ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKIZBORNIK 2023 63 2 0101661851779 ISSN 1581-6613 A C TA G E O G R A P H IC A S LO V E N IC A • G E O G R A FS K I Z B O R N IK • 63 -2 • 20 23ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 63-2 • 2023 Contents SPECIAL ISSUE – Old maps in geography and cartography POSEBNA IZDAJA – Stari zemljevidi v geografiji in kartografiji Blaž Komac, Primož GašPerič Cartographic time travel: Reflecting the past, defining the present, and challenging the future using old maps 9 Primož GašPerič A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps 23 Primož GašPerič, Saša BaBič The semiotics of cartographic symbols on old maps 51 rožle Bratec mrvar, Primož GašPerič Traditional and modern cartographic materials for geography teaching: From Blaž Kocen to the present 73 Drago PerKo The first world atlas in Slovenian, and Slovenian territory in some early world atlases 91 naslovnica 63-2_naslovnica 49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:29 Page 1 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKIZBORNIK 2023 63 2 0101661851779 ISSN 1581-6613 A C TA G E O G R A P H IC A S LO V E N IC A • G E O G R A FS K I Z B O R N IK • 63 -2 • 20 23ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 63-2 • 2023 Contents SPECIAL ISSUE – Old maps in geography and cartography POSEBNA IZDAJA – Stari zemljevidi v geografiji in kartografiji Blaž Komac, Primož GašPerič Cartographic time travel: Reflecting the past, defining the present, and challenging the future using old maps 9 Primož GašPerič A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps 23 Primož GašPerič, Saša BaBič The semiotics of cartographic symbols on old maps 51 rožle Bratec mrvar, Primož GašPerič Traditional and modern cartographic materials for geography teaching: From Blaž Kocen to the present 73 Drago PerKo The first world atlas in Slovenian, and Slovenian territory in some early world atlases 91 naslovnica 63-2_naslovnica 49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:29 Page 1 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA 63-2 2023 ISSN: 1581-6613 UDC: 91 2023, ZRC SAZU, Geografski inštitut Antona Melika International editorial board/mednarodni uredniški odbor: Zoltán Bátori (Hungary), David Bole (Slovenia), Marco Bontje (the Netherlands), Mateja Breg Valjavec (Slovenia), Michael Bründl (Switzerland), Rok Ciglič (Slovenia), Špela Čonč (Slovenia), Lóránt Dénes Dávid (Hungary), Mateja Ferk (Slovenia), Matej Gabrovec (Slovenia), Matjaž Geršič (Slovenia), Maruša Goluža (Slovenia), Mauro Hrvatin (Slovenia), Ioan Ianos (Romania), Peter Jordan (Austria), Drago Kladnik (Slovenia), Blaž Komac (Slovenia), Jani Kozina (Slovenia), Matej Lipar (Slovenia), Dénes Lóczy (Hungary), Simon McCarthy (United Kingdom), Slobodan B. Marković (Serbia), Janez Nared (Slovenia), Cecilia Pasquinelli (Italy), Drago Perko (Slovenia), Florentina Popescu (Romania), Garri Raagmaa (Estonia), Ivan Radevski (North Macedonia), Marjan Ravbar (Slovenia), Aleš Smrekar (Slovenia), Vanya Stamenova (Bulgaria), Annett Steinführer (Germany), Mateja Šmid Hribar (Slovenia), Jure Tičar (Slovenia), Jernej Tiran (Slovenia), Radislav Tošić (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Mimi Urbanc (Slovenia), Matija Zorn (Slovenia), Zbigniew Zwolinski (Poland) Editors-in-Chief/glavna urednika: Rok Ciglič, Blaž Komac (ZRC SAZU, Slovenia) Executive editor/odgovorni urednik: Drago Perko (ZRC SAZU, Slovenia) Chief editors/področni urednik (ZRC SAZU, Slovenia): • physical geography/fizična geografija: Mateja Ferk, Matej Lipar, Matija Zorn • human geography/humana geografija: Jani Kozina, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Mimi Urbanc • regional geography/regionalna geografija: Matej Gabrovec, Matjaž Geršič, Mauro Hrvatin • regional planning/regionalno planiranje: David Bole, Janez Nared, Maruša Goluža • environmental protection/varstvo okolja: Mateja Breg Valjavec, Jernej Tiran, Aleš Smrekar Editorial assistants/uredniška pomočnika: Špela Čonč, Jernej Tiran (ZRC SAZU, Slovenia) Journal editorial system manager/upravnik uredniškega sistema revije: Jure Tičar (ZRC SAZU, Slovenia) Issued by/izdajatelj: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU Published by/založnik: Založba ZRC Co-published by/sozaložnik: Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti Address/naslov: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, Gosposka ulica 13, p. p. 306, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija; ags@zrc-sazu.si The articles are available on-line/prispevki so dostopni na medmrežju: http://ags.zrc-sazu.si (ISSN: 1581–8314) This work is licensed under the/delo je dostopno pod pogoji: Creative Commons CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 Ordering/naročanje: Založba ZRC, Novi trg 2, p. p. 306, SI – 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenija; zalozba@zrc-sazu.si Annual subscription/letna naročnina: 20 € for individuals/za posameznika, 28 € for institutions/za ustanove Single issue/cena posamezne številke: 12,50 € for individuals/za posameznika, 16 € for institutions/za ustanove Cartography/kartografija: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU Translations/prevodi: DEKS, d. o. o. DTP/prelom: SYNCOMP, d. o. o. Printed by/tiskarna: Present, d. o. o. Print run/naklada: 300 copies/izvodov The journal is subsidized by the Slovenian Research Agency and is issued in the framework of the Geography of Slovenia core research pro- gramme (P6-0101)/Revija izhaja s podporo Javne agencije za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije in nastaja v okviru raziskovalnega programa Geografija Slovenije (P6-0101). The journal is indexed also in/revija je vključena tudi v: Clarivate Web of Science (SCIE – Science Citation Index Expanded; JCR – Journal Citation Report/Science Edition), Scopus, ERIH PLUS, GEOBASE Journals, Current geographical publications, EBSCOhost, Georef, FRANCIS, SJR (SCImago Journal & Country Rank), OCLC WorldCat, Google Scholar, CrossRef, and DOAJ. Design by/Oblikovanje: Matjaž Vipotnik Front cover photography: The image shows part of the cartouche of the map Ducatus Carnioliae tabula chorographica by Janez Dizma Florjančič from 1744. The personified Carniola is surrounded by the coats of arms of noble families and a mountainous landscape showing the entrance to a mine, a waterfall, a river gorge, and people on stilts (Geographical Museum GIAM ZRC SAZU). Fotografija na naslovnici: Na sliki je predstavljen del kartuše zemljevida Ducatus Carnioliae tabula chorographica Janeza Dizme Florjančiča iz leta 1744. Personificirano Kranjsko obdajajo grbi plemiških rodbin in gorska pokrajina, kjer so upodobljeni vhod v rudnik, slap, rečna soteska in osebi na hoduljah (Zemljepisni muzej GIAM ZRC SAZU). 63-2-uvod_uvod49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:24 Page 4 Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023, 23–49 A NEW StANDArDIZED mEthODOLOgY fOr ANALYZINg CArtOgrAPhIC INfOrmAtION ON OLD mAPS Primož Gašperič The cartographic material at the Geographical Museum was of great importance for understanding old maps better. M A R K O Z A P LA TI L 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 23 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.10867 UDC: 912.43(497.4)"15/18" 528.91(497.4)"15/18" Creative Commons CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 Primož Gašperič1 A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps ABSTRACT: This article presents a new methodology for analyzing old maps that was used to identify and interpret cartographic symbols on selected maps. It analyzes fifty-eight maps, originating from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries and showing the territory of Slovenia. The basic criteria for selecting the maps were authorship, scale, and the territory depicted. The study included maps at a medium scale of 1:200,000 to 1:900,000. Approximately eighty entries were made for each map, and several thousand pieces of data were obtained, which then required a uniform and systematic examination of all cartographic sym- bols on the maps selected. Before the nineteenth century, changes in symbols for vegetation, relief, transport networks, and explanatory elements were the most evident. The article concludes by highlighting the reli- ability of cartographic content as a source for research. The new method for examining maps makes it easier to determine the cause-and-effect relationship of cartographic elements to map content. KEY WORDS: cartographic methodology, old map, cartographic element, cartographic symbol Nova standardizirana metoda za analizo kartografskih podatkov na starih zemljevidih POVZETEK: Članek predstavlja novo metodologijo za analiziranje starih zemljevidov, ki je bila uporablje- na za identifikacijo in interpretacijo kartografskih znakov na izbranih zemljevidih. Analizirali smo 58 zemljevidov, ki so nastali v obdobju od 16. do 19. stoletja in prikazujejo ozemlje Slovenije. Osnovni pogo- ji za izbor zemljevidov so bili avtorstvo, merilo in prikazano ozemlje. Študija je vključevala zemljevide srednjega merila od 1 : 200.000 do 1 : 900.000. Za vsak zemljevid smo naredili približno osemdeset vnosov in tako pridobili več tisoč podatkov, ki so zahtevali enoten in sistematičen pregled vseh kartografskih znakov na izbranih zemljevidih. Pred 19. stoletjem so bile najbolj očitne spremembe simbolov za rastlinstvo, relief, prometno omrežje in pojasnjevalne elemente. V zaključku je izpostavljena verodostojnost kartografske vse- bine kot vira raziskav. Nova metoda za preučevanje zemljevidov olajša ugotavljanje vzročno-posledičnega vpliva kartografskih elementov na vsebino zemljevida. KLJUČNE BESEDE: kartografska metodologija, star zemljevid, kartografski element, kartografski znak The article was submitted for publication on June 14th, 2022. Uredništvo je prejelo prispevek 14. junija 2022. 24 1 Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Anton Melik Geographical Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia primoz.gasperic@zrc-sazu.si (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6736-1308) 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 24 1 Introduction Maps can have great communicative value (Fridl and Urbanc 2006) and are an important tool for under- standing the current and past landscape. It is important to know a landscape’s past because the present landscape largely reflects past developments (Komac 2009). Maps are a vital source of information (Urbanc et al. 2006). However, in the past, they were often neglected as a historical source of information, or their content and communicative value were underutilized (Harley and Woodward 1987). This has changed over the past decades (Chiang et al. 2020). Maps have become a valuable source for understanding spatial changes to landscapes, offering insight into the social, political, and natural situation of the time of their creation (Zorn, Breg Valjavec, and Ciglič 2018). Maps can be studied in various ways: in terms of their time of origin (Höck and Leitner 1984; Marković 1993), the accuracy of the territory presented (Timár et al. 2006; Frajer and Geletič 2011), their authorship (Rojc 1990; Pedley 1992), the cartographic network and projections (Bönisch 1967; Molnár, Podobnikar, and Timár 2009), and so on. One way to standardize research is to analyze cartographic elements, which are the foundation of every map. As such, they are inextricably related to the development of cartogra- phy. They include natural and built elements, toponyms, and mathematical and explanatory elements. In the past, the use and form of cartographic elements on maps were never formalized. Therefore, authors randomly selected the content of maps and the manner of representing the cartographic elements. The content of maps was in the domain of the client commissioning the map and the cartographer. On old maps, cartographic representation commonly deviated from geographic reality, which was often unknown. Due to unstandardized representation and production of maps, their analysis, comparison, and content- related evaluation have so far been very demanding and lacking methodological structure. For example, Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 25 Figure 1: Ioanes Sambucus’s 1572 map of Illyria. K A R TO G R A FS K A Z B IR K A , N A R O D N A IN U N IV E R ZI TE TN A K N JI ŽN IC A 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 25 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps there have been substantial differences in representing settlements (point versus area symbols) and relief (side view: molehills, plan view: hachures and contour lines). Moreover, the density of information pre- sented on maps has varied significantly, as well as the locations of this information (e.g., the type and location of the content in relation to the map frame). In the technical and cartographic sense, sixteenth-, seven- teenth-, and eighteenth-century maps differ greatly from maps created in the nineteenth century or later. Therefore, a cursory or casual comparison may be inaccurate or misleading. Slovenian and international literature predominantly uses chronological and descriptive approaches to examine maps in a specific period (e.g., Gašperič 2007). The most relevant and extensive contributions in analyzing cartographic elements are the volumes from the series The History of Cartography Project (2022). Interesting insights into the topic are also offered by a book that analyzes the cartographic elements of fantasy maps (Ekman 2013), and fictional maps (Gašperič and Komac 2019). However, a description of a specific map or a small group of maps from the same period can only satisfy readers looking for infor- mation on a specific cartographic representation or maps from a specific period. It does not reveal what these maps mean in cartographic terms, such as in relation to older or younger maps or in terms of the development of cartography. To date, cartographic elements have been divided in various ways, such as from the historical, carto- graphic, geodesic, or art-research perspectives. Some authors have divided elements on large-scale topographic maps into two main groups: 1) geographical and 2) mathematical elements (Peterca et al. 1974) or 1) natural and 2) built elements (Lovrić 1988). Others have identified three groups: 1) natural elements, 2) anthropogenic (built) elements, and 3) toponyms (Petrovič 2010); or four groups: 1) mathematical, 2) natural-geographical, 3) socio-geographical, and 4) other elements (Vrišer 1998), or 1) mathematical basis, 2) geographical elements, 3) editorial information, and 4) additional elements (Peterca et al. 1974), or 1) mathematical basis, 2) cartographic image, 3) supporting elements, and 4) additional information (Markoski 2018). Some authors have interpreted the division of cartographic elements very randomly; for 26 Figure 2: Henricus Hondius’s 1636 map of Carniola. B O R U T ŽU N IČ 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 26 example, in terms of their relevance on the map at the content level, or the desire to highlight a certain feature (Robinson et al. 1995; Monmonier 1996; Maps and Cartography … 2015). Unlike the studies mentioned above, which mainly contain descriptive comparisons of individual maps or partial analyses of specific cartographic elements, the method presented in this article allows more com- prehensive analysis of maps. It offers a framework for the analysis of selected characteristics of maps, such as scale, location, and content. Moreover, it proposes a more comprehensive division of cartographic ele- ments, which allows for a uniform analysis and comparison of different types of maps from different periods. Each cartographic element (natural and built elements, toponyms, and mathematical and explanatory ele- ments) is divided into three hierarchical levels down to cartographic symbols (Table 1). This article proposes and utilizes a comprehensive method for examining cartographic elements on the selected set of maps, and it thus fills the research gap described above. The main contribution of this methodological approach is that it provides a uniform framework for comparing cartographic elements on maps designed in different time periods and differing in visual appearance, structure, and design. It formulates the process of studying cartographic elements by identifying, sorting, comparing, evaluating, and interpreting cartographic symbols on old maps. This covers the entire process chain of studying car- tographic elements. A data form was compiled based on a division of cartographic elements into the following five groups: natural elements, built elements, toponyms, mathematical elements, and explanatory elements. These make up the highest hierarchical level and are further divided into subgroups at a lower hierarchical level (Table 1). The data form built this way allows the uniform use of cartographic elements on all general geographical maps from the period observed. In this article, general geographical maps created in the past (e.g., during the period examined: between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, figures 1–5) are referred to as »old maps.« The term old maps is conceptually distinguished from the term historical maps, which some authors (e.g., Chiang et al. 2020) Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 27 Figure 3: Alexis-Hubert Jaillot’s 1709 map of Carniola. ZE M LJ E P IS N I M U ZE J G IA M Z R C S A ZU 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 27 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps use interchangeably. According to cartographic literature (e.g., Wallis and Robinson 1987), the term his- torical map denotes a cartographic representation of the situation in the area depicted and its development based on the interpretation of source material. The purpose of such representation is to chronologically present a selected topic, which is why this can often be referred to as a thematic map with historical con- tent. It is suggested that a distinction be made between these two technical terms, and they are used in this sense in this article. This article fills a gap in understanding the past, considering that old maps have been recognized as a primary source of information on a specific area and period. The proposed methodology is applicable in analyzing, comparing, and understanding relations and differences between territories and their car- tographic representations on the one hand and the historical influences on cartographic representations on the other. The analysis was conducted at the temporal and spatial levels, using medium-scale maps. The aim of the article is to present a new method for studying old medium-scale maps, which can be used to obtain information contained on maps with similar characteristics in terms of scale, location, and content, and to compare them on an equal basis. 2 Methods 2.1 Cartographic elements and their divisions This article is about cartographic elements as fundamental components of cartographic content on maps. However, perceptions of what is fundamental vary. For cartographers, a cartographic element may be a line, dot, or molehill, for artists it can be a color or line, for landscape architects a specific structure or type of vegetation, for geographers a specific landform or type of road, and so on. This is why the term cartographic element is very broad and has several meanings. The Slovenian Geografski terminološki slovar (Kladnik, Lovrenčak, and Orožen Adamič 2005, 167) describes it as »an element on a map that represents a specific 28 Figure 4: Franz Xaver Baraga’s untitled 1778 map, labeled Krainska deschela (Carniola). B O R U T ŽU N IČ 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 28 structure, feature, or process more clearly or in greater detail, such as relief, a river system, a transporta- tion network, or a settlement.« The term element in this perspective is understood in a broad sense as »a necessary or typical« (Oxford … 2022) and an »essential,« »relatively independent« (Slovar … 2014, 331) part of a whole, which, in the case at hand, is an old map. In reference to maps or in cartography in general, the term cartographic element is used. Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 29 Figure 5: Johann Walch’s 1819 map of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and the County of Gorizia. ZE M LJ E P IS N I M U ZE J G IA M Z R C S A ZU 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 29 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps To examine the maps on an equal basis, a special digital data form (Figure 1) was created in Microsoft Access to analyze cartographic elements over the entire period studied. In terms of technical character- istics and design, maps differ considerably from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries, which is why the depiction of individual cartographic elements differs significantly. Because the composition of maps was hence inconsistent, the aforementioned data form was used, which makes it possible to compare diverse maps. Microsoft Access made it possible to design the entry fields arbitrarily and link the data to pictor- ial material. Most importantly, the program collects and sorts all the data entered into the database so that they can be statistically processed and presented in the form of tables and graphs. As shown in Table 1, the data form was built based on a breakdown of cartographic elements into the following five groups: 1) natural elements, 2) built elements, 3) toponyms, 4) mathematical elements, and 5) explanatory elements. These represent the highest hierarchical level and were further divided into sub- groups at lower hierarchical levels (Table 1). Natural elements were divided into three subgroups (relief, vegetation, and water), built elements into four subgroups (settlements, built structures, roads, and bor- ders), toponyms into five subgroups (choronyms, oronyms, hydronyms, settlement names, and names of built structures), mathematical elements into two subgroups (scale and graticule), and explanatory ele- ments into five subgroups (title, colophon, explanatory text, decorative elements, and additional insets). Each of the subgroups was further divided into several subcategories, as presented in Table 1. The lowest (fourth) level represents the methods used to depict individual cartographic element on the map (e.g., for- est depicted with a stylized tree symbol). The attempt to divide cartographic elements into groups is not new. However, a novel concept made it possible to standardize coverage of all elements on old maps. 2.2 The selection of old maps The study included fifty-eight maps produced from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century (Table 2). The main source of the maps was the map collection held by the Geographical Museum at the Anton Melik Geographical Institute of the Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Science and Arts, which holds several thousand maps, primarily of central Europe (Zorn and Gašperič 2016). In addition, collections from other museums and libraries, as well as private collections, were employed. The basic criteria for the selection of maps were territorial (Slovenia), authorship, and scale. The maps analyzed represent the territory that today constitutes Slovenia or at least its majority (e.g., individual his- torical crownlands). The study did not take into account individual versions of maps. The term version refers to a map produced by the same author, at the same scale and showing the same area, but printed later. If a map was reprinted several times and the prints only differed in color or additions that did not affect the area mapped (e.g., an illustration or a cartouche), only one version was examined. This deci- sion was made to eliminate numerous reprints that were very common for maps of Slovenian territory produced by Mercator, Homann, Mannert, and Kindermann. Some maps were reprinted over an extended period of time, in various forms and with minor changes, but produced by different authors. The study included similar versions of maps produced by different authors. Regarding the scale, topographic maps at a medium scale (Vrišer 1998) or medium-large scale (Petrovič 2010) were analyzed, which means scales between 1 :200,000 and 1:900,000. Medium-scale maps were select- ed because searching for and studying content on small-scale maps would have been too demanding (i.e., cartographic elements and symbols). On the other hand, the main challenge with large-scale maps would be their insufficient representation and uneven distribution over the period examined. Such maps were rare, especially in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 2.3 Identifying information on old maps The purpose of the digital data form was to establish a uniform database for the maps examined, which further allowed statistical comparison of cartographic elements. During the identification of basic infor- mation on the maps, several difficulties were encountered. Many maps did not contain any information about the year of publication, scale, authorship, and so on. In the case of missing date, information was sought in the literature and maps from equivalent editions. If it was impossible to determine the year, the following rules were applied: 30 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 30 Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 31 • If it was possible to determine approximately, but not precisely, when a specific map was published, the oldest known year of publication was entered in the data form. • If possible dates of the creation of the map spanned several decades or part of a century, the midpoint of this period was taken as the year of publication. • If it was known from the sources when the maps started to be published, but it remained unknown until when they were published, the first year of publication was entered in the data form. Because the majority of maps from the period studied lacked scale, this was calculated based on three to five selected distances on each map. The aim was to determine the distance between the same places. Distances between the following towns were selected as a starting point: • Kranj (Crainburg)–Brežice (Rann); • Trieste (Italy)–Ljubljana (Laibach); • Piran (Pirano)–Novo Mesto (Rudolfswert); • Udine (Italy)–Brežice (Rann); • Dravograd (Drauburg)–Pula (Polo, Croatia). On many maps, it was impossible to measure these distances accurately (or at all). The possible rea- sons for this are the following: • The map was printed across two pages in a book or atlas, and the binding made it difficult to measure; • Because of a distorted, inaccurate, and insufficiently detailed area mapped, not all the selected towns are displayed on the map; or • The map does not depict the areas where these towns are located. In the last case, distances were measured between towns close to those selected or other towns were selected for measuring the distances in various directions. The entire area depicted within the map’s inner frame was studied, even if it extended beyond the bor- ders of today’s Slovenia. The occurrence of individual cartographic elements is also affected by the map’s form. 2.4 Data form structure The digital data form created for the purpose of the study is divided into four data fields (Figure 1): • Data field 1 (marked 1 in Figure 1) contains boxes for entering map data and selecting the basic com- mands (e.g., Save, Next, Back, Close, etc.); • Data field 2 (marked 2) contains buttons for selecting level-one and level-two cartographic elements, where it can be defined whether an individual group of elements is found on the map (options: Yes, No, Rarely); because of limited space, level-one buttons were placed under level-two buttons; • Data field 3 (marked 3) contains boxes for selecting and defining level-three cartographic elements and the methods of their representation; a specific box defines the presence of a cartographic element (e.g., built structures) or, more specifically, the user must select (e.g., a stylized symbol representing a built structure) and enter (e.g., which built structure is depicted: a castle, windmill, bridge, etc.) the charac- teristics of the elements examined, the methods of their representation, and the graphic variables used; • Data field 4 (marked 4) displays the map examined. 2.5 Map analysis In the data form, maps were analyzed using the following protocol: • Skimming the map to get a  first impression of the cartographic representation and explanatory elements; • Entering the basic information on the map in data field 1: year, title, author, and the ID number of the map image (Figure 2); • Entering further data based on studying individual cartographic elements at all levels of the map select- ed (the »vertical« entry mode); Table 1: A breakdown of cartographic elements, with methods of their representation. p p. 32–33 Table 2: Basic information on the maps studied. p p. 34–35 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 31 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps 32 Fir st lev el of ca rto gr ap hic el em en ts Se co nd le ve l o f c ar to gr ap hic el em en ts Th ird le ve l o f c ar to gr ap hic el em en ts De pic tio n, m eth od of re pr es en tat ion 1 N AT UR AL EL EM EN TS 1.1 Re lie f M ole hil ls (a lso se t o f m ole hil ls) Se m ici rcl es (a lso se t o f s em ici rcl es , c ate rp illa rs, pl ait ed br aid s, fis h s ca les , ro of tile s, wa ve s, ple ate d c ur tai ns ) Tri an gle s ( als o s et of tri an gle s, sa w tee th , z igz ag lin es ) Ele va tio n c on to ur (i so hy ps e) Sp ot el ev ati on s Ele va tio n l ay ers (u se of co lor s) Sh ad ing Ha ch ur es Do ts 1.2 Ve ge tat ion 1.2 .1 Gr as sla nd Gr as sla nd di sp lay (s tyl ize d i m ag e o f g ras sla nd : s ur fac e w ith ve rti ca l li ne s, t uft s o f g ras s) 1.2 .2 Fo res t Fo res t d isp lay (s tyl ize d i m ag e o f t ree s: va rio us de ns ity of th e s am e o r d iffe ren t t ree s) 1.2 .3 Ot he r ( e.g ., v ine ya rd, flo od Di sp lay of ot he r v eg eta tio n ( sty liz ed im ag e o f v ine ya rd, flo od ve ge tat ion , o liv e g rov e) ve ge tat ion , o liv e g rov e) 1.3 W ate r 1.3 .1 Riv er Po int sy m bo ls (g eo m etr ic, pi cto ria l, o r a lph an um eri c) Lin e s ym bo ls (si ng le lin e) Lin e s ym bo ls (tw o l ine s, oft en pa ral lel ) Ar ea sy m bo ls (co lor ed po lyg on ) Ot he r s ym bo ls for flo wi ng w ate r 1.3 .2 Bo dy of w ate r Po int sy m bo ls (g eo m etr ic) Ar ea sy m bo ls (co lor ed sh ap e) Ot he r d isp lay s f or bo die s o f w ate r 1.3 .3 Po int Po int sy m bo ls (e. g., w ate rfa ll) 2 B UI LT EL EM EN TS 2.1 Se ttl em en ts Po int sy m bo ls (g eo m etr ic sy m bo ls: sq ua re, ci rcl e, tri an gle , a nd ot he rs) Po int sy m bo ls (st yli ze d i m ag es of bu ild ing s) Ar ea sy m bo ls (g rou nd pl an of a se ttl em en t/w all s) Ot he r s ym bo ls for se ttl em en ts 2.2 Bu ilt str uc tu res Po int sy m bo ls (g eo m etr ic sy m bo ls: sq ua re, ci rcl e, tri an gle , a nd ot he rs) Po int sy m bo ls (st yli ze d i m ag es of bu ild ing s) Ar ea sy m bo ls (g rou nd pl an of a se ttl em en t/w all s) Ot he r s ym bo ls for se ttl em en ts 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 32 Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 33 2.3 Ro ad s Po int sy m bo ls (g eo m etr ic) Po int sy m bo ls (st yli ze d) Lin e s ym bo ls (si ng le lin e, lin e o f e qu al sy m bo ls) Lin e s ym bo ls (p ara lle l li ne s) Ot he r s ym bo ls for ro ad s 2.4 Bo rd ers Lin e s ym bo ls (si ng le lin e, lin e o f e qu al sy m bo ls) Ar ea sy m bo ls (co lor ed ar ea ) Ot he r s ym bo ls for bo rd ers 3 T OP ON YM S 3.1 Ch oro ny m s Le tte rs of th e n am e 3.2 O ron ym s Le tte rs of th e n am e 3.3 H yd ron ym s Le tte rs of th e n am e 3.4 Se ttl em en t n am es Le tte rs of th e n am e 3.5 N am es of bu ilt str uc tu res Le tte rs of th e n am e 4 M AT HE M AT ICA L E LE M EN TS 4.1 Sc ale Nu m eri ca l s ca le dis pla ys Gr ap hic sc ale di sp lay s Ve rb al sca le dis pla ys 4.2 G rat icu le Gr ati cu le dis pla ys 5 E XP LA NA TO RY EL EM EN TS 5.1 Ti tle Te xt 5.2 Le ge nd Le ge nd di sp lay s 5.3 Co lop ho n Co lop ho n d isp lay s 5.4 Ex pla na to ry te xt Te xt 5.5 D ec or ati ve el em en ts 5.5 .1 W ind /c om pa ss ros e W ind /c om pa ss ros e d isp lay s 5.5 .2 Ca rto uc he Ca rto uc he di sp lay s 5.5 .3 Pic to ria l im ag es (e .g. , c oa ts of arm , Di sp lay s o f p ict or ial im ag es m yth olo gic al sym bo l, s hip , a nim al, hu m an ) 5.5 .4 Ot he r ( e.g ., v ign ett e) Ot he r im ag e d isp lay s 5.6 A dd itio na l in se t 5.6 .1 Pa no ram ic im ag e o f la nd sca pe an d c ity Di sp lay s o f p an or am ic im ag es of la nd sca pe s a nd ci tie s i n a n a dd itio na l fr am e 5.6 .2 Ot he r p ict ur es Di sp lay s o f o th er pic tu res in an ad dit ion al fra m e 5.6 .3 Cit y p lan Di sp lay s o f o th er cit y p lan s i n a n a dd itio na l fr am e 5.6 .4 M ap Di sp lay s o f m ap s i n a n a dd itio na l fr am e 5.6 .5 Ot he r ( fra m ed w ind ow s Di sp lay s o f o th er im ag es in an ad dit ion al fra m e wi th va rio us co nt en t) 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 33 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps 34 YE AR O F I SS UE TIT LE (o rig ina l) AU TH OR /P RO DU CE R SC AL E PL AC E O F I SS UE (m ea su red di sta nc es ) 15 45 –1 55 2 De scr ipt io To tiu s I lly rid is XV I N O TA B Se ba sti an M ün ste r ( 14 88 –1 55 2) 1:7 02 ,87 8 / 15 61 Du ca tu s C ar nio lae et H ist ria e u na cu m M arc ha W ind or um W olf ga ng La ziu s ( 15 14 –1 56 5) 1:5 13 ,97 9 Vie nn a 15 69 Du ca tu s C ar nio lae un a c um M arc ha W ind or um Bo log nin o Z alt ier i ( Bo log niu s Z alt eri us ) 1:4 86 ,76 6 Ve nic e 15 70 Sc hla vo nia e, Cro at iae , C ar nia e, Ist ria e, Bo sn iae , fi nit im ar um qu e r eg ion um no va de scr ipt io Ab rah am O rte liu s ( 15 27 –1 59 8) , b as ed on A ug us tin H irs ch vo ge l 1:8 68 ,91 1 / 15 72 Illy ric um Ioa ne s S am bu cu s ( Já no s Z sá m bo ki) (1 53 1– 15 84 ) 1:8 16 ,21 9 / 15 73 Go rit iae , K ar sti i, C ha cze ola e, Ca rn iol ae , H ist ria e, et W ind or um m arc ha e d es cri p[ tio ] W olf ga ng La ziu s ( 15 14 –1 56 5) 1:6 92 ,24 0 Go riz ia 15 89 Fo ru m Iul ium , K ar sti a, Ca rn iol a, Hi str ia et W ind or um M arc hia Ge rar du s M erc ato r ( 15 12 –1 59 4) 1:6 42 ,77 1 / 15 93 Ca rn iol ae Ch az iol ae qu e D uc at us ne c n on et Go rit iae Co mi ta tu s p rou int iar um N ori ci ac Ill iric i u era pr op ria qu e d eli ne at io Ge rar d ( 15 09 –1 59 1) an d C or ne lis de Jo de (1 56 8– 16 00 ) 1:6 13 ,34 2 An tw erp se co nd ha lf o f t he Sc lau on ia od er W ind isc h M arc k, Bo sse n, Cra ba ten Se ba sti an M ün ste r ( 14 88 –1 55 2) 1:8 81 ,56 7 / 16 th ce nt ur y 16 35 Ka rst ia, Ca rn iol a, Hi str ia et W ind or um M arc hia W ille m Ja ns zo on (1 57 1– 16 38 ), Jo ha n ( 15 99 –1 67 3) an d C or ne lis 1:6 15 ,00 0* / (1 61 0– 16 44 ) B lae u 16 36 Ka rst ia, Ca rn iol a e t W ind or um M arc hia He nr icu s H on diu s ( 15 97 –1 65 1) , b as ed on G era rd us M erc ato r 1:6 47 ,80 1 / 16 49 Ka rst ia, Ca rn iol a, Hi str ia et W ind or um M arc hia M att hä us M eri an (1 59 3– 16 50 ), ba se d o n G era rd us M erc ato r 1:7 47 ,44 3 / 16 57 He rtz og th ūb er Ste ye r, K ar nt en , K rai n, & c./ Du ch és de St irie , C ar int hie , C ar nio le … Ni co las Sa ns on (1 60 0– 16 67 ) 1:7 77 ,86 8 Pa ris c. 16 60 Cir cu li A us tri ac i in qu o S un t A rch idu ca tu s A us tri ae D uc at us St iria e C ar int iae Ca rn iol ae Co mi ta tu s T iro lis Ju stu s D an ck er ts (1 63 5– 17 01 ) 1:7 50 ,58 3 Am ste rd am et Ep isc op at us Tr ide nt ini c. 16 80 Du ca tu s C ar int iae et Ca rn iol ae Ci lle iae qu e C om ita tu s Fre de ric k d e W it ( 16 29 /1 63 0– 17 06 ) 1:5 15 ,63 2 Am ste rd am 16 81 Pa rti e d u C erc le d'A us tri ch e, ou so nt Le s D uc he s d e S tir ie, de Ca rin th ie, de Ca rn iol e e t a ut res Es ta ts He red ita rie s Al ex is– Hu be rt Ja illo t ( 16 32 –1 71 2) , b as ed on N ico las Sa ns on 1:5 58 ,98 0 Pa ris a l a M ais on d' Au str ich e 16 81 Ca rn iol ia, Ka rst ia, H ist ria et W ind or um M arc hia Ja ne z V ajk ard Va lva so r ( 16 41 –1 69 3) 1:6 06 ,21 2 / 16 89 Ca rn iol ia Ka rst ia Hi str ia et W ind or um M arc hia Ja ne z V ajk ard Va lva so r ( 16 41 –1 69 3) 1:6 29 ,26 6 / c. 16 90 Cir cu li A us tri ac i O rie nt ali or Pa rs in qu a A us tri a P rop ria et ab ea D ep en de nt es , tu m Du ca tu s, Sti ria e, Ca rin tia e, Ge rar d V alc k ( 16 52 –1 72 6) 1:7 47 ,76 5 Am ste rd am Ca rn iol a t um Co mi ta tu s, his ce inc lus i, C ille ns is e t G ori tia e, sin gu li s ub div isi c. 17 00 Ka rst ia, Ca rn iol a, Hi str ia et W ind or um M arc hia Ge rar d V alc k ( 16 52 –1 72 6) an d P etr us Sc he nk (1 66 0– 17 18 ) 1:5 34 ,81 0 Am ste rd am 17 09 Pa rti e d u C erc le d'A us tri ch e, ou so nt Le s D uc he s d e S tir ie, de Ca rin th ie, de Ca rn iol ee t a ut res Es ta ts He red ita rie s Al ex is- Hu be rt Ja illo t ( 16 32 –1 71 2) , b as ed on N ico las Sa ns on 1:6 81 ,51 1 Pa ris a l a M ais on d' Au str ich e 17 19 Du ca tu s C ar nio lia e a ccu rat iss im a d eli ne at io Ch ris top h W eig el th e E lde r ( 16 54 –1 72 5) , b as ed on Ja ne z V ajk ard Va lva so r 1:6 83 ,88 9 Nu rem be rg aft er 17 18 Ta bu la Du ca tu s C ar nio lia e, Vin do ru m M arc hia e e t H ist ria e Jo ha nn Ba pt ist H om an n ( 16 64 –1 72 4) 1:5 09 ,06 0 Nu rem be rg 17 26 –1 75 0 Du ca tu s S tir iae et Ca rin tia e C ar nio lae Ci lle iae qu e C om ita tu s N ov a T ab ula Re ini er (1 69 8– 17 50 ) a nd Jo su a ( 17 04 –1 76 5) O tte ns 1:5 23 ,27 6 Am ste rd am fir st ha lf o f t he Ex ac tis sim a D uc at us Ca rn iol ae Vi nid or um M arc hiä et H ist ria e d eli ne at io M att hä us Se ut ter (1 67 8 – c. 17 57 ) 1:5 22 ,21 8 Au gs bu rg 18 th ce nt ur y 17 40 Du ca tu s C ar nio lia e T ab ula Jo ha nn va n d er Br ug ge n ( 16 95 –1 74 0) 1:7 60 ,12 7 Vie nn a 17 42 Le D uc he de Ca rn iol e Ge org es -L ou is Le Ro ug e ( c. 17 12 – c. 17 90 ) 1:6 40 ,88 5 Pa ris 17 42 Le D uc hé de St irie Ge org es -L ou is Le Ro ug e ( c. 17 12 – c. 17 90 ) 1:4 47 ,35 6 Pa ris 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 34 Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 35 17 52 Pa rti e M éri dio na le du Ce rcl e d 'Au tri ch e, qu i co mp ren d l a B as se Pa rti e d u D uc hé de St irie , le Du ch é d e C ari nt hie , d ivi sé Di die r R ob er t d e V au go nd y ( c. 17 23 – 17 86 ) 1:5 78 ,46 1 Pa ris en ha ut e e t b as se, le D uc hé de Ca rn iol e, div isé en ha ut e, ba sse , m oy en ne et in ter ieu re Ca rn iol e, et l'Is tri e I mp éri ale c. 17 60 Ex ac tis sim a D uc at us Ca rn iol iae , V ind or um M arc hia e e t H ist ria e d eli ne at io To bia s C on rad Lo tte r ( 17 17 –1 77 7) 1:5 26 ,90 9 / 17 78 No tit le (K rai ns ka de sch ela ) Fra nz Xa ve r B ara ga 1:3 35 ,20 2 Lju blj an a 17 82 M ap pa Li th o- Hy dro gra ph ica N at ion is Sla vic ae Ba lta za r H ac qu et (1 73 9/ 40 –1 81 5) 1:3 90 ,33 9 Lju blj an a 17 89 –1 80 6 Inn er Kra in mi t d er wi nd isc he n M ar k u nd de m Tri es ter G eb iet he . N ro. 14 3. Fra nz Jo ha nn Jo se ph vo n R eil ly (1 76 6– 18 20 ) 1:4 99 ,32 8 Vie nn a 17 91 Ka ar tje va n t H ert og do m Cra in Gu illa um e D eli sle (1 67 5– 17 26 ) 1:3 19 ,99 8 Am ste rd am 17 96 Un ter kra in od er de r N eu sta ed tle r K rei s Jo se ph Ka rl K ind erm an n ( 17 44 –1 80 1) 1:2 60 ,66 1 Gr az 17 98 –1 80 2 Ca rte gé né ral e d u T hé ât re de la G ue rre en Ita lie et da ns le s A lpe s Ba cle r d 'Al be (1 76 1– 18 24 ) 1:2 57 ,50 9 / 18 00 No tit le (H erz og th um Kr ain ) Fra nz A nt on Sc hr äm bl (1 75 1– 18 03 ) 1:5 17 ,54 6 Vie nn a 18 00 De r O es ter rei ch isc he Kr eis Co nr ad M an ne rt (1 75 6– 18 34 ) 1:8 97 ,24 6 Nu rem be rg 18 03 Ch ar te vo n K ae rn th en un d K rai n, ne bs t d en Gr afs ch aft en Gö rz un d G rad isk a u nd de m Ge bie th e v on Tr ies t/C ar te Jo se ph Ka rl K ind erm an n ( 17 44 –1 80 1) 1:4 98 ,11 9 Vie nn a de la Ca rin th ie et de la Ca rn iol e, av ec le s C om tés de G or ice et de G rad isc a e t le G ou ve rn em en t d e T rie ste 18 07 Ch ar te vo m Erz he rzo gth um Oe ste rre ich , d en He rzo gth üm ern St ey erm ark , S alz bu rg, Kä rn the n u nd Kr ain Co nr ad M an ne rt (1 75 6– 18 34 ) 1:7 88 ,85 4 Nu rem be rg 18 10 Inn er Oe ste rre ich od er Di e H erz og th üm er Ste ye rm ar k K är nt en un d K rai n. Di e G raf sch af ten G oe rz Zü rn er, pr ob ab ly Ge org A da m (1 75 6– 18 09 ) 1:3 36 ,73 5 Vie nn a un d M on fal co ne . D ie Be zir ke Tr ies t u nd Is tri en . N eb st de n a ng rän ze nd en Th eil en vo n I ta lie n T yro l Sa lzb urg N ied er Oe ste rre ich Kr oa tie n u nd H un ga rn 18 12 Ca rte de s P rov inc es Ill yri en ne s c om pre na nt la Bo sn ie, l'H erz ég ov ine , le M on tén éro et qu elq ue s p ay s a dja cen s Ga eta no Pa lm a 1:6 50 ,00 0* Tri es te 18 18 Ch ar te vo n d em Ko en igr eic he Ill yri en Jo se ph Ka rl K ind erm an n ( 17 44 –1 80 1) 1:5 33 ,83 5 Vie nn a 18 18 Ch ar te vo n d em Kö nig rei ch e I lly rie n u nd de m He rzo gt hu me St ey erm ar k Ca rl F erd ina nd W eil an d ( 17 82 –1 84 7) 1:6 08 ,66 9 W eim ar 18 19 Kö nig rei ch Ill yri en un d H erz og th um St ey erm ar k i n s ein e K rei se ei ng eth eil t n eb st de n a ng ren ze nd en Zü rn er, pr ob ab ly Ge org A da m (1 75 6– 18 09 ) 1:3 36 ,78 7 Vie nn a Th eil en vo n I ta lie n, Ty rol , S alz bu rg, N ied er– Oe ste rre ich , K roa tie n u nd H un ga rn 18 19 Ch ar te vo n S tey erm ar k K ae rn th en un d K rai n, ne bs t d er Gr afs ch af t G ör z Jo ha nn W alc h ( 17 57 –1 82 4) 1:4 98 ,55 8 Au gs bu rg 18 31 Ne ue ste Sp ec ial ka rte vo n K rai n n ac h d er de rm ali ge n E int he ilu ng in Be zir ke Ge org Lu dw ig vo n R itt er 1:2 77 ,84 2 Lju blj an a 18 32 Ka rte vo m He rzo gt hu me Kr ain Go ttf rie d L os ch an (1 79 6– 18 57 ) 1:2 95 ,09 4 Vie nn a 18 36 Kö nig rei ch Ill yri en , G ou ve rn em en t L aib ac h. Ch ar te de r K rei se : L aib ac h, Ne us tä dt l, A de lsb erg Re nn er (ca rto gr ap he r), O. C. A pe lt ( lith og rap he r) 1:5 24 ,56 0 Le ipz ig 18 41 Ge ne ral -P os t-& Str as se nk ar te de s K ön igr eic hs Ill yri en ne bs t d em k[ ön igl ich ] u ng ar isc he n L itt ora le R. A. Sc hu lz 1:5 21 ,24 4 Vie nn a 18 42 Ge ne ral Po st un d S tra sse n K ar te de s H erz og th um s S tey erm ar k R. A. Sc hu lz 1:4 01 ,36 8 Vie nn a c. 18 50 Ka rte de s K ron lan de s S tei erm ar k Jo se f F ran z K ais er (1 78 6– 18 59 ) 1:3 82 ,48 7 Gr az 18 53 Ze ml jov id Slo ve ns ke de že le in po kra jin Pe ter Ko zle r ( 18 24 –1 87 9) 1:5 76 ,00 0* Vie nn a 18 53 Kö nig rei ch Ill yri en Ca rl C hr ist ian Fr an z R ad efe ld (1 78 8– 18 74 ) 1:8 80 ,00 0* / 18 59 –1 87 1 Di e H erz og th üm er Ste ier ma rk, Kä rn ten , K rai n, die ge für ste te Gr afs ch af t G ör z u nd G rad isk a, die M ar kc raf sch af t Ca rl G räf (1 82 2 – c. 18 97 ) 1:6 00 ,00 0* W eim ar Ist rie n, die St ad t T rie st mi t G eb iet un d d as un ga ris ch e L itt ora le 18 63 Di e H erz og th üm er Kä rn th en un d K rai n, die G raf sch af t G ör z & G rad isc a, die M ar kg raf sch af t Is tri en un d d ie He rm an n B erg ha us (1 82 8– 18 90 ) 1:7 70 ,98 5 Go th a rei ch su nm itt elb are St ad t T rie st 18 78 Di e K ron län de r K är nt he n, Kra in, G ör z - G rad isc a - Is tri en un d T rie st Fri ed ric h H . H an dt ke (1 81 5– 18 79 ) 1:8 72 ,62 6 Gł og ów 18 85 –1 89 2 Kra in - I str ien Bib lio gr ap his ch es In sti tu t 1:8 35 ,59 1 Le ipz ig LE GE ND : * Sc ale ta ke n f rom lit era tu re or m ap 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 35 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps • To get a clearer picture and avoid potential errors, data were not entered by level for all the maps simul- taneously (the »horizontal« entry mode); • Two pieces of data were provided in data field 2: the type of level-one cartographic element was selected, and for this element the presence of a level-two cartographic element was indicated by selecting »Yes« (even- ly present across the map), »No« (absent), or »Rarely« (present only in some sections of the map; Figure 3); • Data on the method used to represent the cartographic element at hand and its graphic variables (shape, size, color, brightness, pattern, and direction) were provided in data field 3, along with data on any special features (the »Other« box) if relevant and answers to questions related to a specific cartographic element (Figure 4); • A low-resolution image of the map was entered in data field 4, which aided data entry and made it easier to move between the data form pages (right side of the data form; Figure 1); • After entering all the data, they were double checked for accuracy and saved. Each map was evaluated separately. First, an individual group of cartographic elements was selected in the data form, a group of representation methods was ascribed to it, and the types of representation included in the map were defined. For example, for natural elements, the method of representing relief with molehills was identified. This was followed by an assessment of the representation method using graphic 36 1 43 2 Figure 6: The data form was made in Slovene in digital format with the four basic data fields, explained in English in section 2.5. YEAR: TITLE: AUTHOR/ADAPTOR: Image pathway: Figure 7: Data field 1. RELIEF VEGETATION WATER SETTLEMENTS BUILT STRUCTURES ROADS BORDERS, SCALEGEOGRAPHICAL NAMES ADDITIONAL INSETDECORATIVE ELEMENTSEXPLANATORY TEXTCOLOPHONLEGENDTITLEGRATICULE RARELY RARELY RARELY RARELY RARELY RARELY RARELY NATURAL EL. BUILT EL. GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES MATHEMATICAL EL. EXPLANATORY EL. NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Figure 8: Data field 2. 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 36 Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 37 NATURAL EL. BUILT EL. GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES MATHEMATICAL EL. EXPLANATORY EL. SETTLEMENTS BUILT STRUCTURES ROADS BORDERS CARTOGRAPHIC SYMBOL(S): POINT: Geometric symbols Stylized/symbol LINE: Single line symbols Parallel line symbols AREA: Geometric symbols Stylized symbol group Colored shape/area OTHER: GRAPHIC VARIABLE POINTS– – Shape Size/thickness Color Brightness/shade Pattern Direction/orientation OTHER: Systematicity of symbols by settlement category (size, population, importance): GRAPHIC VARIABLES AREAS– – Shape Size/thickness Color Brightness/shade Pattern Direction/orientation OTHER: YES NO Figure 9: Data field 3. 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 Spot elevations Shading Dots Molehills Hachures Figure 10: Occurrence of relief representations on maps from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. variables. Their division and interpretation were adopted from Fridl (1999), who based her study on the systematic processing of cartographic means of expression (Bertin 1981). Graphic variables were assessed for the methods of representation of natural and built elements, and for geographical names. For mathe- matical and explanatory elements, assessing graphic variables does not make sense, and so their data characteristics were defined instead (e.g., location on the map, shape, type, and composition). In terms of the dimension or type of the feature depicted (Fridl 1999), cartographic symbols can be divided into point, line, and area or surface symbols (i.e., shapes). The terms »point symbol,« »line symbol,« and »area symbol« are used below. 3 Results For natural (cartographic) elements, the representation of relief was studied (Figure 5). The greatest change can be observed around 1800, when molehills and shading were replaced by hachures (Gašperič 2010). Of all the cartographic elements examined, relief had the largest number of representation methods. Chronologically, these methods are divided into the period from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries (mole- hills and shading), and the nineteenth century, when hachures, contour lines, and dots were used (Figure 6). 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 37 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps In terms of vegetation, forest representations predominate over those of grassland and other vegeta- tion types. From the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries, the number of maps depicting vegetation declines, and vegetation is gone completely by the second half of the nineteenth century. Except for a 1561 map, vegetation is typically depicted with a stylized area symbol (Figure 7). Cartographers gradually realized that depicting vegetation on medium-scale maps was inappropriate because accurate representation demand- ed additional fieldwork and limited map clarity and usefulness. Waters are represented on all maps, but until the mid-seventeenth century even rivers are depicted with area symbols (Figure 8); later, a more accurate line representation begins to be used. The share of names of rivers gradually declines. In the sixteenth century, the shares vary and can even be 100%, from the early seventeenth century onward up to 50% of waters are named, and after 1800 only up to 25% (Figure 9). The reason for this may be the production of increasingly detailed maps showing a denser river system. Naming all watercourses would definitely affect a map’s clarity. 38 Other: stylized point symbols 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 Hachures Dots Spot elevations Grassland: stylized area symbols Rivers: single line Molehills Shading Other: stylized area symbols Forest: stylized area symbols Rivers: double line Bodies of water: stylized area symbols Rivers: stylized area symbols Figure 11: Occurrence of natural elements’ representations in the period studied. Figure 12: Occurrence of level-two and level-three natural elements in the period studied. p 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 Rivers: stylized area symbol Rivers: double line Rivers: single line Figure 13: Occurrence of river representations on maps from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 38 Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 39 1545 1561 1569 1572 1573 1588 1589 1593 1600 1634 1649 1657 1636 1660 1680 1681 1681 1689 1690 1700 1701 1709 1714 1719 1723 1742 1732 1742 1752 1760 1778 1782 1789 1791 1796 1800 1800 1803 1807 1810 1812 1818 1818 1819 1819 1831 1832 1836 1841 1850 1853 1853 1859 1860 1863 1873 1878 1885 R el ie f V eg et at io n G ra ss la n d F o re st O th er W at er R iv er s B o d ie s o f w at er P o in ts 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 39 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps With built elements, the single- or double-line representations of roads stand out. None can be found in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in the eighteenth century they begin to appear only exceptionally, and in the nineteenth century they are used on every map (Figure 10). There may be several reasons for this, but a change can be observed in the perception of the importance of roads and hence their repre- sentation on maps. Settlement representations on maps are often not distinguished from those of built structures. Both are usually depicted with stylized point symbols. With regard to cartographic symbols and the names of select- ed castles – for example, Kamen (Stein), Bogenšperk (Wagensberg), Strmol (Stermal), and Borl (Ankenstein), it can be established that the authors were not familiar with all the settlements and castles or did not dis- tinguish between them, and hence they also marked them accordingly. In the specific examples listed, they marked a named castle as a settlement. Borders are marked on most maps. Single lines predominate over colored areas. The latter are com- mon on eighteenth-century maps, whereas lines are used throughout the period studied (Figure 11). Graticules and scales were examined among mathematical elements. They appear on most maps. The scale is most often provided in a verbal form; a graphic form is also very common, whereas a numerical scale is used only exceptionally (Figure 12). 40 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 0 25 %– 25 50 %– 50 75 %– 75 100 %– Figure 14: Occurrence of maps from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century by share of hydronyms used on them. 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 RarelyYes Figure 15: Occurrence of roads on maps from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 Border: single lineBorder: colored area Figure 16: Occurrence of borders represented with line or area symbols on maps from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 40 The graticule is not labeled on any map. Until the nineteenth century, only printing degrees between the two map frames was common; later a longitude and latitude grid was also drawn on most maps (Figure 13). Conic and pseudoconic projections predominate; from the mid-seventeenth century onward, cylindrical projection also appears in places (Figure 14). Toponyms appear on all maps. Choronyms are largely written in all capital letters and other toponyms in small caps. On nearly all maps, the names of rivers are provided both in the direction of their flow and in its opposite direction. In evaluating the graphic variables, the most frequent changes with all toponyms occur in size, and changes in shape are also common (Figure 15). The group of explanatory elements was newly designed for the purposes of this study. On most maps, the title is provided inside the inner map frame. Decorative elements are also common, especially a car- touche, which can be found on most maps between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, after which it gradually disappears. In turn, vignettes and oval frames are more common in the nineteenth century. Legends Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 41 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 Graphic, verbal, and numericalGraphic and verbal GraphicVerbal Figure 17: Occurrence of scale representations as provided on individual maps from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 Drawn graticule with degrees Without a graticule and degrees Degrees provided Figure 18: Occurrence of various types of graticules on maps from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 Not definablePseudoconic Conic Cylindrical No graticule Figure 19: Occurrence of map projections between the mid-sixteenth century and the end of the nineteenth century. 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 41 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps are more common on more recent maps; none can be found on maps before the early eighteenth century. Colophons appear throughout the period studied, as do explanatory texts and additional insets, albeit not as frequently (Figure 16). European cartography had various centers during the period studied. Thus, the maps of Slovenian ter- ritory reflected Dutch, Belgian, French, Italian, and, first and foremost, German and Austrian cartography. This can already be seen from the names of their authors. Only three authors of the maps examined can be treated as »Slovenian.« These were authors that lived in what is now Slovenia (Johann Weikhard (Janez Vajkard) Valvasor and Peter Kozler) or worked there for an extended period of time (Balthasar Hacquet; Figure 17). Different types of cartographic elements developed at different paces (Figure 18). In some places, a chain reaction occurred, whereby a change in the representation or frequency of one type of cartographic ele- ment affected another type. Hence, for instance, the shift from a stylized representation of relief (molehills) to a plastic representation (hachures) and the subsequent »freeing up« of space on the map led to the more frequent use of other elements (e.g., roads, rivers, and geographical names). The representations of vegetation (forest) were replaced by other cartographic elements (e.g., river systems, relief, roads, and geo- graphical names). An increase in the number of representations of rivers led to a smaller number or share of hydronyms. The density of road symbols increased from the end of the eighteenth century onward, which facilitated better orientation, but also led to poorer map readability. In addition, roads were often depicted very similarly to rivers. 42 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Settlement names: size Choronyms: size Names of bodies of water: size Choronyms: shape Oronyms: size Settlement names: shape Names of rivers: size Names of bodies of water: shape Oronyms: shape Choronyms: pattern Names of bodies of water: shape Names of built structures: size Names of rivers: shape Names of settlements: pattern Oronyms: pattern Choronyms: direction Names of rivers: color Number Figure 20: Applying graphic variables to all toponyms. Figure 21: Occurrence of level-two and level-three explanatory elements in the period studied. p 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 42 Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 43 1545 1561 1569 1572 1573 1588 1589 1593 1600 1634 1649 1657 1636 1660 1680 1681 1681 1689 1690 1700 1701 1709 1714 1719 1723 1742 1732 1742 1752 1760 1778 1782 1789 1791 1796 1800 1800 1803 1807 1810 1812 1818 1818 1819 1819 1831 1832 1836 1841 1850 1853 1853 1859 1860 1863 1873 1878 1885 1545 1561 1569 1572 1573 1588 1589 1593 1600 1634 1649 1657 1636 1660 1680 1681 1681 1689 1690 1700 1701 1709 1714 1719 1723 1742 1732 1742 1752 1760 1778 1782 1789 1791 1796 1800 1800 1803 1807 1810 1812 1818 1818 1819 1819 1831 1832 1836 1841 1850 1853 1853 1859 1860 1863 1873 1878 1885 T it le W in d /c o m p as s ro se P an o ra m as L eg en d C ar to u ch e O th er i ll u st ra ti o n s C o lo p h o n Il lu st ra ti o n s C it y p la n s E xp la n at o ry t ex t O th er d ec o ra ti ve e le m en ts M ap s D ec o ra ti ve e le m en ts A d d it io n al i n se ts O th er a d d it io n al i n se ts 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 43 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps 4 Discussion The new method of studying cartographic elements was used to compare cartographic elements across different periods and to identify, evaluate, and interpret cartographic content on an equal footing. The advan- tage of this standardized method is that, by using it, established or generalized interpretations can be confirmed or rejected because the findings are based on data analysis and not on the opinion of the map researcher or reader. The unexpected result in this study is related to built elements, for which the (lack of) presence of roads represented with single or double lines stands out. There are none in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies, they appear only exceptionally in the eighteenth century, and they are used on all maps in the nineteenth century (Figure 10). This reflects a change in the perception of the importance of roads and hence the rep- resentation of roads on maps. The question is why roads began to be depicted on the maps relatively late, despite an extensive road network and substantial quantities of goods passing through Slovenian territo- ry. Based on information gathered from the literature and cartographic material, the answer is multifaceted. Poor road conditions began to improve through gradual renovation in the nineteenth century, when numer- ous measurements were made and precise drawings and maps were produced. The perception of the maps’ communicative value also changed, which was demonstrated in the case of the road network. Medium- and small-scale maps were not used for wayfinding, but to spread knowledge and obtain a better under- standing of a region (Delano-Smith 2007). Until the early modern period, people traveled on foot or by horse. The use of horse-drawn wagons began to increase in the sixteenth century, and by the eighteenth century higher-quality roads facilitated the use of wagons in most goods transport (Zwitter 2014). It was not only the quality of roads, but also the type and quantity of cargo that influenced their importance. Information shows that large quantities of diverse goods were transported on Slovenian roads. A cart load 44 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 UK N u m b er Austria Belgium France ItalyHungaryGermany UnknownNetherlands Slovenia Figure 22: Map authors by origin (modern country). Figure 23: Cartographic elements of all levels depicted on maps from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. p 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 44 Acta geographica Slovenica, 63-2, 2023 45 N A T U R A L E L E M E N T S 1545 1561 1569 1572 1573 1588 1589 1593 1600 1634 1649 1657 1636 1660 1680 1681 1681 1689 1690 1700 1701 1709 1714 1719 1723 1742 1732 1742 1752 1760 1778 1782 1789 1791 1796 1800 1800 1803 1807 1810 1812 1818 1818 1819 1819 1831 1832 1836 1841 1850 1853 1853 1859 1860 1863 1873 1878 1885 1545 1561 1569 1572 1573 1588 1589 1593 1600 1634 1649 1657 1636 1660 1680 1681 1681 1689 1690 1700 1701 1709 1714 1719 1723 1742 1732 1742 1752 1760 1778 1782 1789 1791 1796 1800 1800 1803 1807 1810 1812 1818 1818 1819 1819 1831 1832 1836 1841 1850 1853 1853 1859 1860 1863 1873 1878 1885 B U IL T E L E M E N T S G E O G R A P H IC A L N A M E S M A T H E M A T IC A L E L E M E N T S E X P L A N A T O R Y E L E M E N T S R el ie f V eg et at io n W at er S et tl em en ts B u il t St ru ct u re s R o ad s B o rd er s C h o ro n ym s O ro n ym s H yd ro n ym s S et tl em en t N am es N am es O f B u il t St ru ct u re s S ca le G ra ti cu le T it le L eg en d C o lo p h o n E xp la n at o ry T ex t D ec o ra ti ve E le m en ts A d d it io n al In se ts Representation method H ac h u re s M o le h il ls D o ts S em ic ir cl es Sh ad in g T ri an gl es C o n to u r li n es C o n to u r la ye rs Sp o t el ev at io n s G ra ss la n d F o re st O t h er R iv er s B o d ie s o f w at er P o in ts W in d /c o m p as s ro se C ar to u ch e Il lu st ra ti o n s O th er d ec o ra ti ve e le m en ts P an o ra m as O th er i ll u st ra ti o n s C it y p la n s M ap s O th er a d d it io n al i n se ts 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 45 Primož Gašperič, A new standardized methodology for analyzing cartographic information on old maps was measured in a unit known as a tovor ‘seam’, usually corresponding to approximately 150 kg (Kosi 1998). In the sixteenth century, the transport of goods between the Mediterranean region and the surrounding countryside (in both directions) could even amount to 200,000 seams during the peak season (Gestrin 1991). It can be concluded that it exceeded 30,000 tons per year. At the end of the sixteenth century, an average of around 20,000 oxen per year were driven through Slovenian territory to the Republic of Venice (Zwitter 2014). The 1787 data show that approximately 15,500 wagons of various sizes passed through the Vrhnika toll station in both directions (Šorn 1979). In 1806 and 1807, the transit transport between Ljubljana and Trieste alone included 80,000 wagons (Holz 1994). Gradually the belief developed that even features that may have previously been taken for granted (e.g., roads for going from one place to another) must be depicted on maps. The main reason for this, though, may be cartographic development itself or the change in the representation of relief. As already mentioned (Figure 5), around 1800 a change occurred in the representation of the Earth’s surface, when a stylized rep- resentation using molehills (a profile perspective) was replaced by hachuring (a plan perspective). In this way, technical limitations hindering a detailed representation of roads were eliminated. The method presented is designed to examine all maps in the period studied. However, a limitation of the study is related to the problems in searching for cartographic material or with its public accessibil- ity, and to identifying and interpreting specific cartographic symbols. In principle, more maps means better results but, when looking for cartographic material, one may not be aware of all the material available in archives, libraries, private collections, and online. In addition, identifying cartographic symbols may be subjective, not only in terms of the researcher or map reader, but also the cartographer, who is either famil- iar or unfamiliar with the territory mapped, or is overly casual in its representation. A good example is the representation of an olive grove on a 1561 map by Wolfgang Lazius, who also used the same or a sim- ilar symbol for areas more suitable for viticulture (Figure 19). Hence it follows that the new method presented in this article is primarily intended for studying old maps from the fifteenth to nineteenth centuries. Old maps are usually very simplified, whereas modern maps (especially from the end of the nineteenth cen- tury onward) are already made following a uniform standard and based on expert data. Due to differences in the cartographic content, an examination of even older maps (from before the fifteenth century) or more recent maps (from the twentieth century) would require changes in methodology. This study has certain limitations. On the oldest maps in particular, certain representation methods are unclear or inconsistent (e.g., molehills, trees, and so on), which made it more difficult to identify indi- vidual characteristics (e.g., those of graphic variables). Because of poorer technical possibilities and knowledge, as well as non-standardized symbols and map structure, on old maps individual symbols are drawn with- out any special principles. This resulted in idiosyncratic depictions, which are often difficult to classify under a specific evaluation category. To avoid this, uniform rules for evaluating all maps equally were defined in the data form. 46 Figure 24: A similar green cartographic symbol was used to represent an olive grove near Koper and Trieste (left), and a vineyard in the Bizeljsko region (right) on a 1561 map by Wolfgang Lazius. N A C IO N A LN A I S V E U Č IL IŠ N A K N JI ŽN IC A U Z A G R E B U 63-2_acta49-1.qxd 4.12.2023 6:25 Page 46 In addition, a review of the geographical, cartographic, and historical literature did not identify any study comparably analyzing cartographic elements on old maps. Unfortunately, it was therefore impossi- ble to make a comparison with other studies. 5 Conclusion This article presents a new method for simultaneously examining a random number of cartographic ele- ments and symbols on maps with similar characteristics in terms of scale, location, and content. This study proved that old maps are an important primary source of information that cannot be found in written or pictorial archival material (Zorn 2007). They provide an important complement to historical written sources, but the depictions on them may be the result of the author’s or producer’s preferences or (incorrect) per- ceptions (Štular 2010). In 1733, the Anglo-Irish satirist Jonathan Swift nicely verbalized the problem of the cartographer’s ignorance in his poem On Poetry: A Rhapsody: »So geographers, in Afric maps, »With savage pictures fill their gaps, »And o’er unhabitable downs »Place elephants for want of towns.« Therefore, old maps require a critical and standardized research approach, like the one presented in this article. A special digital data form was created to examine the maps and analyze cartographic elements over the entire period studied in a uniform way. The data form was built based on a division of cartographic elements into the five main groups, which were further divided into four subgroups at lower hierarchical levels. The study included fifty-eight medium-scale topographic maps produced from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. The results show that different types of cartographic elements developed at different paces at dif- ferent times (Figure 18). The main findings regarding the cartographic elements on old maps are provided here. In terms of vegetation, stylized representations of forest predominate. However, in the second half of the nineteenth century there is no longer any vegetation depicted on maps because cartographers real- ized the inappropriateness of such practice, which required additional fieldwork and limited the map’s clarity and usefulness. Roads were only rarely depicted before the eighteenth century, whereas they appear on all maps since the nineteenth century. This had to do with a shift in the perception of the importance of roads for economic importance and their cartographic representation. Settlements are often depicted inter- changeably with built structures (e.g., castles), which shows that the authors were unfamiliar with the area displayed. Borders are marked on most maps, most often as colored areas and single lines with various patterns. The scale is usually provided in verbal and graphic form (the numeric form was rare), but the graticule is not labelled on any map. The group of explanatory elements was newly designed for the purposes of this study. It was estab- lished that the title is provided on most maps, usually inside the inner map frame. Cartouches stand out among the decorative elements, especially between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, and later other decorative elements (e.g., vignettes) are common. Legends only begin to be used in the early eighteenth century. In some places, a chain reaction occurred, where a change in the representation or frequency of one type of cartographic element affected another type. Hence, for instance, the shift from a stylized repre- sentation of relief (molehills) to a plastic representation (hachures) and the subsequent »freeing up« of space on the map led to more frequent use of other elements (e.g., roads, rivers, and geographical names). It is similar with representations of vegetation (forest was replaced by river systems, relief, roads, and geo- graphical names) and rivers (this led to a smaller number of hydronyms). The density of road symbols increased from the end of the eighteenth century onward, which facilitated better orientation, but also led to poorer map readability because roads were often depicted very similarly to rivers. This methodology can be further improved by changing the selection of data studied. If more modern maps were selected, this would primarily require an expansion of the representation methods selected. 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