UDK 902.65:9n.52(497.4):903.4"634/636":55i.58i.2 Documenta Praehistorica XXXV (2008) Settlements, landscape and palaeoclimate dynamics on the Ižica floodplain of the Ljubljana Marshes Mihael Budja1, Dimitrij Mleku/1 1 Department of archaeology, Faculty of Arts Ljubljana University, SI miha.budja@ff.uni-lj.si ABSTRACT - In this paper we present the results of the radiocarbon dating of organic sediments from palaeochannels we have mapped by LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) imagery on the Ižica flood- plain. We point out that the palaeochannels and the settlement structures at Maharski prekop site are contemporaneous. We hypothesise that the episodes in past river behaviour on the Ljubljana Marshes correspond with climate anomalies in European palaeoclimate records in the Holocene. IZVLEČEK - V članku predstavljamo rezultate radiokarbonskega (14C) datiranja organskih depozitov v paleostrugah, ki smo jih kartirali z LiDAR posnetkom površja v poplavni ravnici Ižice. Dokazuje- mo, da so paleostruge in prazgodovinsko naselje Maharski prekop sočasni. Ugotavljamo, da se spre- membe v rečni mreži in hidrološkem režimu časovno prekrivajo z nizom klimatskih anomalij v ho- locenu. KEY WORDS - Ljubljana Marshes; Holocene; LiDAR; palaeochannels; neo-eneolithic settlements; ra- diocarbon dating; climate anomalies Introduction Simplified interpretative postulates in the percep- tion of the prehistoric settlement patterns and pala- eolandscapes on the Ljubljana Marshes that 'lake chalk' and 'vertical piles' can be representamens of a 'prehistoric lake' and pile-dwellings built on it, and that they can mark the shift of post-Mesolithic, sup- posedly Neolithic settlements from the land to the lake were recently replaced by the model of an active river floodplain and settlements and catch- ment areas within. The interpretative reduction that a series of vertical piles relates to the function of platform holders exclusively was compensated by the complex interpretation of a series of 2432 verti- cal wooden piles at the Maharski prekop site that show the number of rectangular wooden structures (group of houses), and a structure running parallel with the palaeochannel that is believed to protect the settlement against river bank erosion (for details see Budja 1994 (1995); 1997; Budja, Mlekuž 2001; Mlekuž, Budja, Ogrinc 2006). In this paper, we present the results of the radiocar- bon dating of the organic sediments from palaeo- channels we have mapped by the LiDAR (Light De- tection and Ranging) imagery. These data are than compared with and discussed in relation to Holocene climate anomalies. We hypothesise that the episodes in past river behaviour on the Ljubljana Marshes cor- respond with climate anomalies in European palaeo- climate records. Ižica floodplain and LiDAR The Ižica is a river with an extensive karstic water- shed in the Dinaric plateau south of the Ljubljana Marshes. It is a low energy river characterized by a very low gradient, broad floodplain and dominant fine-grained sedimentation. The Ižica was a mobile river and left earlier channels scattered across the floodplain. They can be identified on aerial photos as cropmarks, mainly as faint, broad anomalies, which do not enable the identification of individual chan- nels. Aerial photographs reveal a very complex pa- limpsest of palaeochannels. In order to create a more complete picture of the Iži- ca floodplain an airborne LiDAR survey of the part of the floodplain was commissioned. An area of 1300 x 600m (78 hectares) was surveyed. Eneolithic and Bronze Age sites (Resnikov prekop and Maharski prekop) are located in the surveyed area. LiDAR is frequently used as a tool for examining aspects of river floodplains, most often for geomorphological mapping or flood prediction purposes (Lohani and Mason 2001; Charlton et al. 2003; Cobby et al. 2001; Marks and Bates 2000; Challis 2005; 2006; Jones et al. 2006). A LiDAR digital terrain model exposes extensive geo- morphological detail of the study area and allows us to resolve fine details of the floodplain and terrace (Fig. 1). Three-dimensional elevation data enable us to discern the stratigraphic relations between flood- plain features and to create cross-channel profiles. LiDAR provides us with a much more complete and detailed picture of the geomorphology than aerial photography (Jones et al. 2007). The results of LiDAR allow us to discern two main geomorphologi- cal units in the study area - an older terrace and a younger and lower active floodplain. The difference in elevation between units is up to 40cm. The most obvious features of the study area are the palaeo- channels, visible as slight depressions in the land- scape; however, LiDAR reveals other features, such as levees, and ridge and swale. Based on the relative stratigraphic positions of pa- laeochannels, at least four distinctive phases of flu- vial activity can be discerned. The first phase is cha- racterized by a number of thin, relatively straight channels preserved on the terrace, suggesting a past Fig. 1. LiDAR terrain model with the location of borehole records and radiocarbon dates of channels infill. anastomosing regime. The sec- ond phase is represented by wide anastomosing channels in direct superposition with some phase one channels. Third phase is marked by the degra- dation of the Ižica and the cre- ation of an active floodplain. This process created a well-de- veloped terrace edge and pre- served phase 1 and 2 channels on the terrace. Ižica became a more sinuous river. The most distinctive features of this phase are the ridge and swale features in the floodplain, with thalwegs, indicating signifi- cant lateral channel migration and meander core growth. And lastly, the fourth phase is a mo- dern network, the result of flood-control and irrigation works in the 19 th and 20 th cen- turies (Fig. 2). The change from straight and anastomosing to sinuous/mean- dering channels and degrada- tion of the Ižica shows that there were significant changes in the hydrological regime of the streams draining the Ižica floodplain that were probably connected to Holocene climate anomalies. Dating of palaeochannels Systematic mapping of the study area allowed the selection of key localities for direct dating of the palaeochannels. Locations for boreholes were cho- sen on the base of LiDAR map and field inspections (Fig. 1). Boreholes were drilled with a motorized auger of 8cm diameter. Only substantial, spatially contiguous stratigraphic units were recorded. The model records the details of at least three sedimen- tary units: topsoil, organic deposits and lacustrine marls. In total, 9 boreholes were drilled and examined; five samples from five boreholes were directly dated in the first phase of the project (Fig. 1). Samples for Fig. 2. LiDAR image (a) and, Maharski prekop and Resnikov prekop sites in the context of Ižica floodplain. The landscape is structured by an interlocking pattern of palaeochannels, and at least three phases of superimposedpalaochanels can be observed (b) (after Mlekuž, Budja, Ogrinc 2006.Fig.2). AMS radiocarbon dates were collected from the bot- tom of organic channel infill, 5 to 20cm above the lacustrine marl. This assumes that dates post-date channel cutting and provide maximum age (termi- nus ante quem) for channel infilling and abandon- ment. Borehole 1 was located in a phase 1 palaeochannel near the site of Maharski prekop. On the ground, the depression is very evident. The borehole was com- prised of topsoil underlain by fibrous dark organic deposit. At 120cm there is a sharp transition to chalky lacustrine marls. A sample of the organic de- posit collected from 110cm yielded a radiocarbon age range 4782-4414 calBP (Beta-233028)1. Borehole 3 was drilled in a straight phase 1 channel, southwest of the Maharski prekop site. It shows very similar stratigraphy, with topsoil, organic rich sedi- 1 All the dates in the text are calibrated with the program CALIB version 5.10., and given in two sigma ranges (Reimer et al. 2004). The conventional radiocarbon dates are presented on Table 1. ment and a sharp transition to lacustrine marls at 115cm. A sample from 110cm yielded age range 5725-5591 calBP (Beta-233029). Borehole 7 was recovered from the phase 1 palaeo- channel southeast of the Maharski prekop site. The sample was taken from a depth of 50cm, 5cm above the marl, and yielded age range 5310-5046 calBP (Beta-233032). Borehole 5 was located at the junction of the straight channel and wider, second phase channel. A sample of organic sediment from 125cm, 20cm above the la- custrine marl, yielded age range 3335-3072 calBP (Beta-233030). Borehole 6 was located at the edge of the wide, sec- ond phase palaeochannel, 50m west of borehole 5. A sample from a depth of 100cm, 20cm above the marls, yielded age range 5929-5746 calBP (Beta- 233031). This date can be considered as too early for the infill of the second phase channel. The dated channel is in direct superposition with the first phase channel, dated with borehole 7 (see above) to age range 5310-5046 calBP. The date from borehole 5 suggest that this second phase channel could be da- ted to before age range 3335-3072 calBP. We as- sume that the date pre-dates channel cutting and ac- tually dates the terrace surface. This is supported by a piece of prehistoric pottery found in the borehole, indicating that we dated an undisturbed surface, pre- dating channel cutting. We therefore suggest that 5929-5746 calBP is the age range of the terrace sur- face. Radiocarbon dates place the first phase of the palae- ochannels before 5725 calBP. Thus, at the latest at 3776 calBC this part of Ljubljana Marshes was an ac- tive floodplain and not a shallow lake, as the tradi- tional view suggests. Maharski prekop settlement on the Ižica flood- plain The radiocarbon data indicate that the south-eastern part of Ljubljana Marshes was already settled in the tenth millennium BP. The earliest series of conven- tional radiocarbon dates from the Breg and Babna Gorica sites are followed by radiocarbon dates from Resnikov prekop and Maharski prekop (Tab. 1). Palynological data indicate that the floodplain sup- ported mixed-deciduous woodland, composed pre- dominantly of Quercus, Corylus, Fagus and Alnus, but with some coniferous elements and open ground herbaceous taxa. In addition, the presence of cereal type pollen is attested at least from 6000 calBP (Šer- celj 1975.121-122; Gardner 1999.130, 189). Exten- sive burning in the period 5550-5330 calBP that may have related to human activity in the area is hy- pothesised from high values in the charcoal curve. Increased burning (clearance) correlates with a sharp decline in arboreal pollen and an expansion of her- baceous taxa, particularly cereal type pollen and Poaceae, and thus supports the notion of fields sur- rounded by woodland (Gardner 1999.130, 165, 168; see also Andrič 2007). In the composite plan of 2432 vertical wooden piles at Maharski prekop site, two patterns are recognized (Fig. 3). The first consists of rectangular wooden structures that were recognized as a group of houses with sizes of around 8-10 x 3.5-4.5m arranged in parallel. Each house is built of three rows of structu- ral timbers, with a central row of centre-posts sup- porting a roof ridge pole; the lateral rows are wall posts. The floors were plastered with clay, and the stone features are probably the remains of thermal structures in the front/back of the house, or might be paved surfaces. Pottery, stone and bone tools are often deposited directly upon burned clay surfaces. The superpositions of clay floors separated by a thin layer of occupational debris may indicate the perio- dic rebuilding of surfaces. Houses were oriented with the longer side parallel to the channel. However, there is at least one house which is oriented perpen- dicularly to the others. Three woods, oak (Quercus), ash (Fraxinus) and rowan (Sorbus), comprise more than 90% of identified taxa (Bregant 1974; 1975; Šercelj 1973; 1975; Budja 1994 (1995); 1997; Mle- kuž, Budja, Ogrinc 2006). The second relates to two or three dense linear con- centrations of piles running on the eastern side of the excavated area. The piles, of much smaller dia- meters than those mentioned above, were hamme- red into the palaeochannel slope, recognized at the hypothesised settling outskirts (Bregant 1975.18- 20; Šercelj 1973; 1975). The structure is believed to have protected the site from floods and river bank erosion. Abrupt climate changes in the Holocene The 8200 calBP 'climate event' which abruptly and drastically changed global environments during the transition to farming in southeastern Europe is re- cently an intensively discussed topic. Less attention is being devoted to later climate oscillations and as- sociated contrasting patterns of hydrological chan- ges in Europe in response to abrupt climate changes and cooling phases. There were several cooling os- cillations, hydrological reversals and major atmos- pheric circulation changes, recorded globally at c. 8200, 5200, 4200, 3500, 1200, and 600 calBP (Roh- ling et al. 2002a; 2002b; Alley et al. 2003; Mayew- ski et al. 2004) (Fig. 4). From the central European Neo-Eneolithic perspec- tive the most important are the climate oscillations in the period 5600-5000 calBP. The records from various regions in both hemispheres show global cooling and contrasting patterns of hydrological changes. The changes in vegetation cover, glacier ad- vance and decline in tree lines in the mountains, in- creasing permafrost and retreating timberlines at high latitudes, cooler sea surface temperatures and ice-sheet isotope records at the poles have been re- corded. In the European Alps the cooling has been assessed at 1-1.5° C for mean summer temperatures. While in central Asia, in the northern part of Africa and in the southern Mediterranean region where drier conditions were predominant, there were wet- ter conditions over intermediate latitudes between approx. Latitudes 40° and 60° in west-central Eu- rope, where large fluctuations in river and lake lev- els and regional humidity have been recorded (Ma- yewski et al. 2004; Magny 2004; Magny and Hass 2004). These climate oscillations were being more recently recognized in western central European pa- laeoenvironmental and archaeological data as an ab- rupt tripartite climate change associated with drastic lake level fluctuations at 5550-5320 calBP (Magny et al. 2006). It is defined as 'Episode 9' in the long sequence of Alpine lake level fluctuations (Magny 2004.74). The sequence consists of 15 successive episodes of higher lake levels in the Holocene. 'Episode 1' is da- ted just prior to 1394 AD, and 'Episode15' to a age range between 11 250 and 11 050 calBP (Magny 2004; Magny et al. 2006). The reconstruction of the episodes is based on regional patterns of palaeo- hydrological changes and lake level transgressions and regressions that have been recognized recently in palaeoenvironmental data and in a set of 180 ra- diocarbon, tree-ring and archaeological dates ob- tained from 26 lakes in the Jura Mountains, the northern French Pre-Alps and the Swiss Plateau. 'Episode 9' shows three successive peaks of higher water levels in Lake Constance (Bodensee), Lake Ge- Fig. 3. Maharski prekop site. In the compos- ite plan of vertical wooden piles at Maharski prekop site, two patterns are recognized. The first consists of rectangular wood- en structures that were recognized as a group of houses arranged in parallel. The second relates to two or three dense linear con- centrations of piles running on the palaeochannel slope. A palaeo- channel incised in the lacustrine marl can be clearly seen on the plan (see also Mlekuž, Budja, Ogrinc 2006). Mihael Budja, Dimitrij Mlekuž Tab. 1. Radiocarbon dates for Maharski prekop and Resnikov prekop sites, and Ižica floodplain palaeo- channels. Calibration performed with CALIB version 5.10., and given in two sigma ranges (Reimer et al. 2004;. Labcode Conventional radiocarbon age (BP) CalBP age range (20) CalBC age range (20) Material Context Reference Babna Gorica GrA-9855 5900+50 6881-6569 4932-4620 Charcoal Excavations 1995; SU 09 GrA-9856 6290+50 7321-7025 5372-5076 Charcoal Excavations 1995; SU 19 GrA-9857 6200+50 7249-6976 5300-5027 Charcoal Excavations 1995; SU 17 GrA-9440 6700+50 7660-7483 5711-5534 Other/Chalky lacustrine marls Excavations 1995; SU 20 Resnikov prekop Z-345 5850 +150 7142-6312 5193-4363 Wood Excavations 1962, pile 5 Srdoc et al. 1987.354 Hd-24038 5718 + 23 6627-6437 4678-4619 Wood (Alnus glutinosa) Excavations 2005, trench 3, pile 33 Cufar and Koren;i; 2006.124 Beta-182667 2120 + 40 2301-1991 352-42 Sediment Profile depth 120 cm Andri; 2006.Tab. 2 Beta-184792 2220 + 40 2331-2123 382-174 Sediment Profile depth 115 cm Andri; 2006.Tab. 2 Maharski prekop Z-278 4633 + 117 5594-4974 3645-3025 Wood (Quercus?) Excavations 1972, grid 12?, pile 40 Srdoc et al. 1975.152 Z-305 4345 + 113 5305-4617 3356-2668 Wood (Fraxinus) Excavations 1973, grid 15, pile 1 Srdocet al. 1975.152 Z-3i4 4964+ 99 5919-5482 3970-3533 Wood Srdoc et al. 1975.152 Z-3i5 4701 + 104 5644-5055 3695-3106 Wood (Sorbus) Excavations 1972, grid 15, pile 4 Srdoc et al. 1975.152 Z-35i 5080 + 110 6174-5594 4225-3645 Wood (Sorbus) Excavations 1974, test trench 4 grid 42, pile 156 Srdoc et al. 1977 4 65-475 Z-353 4330 +120 5300-4580 3351-2631 Wood Excavations 1974, test trench 4 Srdoć: et al. 1977 4 65-475 AA-27182 4680 + 55 5581-5311 3632-3362 Charcoal MP1 sediment exposure, charchoal layer 61-63 cm Gardner 1999.Table 5.1 AA-27183 4980 + 60 5892-5601 3943-3652 Charcoal MP1 sediment exposure, charchoal layer 138cm Gardner 1999.Table 5.1 Beta-219606 4740 + 40 5586-5326 3637-3377 Bone (Ovis) Grid square 42 Mleku/ et al. 2006 Beta-219607 4720 + 40 5583-5323 3634-3374 Bone (Ovis) Grid square 42 Mleku/ et al. 2006 Beta-219608 4710 + 40 5582-5321 3633-3372 Bone Grid square 42 Mleku/ et al. 2006 Beta-219609 6570 + 40 7563-7424 5614-5475 Bone Grid square 34 Mleku/ et al. 2006 Beta-219610 4750 + 50 5589-5325 3640-3376 Bone Grid square 34 Mleku/ et al. 2006 Beta-219611 4740 + 40 5586-5326 3637-3377 Bone Grid square 32 Mleku/ et al. 2006 Palaeochannels Beta-233028 4020 + 40 4782-4414 2833-2465 Organic sediment Borehole 1, 110 cm Beta-233029 4920 + 40 5725-5591 3776-3642 Organic sediment Borehole 2, 110 cm Beta-233030 3000 + 40 3335-3072 1386-1123 Organic sediment Borehole 3, 50 cm Beta-233031 5110 + 40 5929-5746 3980-3797 Organic sediment Borehole 4, 105 cm Beta-233032 4520 + 40 5310-5046 3361-3097 Organic sediment Borehole 5, 100 cm neva and Jurassic lakes that correlate to abrupt tri- partite climate changes between 5550 and 5320 calBP, supposedly caused by varying solar activity, as it corresponds with climatic cooling and/or chan- ges in moisture conditions in various regions in both hemispheres. Moreover, the mid-Holocene climate oscillations appear to have been characterised by in- termediate warm spells within a distinct succession of strong cooling episodes. The tripartite sequence of abrupt increases in lake water levels was reconstructed from sediment and pollen analyses of a sediment sequence at Lake Con- stance. The first abrupt high level event was dated to age range 5647-5478 calBP. The second abrupt rise in lake level appears to have occurred in three distinct episodes of rising lake levels at c. 5500 calBP. The third sudden rise in lake level was dated be- fore a range of 5583-5317 calBP. This event is mar- ked by rapid depositions of sediment shortly after building destruction at Arbon-Bleiche 3, the 'Neoli- thic pile-dwellings site' located at the lake shore (Magny 2004; Magny et al. 2006). It has been sug- gested that this was associated with settlement aban- donment at 5320 calBP, accord- ing to dendrochronological dat- ing (Leuzinger 2000). Although available data does not allow us to correlate episodes of Alpine lake level fluctuations with the development and change of fluvial network on the Ižica flood- plain directly, we may hypothe- sise that this mid-Holocene ab- rupt climate change and associ- ated reversion to wetter condi- tions affected regional hydrolo- gical regimes and river behaviour on the Ljubljana Marshes and their catchments in the karstic Dinaric Mountains and Julian Pre-Alps. The dynam- ics of channel bed movements (in different direc- tions) and their abundance in the first phase of flu- vial activity on the Ižica floodplain in the age ranges 5725-5591 calBP and 5310-5046 calBP are broad- ly contemporary with the tripartite climate reversal and the sequence of abrupt increases and decreases in water levels in Lake Constance, Lake Geneva and Jurassic lakes (Fig. 5). Similar age ranges of 5644- 5055 (Z-315) and 5305-4617 (Z-305) were obta- ined for the wooden structure believed to protect the Maharski prekop settlement against floods and river bank erosion. Fig. 4. The correlation of mid-European lake level fluctuations and the Holocene climate anomalies, recorded in Polar Circulation Index at GISP2, the atmospheric residual 14C variations, and the ice-rafting de- bris (IRD) events in the North Atlantic Ocean (after Magny 2004.Fig 3). The third phase of fluvial activity on the Ižica flood- plain is marked by larger streams, lateral channel movement, and bank erosion. The LiDAR image clear- ly shows that the Resnikov prekop site is situated in the area, damaged by the third phase channels. Re- cently performed stratigraphical, sedimenological and palynological analyses at the Resnikov prekop site showed that the settlement deposit was washed out by intensive river erosion (Andrič 2006; Velušček 2007.426). Two radicarbon dates of the channel in- fill, in the age ranges 2336-2146 calBP (Beta - 184792) and 2148-2040 calBP (Beta - 182667), both post-date the event, may indicate that it corres- Fig. 5. The chronological sequence of 'episodes' (4-11) of abrupt increases in lake water levels in the Jura Mountains, the northern French Pre-Alps and the Swiss Plateau (Magny 2004; Magny et al. 2006), and calibration ranges at 1 and 2 standard deviations (calBP) of radiocarbon dates from Babna gorica and palaeochannels in Ižica floodplain. ponds to an abrupt cooling phase, and to the major flood event in west-central Europe 'after c. 2700 calBP and before c. 2265 calBP' as Michel Magny (2006. 13) suggests. It is worth pointing out the complex floodplain lake level fluctuations and fluvial dynamics on the north- eastern edge of the Ljubljana Marshes that predate those on the Ižica floodplain. Microclimate proxy data from the bottom part of the stratigraphic sequence of the Babna Gorica test trench indicate dynamic events in the age range of 7660 to 6976 calBP. In the bottom part of the stratigraphic sequence trans- gression/regression dynamics of a probable flood- plain lake are recorded. A layer of lacustrine marls is dated to age range 7660-7483 calBP (GrA-9440). It is covered by an organogenic layer dated to age range 7249-6976 calBP (GrA-9857) associated with a buried soil horizon. The area was inundated again, as demonstrated by a thin layer of lake marl. Above it, another buried soil horizon was identified. Wood stumps and charcoal deposition in age range of 7321-7025 calBP (GrA-9856) were contextualised within it. Thereafter, a series of loam, sand and gra- vels deposits was recorded after the age range 6881- 6569 calBP (GrA9855) that indicates the dynamic al- luvial episodes (Vidic 1997; Mlekuž, Budja, Ogrinc 2006.257). The floodplain lake transgression and regression sequence runs parallel with the 'Episode 11 (7550-7250 calBP)' of abrupt central European lake-level fluctuations (Magny 2004.72) (Fig. 6). Conclusions The absolute dates of the first phase palaeochannels identified on LiDAR imagery are contemporary with the dates from the Maharski prekop site. The wood- en structures, either rectangular buildings or struc- ture that run parallel with the channel, demonstrate the overlapping age range. It is worth noting, how- ever, that the abandoned channel was already iden- tified and excavated in the 1970s (Bregant 1975.18- 20). The palaeochannels and the settlement reveal a microtopography suitable for settlement which, although prone to seasonal flooding, offered an at- tractive resource for floodplain agriculture. There- fore, we can imagine Maharski prekop as a dispersed settlement with several settlement foci located on the channel levees and surrounded by fields. We suggest that the complexity of fluvial and allu- vial process on the Ljubljana Marshes, dependent on palaeoclimate oscillations, must be incorporated in an adequate understanding of landscape dynamics 290 m ^Disturbance ^Wood — Charcoal lm Fig. 6. Babna gorica test section 2. A layer of lacu- strine marls (20) is covered by an organogenic la- yer associated with a buried soil horizon (19). The area was inundated again, as demonstrated by a layer of lake marl (18). Above it, another buried soil horizon was identified (11) with wellpreser- ved wood stumps and charcoal deposition contex- tualised within (17). Thereafter, a series of loam, sand and gravels deposits was recorded that indi- cates the dynamic alluvial episodes (for stable iso- tope St3C and St5N analysis see Mlekuž, Budja, Og- rinc 2006.257-258). and settlement patterns in the microregion. Further- more, the age ranges of changes in the Ižica flood- plain palaeochannel system and Babna Gorica flood- plain lake transgression and regression correspond with Alpine lake level fluctuations and mid-Holocene global cooling and contrasting patterns of hydrologi- cal changes. We present here fragmentary data that can have heuristic value only at the southeastern part of Ljub- ljana Marshes to show that at least at the time of occupation (and probably even earlier) of the Resni- kov prekop and Maharski prekop sites, this part of the Ljubljana marshes was not covered by a shallow lake, as the traditional view suggests, and that chan- ges in hydrology correspond to abrupt climate chan- ges. However, intensive multidisciplinary palaeoen- vironmental research and adequate radiometric da- ting of particular contexts can be the way forward in interpreting the complex archaeological and palaeo- environmental records of the Ljubljana Marshes. -ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS- We would like to acknowledge the research was sup- ported by the Slovenian Research Agency: Project J6- 6013-0581-04' and, Research Programme Arheolo- gija P6-247. REFERENCES ALLEY R. B., MAROTZKE J., NORDHAUS W. D., T. OWER- PECK J., PETEET D. M., PIELKE Jr. R. A., PIERREHUMBERT R. T., RHINES P. B., STOCKER T. F., TALLEY L. D., WALLACE J. M. 2003. Abrupt Climate Change. Science 299(5615): 2005-2009. ANDRIČ M. 2006. Ali lahko analiza pelodnega zapisa v kulturni plasti arheološkega najdišča pove, kakšna vege- tacija je rasla v okolici? Primer: Resnikov prekop. In A. Ve- lušček (ed.), Resnikov prekop, najstarejša koliščarska naselbina na Ljubljanskem barju. Opera Instituti Archa- eologici Sloveniae 10: 103-113. 2007. Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela kraji- na and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissi- milar? In M. Budja (ed.), 14th Neolithic Studies. Docu- menta Praehistorica 34:177-89. BREGANT T. 1974a. Kolišče ob Maharskem prekopu pri Igu - raziskovanja leta 1972. Poročilo o raziskovanju neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji 3: 39-67. 1974b. Kolišče ob Maharskem prekopu pri Igu - razis- kovanja leta 1970. Poročilo o raziskovanju neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji 3: 7-35. 1975. Kolišče ob Maharskem prekopu pri Igu - razis- kovanja 1973. in 1974. leta. Poročilo o raziskovanju neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji 4: 7-114. BUDJA M. 1994(1995). Spreminjanje naravne in kulturne krajine v neolitiku in eneolitiku na Ljubljanskem barju I. Poročilo o raziskovanju paleolitika, neolitika in eneoli- tika v Sloveniji 22:163-81. 1997. Landscape changes in the neolithic and copper ages in Slovenia: case study: the Ljubljansko Barje re- gion. In Chapman J. and Dolukhanov P. (eds.), Land- scapes in Flux (Central and Eastern Europe in anti- quity). Colloquia Pontica 3, Oxbow books, 77-88. BUDJA M. and MLEKUŽ D. 2001. GIS support in recon- structing Neolithic flood-plain dynamics: The Ljubljana Moor case. In B. Slapšak (ed.), On the good use of geogra- phic information systems in archaeological landscape studies (Proceedings of the COST G2 WG2 Round Table, Ljubljana, 18 to 20 December 1998, EUR, COST Action G2, 19708), European Communities Luxembourg: 117-26. CHARLTON M. E., LARGE A. R. G. and FULLER I. C. 2003. Application of airborne LiDAR in river environments: the River Coquet, Northumberland, UK. Earth Surface Proces- ses and Landforms 28: 299-306. CHALLIS K. 2005. Airborne Lidar: A Tool for Geoarchaeo- logical Prospection in Riverine Landscapes. In Stoepker H. (ed.), Archaeological Heritage Management in Rive- rine Landscapes. Rapporten Archeologische Monumen- tenzorg 126: 11-24. 2006. Airborne laser altimetry in alluviatedlandscapes. Archaeological Prospection 13:103-127. COBBY D. M., MASON D. C. and DAVENPORT I. J. 2001. Image processing of airborne scanning laser altimetry data for improved river flood modelling. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 56:121-138. GARDNER A. 1999. The impact of Neolithic agriculture on the environment of South-East Europe. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge. JONES A. F., BREWER P. A., JOHNSTONE E. and MACKLIN M. G. 2007. High-resolution interpretative geomorpholo- gical mapping of river environments using airborne LiDAR data. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 31:1574- 1592. LEUZINGER U. 2000. Die jungsteinzeitliche Seeufersied- lung Arbon-Bleiche 3. Befunde. Archäologie im Thur- gau, vol. 9. Verlag Huber, Frauenfeld. LOHANI B. and MASON D. C. 2001. Application of airborne scanning laser altimetry to the study of tidal channel geo- morphology. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Re- mote Sensing 56:100-20. MAGNY M. 2004. Holocene climate variability as reflect- edby mid-European lake-level fluctuations andits proba- ble impact on prehistoric human settlements. Quaternary International 113: 65-79. MAGNY M. and HAAS J. N. 2004. A major widespread clima- tic change around 5300 cal. yr BP at the time of the Alpine Iceman. Journal of Quaternary Science 19(5): 423-430. MAGNY M., LEUZINGER U., BORTENSCHLAGER S., NICO- LAS HAAS J. N. 2006. Tripartite climate reversal in Central Europe 5600-5300 years ago. Quaternary Research 65: 3-19. MLEKUŽ D., BUDJA M., OGRINC N. 2006. Complex settle- ment and the landscape dynamic of the Iščica floodplain (Ljubljana Marshes, Slovenia). In M. Budja (ed.), 13th Neo- lithic Studies. Documenta Praehistorica 33:253-71. MARKS K. and BATES P. 2000. Integration of high-resolu- tion topographic data with floodplain flow models. Hydro- logical Processes 14: 2109-2122. MAYEWSKI P. A., ROHLING E. E., STAGER J. C., KARLEN W., MAASCH K. A., MEEKER L. D., MEYERSON E. A., GASSE F., VAN KREVELD S., HOLMGREN K., LEE-THORP J., ROS- QVIST G., RACK F., STAUBWASSER M., SCHNEIDER R. R., STEIG E. J. 2004. Holocene climate variability. Quater- nary Research 62(3): 243-255. REIMER P. J. and 28 authors. 2004. IntCal04 Terrestrial Radiocarbon Age Calibration, 0-26 cal kyr BP. Radiocar- bon 46 (3): 1029-1059. ROHLING E. J., MAYEWSKI P. A., HAYES A., ABU-ZIED R. H., CASFORD J. S. L. 2002a. Holocene atmosphere-ocean in- teractions: records from Greenland and the Aegean Sea. Climate Dynamics 18:587-593. ROHLING E. J., CASFORD J., ABU-ZIED R., COOKE S., MER- CONE D., THOMSON J., CROUDACE I., JORISSEN F. J., BRINKHUIS H., KALLMEYER J., WEFER G. 2002b. Rapid Ho- locene climate changes in the eastern Mediterranean. In F. Hassan (ed.), Droughts, Food and Culture: Ecological Change and Food Security in Africa's Later Prehistory. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. London: 35- 46. SERCELJ A. 1973. Poročilo o ksilotonskih raziskavah koliš- ča ob Maharskem prekopu - raziskovanja leta 1972. Poro- čilo o raziskovanju neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji 3:69- 70. 1975. Analize makroskopskih in mikroskopskih rastlin- skih ostankov s kolišča ob Maharskemu prekopu, izko- pavanja 1973. in 1974. leta. Poročilo o raziskovanju paleolita, neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji 4:115-22. VELUŠČEK A. 2007. Prispevek k diskusiji o procesu neoli- tizacije. Arheološki vestnik 58: 425-434. VIDIC N. 1997. Poročilo o pedoloških raziskavah ob ar- heoloških izkopavanjih pri Babni Gorici (1995) in Bre- gu (1996). Center za pedologijo in varstvo rastlin. UL BTF Ljubljana. back to contents