117
The Effectiveness of In-Person versus Online Instruction 
in the Pre-service Teacher Preparation Programme 
ABSTRACT
In reference to the reflective nature of the methodological design of the current pre-service 
English teacher education program at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, considerable 
challenges related to teacher-education were noted during the emergency online switch. 
For this reason, the theory/practice connections, typically strengthened via the practical, 
experiential and reflective components of university teacher-education programs, were put 
to the test. The research is aimed at identifying the challenges of the online switch and 
focuses on comparison of the effectiveness of in-person versus online instruction in the pre-
service English teacher preparation program. The research questions seek to examine whether 
teacher-training sessions online are more demanding and challenging, and potentially less 
effective (as perceived by the respondents), compared to the in-person teacher-training 
practices. The study results offer a valuable insight into the teacher-trainees’ perceptions of 
the challenges and effectiveness of the online English teacher-training course implementation 
in comparison with the in-person mode. 
Keywords: pre-service English teacher education, reflective model, pandemic, in-person 
instruction, online teaching
Primerjalna študija učinkovitosti spletne in »v živo« izvedbe 
začetnega izobraževanja učiteljev angleščine
IZVLEČEK 
Glede na reflektivno naravo metodološke zasnove programov začetnega izobraževanja učiteljev 
angleščine na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani je prehod izobraževanja učiteljev iz fizičnih 
predavalnic v digitalno okolje – tako imenovani online »switch« – spremljala vrsta izzivov. 
Zaradi tega so se povezovanja teorije s prakso, ki se tipično krepijo skozi praktične, izkustvene in 
reflektivne sestavine izobraževanja učiteljev na univerzitetni ravni, tokrat znašla na preizkušnji. 
Pričujoča raziskava se osredinja na opredelitev glavnih izzivov prehoda izobraževalnega procesa 
bodočih učiteljev angleščine v digitalno okolje in na primerjavo učinkovitosti obeh modelov 
poučevanja – spletno in »v živo«. Preverja, kateri izmed dveh načinov izvajanja izobraževanja 
učiteljev se po mnenju študentov pedagoških programov anglistike izkazuje za bolj zahtevnega 
in morda posledično manj učinkovitega. Rezultati raziskave ponujajo dragocen vpogled v 
njihovo percepcijo izzivov in učinkovitosti izvajanja programa izobraževanja učiteljev angleščine 
v digitalnem okolju v primerjavi z izvedbo »v živo«.
Ključne besede: začetno izobraževanje učiteljev angleščine, reflektivni model, pandemija, 
poučevanje »v živo«, spletno poučevanje
Lara Burazer
Janez Skela
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
2021, Vol. 18 (2), 117-137(230)
revije.ff.uni-lj.si/elope
https://doi.org/10.4312/elope.18.2.117-137
UDC: [811.111:37.018.43:004]:616-036.22
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING 
118 Lara Burazer, Janez Skela The Effectiveness of In-Person Versus Online Instruction ... 
Lara Burazer, Janez 
Skela
The Effectiveness of In-
Person Versus Online 
Instruction ... 
1 Introduction 
The shutdown of universities and schools in Slovenia, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, came 
in mid-March 2020. During the academic year 2020/21, the restrictions imposed regionally 
or nationally varied, depending on the COVID-19 situation, with primary and secondary 
schools being both on- and offline, then moving to a hybrid model, to finally reopening in 
May 2021 (Krek 2021; Ritchie et al. 2020). The universities remained online throughout the 
academic year. So, there has been variance in the disruption experienced by initial teacher 
training (henceforth referred to as ITT) trainees during the academic year 2020/21 regarding 
their final practicum or school placements, whereas the university-based teacher training 
program remained online throughout the year. This research focuses on the challenges this 
posed for both trainees and teacher educators.
1.1 The Initial Teacher Training Design
The context framing this research is the official route into teaching established by the Bologna 
Reform in Higher Education in Slovenia. The Faculty of Arts adopted the so-called two-
cycle degree structure, i.e., a 3-year Bachelor’s/Undergraduate Level, plus a 2-year Master’s/
Graduate Level. In this two-cycle degree structure, the first three years of undergraduate 
studies are, in the case of future teachers of English, devoted entirely to subject-specific 
courses relating to linguistics and literature. The whole teacher preparation program is placed 
within the second cycle, i.e., at Master’s Level, and within what we refer to as the Pedagogical 
Module. Students at MA level can opt to follow either the non-pedagogical (i.e., omitting all 
teacher-training courses) or pedagogical route, the latter being the only route into teaching.
Table 1. Subject-specific teacher training curriculum.
Contact Hours ECTS
Year 1 
The Fundamentals of ELT Methodology 150 8
Methods and Techniques of Teaching English 60 7
Teaching Practice for English Teachers (practicum) 30 2
Year 2
Programs and Coursebooks in ELT 45 4
Testing in ELT 30 3
Scientific Research Work in Foreign Language Pedagogy 30 3
Elective courses (trainee chooses 2 out of 3): 
Teaching English for Specific Purposes
Teaching English Across Age Groups
Trends in ELT
30 + 30 3 + 3
Teaching Practice for English Teachers (practicum) 30 4
Total 435 37
The current teacher preparation program provided by the Faculty of Arts, University of 
Ljubljana, is a mixture of both consecutive and concurrent models, because trainees enrol 
119ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING
into the MA program with a BA (i.e., subject-specialist) degree, but continue to study, during 
both MA Level years, both the academic subjects and educational and pedagogical studies 
in a 1:1 ratio. The scope of the Master’s degree curriculum is 120 ECTS credits – 60 credit 
points of academic subjects, and 60 credit points of the educational and pedagogical studies. 
Quantitatively, the pre-service teacher training program is in fact a one-year post-graduate 
program spreading over two years of MA Level.
The pedagogical module consists of two parts: (a) general educational and pedagogical 
studies, and (b) subject-specific teacher training courses. The scope of the general educational 
and pedagogical studies is the same for all departments at the Faculty of Arts that provide a 
pedagogical route of studies.
The scope of the subject-specific teacher training courses at the Department of English, 
Faculty of Arts, is presented in Table 1. 
1.2 The COVID-19 Lockdown Effects on ITT
Before we move on to describe the situation that happened in March 2020 when, as 
a direct result of the COVID-19 pandemic, all universities and schools in Slovenia shut 
down and transferred teaching online, we need to highlight the main methodological and 
‘philosophical’ design of the pre-service teacher education program to see how it was affected 
by this sudden change of teaching. The methodology of the pre-service teacher education 
program stresses the importance of involving the student teachers in the instruction through 
hands-on activities, class discussions, pair work, brainstorming sessions, etc. In other words 
– the program is based on the so-called reflection-oriented approach to teacher training. 
Such methodology, besides giving trainees the opportunity to examine their attitudes, beliefs 
and assumptions, also echoes classroom practice much more closely. As we are discussing 
the methodological design of the program, we will be interested in whether the imposed 
online teaching mode spelled a return to a more traditional way of teaching. In other words, 
we will try to show whether giving teacher training sessions online is more demanding and 
challenging, and potentially less effective, or not.
2 Strengthening Theory/Practice Connections via the 
Methodological Design of the Pre-service Teacher Preparation 
Program
Within pre-service teacher education programs, the so-called ‘theory/practice divide’ and the 
importance of the practicum (or placement) in schools have been much debated (Malderez 
and Bodoczky 1999; Gebhard 2009; Kidd and Murray 2020). The practicum is usually widely 
recognized, as it represents the central link between theory and practice – it is only here that 
the principle of “theorising practice or practising theory” can be applied (Kumaravadivelu 
1999, 33). In other words, it is during the practicum that trainees acquire the skills to transfer 
knowledge of pedagogy to practice. Although the practicum is, without doubt, the strongest 
connection between practice and theory (i.e., academic knowledge at the university), it is 
not the only one. Other solutions to strengthening theory/practice connections include 
120 Lara Burazer, Janez Skela The Effectiveness of In-Person Versus Online Instruction ... 
increasing the practical, skills-based, experiential and reflective components of university 
teacher education programs (Kidd and Murray 2020, 544). In the remainder of this paper, 
the theory/practice connections will be highlighted and researched on the basis of one 
subject-specific course – The Fundamentals of ELT Methodology (see Table 1) – comparing its 
in-person and online execution, respectively.  
Various models of teacher learning have been suggested. The three main ones, as described 
in Wallace (1991), are as follows: (1) the craft model, (2) the applied science model, and (3) 
the reflective model. The craft model typically involves pre-service teachers working alongside 
experienced masters, following their instructions and advice, and learning by imitating. In 
this model, the wisdom of the profession resides in an experienced professional practitioner: 
someone who is an expert in the practice of the ‘craft’. Or, as Roberts (1998) puts it, pre-
service teachers in the craft model are viewed essentially as input-output systems. 
The applied science model is the traditional and probably still the most prevalent model 
underlying most teacher-training education programs (Wallace 1991). In this model, 
theoretical/scientific knowledge is conveyed to pre-service teachers by experts, and then it 
is up to the trainees to put this knowledge into practice. It is obvious, then, that a teacher’s 
expertise will be mostly developed on the job. This model clearly shows the tendency for the 
experts to be well removed from the day-to-day working scene, and reveals a fairly clear divide 
between the ‘thinkers’ and ‘doers’.
Since the 1970s, there has been a marked shift in our understanding of what we mean by 
teacher preparation. Since then, several developments have significantly shaped the way 
second language teacher education is currently conceptualized (Burns and Richards 2009), 
of which the most important are changes in the knowledge base of language teaching and a 
re-orientation of our perspectives on pre-service teachers (Skela 2019). Pre-service teachers 
started to be viewed as constructivists who craft personal constructions of their professional 
contexts, and as social beings whose professional role is shaped by social rules, group identity, 
occupational culture, and teacher development in the context of school (Roberts 1998). 
Roberts suggests that “behavioural and humanistic perspectives throw useful but only partial 
light on teacher learning”, and that “a synthesis of constructivist and social perspectives, 
a broadly social constructivist view, provides the most helpful and appropriate general 
framework for teacher education design” (Roberts 1998, 13). Such a synthesis led to the 
development of the reflective model of teacher education. 
The reflective model is trainee-centred. It assigns great importance to teacher cognition 
(i.e., what teachers think, know, and believe; Borg 2006, 2009) and seeks to establish solid 
connections between theory (i.e., both personal small t theories, and the capital T Theory) 
and classroom practices. It includes two kinds of knowledge development: (a) received 
knowledge (i.e., external input coming from scholarly sources, the collective theoretical 
knowledge of the profession or the capital T Theory), and (b) experiential knowledge. The 
trainee will develop experiential knowledge by teaching or observing lessons, or recalling 
past experience; then reflecting, alone or in discussion with others, in order to work out 
theories about teaching; then trying these out again in practice. Such a ‘reflective cycle’ aims 
for continuous improvement and development of personal theories in action (Ur 1996, 5). 
121ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING
These models are, of course, nothing but archetypes, providing only very general design 
principles for a teacher education program. Probably all three models have some truth in 
them. First, there is a lot to be learnt from ‘master teachers’ (as in the craft model); second, 
there is a lot to be learnt from experts and from reading scholarly sources (as in the 
applied science model); and finally, promoting the active engagement of student teachers 
in opportunities to learn through doing and reflection probably does help them integrate 
these external sources of input into their own reflection-based theories (as in the reflective 
model). Clearly, all three models of teacher learning have their advantages and disadvantages, 
as none on its own can really cover the complexity of language teacher education. They 
provide, in various combinations, the theoretical basis for teacher education design, but they 
can, however, become problematic if applied at their extremes. However, as the models are 
not mutually exclusive they can be intertwined and combined into an ‘eclectic’ approach 
to teacher development, following an inductive practice-reflection-theory cycle (Chaves and 
Guapacha 2016, 75, 81).
The question all teacher educators have to face is how teachers learn most effectively, and 
how this learning can be integrated into a formal course of study. The design of any teacher 
education program is often based on both objective, or contextual, and personal, or intuitive, 
principles adhered to by teacher educators. In our case, the authors of this article, both 
being pre-service teacher educators, have chosen to base the pre-service teacher education 
programme to a large extent on the ‘reflective model’. Our decision is based on two sources 
of knowledge – first, our personal professional practice as teacher educators, and second, the 
bulk of the literature and research examining the nature of (language) teacher development, 
with a special emphasis on the reflective model (Freeman and Cornwell 1993; Dufeu 1994; 
Richards and Lockhart 1994; Medgyes and Malderez 1996; Nunan and Lamb 1996; Richards 
1998; Roberts 1998; Gebhard and Oprandy 1999; Malderez and Bodoczky 1999; Trappes-
Lomax and McGrath 1999; Moon 2004; Malderez and Wedell 2007; Wright and Bolitho 
2007; Dymoke and Harrison 2008; Burns and Richards 2009; Borg 2006, 2009, etc.). 
We believe that recognizing the legitimacy of teacher-learners’ implicit personal theories and 
the role of prior (experiential) knowledge (Borg 2006, 2009) calls for the kind of teacher 
education pedagogy/methodology that emphasizes exploration and experimentation, risk 
taking and cooperation, balancing input and reflection, using what trainees bring and know, 
and increasing their autonomy (Freeman and Cornwell 1993, xiii–xiv). Such a reflective 
teaching methodology resists the assumption that people will learn to teach just by being told 
what to do or how to do it. Instead, it is based on the educational philosophy of constructivism 
which claims that knowledge is actively constructed and not passively received. 
If we consider that the professional development of language teachers should involve the 
various above-mentioned perspectives, it seems only logical to incorporate explicit reflective 
techniques into a teacher education program. A training framework as a bridge to reflective 
practice typically contains activities such as the teaching practicum, teaching practice 
portfolios, supervision and the supervisory dialogue, reflective demonstration (follow me!), 
micro-teaching, loop input (hall of mirrors), journal and diary keeping, peer observation, 
action research, study groups, self-development activities, and others (Wallace 1999, 184–86). 
122 Lara Burazer, Janez Skela The Effectiveness of In-Person Versus Online Instruction ... 
What these instructional practices have in common is that they see teacher learning as the 
theorization of practice (i.e., knowledge construction); in other words, making visible the 
student-teacher’s beliefs about teaching and the nature of practitioner knowledge, and thus 
providing the means by which such knowledge can be elaborated, understood, reviewed, and 
reorganized (Burns and Richards 2009). 
Despite many pedagogical and institutional barriers to devising and implementing ‘reflective 
practice’ in pre-service training (Wallace 1999, 184; Cornford 2002; Russell 2005; 
Kuswandono 2012; Skela 2019, 27–29), it seems to us that a broadly reflective model of 
learning teaching still provides the most helpful and appropriate general framework for 
teacher education design. There is obviously still a lot of work to be done to establish a 
satisfactory framework for teacher education, but it seems that reflective teaching is here to 
stay as one of the most flexible and useful teacher training designs that we have available to 
bridge the gap between the theory and practice of ELT methodology (Skela 2019). After 
all, over the last two decades studies on reflective practice in the professional development 
of teachers have continued to attract researchers’ attention (e.g., Griffiths 2000; Kuit, Reay, 
and Freeman 2001; Cornford 2002; Ward and McCotter 2004; Russell 2005; Akbari 2007; 
Lupinski et al. 2012; Sellars 2012; Colomer et al. 2013; Mathew et al. 2017, etc.). 
No pre-service model, however good, can produce fully competent teachers. But what it 
can and probably should do is “to lay the seeds of further development” (Ur 1996, 8) by 
providing trainees with opportunities to develop reasoning and reflective skills, tools and 
processes for continuing their own learning of teaching (Malderez and Bodoczky 1999, 13). 
As such, a pre-service course “should be seen as the beginning of a process, not a complete 
process in itself: participants should be encouraged to develop habits of learning that will 
carry through into later practice and continue for their entire professional lives” (Ur 1996, 8). 
2.1 The Methodological Design of The Fundamentals of ELT Methodology 
Course
The Fundamentals of ELT Methodology, chosen for our research focus, is a ‘big’, whole-year 
course with an extensive syllabus ranging from very theoretical to very practical topics (for 
example, second language acquisition theories vs. techniques of presenting vocabulary). With 
its scope and content, it lays the foundation for all of the other subject-specific courses in the 
pre-service teacher education program. 
Clearly, with such a wide-ranging and varied syllabus, there will be topics that lend themselves 
more easily to ‘reflective’ teaching than others. The way we go about handling different types 
of course input is by trying to balance the two kinds of knowledge development, typically 
enshrined in the reflective model – received knowledge (i.e., external input coming from 
scholarly sources), and experiential knowledge. Both types of input are tackled by means 
of different teaching modes (listed in the first question in the questionnaire), or ‘process 
options/types’ (Woodward 1992). Teaching modes such as lecturing, discussion and 
brainstorming are simply different ways of tackling input, and they are separate from 
content. Lecturing, for example, is a ‘process option’ which can convey many different 
123ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING
kinds of content, and a brainstorm can be about responses to ways of indicating language 
errors, or anything else (Woodward 1992, 3). According to Woodward (1992, 3), the 
term process, or process option, “denotes how encounters can be set up so that knowledge, 
skill or insight of trainees, trainers and others can be communicated between them.” The 
process options, or teaching modes, are thus “about ways of enabling, sharing, eliciting, 
encouraging, questioning, responding, enriching and developing, as well as about 
more didactic ‘transmission’ actions such as telling, helping and informing” (1992, 3). 
Regardless of content, a teacher training course could stick totally to one process type (or 
teaching mode), for example, the traditional lecture. But if we want a lecture to involve 
sharing, interacting, discussing or challenging, then we will need to change some steps in 
the normal lecture process. 
On The Fundamentals of ELT Methodology course a wide repertoire of process options is 
used, and thus input is tackled in different ways. In this way, we believe, trainees with 
different learning styles are better served. Hearing and reading may be enough for some 
trainees, but others will need to participate, talk, draw, visualize, experience, watch, reflect, 
and so on, in order to truly take in the new ideas offered to them. Over the years, the 
course has been shaped and re-shaped by our personal experience and by thought and input 
from outside, resulting in the course being based on some sort of a broadly reflective, eclectic 
and inductive methodological approach (see Chaves and Guapacha 2016). The course being 
‘inductive’ means starting sessions with practical demonstrations followed by reflection and 
ending with theory, if necessary. By a cross-fertilisation between teaching modes and content, 
we are trying to integrate practical and theoretical foundations. The methodology of the 
course is to a large extent based on many versatile resource books containing a comprehensive 
range of tasks, such as Woodward (1991, 1992), Freeman and Cornwell (1993), Parrott 
(1993), Balloch (1996), Tanner and Green (1998), James (2001), Thaine (2010), etc. Such 
methodology, we believe, promotes participation, discussion, reflection, and class work, 
provides and connects theory and practice, includes varied activities, is student-centred, active 
and experiential (i.e., it checks for prior knowledge and misconceptions), considers different 
learning styles, and provides trainees with sufficient scaffolding to anchor the learning. 
3 Research Questions
By providing an insight into the reflective nature of the methodological design of the current 
pre-service teacher education program at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, we 
wanted to emphasize the considerable challenges related to online teacher education. Because 
of the legacy of knowledge-transmission, which is very pervasive and embedded in most 
institutions that prepare teachers, implementing a reflective model of learning teaching 
in pre-service teacher education is very difficult even in normal circumstances, and all the 
more so when it comes to online teacher education. As pointed out initially, theory/practice 
connections can be strengthened via the practical, experiential and reflective components of 
university teacher education programs, and primarily via the practicum. With this, we move 
on to the research part to show what were the challenges related to the effectiveness of in-
person versus online instruction in the pre-service teacher preparation program, as perceived 
by the teacher-trainees acting as respondents in the study.
124 Lara Burazer, Janez Skela The Effectiveness of In-Person Versus Online Instruction ... 
Of the subject-specific teacher training courses shown in Table 1, our research focus has been 
narrowed down to a single course – The Fundamentals of ELT Methodology. The reason for this 
is at least twofold – one, it is, as the name suggests, a foundational and ‘big’ whole-year course 
with 150 contact hours and, two, it directly prepares students for the upcoming teaching 
practicum, including group observations/school visits. This study sought to examine whether 
giving teacher training sessions online is more demanding and challenging, and potentially 
less effective, or not. The research questions were as follows:
1. What are the challenges, related to online teacher-training and ‘e-practicum’? 
2. Is the online reflective pre-service teacher-training perceived by the respondents as 
effective (compared to those who experienced teacher-training courses in-person)? 
3. In the context of the imposed online teaching mode, did the survey results spell a return 
to a more traditional way of teaching the university-based teacher preparation courses?
4. Were, as a result of this, the desired levels of learner engagement and outcomes 
achieved or not?
5. According to the survey results, were online lesson observations perceived by the 
respondents as effective?
There were some ethical considerations which shaped the way the research was conducted. 
Firstly, as the switch to working online happened practically overnight, it left little time for 
the instructors to adapt the course content for the digital environment, which might have 
affected the research results. On the other hand, it also strengthens the results as the materials 
were only adjusted with regard to the technical aspects to make the format more appropriate 
for an online environment (such as preparation of the documents and related instructions 
for distance learning, moving the discussions online into forums and chatrooms, increasing 
the number of home assignments in place of classroom activities, and similar). Secondly, 
the comparison of the views of two different groups with regard to their impressions of two 
different modes of course implementation might represent a methodological constraint, but 
as the study focuses on the general satisfaction with the course implementation and as the 
students can only take the same course once, a comparison of the two modes in a single group 
of respondents was not an option at this point. The survey results are thus interpreted within 
the highlighted differences perceived by the two groups of respondents (such as in research 
questions 2 and 5, for instance).
4 Method
The research was designed in two parts, involving two anonymous online surveys, intended for 
two different sets of respondents. The open-access online survey tool 1ka was used, available 
at https://www.1ka.si/, to collect the responses to two sets of questions. The surveys were 
conducted in June 2021, with a sample of 49 respondents, spanning across two generations 
of MA students enrolled in the pre-service teacher preparation program at the Department 
of English, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana.
The first part of the research was focused on gathering data on in-person instruction in the 
pre-service teacher preparation programme (hereafter referred to as the ODA course, which 
125ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING
stands for Osnove didaktike angleščine – The Fundamentals of ELT Methodology), which had 
prior to the pandemic lockdown – in the fall semester of the academic year 20219/20 – been 
conducted entirely in a physical classroom. In the spring semester of the same academic year 
the instruction was transferred online, but it was predominantly implemented within the 
e-classroom digital environment, in the absence of virtual contact sessions. This group of 
respondents, therefore, experienced both in-person and online modes in the academic year 
2019/20, although their online experience was not comparable to the Zoom instruction of 
the following academic year, with virtual contact sessions. The sample for this part of the 
research was 14 out of the expected 21 respondents, with the latter being the figure for the 
2019/20 generation’s enrolment.
The second part of the research was centred on collecting the data on the online ODA 
course, which took place during the entire academic year 2020/21. The course was conducted 
exclusively in the Zoom digital environment. The sample for this part of the research was 
35 out of the expected 45 respondents, with the latter being the figure for the 2020/21 
generation’s enrolment.
The first 12 questions of the two surveys were identical. They focused on the teaching modes, 
the nature of instruction, balance between theory and practice, students’ motivation levels, 
expectations for the course and the effectiveness of the instruction. The questions were 
formulated in various modes, where the respondents had to range their answers according 
to importance and level of appropriateness, or mark their value on a scale from completely 
agree to completely disagree (cf. Figures 1 and 2 below for more detailed information on the 
questionnaire).
In addition to the first 12 questions, the second survey consisted of another set of 17 questions, 
primarily targeting the respondents’ issues with the online implementation of the course, 
such as technology-related issues, time management, interference from home environment, 
overall effectiveness of online instruction, as well as their general impressions of the online 
course instruction experience (cf. Figures 3 and 4  below for more detailed information on 
the second part of the questionnaire).
A 1–6 Likert scale was used for ranking the categories, offering options ranging from extremely 
satisfied to extremely dissatisfied. The 1–6 scale was specifically chosen because it pushes the 
respondents into making a choice, thus rendering the data collected more reliable. However, 
there is an ongoing Likert scale debate which, according to several sources (cf. Krosnick et al. 
(2002), Kulas et al. (2008 and 2009), and others), questions the ‘reliability of data’ argument 
for the 1–6 scale. The current research review suggests arguments in favour as well as against 
either option, and leaves the final decision governed by the researchers’ focus and aims.
5 Results and Discussion
Figures 1–3 offer a comparison of the survey results for the first 12 questions. As the individual 
figures are featured side by side, the presentation also allows for a visual impression and 
assessment of the values. Figures 4–7 feature results for the second set of questions, intended 
for the online group only.
126 Lara Burazer, Janez Skela The Effectiveness of In-Person Versus Online Instruction ... 
In reference to the first question, targeted at accruing data on the teaching modes used 
on the course, we can immediately see that there seems to be a relatively even distribution 
of the variety of teaching modes (22 altogether) ticked by the respondents, resulting in a 
somewhat linear receding funnel shape in both figures – for in-person and online course 
implementation. The selection process for the questions which would target the relevant 
points of the research resulted in another methodological consideration. Specifically in 
reference to the first question, the list of possible modes of instruction (featuring a mixture 
of broad approaches, specific strategies and modes of interaction), with some of them being 
subject to overlap in reference to their implementation, represented a challenge. However, for 
the purposes of the present research scope, the list was selected on the basis of the instruction 
modes most frequently used in the in-person execution of the lessons (as recorded by the 
instructors who are also the co-authors of the present article). These were applied to the 
online mode and subsequently warranted the comparative study.
All the proposed teaching modes have been ticked at least once, with the category of 
workshops tailing the line in both groups of respondents (with as few as 2 votes for in-person 
and 3 for online instruction, corresponding to 14% and 9%, respectively), while the top 
categories for the two groups differed as the in-person group opted for pairwork and the 
online group for groupwork, with 100% participation in both instances, relating to 14 and 
35 ticks, respectively.
The second and the third top answers were the same in both groups, referring to formal lecture 
and question and answer modes of teaching. The results for the rest of the categories were 
featured in a somewhat comparable capacity, with only slight differences in the percentage 
of votes received. There were but a few exceptions. At a closer look we can notice that the 
in-person teaching was characterized more by in-class reading and student presentations (with 
71% of votes each), while the online mode leaned more towards the use of films/videos/audios 
(89% of votes) and visualization (77% of votes). A comparative look shows that in the online 
group, in-class reading and student presentations received 54% and 17%, respectively, while the 
values for films/videos/audios and visualization in the in-person group were at 57% and 36%, 
respectively (cf. Tables 1 and 2 in Appendices 1 and 2 for more details on the figures relating 
to individual categories), thus pushing these categories lower on the axis in comparison with 
the other group.
The results for the rest of the first set of questions again show very similar values for both 
groups. The questions that stand out are those in the second and third quadrants (cf. Figure 
2 below), specifically the one relating to students’ motivation and interest during the course (in 
the second quadrant) and the one on the training course meeting the respondents’ expectations 
(in the third quadrant).
In the former we notice that motivation levels were somewhat higher in the online group, 
which might be a bit surprising in the context of the online switch being so unexpected and 
resulting in a number of issues, personal (ensuring access to the technological equipment, 
handling resources, setting boundaries between domestic life and school work, and similar) as 
well as academic (balancing home and school life, time management, mustering motivation 
to study, and the like; cf. also Figure 3 below). On the other hand, the slightly higher figure in 
127ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING
favour of the emergency online mode might make sense as the “COVID-19 generations” of 
students were highly appreciative of the fact that they were able to complete their university 
courses at all, regardless of the mode of instruction.
In the latter case, a higher percentage of respondents felt their course expectations were met 
in the online mode, which, again, might tie back into the unusual aspects of the COVID-19 
lockdown mode and the level of maturity on the part of the students, which also translated 
into the slight difference in satisfaction with the online course (cf. Figure 4 below).
At this point, we can conclude that the overall student satisfaction with the course was at 
appropriate levels in both modes of instruction, in-person and online. It is evident from the 
research results that the instructors’ investment of time and energy into redesigning the course 
for online instruction was effective and well appreciated. In addition, with the research results 
being very similar for both online and in-person instruction, the students’ attitudes towards 
the two modes show a high level of adaptability and flexibility, albeit with the students’ minds 
set on the fact that this was a temporary solution, rather than a permanent one.
In-Person ODA Instruction Online ODA Instruction
(n = 14) (n = 35)
Which teaching modes were used on the course? Tick all options that apply.
pairwork 100 groupwork 100
formal lect 93 formal lect 91
question an 93 question an 89
groupwork 93 films/video 89
class discus 86 pairwork 86
games 86 class discus 80
in‐class rea 71 visualizatio 77
student pre 71 games 71
brainstorm 71 brainstorm 69
task‐based  71 task‐based  66
informal le 64 informal le 60
out‐of‐class 57 out‐of‐class 60
hands‐on a 57 in‐class rea 54
problem so 57 problem so 43
films/video 57 simulations 43
simulations 43 role‐plays 37
elicitation 36 hands‐on a 34
role‐plays 36 elicitation 29
visualizatio 36 feedback se 29
feedback se 21 student pre 17
micro teach 21 micro teach 14
workshops 14 workshops 9
100
93
93
93
86
86
71
71
71
71
64
57
57
57
57
43
36
36
36
21
21
14
pairwork
formal lecture
question and answer
groupwork
class discussions
games
in-class reading
student presentations
brainstorming
task-based learning
informal lecture
out-of-class reading
hands-on activities
problem solving
films/videos/audios
simulations
elicitation
role-plays
visualizations
feedback sessions
micro teaching
workshops
100
91
89
89
86
80
77
71
69
66
60
60
54
43
43
37
34
29
29
17
14
9
groupwork
formal lecture
question and answer
films/videos/audios
pairwork
class discussions
visualizations
games
brainstorming
task-based learning
informal lecture
out-of-class reading
in-class reading
problem solving
simulations
role-plays
hands-on activities
elicitation
feedback sessions
student presentations
micro teaching
workshops
pairwork 100 groupwork 100
formal lect 93 formal lect 91
question an 93 question an 89
groupwork 93 films/video 89
class discus 86 pairwork 86
games 86 class discus 80
in‐class rea 71 visualizatio 77
student pre 71 games 71
brainstorm 71 brainstorm 69
task‐based  71 task‐based  66
informal le 64 informal le 60
out‐of‐class 57 out‐of‐class 60
hands‐on a 57 in‐class rea 54
problem so 57 problem so 43
films/video 57 simulations 43
simulations 43 role‐plays 37
elicitation 36 hands‐on a 34
role‐plays 36 elicitation 29
visualizatio 36 f edback se 29
f edback se 21 student pre 17
micro teach 21 micro teach 14
workshops 14 workshops 9
100
93
93
93
86
86
71
71
71
71
64
57
57
57
57
43
36
36
36
21
21
14
pairwork
fo mal lecture
question and answer
groupwork
class discussions
games
in-class reading
student presentations
brainstorming
task-based learning
info mal lecture
out-of-class reading
hands-on activities
problem solving
films/videos/audios
simulations
elicitation
role-plays
visualizations
feedback sessions
micro teaching
workshops
100
91
89
89
86
80
77
71
69
66
60
60
54
43
43
37
34
29
29
17
14
9
groupwork
formal lecture
question and answer
films/v deos/audios
pairwork
class discussions
visualizations
games
brainstorming
task-based learning
informal lecture
out-of-class reading
in-class reading
problem solving
simulations
role-plays
hands-on activities
elicitation
f edback sessions
student presentations
micro teaching
workshops
Figure 1. Comparative presentation of the results for question 1 on the use of teaching modes.
128 Lara Burazer, Janez Skela The Effectiveness of In-Person Versus Online Instruction ... 
In-Person ODA Instruction Online ODA Instruction
(n = 14) (n = 35)
Values range from 1 (completely agree) to 5 (completely disagree)
There was too much knowledge‐trans 3.4 There was too much knowledge‐transm 3.4
The teaching modes used on the cour 1.8 The teaching modes used on the cours 1.6
The trainer's interaction was engaging 1.6 The trainer's interaction was engaging 1.4
There was a good balance between th 1.9 My motivation and interest during the 2.2
My motivation and interest during the 1.7 There was a good balance between the 1.9
The input (i.e., the key areas such as t 1.6 The input (i.e., the key areas such as te 1.4
The materials used (i.e., handouts and 1.5 The teacher training course met my ex 1.6
The teacher training course met my e 1.4 The knowledge I have gained will posit 1.3
The knowledge I have gained will pos 1.2 The materials used (i.e., handouts and  1.3
Did the trainer and the teacher trainin 3.5 Did the trainer and the teacher training 4
Did the teacher training activities mir 3.1 Did the teacher training activities mirro 3.5
3.4
1.8
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was too much knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
were student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
1.9
1.7
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
My motivation and interest during the
teacher training course were high.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson 
planning, etc.) was interesting and …
1.5
1.4
1.2
1 2 3 4 5
The materials used (i.e., handouts and the
uploaded/digital materials in the e-…
The teacher training course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods…
3.5
3.1
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own experience,
beliefs, opinions and knowledge?
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
3.4
1.6
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
There was too much knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
were student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
2.2
1.9
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
My motivation and interest during the
teacher training course were high.
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson …
1.6
1.3
1.3
1 2 3 4 5
The teacher training course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods in
the classroom.
The materials used (i.e., handouts and
the uploaded/digital materials in the e-
classroom) were useful.
4
3.5
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own…
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
There was too much knowledge‐trans 3.4 There was too much knowledge‐transm 3.4
The teaching modes used on the cour 1.8 The teaching modes used on the cours 1.6
The trainer's interaction was engaging 1.6 The trainer's interaction was engaging 1.4
There was a good balance between th 1.9 My motivation and interest during the 2.2
My motivation and interest during the 1.7 There was a good balance between the 1.9
The input (i.e., the key areas such as t 1.6 The input (i.e., the key areas such as te 1.4
The materials used (i.e., handouts and 1.5 The teacher training course met my ex 1.6
The teacher training course met my e 1.4 The knowledge I have gained will posit 1.3
The knowledge I have gained will pos 1.2 The materials used (i.e., handouts and  1.3
Did the trainer and the teacher trainin 3.5 Did the trainer and the teacher training 4
Did the teacher training activities mir 3.1 Did the teacher training activities mirro 3.5
3.4
1.8
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was too much knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
were student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
1.9
1.7
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
My motivation and interest during the
teacher training course were high.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson 
planning, etc.) was interesting and …
1.5
1.4
1.2
1 2 3 4 5
The materials used (i.e., handouts and the
uploaded/digital materials in the e-…
The teacher training course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods…
3.5
3.1
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own experience,
beliefs, opinions and knowledge?
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
3.4
1.6
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
There was too much knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
were student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
2.2
1.9
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
My motivation and interest during the
teacher training course were high.
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson …
1.6
1.3
1.3
1 2 3 4 5
The teacher training course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods in
the classroom.
The materials used (i.e., handouts and
the uploaded/digital materials in the e-
classroom) were useful.
4
3.5
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own…
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
There was too much knowledge‐trans 3.4 There was too much knowledge‐transm 3.4
The teaching modes used on the cour 1.8 The teaching modes used on the cours 1.6
The trainer's interaction was engaging 1.6 The trainer's interaction was engaging 1.4
There was a good balance between th 1.9 My motivation and interest during the 2.2
My motivation and interest during the 1.7 There was a good balance between the 1.9
The input (i.e., the key areas such as t 1.6 The input (i.e., the key areas such as te 1.4
The materials used (i.e., handouts and 1.5 The teacher training course met my ex 1.6
The teacher training course met my e 1.4 The knowledge I have gained will posit 1.3
The knowledge I have gained will pos 1.2 The materials used (i.e., handouts and  1.3
Did the trainer and the teacher trainin 3.5 Did the trainer and the teacher training 4
Did the teacher training activities mir 3.1 Did the teacher training activities mirro 3.5
3.4
1.8
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was too uch knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
were student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
1.9
1.7
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
My motivation and interest during the
teacher training course were high.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson 
planning, etc.) was interesting and …
1.5
1.4
1.2
1 2 3 4 5
The materials used (i.e., handouts and the
uploaded/digital materials in the e-…
The teacher training course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods…
3.5
3.1
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own experience,
beliefs, opinions and knowledge?
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
3.4
1.6
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
There was too uch knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
were student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
2.2
1.9
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
My motivation and interest during the
teacher training course were high.
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson …
1.6
1.3
1.3
1 2 3 4 5
The teacher training course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods in
the classroom.
The materials used (i.e., handouts and
the uploaded/digital materials in the e-
classroom) were useful.
4
3.5
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own…
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
There was to  much knowledge‐trans 3.4 There was to  much knowledge‐transm 3.4
The teaching modes used on the cour 1.8 The teaching modes used on the cours 1.6
The trainer's interaction was engaging 1.6 The trainer's interaction was engaging 1.4
There was a good balance between th 1.9 My motivation and i terest duri g the 2.2
My motivation and interest during the 1.7 There was a good balance between the 1.9
The input (i.e., the key areas such as t 1.6 The input (i.e., the key areas such as te 1.4
The materials used (i.e., handouts and 1.5 The teacher training course met my ex 1.6
The teacher training course met my e 1.4 The knowledge I have gai ed will posit 1.3
The knowledge I have gained will pos 1.2 The materials used (i.e., handouts and  1.3
Did the trainer and the teacher trainin 3.5 Did the trainer and the teacher training 4
Did the teacher training activities mir 3.1 Did the teacher training activities mirro 3.5
3.4
1.8
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was too much knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
were student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
1.9
1.7
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
My motivation and interest during the
teacher training course were high.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson 
planning, etc.) was interesting and …
1.5
1.4
1.2
1 2 3 4 5
The materials used (i.e., handouts and the
uploaded/digital materials in the e-…
The teacher training course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods…
3.5
3.1
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own experience,
beliefs, opinions and knowledge?
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
3.4
1.6
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
There was too much knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
were student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
2.2
1.9
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
My motivation and interest during the
teacher training course were high.
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson …
1.6
1.3
1.3
1 2 3 4 5
The teacher training course met my
expect tions.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods in
the classroom.
The materials used (i.e., handouts and
the uploaded/digital materials in the e-
classroom) were useful.
4
3.5
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own…
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
There was too much knowl d e‐trans 3.4 There was too much knowl d e‐transm 3.4
T  t aching m es used on the cour .8 The teaching modes used on the cours 1.6
Th  tr iner's i ter ction was engaging .6 T  trainer's interactio  was e aging .4
There was a good bal nce between th 1.9 My mo ivation and intere t during he 2.2
My motivation an  interest during the .7 T re was a good balance between the .9
T  input (i.e., the key areas such as t .6 T  input (i.e., the key areas such as te .4
The mat rials used (i.e., handouts and 1.5 The teacher training course met my ex 1.6
The teacher training course met my e 1.4 The knowledge I have gained will posit 1.3
The knowl dg  I have g ined will pos 1.2 The materials used (i.e., handouts and  1.3
Did the trainer and the teacher trainin 3.5 Did the trainer and the teacher training 4
Did the teacher training activities mir 3.1 Did the teacher training activities mirro 3.5
3.4
1.8
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was too much knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
w e student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
1.9
1.7
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was a good balance between theory
and pra tice.
My motivation and interest d ring the
teacher training course were hig .
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson 
planning, etc.) was interesting and …
1.5
1.4
1.2
1 2 3 4 5
The materials used (i. ., handouts and the
uploaded/digital materials in the e-…
The teacher training ourse met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods…
3.5
3.1
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trai er and the teach r training
activities used value your own experience,
beli fs, opinions and knowledge?
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
3.4
1.6
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
There was too much knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
w e student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
2.2
1.9
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
My motivation and int rest during the
teacher training course were igh.
There was a good balance between t eory
and p actice.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson …
1.6
.
1.3
1 2 3 4 5
The teacher training course met my
expect tions.
The knowledge I have gai ed will
positively affect my teaching me hods in
the classroom.
The materials used (i.e., handouts and
the uploaded/digital materials in the e-
classroom) were useful.
4
3.5
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer a d the teacher training
activities used value your own…
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
There wa too m ch knowl d e‐trans 3.4 There wa too m ch knowl d e‐transm 3.4
Th  t aching modes used on the cour 1.8 Th  t aching modes used on the cours 1.6
Th tr i er's int raction was  ngaging 1.6 Th  trai er's int raction was  ngaging 1.4
There was   good balance betwe n th 1.9 My motivation  nd interest during the 2.2
My motivation and i t res  duri g the 1.7 There was a good balance between the 1.9
The input (i.e., the k y areas such as t 1.6 Th  input (i.e., the key ar as such as te 1.4
The mat rials used (i.e., handouts and 1.5 The teach r tr ining course met my ex 1.6
The teach r tr ining course met my e 1.4 Th  knowledge I have gained will posit 1.3
Th  knowl dge I have g in d will pos 1.2 The mat rials used (i.e., handouts and  1.3
Did the trainer and the teacher trainin 3.5 Did the trainer and the teacher training 4
Did the teacher training activities mir 3.1 Did the teacher training activities mirro 3.5
3.4
1.8
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There wa  too much knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes us  on the course
wer  stude t-ce tred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
1.9
1.7
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
My motivation and int st during the
teacher training course were high.
The input (i.e., the k y ar a  such as 
teaching gr mma , listening, lesson 
plan in , etc.) was interesting and …
1.5
1.4
1.2
1 2 3 4 5
The materials used (i.e., handouts and the
uploaded/digital materials in the e-…
The teacher raining course met my
expectations.
The knowledg  I ave gained will
positively affect my teaching methods…
3.5
3.1
1 2 3 4 5
Did the tr i r and the t acher training
activities used value your own experience,
b liefs, opinio s nd knowledge?
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
3.4
1.6
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
There wa  too much knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes us  on the course
wer  stude t-ce tred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
2.2
1.9
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
My motivation and int st during the
teacher training course were high.
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson …
1.6
1.3
1.3
1 2 3 4 5
The teacher raining course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gaine  will
positively affect my t ac ing methods in
the classroom.
The m terials used (i.e., handouts and
the uploaded/digital materials in the e-
classroom) were useful.
4
3.5
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer nd the teacher training
activities used value your own…
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
There was too much knowledge‐trans 3.4 There was too much knowledge‐transm 3.4
The teaching modes used on the cour 1.8 The teaching modes used on the cours 1.6
The trainer's interaction was engaging 1.6 The trainer's interaction was engaging 1.4
There was a good balance between th 1.9 My motivation and interest during the 2.2
My motivation and interest during the 1.7 There was a good balance between the 1.9
The input (i.e., the key areas such as t 1.6 The input (i.e., the key areas such as te 1.4
The materials used (i.e., handouts and 1.5 The teacher training course met my ex 1.6
The teacher training course met my e 1.4 The knowledge I have gained will posit 1.3
The knowledge I have gained will pos 1.2 The materials used (i.e., handouts and  1.3
Did the trainer and the teacher trainin 3.5 Did the trainer and the teacher training 4
Did the teacher training activities mir 3.1 Did the teacher training activities mirro 3.5
3.4
1.8
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was too mu h knowledge-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
were student-centred.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
9
1.7
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was a good bal ce between theory
and practice.
My motivation and in erest du ing the
teach r training course wer  high.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson 
planning, tc.) was interes ing and 
1.5
1.4
.2
1 2 3 4 5
The materials used (i.e., h ndouts and the
uploaded/digital aterials in the e-…
The teacher training course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods…
3.5
3.1
1 2 3 4 5
r iner and the teacher training
activities used v lue your own experience,
beliefs, opinions a d knowledge?
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
3.4
1.6
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
There was too mu h knowled e-
transmission.
The teaching modes used on the course
were student-centred.
The trainer's i teraction was engaging.
2.2
1.9
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
My motivation and interest during the
teac r training course were high.
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson …
1.6
1.3
1.3
1 2 3 4 5
The teacher training cours  met my
xp ctations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods in
the classroom.
The materials used (i.e., handouts and
the uploaded/digital materials in the e-
classroom) were useful.
4
3.5
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own…
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
There was too much knowledge‐trans 3.4 There was too much knowledge‐transm 3.4
The teaching modes used on the cour 1.8 The teaching modes used on the cours 1.6
Th tr iner's interacti n was engaging 1.6 Th tr iner's interacti n was engaging 1.4
There wa a good balance between th 1.9 My motivation and i tere t during the 2.2
My motivation and interest during the 1.7 There was a good balance between the 1.9
Th input (i.e., the key areas such as t 1.6 The inpu  (i.e., the k y areas such as te 1.4
The materials used (i.e., handout and 1.5 The teach r training cour e met my ex 1.6
The teacher training course met my e 1.4 The knowledge I have gained will posit 1.3
The know edg  I have g ined will pos 1.2 Th  materials used (i.e., handouts and  1.3
Did the trainer and the t acher trainin 3.5 Did th  trainer and the teacher training 4
Did the teacher training activities mir 3.1 Did the teacher training activities mirro 3.5
3.4
1.8
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was too much knowledge-
transmission.
he teaching modes used on the course
were student-centr d.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
1.9
1.7
1.6
1 2 3 4 5
There was a good balance between theory
and practice.
My motiva ion and interest during the
t er training course were high.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson 
planning, etc.) was inte sting and …
1.5
1.4
1.2
1 2 3 4 5
The materials used (i.e., handouts and the
uploaded/digital materials in the e-…
The teacher training course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods…
3.5
3.1
1 2 3 4 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own experience,
b li fs, opi io s and knowledge?
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
3.4
1.6
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
There was too much knowledge-
transmission.
he teaching modes used on the course
were student-centr d.
The trainer's interaction was engaging.
2.2
1.9
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
My motivation and interest during the
teacher training ourse were high.
There was a good balance between theory
and pr ctice.
The input (i.e., the key areas such as 
teaching grammar, listening, lesson …
1.6
1.3
1.3
1 2 3 4 5
The teacher training course met my
expectations.
The knowledge I have gained will
positively affect my teaching methods in
th classroom.
The mat rials us d (i.e., hand uts and
the uploaded/digital aterials in the e-
cla sroom) were useful.
4
3.5
1 2 3 5
Did the trainer and the teacher training
activities used value your own…
Did the teacher training activities mirror
classroom practices?
Figure 2. Comparative presentation of the results for questions 2–12.
As pointed out in chapter 5 on the methods used in this study, the second survey, targeting 
the online ODA instruction, consisted of additional 17 questions. The results for this second 
part of the survey are presented in Figures 3–5 below. 
The first six questions (cf. Figure 3) focused on the issues that the students faced in the online 
mode. They sought to address the social (ability of participants to engage affectively with a 
community and develop interpersonal relationships), cognitive (construct meaning through 
sustained reflection and communication) and teaching presence (design, facilitation and 
direction of social and cognitive processes), identified as the crucial elements for ‘a successful 
higher education experience’ in a computer-based environment (Garrison, Anderson, and 
Archer 2000, 87, as cited in Carrillo and Flores 2020), the synthesis of which leads to teaching 
and learning impact. With a solid majority of 71% and 69%, respectively, motivation to do 
schoolwork and observing boundaries between home and school topped the list of issues they 
faced. At the bottom of the list, we find problems finding a quiet space to study, at a mere 20%. 
There was no option for them to select ‘I didn’t experience any problems’, which presumes the 
respondents all experienced some sort of issues. The decision not to include the latter was made 
129ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING
by the authors (who are also course instructors) on the basis of in-class discussions, where all 
participants expressed at least some concerns related to the online switch. However, in the 
subsequent studies this option should be added to ensure a higher level of respondent autonomy 
and objectivity with regard to the results.
Online ODA Instruction, (n = 35)
Which of the following issues did you experience? Tick all options that apply.
Problems with motivating myself to do s 71
A blurring of boundaries between home 69
I fell behind in my school work. 40
Problems with access to reliabl  techono 29
Problems with finding time to study bec 29
Problems with finding a quiet place to st 20
71%
69%
40%
29%
29%
20%
0 50 100
Problems with motivating myself to do
school work.
A blurring of boundaries between home
and schoolwork.
I fell behind in my school work.
Problems with access to reliable
techonology.
Problems with finding time to study
because I had household responsibilities.
Problems with finding a quiet place to
study.
Figure 3. Results for the issues experienced in the online mode.
The next set of questions was related to the level of satisfaction with the online delivery mode, 
focusing on the trainees’ cognitive presence (cf. Figure 4 below). The results for these show 
that a slight majority (54%) agreed that both modes – online and in-person – were equally 
effective, in addition to 20% of respondents assessing they had actually learnt more in the 
online mode compared to the in-person teaching. In combination, a positive attitude towards 
the online mode can be registered in 74% of responses. A little over a quarter of respondents 
(26%), however, felt the online mode was less effective than the in-person instruction. Similar 
results with regard to the complex environment at home have been recorded in previous 
studies on the topic of the online learning, teaching and teacher training (cf., for instance, 
Zhang et al. 2020, as cited in Carrillo and Flores 2020). 
Online ODA Instruction, (n = 35)
How satisfied are you with online lesson delivery? 
I learnt about as much as during in‐person  54
I learnt less than during in‐person teaching 26
I learnt more than during in‐person teachin 20
54%
26%
20%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
I learnt about as much as during in-person
teaching.
I learnt less than during in-person
teaching.
I learnt more than during in-person
teaching.
Figure 4. Results for the level of satisfaction with online lesson delivery.
130 Lara Burazer, Janez Skela The Effectiveness of In-Person Versus Online Instruction ... 
The results presented in Figure 4 above could be combined with those in Figure 5 below, 
with a focus on the teaching presence. They both refer to the respondents’ impression of 
the online teaching mode as an alternative to in-person teaching. Overall their sentiments 
predominantly lean towards positive attitudes, although the online mode should not be used 
exclusively or permanently, but rather in combination with the in-person mode, which was 
reflected in the 43% share of the responses. The main arguments in support of their position 
can be found in Figure 6 below, focusing on the social presence, where the highest values are 
assigned to the students’ inability to interact with their classmates (value at 77%) and missing 
the energy of the classroom (at 69%) in the online mode. 
Online ODA Instruction, (n = 35)
Choose the most appropriate option.
What is your general impression of online teaching and learning?
Combining online and … 43
Good/interesting. 40
Boring, should not be … 17
Not effective at all. 0
Online teaching should be … 0
43% 40% 17% 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
What is your general impression of online teaching and learning?
Combining online and … Good/interesting.
Boring, should not be … Not effective at all.
Online teaching should be …
Figure 5. Results for the general impression of the online teaching mode.
Online ODA Instruction, (n = 35)
What did you miss most during the online teaching mode? Tick all options that apply.  
77%
69%
37%
37%
26%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Unable to interact with classmates.
The energy of the classroom.
Unable to interact with teachers.
Unable to develop a sense of trust and
familiarity.
Privacy (family members being home too).
Figure 6. Results for things missed in the online mode.
The results presented in Figure 7 refer to the respondents’ overall impression of their confidence 
levels should they have to teach in the online mode in the future, and how useful they found 
the online video observations of recorded lessons in this context. The latter were conducted in the 
Zoom environment, with pre-recorded in-person teaching sessions playing while the students 
were performing their specific, pre-assigned observation tasks. Immediately following the 
131ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING
viewing of the recording was a group discussion of the students’ results of their individual 
tasks. The online observations were modelled in a manner that mimicked the in-person 
observations, usually conducted in a physical school environment. However, due to the 
parameters described above, certain differences in the observation experience were expected, 
specifically those relating to effectiveness in relation to how well-prepared the students felt for 
teaching in online mode afterwards. 
Slightly less than half the respondents (43%) felt well-prepared to tackle the online teaching 
mode, 17% felt very well-prepared, while as many as 37% were unsure about it. The rest, 
amounting to a mere 3%, felt not very well-prepared or not prepared at all. Slightly less than 
half the respondents (49%) found the online observation sessions useful to some extent, 
while only 29% found them very useful, leaving 17% doubting their effectiveness. The rest, 
amounting to merely 5%, were not sure or didn’t find them useful at all.
Online ODA Instruction, (n = 35)
Choose the most appropriate option.
Well prepared. 43
Unsure. 37
Very well prepared. 17
Not prepared at all. 3
Not very well prepared. 0
Useful to some extent. 49
Very useful. 29
Not very useful. 17
Unsure. 5
Not useful at all. 0
43% 37% 17%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1
How prepared do you feel for teaching if schools are closed again in the future?
Well prepared. Unsure. Very well prepared. Not prepared at all. Not very well prepared.
49% 29% 17%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1
How useful did you find video observations of recorded lessons?
Useful to some extent. Very useful. Not very useful. Unsure. Not useful at all.
Well prepared. 43
Unsure. 37
Very well prepared. 17
Not prepared at all. 3
Not very well prepared. 0
Useful to some extent. 49
Very useful. 29
Not very useful. 17
Unsure. 5
Not useful at all. 0
43% 37% 17%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1
How prepared do you feel for teaching if schools are closed again in the future?
Well prepared. Unsure. Very well prepared. Not prepared at all. Not very well prepared.
49% 29% 17%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1
How useful did you find video observations of recorded lessons?
Useful to some extent. Very useful. Not very useful. Unsure. Not useful at all.
Figure 7. Results for preparedness for online teaching and usefulness of online observations.
Interestingly enough, the recorded success rate is therefore above 50% for both topics, 
when we combine the figures for well-prepared and very well-prepared for online teaching 
(amounting to 60%), with the possibility of the 37% for unsure being interpreted as a 
consequence of the respondents’ inexperience and low self-esteem. In the latter case, the 
combined figures for being at least somewhat confident to teach online would rise to 97%, 
which is quite an achievement.
132 Lara Burazer, Janez Skela The Effectiveness of In-Person Versus Online Instruction ... 
As far as the last question on online observations is concerned, a combination of values for very 
useful and useful to some extent amounts to 78% of respondents believing in the effectiveness of 
online lesson observations, at least to a certain extent. The rest (22%), however, found them 
not very useful (17%) or not useful at all (5%). The share of respondents here is not negligible, 
though, warranting a revision of this section of the online teacher-training. At the same 
time, with value at 22%, it points towards the students’ dissatisfaction with the observation 
part of teacher-training being conducted online, and offers a partially affirmative reply to 
the research question number 3, thus suggesting a return to more traditional ways on this 
particular segment of the teacher-training program development. Some of the dissatisfaction 
might also have been due to the technical difficulties involved in the implementation of the 
observations, as Zoom users often experience screen freezes, audio or video lags and other 
issues. Prior studies have recorded similar sentiments of dissatisfaction with reference to poor 
online teaching infrastructure and the information gap  (cf. for instance Zhang et al. 2020, as 
cited in Carrillo and Flores 2020).
As pointed out in chapter 2, teacher-trainees are believed and expected to develop experiential 
knowledge by teaching or observing lessons and relating them to their experience, thus 
enabling a ‘reflective cycle’ which contributes to continuous improvement and 
development (Ur 1996, 5). According to Ling (2017, 562), 
[as] teacher education is an iterative and complex process that needs to look ‘backwards, 
forwards, inside-out and outside-in’ to respond to the evolving needs of a world that 
is ‘moving, blurring and shifting’ […], acknowledging and addressing the current 
and changing exceptional circumstances that teachers and students are experiencing 
in these unprecedented times are necessary and would provide valuable information 
to continue informing future online practices. (as cited in Carrillo and Flores 2020)
6 Conclusions
In reference to research question number 1 on the challenges related to online teacher-training 
and ‘e-practicum’, we can thus conclude that the respondents feel generally satisfied with the 
online implementation of this part of teacher-training, with some reservations about this sort 
of emergency solution, although with the understanding that this was a temporary rather 
than permanent measure. The challenges cited in the research results point mostly towards 
the problems with managing the sudden blend of domestic and academic environments, 
in addition to handling the issues related to resources (technological, financial, and other), 
while simultaneously maintaining the expected levels of motivation and balancing numerous 
academic, social, physical and other activities.
In response to the second research question on how to handle teacher-training when the 
reflective model is no longer applicable, only a quarter of respondents felt the currently 
implemented online model was somewhat ineffective in preparing them for their future 
teaching profession. The rest were, at least to a certain extent, confident that the online mode 
is efficient and ensures a successful transfer of knowledge.
On the question of the general impression of the online teaching mode, almost half (43%) 
of the respondents felt that the combination of online and in-person modes was the most 
133ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING
effective, and 40% found the online mode good/interesting, which could be interpreted as a 
combined value of 83% finding the online mode at least acceptable, if not even preferable. 
Only 17% found it boring, for instance, thus offering a valuable insight into the possible 
response to research question number 3.
However, these results do not necessarily translate into the respondents being pleased with 
the online mode to the extent where they would choose it over the in-person one. On the 
basis of a more comprehensive review of all the answers obtained in the research, we can 
draw a general conclusion that the imposed online teaching mode did to a certain degree 
herald a return to a more traditional way of teaching the university-based teacher preparation 
courses, as it triggered a number of personal, technical and academic issues. However, at the 
same time, the results also point towards a favourable attitude to the online mode, as the 
respondents felt they had learnt as much as during in-person instruction, thus answering 
research question number 5 affirmatively. This finding is further strengthened with the online 
mode receiving a higher value than the in-person mode on motivation levels as well as on 
meeting course expectations. In accordance with the latter, and in answer to research question 
number 4, we could therefore determine that, within the context of the current emergency 
switch to online instruction, the desired levels of learner engagement and outcomes have 
been achieved.
As the online mode of instruction might persist in the future, at various levels and ranges, 
a need for further investigation arises, one with a broader scope in terms of the number 
of respondents, variety of questions, and other possible aspects, subject to a comparative 
study on the effectiveness of the two modes of instruction – in-person and online – in the 
teacher-training programs. As pointed out by Hodges et al. (2020; as cited in Carrillo and 
Flores 2020), “it is essential to go beyond emergency online practices and develop quality 
online teaching and learning that result from careful instructional design and planning.” The 
current study emphasizes the interactive nature of the learning-teaching process, where “an 
effective online teaching and learning is subject to the development of a student presence that 
enhances supportive and productive interactions that mediate the learning process across the 
presences” (Hodges et al. 2020, as cited in Carrillo and Flores 2020).
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Appendix 1
Table 1. Summary of survey results for in-person teaching.
Q1 Which teaching modes were used on the course? Tick all options that apply. 
Sub-questions Units Indications 
Freq. Valid % – Valid Corre-sponding
% – Corre-
sponding Freq. %
Q1a formal lecture  13 14 93% 14 93% 13 7%
Q1b informal lecture  9 14 64% 14 64% 9 5%
Q1c question and answer 13 14 93% 14 93% 13 7%
Q1d pairwork 14 14 100% 14 100% 14 7%
Q1e groupwork 13 14 93% 14 93% 13 7%
Q1f in-class reading 10 14 71% 14 71% 10 5%
Q1g out-of-class reading 8 14 57% 14 57% 8 4%
Q1h student presentations 10 14 71% 14 71% 10 5%
Q1i class discussions  12 14 86% 14 86% 12 6%
Q1j hands-on activities 8 14 57% 14 57% 8 4%
Q1k brainstorming  10 14 71% 14 71% 10 5%
Q1l elicitation  5 14 36% 14 36% 5 3%
Q1m feedback sessions 3 14 21% 14 21% 3 2%
Q1n games 12 14 86% 14 86% 12 6%
Q1o workshops 2 14 14% 14 14% 2 1%
Q1p task-based learning 10 14 71% 14 71% 10 5%
Q1q problem solving 8 14 57% 14 57% 8 4%
Q1r micro teaching 3 14 21% 14 21% 3 2%
Q1s simulations 6 14 43% 14 43% 6 3%
Q1t role-plays 5 14 36% 14 36% 5 3%
Q1u films/videos/audios 8 14 57% 14 57% 8 4%
Q1v visualizations 5 14 36% 14 36% 5 3%
SUM 14 14 187 100%
137ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING
Appendix 2
Table 2. Summary of survey results for online teaching.
Q1 Which teaching modes were used on the course? Tick all options that apply. 
Sub-questions Units Indications 
Freq. Valid % – Valid Corre-sponding
% – Corre-
sponding Freq. %
Q1a formal lecture  32 35 91% 45 71% 32 7%
Q1b informal lecture  21 35 60% 45 47% 21 5%
Q1c question and answer 31 35 89% 45 69% 31 7%
Q1d pairwork 30 35 86% 45 67% 30 7%
Q1e groupwork 35 35 100% 45 78% 35 8%
Q1f in-class reading 19 35 54% 45 42% 19 4%
Q1g out-of-class reading 21 35 60% 45 47% 21 5%
Q1h student presentations 6 35 17% 45 13% 6 1%
Q1i class discussions  28 35 80% 45 62% 28 6%
Q1j hands-on activities 12 35 34% 45 27% 12 3%
Q1k brainstorming  24 35 69% 45 53% 24 6%
Q1l elicitacion  10 35 29% 45 22% 10 2%
Q1m feedback sessions 10 35 29% 45 22% 10 2%
Q1n games 25 35 71% 45 56% 25 6%
Q1o workshops 3 35 9% 45 7% 3 1%
Q1p task-based learning 23 35 66% 45 51% 23 5%
Q1q problem solving 15 35 43% 45 33% 15 3%
Q1r micro teaching 5 35 14% 45 11% 5 1%
Q1s simulations 15 35 43% 45 33% 15 3%
Q1t role-plays 13 35 37% 45 29% 13 3%
Q1u films/videos/audios 31 35 89% 45 69% 31 7%
Q1v visualizations 27 35 77% 45 60% 27 6%
SUM 35 45 436 100%