Chan & Caputi, 2000). Hence, they tend to respond less aggressively to stressful workplace events. Similarly, emotional intelligence works as a significant moderator dampening the negative responses associated with the stress caused by job insecurity (Jordan, Ashkanasy & Ha"rtel, 2002). Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 83 Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar: Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence Furthermore, the positive role of emotional intelligence in stress management has been recognized in research (e.g., Karimi, Leggat, Donohue, Farrell & Couper, 2014). Because emotional intelligence is related to the identification of emotions, use of emotions, and regulation of emotions, it helps avoid or minimize the adverse outcomes associated with the negative emotions stimulated by job stress and job burnout (Austin, Dore & O'Donovan, 2008; Saklofske, Austin, Mastoras, Beaton & Osborne, 2012). According to Bar-On, (2000), individuals high on the scale of emotional intelligence tend to be more easy-going in stressful circumstances because they have the ability to adopt to circumstances with ease. Similarly, highly emotionally intelligent people are able to handle negative emotions positively, and perceive situations to be less stressful (Salovey et al., 1999). 4.3 Theoretical Contributions Our study offers several significant theoretical contributions. The extant literature relating to the attitudi-nal, affective, and physical outcomes of ostracism shows consistent results; however, studies exploring the behavioral outcomes associated with workplace ostracism have mixed findings. The behavioral responses displayed by the victims of ostracism have been found to be either prosocial or antisocial. For example, according to Baumeister & Leary (1995), ostracized individuals have a desire to be accepted by others and strive to form stable relations as a means of social acceptance, and hence they have an increased tendency to engage in OCB. This, in fact, shows the prosocial side of workplace ostracism. On the other hand, ostracism puts at stake the fulfilment of fundamental human needs (Williams, 2009), i.e., the need for belonging, self-esteem, meaningful existence, and control. When these needs are threatened by ostracism, the victims feel frustrated, leading to the generation of negative emotions, which increases their tendency to engage in CWB. For example, according to Rajchert & Winiewski (2016), ostracism intensifies victims' tendency to engage in antisocial and aggressive behaviors. This is the antisocial side of workplace ostracism. Due to such contradictory findings, this study investigated the effect of workplace ostracism on employee behavioral tendencies. It contributes to the literature by authenticating the negative behavioral outcomes associated with workplace ostracism. Furthermore, our suggested moderated mediation model supports the conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll, 1989) and the need-threat model (Williams, 1997) in the healthcare sector of Pakistan, with workplace ostracism as the explanatory variable, CWB as the explained variable, job stress as the mediating variable, and emotional intelligence as the moderating variable. We also found support for the social exchange theory in which negative treatment in the workplace is reciprocated by engaging in negative behaviors and vice versa (Li & Tian, 2016). The present study also adds to the literature by considering the underlying mechanism through which workplace ostracism affects employee behaviors, and therefore provides a broader perspective of the problem. Likewise, our study contributes to the literature by offering an answer to the calls for research identifying the various boundary conditions associated with workplace ostracism and its behavioral consequences (Lyu and Zhu, 2017; Zhu et al., 2017; Abubakar et al., 2018; Chung, 2018), specifically in the services sector in the context of a developing country (Abubakar et al., 2018). Lastly, our findings also add to the existing body of literature by concluding that the emotional intelligence of employees can work as a shield to protect them from engaging in negative behavioral responses even in the face of negative workplace events. Therefore, our study extends the body of knowledge by confirming the moderating role of emotional intelligence in the association between workplace ostracism and CWB mediated by job stress. Moreover, our study extends the body of knowledge by proving that job stress works as a mediator in the association between workplace ostracism and CWB, and thus helps understand how employee behavior is affected by workplace ostracism. 4.4 Implications for Practice This study offers significant implications, specifically for the management of nursing professionals in the healthcare sector. The study established that workplace ostracism leads to increased engagement in CWB, and thus reaffirms the detrimental effect of workplace ostracism on nurses' behavioral tendencies. Therefore, management should take appropriate steps to control workplace ostracism. Similarly, the problems of job stress and CWB can be controlled by 84 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 providing an ostracism-free work environment. For this purpose, open communication channels should be provided to employees to complain about workplace ostracism, and reasonable feedback should be given to them to overcome the problem. Moreover, organizational commitment and loyalty can be inculcated in employees by ensuring an ostracism-free working environment. Lastly, emotional intelligence training programs must be arranged to minimize staff engagement in CWB by making staff more emotionally intelligent so that they can handle workplace ostracism and its related stress appropriately. 4.5 Limitations and Future Research Directions This study has several limitations that need to be highlighted not only to explain the actual context of the study but also to provide directions for the future research. The study has three major limitations: (1) cross-sectional design of data collection, (2) collection of data from only one sector (hospital nursing staff), and (3) a relatively small sample size. Future studies may overcome these limitations by using time-series data, larger sample sizes, and diversified populations. In addition, future research endeavors also may use a holistic approach to examine the effect of workplace ostracism on employee behaviors, considering CWB and OCB simultaneously. Finally, different mediators and moderators may be tested to explain the underlying mechanism through which workplace ostracism may affect employee behavioral tendencies. 5. CONCLUSION This study offers new insights into the relationship of workplace ostracism and employee behavioral tendencies in the healthcare sector of Pakistan. Based on the emotional regulation model and the conservation of resources theory, this study used a two-wave survey technique with a sample of 160 nursing professionals from public-sector hospitals in Pakistan. The results led us to conclude that workplace ostracism has a significant positive effect both on employees' tendency to engage in CWB and on the level of job stress they experience. Job stress positively affects and emotional intelligence negatively affects employees' tendency to engage in CWB. Moreover, job stress mediates the relationship between workplace ostracism and CWB. Finally, emotional intelligence dampens the positive association between workplace ostracism and employees' tendency to engage in CWB mediated by job stress. EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Študija preučuje razmerje med ostrakizmom na delovnem mestu in težnjo medicinskega osebja h kon-traproduktivnem vedenju na delovnem mestu. Zdravstveni sektor po vsem svetu, zlasti v državah v razvoju, se sooča z resnimi težavami, saj se povpraševanje po zdravstvenih delavcih zaradi hitre rasti prebivalstva povečuje. Negovalno osebje ima posledično pomembno vlogo, zlasti v času trenutne pandemije COVID-19. Kljub vsemu se zdravstveno osebje včasih nagiba h kontraproduktivnem vedenju na delovnem mestu (CWB), kar situacijo še otežuje. Ostrakizem in stres na delovnem mestu sta lahko dejavnika, ki povzročata prej omenjeno kontraproduktivno ravnanje pri negovalnem osebju. Tako ravnanje je potrebno podrobno raziskati, saj se le na ta način lahko razvijejo ustrezne strategije za nadzor slednjega. V pakistanskih javnih bolnišnicah je bila izvedena raziskava med negovalnim osebjem. Ugotovljeno je bilo, da je ostrakizem na delovnem mestu pozitivno povezan z občutki delovnega stresa pri medicinskem osebju in njihovo težnjo h kontraproduktivnem vedenju. Podobno je bilo ugotovoljeno, da stres delovnem mestu pozitivno vpliva na težnjo medicinskih delavcev h kontraproduktivnemu ravnanju, medtem ko je čustvena inteligenca negativno povezana s težnjo h kontraproduktivnem vedenju. Raziskava je tudi pokazala, da je stres na delovnem mestu mediator v odnosu med ostrakizmom na delovnem mestu in kontraproduktivnim vedenjem. Ugotovljeno je bilo tudi, da čustvena inteligenca zmanjšuje pozitivno povezavo med ostrakizmom na delovnem mestu in kontraproduktivnim vedenjem, ki ga povzroča stres na delovnem mestu. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 85 Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar: Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence REFERENCES Abubakar, A. M., Yazdian, T. F., and Behravesh, E. (2018). A riposte to ostracism and tolerance to workplace incivility: a generational perspective. Personnel Review. 47(2),441-457. Admi, H. & Eilon-Moshe, Y. (2016). Do hospital shift charge nurses from different cultures experience similar stress? An international cross-sectional study. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 63, 48-57. Albar Marín, M. & García-Ramírez, M. (2005). Social support and emotional exhaustion among hospital nursing staff. The European Journal of Psychiatry, 19(2), 96-106. Alghamdi, N. G. (2017). Role Overload and Job Stress among the Female University Teachers-Saudi Context. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, 6(2), 88-295. Austin, E. J., Dore, T. C. & O'Donovan, K. M. (2008). Associations of personality and emotional intelligence with display rule perceptions and emotional labour. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(3), 679-688. Banerjee, S. & Mehta, P. (2016). Determining the antecedents of job stress and their impact on job performance: A study among faculty members. IUP Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 15(2), 187-203. Bao, X., Xue, S. & Kong, F. (2015). Dispositional mindfulness and perceived stress: The role of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 78, 48-52. Bar-On, R. (2000). Emotional and social intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Quotient Inventory. In R. Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of Emotional Intelligence (pp. 363-388). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Barrett, P. (2007). Structural equation modelling: Adjudging model fit. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(5), 815-824. Baumeister, R. F. & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3): 497-529. Bolton, S. (2001). Changing faces: nurses as emotional jugglers. Sociology of Health & Illness, 23(1), 85-100. Buckley, K. E., Winkel, R. E. & Leary, M. R. (2004). Reactions to acceptance and rejection: Effects of level and sequence of relational evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(1), 14-28. Carmeli, A. (2003). The relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, behaviour and outcomes. Journal of Managerial Psychology 18, 788-813. Chow, R. M., Tiedens, L. Z. & Govan, C. L. (2008). Excluded emotions: The role of anger in antisocial responses to ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(3), 896-903. Chung, Y. W. (2018). Workplace ostracism and workplace behaviors: A moderated mediation model of perceived stress and psychological empowerment. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 31(3), 304-317. Chung, Y. W. (2015). The mediating effects of organizational conflict on the relationships between workplace ostracism with in-role behavior and organizational citizenship behavior. International Journal of Conflict Management, 26(4), 366- 385. Ciarrochi, J. V., Chan, A. Y. & Caputi, P. (2000). A critical evaluation of the emotional intelligence construct. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(3), 539-561. Cropanzano, R., Howes, J. C., Grandey, A. A. & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 18(2), 159-180. Cross, S. E. & Madson, L. (1997). Models of the self: self-construals and gender. Psychological Bulletin, 122(1), 5-37. De Cieri, H., Shea, T., Cooper, B. & Oldenburg, B. (2019). Effects of work-related stressors and mindfulness on mental and physical health among Australian nurses and healthcare workers. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 51(5), 580-589. Delgado, C., Upton, D., Ranse, K., Furness, T. & Foster, K. (2017). Nurses' resilience and the emotional labour of nursing work: An integrative review of empirical literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 70, 71-88. Diefendorff, J. M., Erickson, R. J., Grandey, A. A. & Dahling, J. J. (2011). Emotional display rules as work unit norms: a multilevel analysis of emotional labour among nurses. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(2), 170-186. Einarsen, S., Skogstad, A. & Glas0, L. (2013). When leaders are bullies: concepts, antecedents and consequences. The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Leadership, Change, and Organizational Development, 129-153. Extremera, N., Duran, A. & Rey, L. (2007). Perceived emotional intelligence and dispositional optimism-pessimism: Analyzing their role in predicting psychological adjustment among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(6), 1069-1079. Farrastama, D. N., Asmony, T. & Hermanto, H. (2019). Effect of emotional intelligence on counterproductive work behavior with job stress as an intervening variable. International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 3(1), 14-25. Ferris, D. L., Brown, D. J., Berry, J. W. & Lian, H. (2008). The development and validation of the workplace ostracism scale. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1348-1366. 86 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Ferris, D. L., Yan, M., Lim, V., Chen, Y. & Fatimah, S. (2016). An approach/avoidance framework of workplace aggression. Academy of Management Journal, 59(5), 1777-1800. Fox, S. & Stallworth, L. E. (2010). The battered apple: An application of stressor-emotion-control/support theory to teachers' experience of violence and bullying. Human Relations, 63(7), 927-954. Fox, S. & Stallworth, L. E. (2005). Racial/ethnic bullying: Exploring links between bullying and racism in the US workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66(3), 438-456. Ganster, D. C. & Schaubroeck, J. (1991). Work stress and employee health. Journal of Management, 17(2), 235-271. Gerber, J. & Wheeler, L. (2009). On being rejected: A metaanalysis of experimental research on rejection. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(5), 468-488. Geurts, S. A., and Sonnentag, S. (2006). Recovery as an explanatory mechanism in the relation between acute stress reactions and chronic health impairment. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 32(6), 482-492. Gkorezis, P., Panagiotou, M. & Theodorou, M. (2016). Workplace ostracism and employee silence in nursing: the mediating role of organizational identification. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 72(10), 2381-2388. Gohm, C. L., Corser, G. C. & Dalsky, D. J. (2005). Emotional intelligence under stress: Useful, unnecessary, or irrelevant? Personality and Individual Differences, 39(6), 1017-1028. Golembiewski, R. T., Boudreau, R. A., Mounzenrider, R. F. & Luo, H. (1996). Global Burnout: A worldwide pandemic explored by the phase model. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Goswami, T. G. (2015). Job stress and its effect on employee performance in banking sector. Indian Journal of Commerce and Management Studies, 6(2), 51-56. Gray, B. (2010). Emotional labour, gender and professional stereotypes of emotional and physical contact, and personal perspectives on the emotional labour of nursing. Journal of Gender Studies, 19(4), 349-360. Greenglass, E. R. & Burke, R. J. (1988). Work and family precursors of burnout in teachers: sex differences. Sex Roles, 18(3-4), 215-229. Gruter, M. & Masters, R. D. (1986). Ostracism as a social and biological phenomenon: An introduction. Ethology and Socio-biology, 7(3-4), 149-158. Haq, I. U. (2014). Workplace ostracism and job outcomes: Moderating effects of psychological capital. In Human Capital without Borders: Knowledge and Learning for Quality of Life; Proceedings of the Management, Knowledge and Learning International Conference 2014, 1309-1323. ToKnowPress. Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513-524. Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J. P. & Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5, 103-128. Hong, E. & Lee, Y. S. (2016). The mediating effect of emotional intelligence between emotional labour, job stress, burnout and nurses' turnover intention. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 22(6), 625-632. Huang, R.-T., Sun, H.-S., Hsiao, C.-H. & Wang, C.-W. (2017). Minimizing counterproductive work behaviors: the roles of self-determined motivation and perceived job insecurity in organizational change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 30(1). Hunsaker, S., Chen, H. C., Maughan, D. & Heaston, S. (2015). Factors that influence the development of compassion fatigue, burnout, and compassion satisfaction in emergency department nurses. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 47(2), 186-194. Hussain, A. & Chaman, S. (2016). Combined Effect of Personality Traits and Collectivistic Culture on Employee's Job Stress in Banking Sector. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 9(3), 311-324. Iliceto, P. & Fino, E. (2017). The Italian version of the Wong-Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS-I): A second-order factor analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 116, 274-280. Jahanzeb, S. & Fatima, T. (2018). How workplace ostracism influences interpersonal deviance: The mediating role of defensive silence and emotional exhaustion. Journal of Business and Psychology, 33(6), 779-791. Jamal, M. (2005), Burnout among Canadian and Chinese employees: A cross-cultural study, European Management Review, 2(3), 224-230. Jamal, M. (1990). Relationship of job stress and employees' job satisfaction organizational commitment, psychosomatic health problems, and turnover motivation. J. Hum. Relations, 43(8), 727-738. Jensgard, H. (2009). Counterproductive work behavior or just negative job performance? Jordan, P. J., Ashkanasy, N. M. & Ha'rtel, C. E. J. (2002). Emotional intelligence as a moderator of emotional and behavioral reactions to job insecurity. Academy of Management Review, 27(3), 361-372. Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D., Rubenstein, A. L., Long, D. M., Odio, M. A., Buckman, B. R., Zhang, Y. & Halvorsen-Ganepola, M. D. (2013). A meta-analytic structural model of dispositional affectivity and emotional labour. Personnel Psychology, 66(1), 47-90. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 87 Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar: Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence Kanwal, I., Lodhi, R. N. & Kashif, M. (2019). Leadership styles and workplace ostracism among frontline employees. Management Research Review, 42(8), 991-1013. Karimi, L., Leggat, S. G., Donohue, L., Farrell, G. & Couper, G. E. (2014). Emotional rescue: The role of emotional intelligence and emotional labour on well-being and job-stress among community nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 70(1), 176-186. Kong, F. (2017). The validity of the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale in a Chinese sample: Tests of measurement invariance and latent mean differences across gender and age. Personality and Individual Differences, 116, 29-31. Kouchi, T., Hashemi, S. E. & Beshlideh, K. (2016). Relationship of Organizational Trust and Organizational Justice with Organizational Citizenship Behavior of Female Teachers: Chain Mediation of Job Stress and Emotional Exhaustion. International Journal of Psychology, 10(2), 140-164. LaPalme, M. L., Wang, W., Joseph, D. L., Saklofske, D. H. & Yan, G. (2016). Measurement equivalence of the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale across cultures: An item response theory approach. Personality and Individual Differences, 90, 190-198. Leary, M. R., Koch, E. J. & Hechenbleikner, N. R. (2001). Emotional responses to interpersonal rejection. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal Rejection (pp. 145-166). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Lee, J. J. & Ok, C. M. (2014). Understanding hotel employees' service sabotage: Emotional labour perspective based on conservation of resources theory. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 36, 176-187. Li, C. F. & Tian, Y. Z. (2016). Influence of workplace ostracism on employee voice behaviour. American Journal of Mathematical and Management Sciences, 35(4), 281-296. Lyu, Y. & Zhu, H. (2019). The predictive effects of workplace ostracism on employee attitudes: A job embeddedness perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 158(4), 10831095. Mahfooz, Z., Arshad, A., Nisar, Q. A., Ikram, M. & Azeem, M. (2017). Does workplace incivility & workplace ostracism influence the employees' turnover intentions? Mediating role of burnout and job stress & moderating role of psychological capital. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 7(8), 398-413. Martos, Á., del Carmen Pérez-Fuentes, M., del Mar Molero, M., Gázquez, J. J., del Mar Simón, M. & Barragán, A. B. (2018). Burnout y engagement en estudiantes de Ciencias de la Salud. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 8(1), 23-36. Mayer, J.D. and Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In: Salovey, P. and Sluyter, D. (Eds.), Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence: Implications for Educators, pp. 3-31. Basic Books, New York. Mikolajczak, M., Balon, N., Ruosi, M. & Kotsou, I. (2012). Sensitive but not sentimental: Emotionally intelligent people can put their emotions aside when necessary. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(4), 537-540. Mojoyinola, J. K. (2008). Effects of job stress on health, personal and work behaviour of nurses in public hospitals in Ibadan Metropolis, Nigeria. Studies on Ethno-Medicine, 2(2), 143-148. Naseem, K. (2018). Job stress, happiness and life satisfaction: The moderating role of emotional intelligence empirical study in telecommunication sector Pakistan. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Studies, 4(1), 7-14. Pacheco, N. E., Rey, L. & Sánchez-Álvarez, N. (2019). Validation of the Spanish version of the Wong Law emotional intelligence scale (WLEIS-S). Psicothema, 31(1), 94-100. Parker, D.F. & DeCotiis, T.A. (1983), Organizational Determinants of Job Stress, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 32(2), 160-167. Pierre, L. L., Anglade, D., Saber, D., Gattamorta, K. A. & Piehl, D. (2019). Evaluating horizontal violence and bullying in the nursing workforce of an oncology academic medical centre. Journal of Nursing Management, 27(5), 1005-1010. Poon, K., Chen, Z. & DeWall, C. N. (2013). Feeling entitled to more: Ostracism increases dishonest behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(9), 1227-1239. Qi, L., Cai, D., Liu, B. & Feng, T. (2020). Effect of workplace ostracism on emotional exhaustion and unethical behaviour among Chinese nurses: A time-lagged three-wave survey. Journal of Advanced Nursing. Raza, S., Hussain, M. S., Azeem, M. & Aziz, K. (2017). Workload, Work Stress, Role Conflict, and Workplace Deviant Behaviour in Banks: An Empirical Analysis. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, 6(4), 701-707. Renn, O., Webler, T. & Wiedemann, P. (Eds.). (2013). Fairness and competence in citizen participation: Evaluating Models for Environmental Discourse (Vol. 10). Springer Science & Business Media. Rhéaume, A. & Mullen, J. (2018). The impact of long work hours and shift work on cognitive errors in nurses. Journal of Nursing Management, 26(1), 26-32. Riaz, S., Xu, Y. & Hussain, S. (2019). Workplace ostracism and knowledge hiding: the mediating role of job tension. Sustainability, 11(20), 1-16. 88 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Riskin, A., Bamberger, P., Erez, A., Foulk, T., Cooper, B., Peterfreund, I., ... & Bamberger, E. (2019). Incivility and patient safety: a longitudinal study of rudeness, protocol compliance, and adverse events. The Joint Commission Journal on Quality and Patient Safety, 45(5), 358-367. Rajchert, J. & Winiewski, M. (2016). The behavioral approach and inhibition systems' role in shaping the displaced and direct aggressive reaction to ostracism and rejection. Personality and Individual Differences, 88, 272-279. Robinson, S. L., O'Reilly, J. & Wang, W. (2013). Invisible at work: An integrated model of workplace ostracism. Journal of Management, 39 (1), 203-231. Sackett, P. R. (2002). The structure of counterproductive work behaviors: Dimensionality and relationships with facets of job performance. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 10(1-2), 5-11. Saklofske, D. H., Austin, E. J., Mastoras, S. M., Beaton, L. & Osborne, S. E. (2012). Relationships of personality, affect, emotional intelligence and coping with student stress and academic success: Different patterns of association for stress and success. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(2), 251-257. Salovey, P., Bedell, B. T., Detweiler, J. B. & Mayer, J. D. (1999). Coping intelligently: Emotional intelligence and the coping process. In C. R. Snyder (Ed.), Coping: The Psychology of What Works (pp. 141-164). New York: Oxford University Press. Salovey, P., Woolery, A. and Mayer, J.D. (2001). Emotional intelligence: conceptualization and measurement. In: Fletcher, G. and Clark, M. (Eds.), The Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology, pp. 279-307. Blackwell, London. Sarfraz, A. S. M., Abdullah, M. I. & Imran, M. K. (2019). ostracism Collaborative and self-efficacy effect of workplace versus job stress. Evolving Enterprise Competences as a Consequence of Response to Changes in the Environment, 15(4), 107-138. Sarfraz, M., Qun, W., Sarwar, A., Abdullah, M. I., Imran, M. K. & Shafique, I. (2019). Mitigating effect of perceived organizational support on stress in the presence of workplace ostracism in the Pakistani nursing sector. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 12, 839-849. Schonfeld, I. S., Bianchi, R. & Luehring-Jones, P. (2017). Consequences of job stress for the mental health of teachers. In Educator Stress (pp. 55-75). Springer, Cham. Schneider, T. R., Lyons, J. B. & Khazon, S. (2013). Emotional intelligence and resilience. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(8), 909-914. Serrano, M. Á. & Costa, R. (2018). Stressing the Stress or the Complexity of the Human Factor: Psychobiological Consequences of Distress. In New Perspectives on Applied Industrial Tools and Techniques (pp. 431-447). Springer, Cham. Shafique, I., Qammar, A., Kalyar, M. N., Ahmad, B. & Mushtaq, A. (2020). Workplace ostracism and deviant behaviour among nurses: a parallel mediation model. Journal of Asia Business Studies. Silva, H. M. S. & Ranasinghe, R. M. I. D. (2017). The impact of job stress on deviant workplace behaviour: A study of operational level employees of comfort apparel solutions company in Sri Lanka. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 7(1), 74-85. Sjoberg, S. & Sjoberg, A. (2007). MINT, Measuring Integrity Manual. Stockholm: Assessio InternationalAB. Steiger, J. H. (2007). Understanding the limitations of global fit assessment in structural equation modelling. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(5), 893-898. Sun, K., Li, Y. & Chang, P. C. (2019, July). The Relationship between Job Stress and Employee Deviant Behaviors: The Moderating Effects of Emotional Stability and Conscientiousness. In 4th International Conference on Humanities Science, Management and Education Technology (HSMET2019). Atlantis Press. Tsai, Y. F. (2011). Relationship between Organiazational Culture, Leadership Behavior and Job Satisfaction. Health Service Research 11(1), 98-107. Vesely, A. K., Siegling, A. B. & Saklofske, D. H. (2013). Gender-linked personality and mental health: The role of trait emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(2), 221-225. Vui-Yee, K. & Yen-Hwa, T. (2019). When does ostracism lead to turnover intention? The moderated mediation model of job stress and job autonomy. IIMB Management Review. Warburton, W. A., Williams, K. D. & Cairns, D. R. (2006). When ostracism leads to aggression: the moderating effects of control deprivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 213-220. Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 275-314. Williams, K. D. (2001). Ostracism: The power of silence. New York, NY: Guilford. Williams, K. D. (1997). Social ostracism. In R. M. Kowalski (Ed.), Aversive interpersonal behaviors (pp. 133-170). New York, NY: Plenum. Williams, K. D., Govan, C. L., Croker, V., Tynan, D., Cruick-shank, M. & Lam, A. (2002). Investigations into differences between social and cyber ostracism. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(1), 65-77. Wilton, N., 2011. An Introduction to Human Resource Management. SAGE, Los Angeles. Wong, C. S. & Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on performance and attitude: An exploratory study. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243-274. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 89 Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar: Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence Wong, D., S. Leung, C. So & D. Lam. (2001). Mental Health of Chinese Nurses in Hong-Kong: The Roles of Nursing Stress and Coping Strategies. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 5(2), 1-22. Wu, C. H., Liu, J., Kwan, H. K. & Lee, C. (2016). Why and when workplace ostracism inhibits organizational citizenship behaviors: An organizational identification perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(3), 362-378. Wu, L. Z., Yim, F. H. K., Kwan, H. K. & Zhang, X. (2012). Coping with workplace ostracism: The roles of ingratiation and political skill in employee psychological distress. Journal of Management Studies, 49(1), 178-199. Wu, X., Li, J., Liu, G., Liu, Y., Cao, J. & Jia, Z. (2018). The effects of emotional labor and competency on job satisfaction in nurses of China: A nationwide cross-sectional survey. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 5(4), 383-389. Yan, Y., Zhou, E., Long, L. & Ji, Y. (2014). The influence of workplace ostracism on counterproductive work behavior: The mediating effect of state self-control. Social Behavior and Personality, 42(6), 881-890. Yang, J. & Treadway, D. C. (2018). A social influence interpretation of workplace ostracism and counterproductive work behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 148(4), 879-891. Yang, T., Shen, Y. M., Zhu, M., Liu, Y., Deng, J., Chen, Q. & See, L. C. (2016). Effects of co-worker and supervisor support on job stress and presenteeism in an aging workforce: a structural equation modelling approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(1), 72. 90 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 Yurtkorub, S. (2013). Job stress and job performance among employees in public sector in Istanbul: examining the moderating role of emotional intelligence. Pro-cedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 75, 518-524. Zhang, P., Wang, F., Cheng, Y., Zhang, L. Y., Ye, B. Z., Jiang, H. W., ... & Liang, Y. (2017). Impact of organizational and individual factors on patient-provider relationships: A national survey of doctors, nurses and patients in China. Plos one, 12(7), e0181396. Zhao, H., Peng, A. & Sheard, G. (2013). Workplace ostracism and hospitality employees' counterproductive work behaviors: The joint moderating effects of proactive personality and political skill. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 33, 219-227. Zhao, H., Xia, Q., He, P., Sheard, G. & Wan, P. (2016). Workplace ostracism and knowledge hiding in service organizations. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 59, 84-94. Zhu, H., Lyu, Y., Deng, X. & Ye, Y. (2017). Workplace ostracism and proactive customer service performance: A conservation of resources perspective. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 64, 62-72. Zych, I., Ortega-Ruiz, R. & Marín-López, I. (2017). Emotional content in cyberspace: Development and validation of E-motions Questionnaire in adolescents and young people. Psicothema, 29(4), 563-569. Zysberg, L., Orenshtein, C., Gimmon, E. & Robinson, R. (2017). Emotional intelligence, personality, stress, and burnout among educators. International Journal of Stress Management, 24(S1), 122-136. Appendix 1 For the questions given below, please indicate the extent to which you experience each of the following at your job. (N = never = 1, R = rarely = 2, S = sometimes = 3, F = frequently = 4, and A = always = 5) Workplace Ostracism N R S F A Others ignored you at work. 1 2 3 4 5 Others left the area when you entered. 1 2 3 4 5 Your greetings have gone unanswered at work. 1 2 3 4 5 You involuntarily (not by your own choice) sat alone in a crowded lunchroom at work. 1 2 3 4 5 Others avoided you at work. 1 2 3 4 5 You noticed that others would not look at you at work. 1 2 3 4 5 Others at work shut you out of the conversation. 1 2 3 4 5 Others refused to talk to you at work. 1 2 3 4 5 Others at work treated you as if you were not there. 1 2 3 4 5 Others at work did not invite you or ask you if you wanted anything when they went out for a coffee/tea break. 1 2 3 4 5 CWB N R S F A You see to private affairs during work hours. 1 2 3 4 5 You make fun of co-workers. 1 2 3 4 5 You take objects from work without permission. 1 2 3 4 5 You hurt someone's feelings at work. 1 2 3 4 5 You take more or longer breaks, than necessary. 1 2 3 4 5 You comment or make fun of others' descent (lower status), or religion. 1 2 3 4 5 You are late for work. 1 2 3 4 5 You act in a threatening manner towards other at work. 1 2 3 4 5 You show up for work (come to work) under the influence of drugs or alcohol. 1 2 3 4 5 You act rudely towards co-workers or customers. 1 2 3 4 5 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 91 Mr. Attaullah, Bilal Afsar: Workplace Ostracism and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in the Healthcare Sector: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Job Stress and Emotional Intelligence For the questions given below, please indicate the extent to which you experience each of the following at your job. (SD = strongly disagree = 1, D = disagree = 2, N = neither agree nor disagree = 3, A = agree = 4, and SA = strongly agree = 5) Job Stress SD D N A SA Working here (in your organization) makes it hard for you to spend enough time with your family. 1 2 3 4 5 You spend so much time at work. 1 2 3 4 5 Working here (in your organization) leaves little time for other activities. 1 2 3 4 5 You frequently get the feeling that you are married to the company. 1 2 3 4 5 You have too much work and too little time to do it in. 1 2 3 4 5 You sometimes dread (anticipate with fear) the telephone ringing at home because the call might be job-related. 1 2 3 4 5 You feel like you never have a day off. 1 2 3 4 5 Too many people at your level in the company get burned out (too tired due to overwork) by job demands. 1 2 3 4 5 You have felt nervousness as a result of your job. 1 2 3 4 5 Your job gets you more than it should. 1 2 3 4 5 There are lots of times when your job drives you right up the wall. 1 2 3 4 5 Sometimes when you think about your job you get a tight feeling in your chest. 1 2 3 4 5 You feel guilty when you take time off from job. 1 2 3 4 5 Emotional Intelligence SD D N A SA You have a good sense of why you have certain feelings most of the time. 1 2 3 4 5 You have a good understanding of your own emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 You really understand what you feel. 1 2 3 4 5 You always know whether or not you are happy. 1 2 3 4 5 You always know your friends' emotions from their behaviors. 1 2 3 4 5 You are a good observer of others' emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 You are sensitive to the feelings and emotions of others. 1 2 3 4 5 You have good understanding of the emotions of people around you. 1 2 3 4 5 You always set goals for yourself and then try your best to achieve them. 1 2 3 4 5 You always tell yourself that you are a competent (able, capable) person. 1 2 3 4 5 You are a self-motivating person. 1 2 3 4 5 You would always encourage yourself to try your best. 1 2 3 4 5 You are able to control your temper so that you can handle difficulties rationally. 1 2 3 4 5 You are quite capable of controlling your own emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 You can always calm down quickly when you are very angry. 1 2 3 4 5 You have a good control of your own emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 92 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 AUTHOR GUIDELINES 1. GENERAL INFORMATION All articles submitted to the Dynamic Relationships Management Journal are double-blind reviewed. The manuscript should submitted via e-mail to the editor (matej.cerne@ef.uni-lj.si). Send two files: one that contains author contact information along with the text, references, tables, figures, and exhibits; and one where author contact information will be deleted. Authors should keep an exact, extra copy of the manuscript for future reference. Manuscripts are reviewed with the understanding that they are original, not under consideration by any other publisher, have not been previously published in whole or in part, have not been previously accepted for publication, and will not be submitted elsewhere until a decision is reached regarding their publication in the Dynamic Relationships Management Journal. Manuscripts must be written in English. Authors are responsible for the quality of written English and proof reading of the text is required. Manuscripts should be double-spaced (including references) in 12 point font, with pages numbered consecutively throughout the entire paper. (The title page is page one.) Text alignment should be justified. Margins should be one inch (2.5 cm) at the top, bottom and sides of the page. Manuscripts inclusive of all text, references, tables, figures, appendices etc. should be no longer than 30 pages and should not exceed 60.000 characters including spaces. Authors should provide a summary, which will be published in Slovene (for foreign authors, translation will be provided by editors). Manuscripts that report quantitative analyses of data should typically include descriptive statistics, correlation matrices, the results of statistical tests and so forth. If these items are not included in the manuscript, they should be reported in a separate technical appendix. Authors of manuscripts that report data dependent results also must make available, upon request, exact information regarding their procedures and stimuli (excluding data). If we receive files that do not conform to the above requirements, we will inform the author(s) and we will not begin the review process until we receive the corrected files. The author(s) submitting the manuscript for review should clearly indicate to the editor the relation of the manuscript under review to any other manuscripts currently under review, in press or recently published by the authors. The editor may ask the authors to submit copies of such related papers to the Editorial Board. 2. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 1. First page: Name of author(s) and title; author(s) footnote, including present positions, complete address, telephone number, fax number, email address, and any acknowledgment of financial or technical assistance. 2. Second page: Title of paper (without author's name) and an abstract of no more than 250 words substantively summarizing the article. Also include up to six keywords that describe your paper for indexing and for web searches in your manuscript. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 93 Author Guidelines 3. Next: Text alignment justified with major headings and subheadings flush with the left margin. The introduction should state clearly the objective of the paper as well as the motivation and the context of the research. The literature review should be limited to the articles, books and other items that have a direct bearing on the topic being addressed. In empirical papers, details of the empirical section tests should not be included in the paper itself. The conclusion should summarize key findings and state their importance to the field. Footnotes should be kept to an absolute minimum and must be placed at the foot of the page to which they refer. They should not be used for citing references. 4. Then: Tables, numbered consecutively, each on a separate page. If tables appear in an appendix, they should be numbered separately and consecutively, as in Table A-1, A-2, and so on. 5. Next: Figures, numbered consecutively, each placed on a separate page. If tables appear in an appendix, they should be numbered separately, as in Figure A-1, A-2, etc. 6. After conclusion: Longer summary (1-2 pp, depending on length of article) in Slovenian language (for foreign authors, translation will be provided by editors). 7. Last: References, typed in alphabetical order by author's last name and in APA style. 3. TABLES 1. The table number and title should be centered and placed above the table. 2. Source(s) should also be provided and centered below the table: i.e. Mabey & Gooderham, The impact of management development on perceptions of organizational performance in European firms, 2005: 136. 3. Designate units (e.g., %, $) in column headings. 4. Align all decimals. 5. Refer to tables in the text by number only. Do not refer to tables by "above," "below," and "preceding." 6. If possible, combine closely related tables. 7. Clearly indicate positions of tables within the text on the page where they are introduced: e.g. Table 1 about here. 8. Measures of statistical significance should be reported within the table. 4. FIGURES, PHOTOGRAPHS AND CAMERA-READY ARTWORK 1. For graphs, label both vertical and horizontal axes. The ordinate label should be centered above the ordinate axis; the abscissa label should be placed beneath the abscissa. 2. Place all calibration tics inside the axis lines, with the values outside the axis lines. 3. The figure number and title should be typed on separate lines, centered and placed above the figure. 4. When appropriate, source(s) should also be provided and centered below the figure (see example under the Tables section). 5.Clearly indicate positions of figures within the text on the page where they are introduced. 94 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 6. Once a manuscript has been accepted for publication, complex tables and all figures must be submitted both electronically and as camera-ready (hard) copy. Do not embed figures in the Word file; instead, submit them separately in the program in which they were created (i.e., PDF, PowerPoint, Excel). 7. Lettering should be large enough to be read easily with 50% reduction. 8. Any art not done on a computer graphics program should be professionally drafted in India ink. 9. Do not submit photographs or camera-ready art until your manuscript has been accepted. If the photograph or artwork is completed, submit copies. 5. MATHEMATICAL NOTATION 1. Mathematical notation must be clear and understandable. Since not all journal readers are mathematically proficient, the authors should ensure that the text (i.e., words) also conveys the meaning expressed by the mathematical notation. We recommend that extensive mathematical notation (e.g., proofs) should be provided in a separate technical appendix. 2. Equations should be centered on the page. Equations should be numbered; type the number in parentheses flush with the left margin. If equations are too wide to fit in a single column, indicate appropriate breaks. Unusual symbols and Greek letters should be identified by a note. 6. REFERENCE CITATIONS WITHIN THE TEXT Cite all references at the appropriate point in the text by the surname of the author(s), year of publication, and pagination where necessary. Pagination (without 'p.' or 'pp.') to give the source of a quotation or to indicate a passage of special relevance, follows the year of publication and is preceded by a colon, i.e. Parsons (1974: 238). Page numbers should be given full out, i.e. 212-230 not 212-30. When providing quotes, these should be in italics. In general, references to published works must be cited in text according to the guidelines for APA style (for more information see the DRMJ website). 7. REFERENCE LIST STYLE 1. Single Author: Last name first, followed by author initials. Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10. 2. Two Authors: List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of "and." Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048. 3. Three to Six Authors: List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by ampersand. Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021 95 Author Guidelines 4. Organization as Author American Psychological Association. (2003). 5. Unknown Author Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. 6. Two or More Works by the Same Author: Use the author's name for all entries and list the entries by the year (earliest comes first). Berndt, T. J. (1981). Berndt, T. J. (1999). References that have the same first author and different second and/or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, or the last name of the third if the first and second authors are the same. For other examples, see the DRMJ website. 96 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May 2021