DVE DOMOVINI • TWO HOMELANDS Razprave o izseljenstvu • Migration Studies ISSN 0353-6777 Glavni urednik / Editor-in-Chief Marjan Drnovšek E-mail: MarjanDr@zrc-sazu.si Mednarodni uredniški odbor / International Editorial Board Breda Čebulj Sajko, Dirk Hoerder, Aleksej Kalc, Milan Mesič, Mirjam Milharčič - Hladnik, Leopoldina Plut Pregelj, Andrej Vovko, Adam Walaszek, Rolf Worsdorfer, Janja Žitnik Prevod/Translation: Cveta Puncer Lektorica/Proofreader: Mija Mravlja Naslov uredništva / Editorial Office Address INŠTITUT ZA SLOVENSKO IZSELJENSTVO ZRC SAZU P.P. 306, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenija Tel.: (+386 1) 4706 485; Fax: (+386 1) 4257 802; E-mail: spelam@zrc-sazu.si Spletna stran: http://www.zrc-sazu.si/isi/dd.htm Website: http://www.zrc-sazu.si/ises/two.htm Uredniško korespondenco, rokopise in recenzentske izvode pošiljajte na naslov uredništva. Editorial correspondence, manuscripts and books for review should be addressed to the Editorial Office. Revija izhaja dvakrat letno. / The journal is published biannually. Letna naročnina 4.000 SIT. Kompleti in posamezni letniki so na voljo. Annual subscription 20 € for individuals, 30 € for institutions. Back issues avaible. Master Card / Euro Card and VISA preferred. Credit card orders must include card number and expiration date. Naročila sprejema / Orders should be sent to: Založba ZRC, P.P. 306, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenija Fax: (+386 1) 425 77 94; E-mail: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si O ZRC SAZU, Inštitut za slovensko izseljenstvo Revija izhaja s pomočjo Agencije za raziskovalno dejavnost R. Slovenije, Ministrstva za kulturo R. Slovenije, Urada vlade R. Slovenije za Slovence v zamejstvu in po svetu. C: 41 6390 dve DOMOVINI RAZPRAVE O IZSELJENSTVU two HOMELANDS MIGRATION STUDIES 22 • 2005 Izdaja Inštitut za slovensko izseljenstvo ZRC SAZU Published by The Institute for Slovenian Emigration Studies at the ZRC SAZU Ljubljana 2005 UUBLHNA Revija Dve domovini • Two Homelands je namenjena objavi razprav, znanstvenih in strokovnih člankov, poročil, razmišljanj in knjižnih ocen s področja mednarodnih migracij. Revija je večdisciplinarna in dvojezična. Članki so recenzirani. Rokopisov, kijih pošljejo uredništvu revije Dve domovini • Two Homelands, avtorji ne smejo hkrati poslati v objavo kaki drugi reviji. Dve domovini • Two Homelands is a journal devoted to the publication of essays, scholarly and specialist papers, reports, reflections and book reviews from the field of international migration. The journal is multi-disciplinary and bilingual. Articles undergo a review procedure. Manuscripts submitted to Dve domovini • Two Homelands should not be submitted simultaneously to another publication. Povzetki in indeksiranje / Abstracting and indexing services: FRANCIS (Sociology/Ethnology/Linguistics of Francis), IBZ - International Bibliography of Periodical Literature, IBR - International Bibliography of Book Reviews, Sociological Abstracts IBSS (International Bibliography of the Social Sciences) Oblikovanje/Design and graphic art Milojka Žalik Huzjan Fotografija na naslovnici / Cover photograph Skupina mladih Slovenk in Slovencev v Clevelandu leta 1939. Od leve proti desni: Fanica Udovich, Pepica Valencie (gornja vrsta), Danijel Hrvatin, Danica Hrvatin in Cilka Valencie (srednja vrsta), Eddie Udovič, Jelka Hrvatin in Mary Ann Valencie (spodnja vrsta). Povezava: glej prispevek Mirjam Milharčič-Hladnik. Lastnik fotografije je Joe Valencie iz Clevelanda, ZDA. A group of young Slovenian women and men in Cleveland in 1939. From left to right: Fanica Udovich, Pepica Valencie (upper line), Danijel Hrvatin, Danica Hrvatin and Cilka Valencie (middle line), Eddie Udovič, Jelka Hrvatin and Mary Ann Valencie (bottom line). Link: See contribution by Mirjam Milharčič-Hladnik. The owner of the photograph is Joe Valencie from Cleveland, USA. Tisk / Printed by Littera picta d. o. o., Ljubljana, Slovenija VSEBINA • CONTENTS Razprave in članki / Essays and Articles BARBARA FRIEHS Immigrant children in Austrian schools.........................................9 (Priseljenski otroci v avstrijskih šolah).....................................19 GERI SMYTH Multilingual conferencing: one city’s response to educating pupils from asylum seeking families..................................................21 (Večjezična konferenca: dovzetnost nekega mesta za izobraževanje učencev iz družin prosilk za azil)............................................28 MOJCA PEČEK Is primary school in Slovenia just and fair: the case of migrant children from former Yugoslavia........................................................29 (Je osnovna šola v Sloveniji pravična in poštena: primer izseljenskih otrok iz bivše Jugoslavije)...................................................48 IRENA LESAR The response of Slovenian teachers to the migrant children from former Yugoslavia....................................................................49 (Odziv slovenskih učiteljev na otroke priseljencev iz bivše Jugoslavije)......57 LIDIJA DIMKOVSKA Književnost priseljencev v Sloveniji - njene značilnosti in položaj v slovenski kulturi.........................................................59 (The literature of the immigrants in Slovenia - its characteristics and its position in Slovenian culture)............................................77 MARUŠA MUGERLI Slovenski prevodi literarnih del priseljenskih avtorjev po letu 1990..........79 (Slovenian translations of literary works by immigrant authors after the year 1990)................................................................92 SAŠKA ŠTUMBERGER Slovenski selitveni tokovi v Nemčijo in spreminjanje vloge slovenščine........95 (Slovenian migration streams to Germany and the changing of role of Slovenian language)...................................................113 KRISTINA TOPLAK Umetniška ustvarjalnost migrantov: primer Slovencev v Nemčiji................115 (Artistic creativity of migrants: the case of Slovenians in Germany).........127 MARINA LUKŠIČ - HACIN Migracijska situacija v Evropi po drugi svetovni vojni in postopna (politična) usklajevanja med članicami EGS (EU)..............................129 (Migration situation in Europe after World War II and progressive (political) adjustments between member states of European Union).............148 MAŠA MIKOLA Meje multikulturne komunikacije: etnično-simbolne reprezentacije v avstralskem prostoru.........................................................149 (The borders of multicultural communication: ethnic-symbolic representations in Australian space).....................................167 MIRJAM MILHARČIČ-HLADNIK Subjektivna realnost migracijskih procesov: brati, poslušati in razumeti migrantske izkušnje..........................................................169 (Subjective reality of migration processes: to read, listen to and to understand migrants ’ experiences).......................................196 IRENA GANTAR GODINA Slovenski izobraženci iz Prage na Hrvaško....................................197 (Slovenian intellectuals from Prague to Croatia).............................218 Portreti / Portraits Mihael Kuzmič (1942-2005) (JANJA ŽITNIK).....................................221 Knjižne ocene / Book Reviews Milan Mesič Medunarodne migracije. Tokovi i teorije, Societas, Zagreb 2002, 406 str. (JURE GOMBAČ)......................................................227 Abdelmalek Sayad The Suffering of the Immigrant, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2004 (MIRJAM MILHARČIČ-HLADNIK)...........................................229 Iris Adrič, Vladimir Arsenijevič in Dorde Matič (ur.) Leksikon yu mitologije, Rende in Postscriptum, 2004, 463 str. (JERNEJ MLEKUŽ)......................................................233 RAZPRAVE IN ČLANKI * Z < -j >u z ESSAYS AND ARTICLES M s g n < & ESSAYS AND ARTICLES IMMIGRANT CHILDREN IN AUSTRIAN SCHOOLS Barbara Friehs* COBISS 1.03 ABSTRACT Immigrant children in Austrian schools In connection with the Balkan crisis in the early 90’s many immigrants came to Austria. 15.2 % of all pupils attending compulsory schools in 2002/03 were from foreign countries. This causes a lot of problems. Foreign pupils have worse chances than their Austrian colleagues in the educational system, there is a lack of intercultural friendships among pupils, and also conflicts between expectations of immigrant families and the Western culture can be observed. Hence, a number of measures in the field of educational policy has to be implemented. An intercultural approach, as a chance of mutual learning from all different cultures, is predominant in Austrian schools. KEY WORDS: integration, immigrant cultural differences, language problems, teacher education, immigration wave, intercultural approach IZVLEČEK Priseljenski otroci v avstrijskih šolah Zaradi krize na Balkanu v začetku devetdesetih let je v Avstrijo prišlo veliko priseljencev. Kar 15,9 % učencev osnovnih šol v šolskem letu 2002/2003 je bilo iz drugih držav, kar je povzročilo probleme. Tuji učenci imajo v avstrijskem izobraževalnem sistemu slabše možnosti kot njihovi avstrijski kolegi, med učenci ni razvito multikulturno prijateljstvo, opazni so tudi konflikti med pričakovanji priseljenskih„družin in zahodno kulturo. Zaradi naštetega je v izobraževalno politiko treba vnesti številne ukrepe. Multikulturen pristop kot možnost obojestranskega učenja iz različnih kultur je v avstrijskih šolah prevladujoč. KLJUČNE BESEDE: integracija, kulturne razlike, jezikovni problemi, učiteljska izobrazba, priseljenski val, medkulturni pristop 1. INTRODUCTION When Austria’s expanding economy was confronted with labor shortage in the 60’s of the last century the government began to recruit migrant workers from South East Europe, mainly from former Yugoslavia and Turkey This system of incoming migrant * Univ.-Doz. DDr. Barbara Friehs, Universitat Graz, Institut fiir Erziehungswissenschaften, Meran-gasse 70, A-8010 Graz. Mail: bfriehs@yahoo.de Dve domovini • Two Homelands 22 • 2005, 9-19 workers was originally based on rotation, which meant that the workers were not supposed to bring their families along with them. They were expected to return after a few years to be replaced by new labor. But in fact quite the opposite happened. Despite of all policy intentions many migrant workers decided to stay in Austria. Families were reunited and many of the new immigrant children were bom in Austria. At that time, Austria did not really have any concept for integration measures for these children into the education system of the country. It was not before the mid 70’s when the presence of immigrant children in compulsory schools was officially taken notice of and dealt with in a more competent manner. Up to those days, it was mainly teachers who developed methods and models on their own to cope with the problems they were confronted with. When school authorities finally decided to face reality and accept the fact that an increasing number of immigrant children were sitting in Austria’s classrooms, their first reaction was to implement additional German language classes as well as mother tongue instruction for immigrant children. The idea, which was behind these supportive measures was not so much a quick integration process of these children, but more to facilitate re-integration in their countries of origin. The support was only offered at compulsory level as immigrant children were practically absent at upper secondary schools. Even though, quite many foreign people came to Austria during this first immigration wave after the Second World War, their number was still not high enough to have a considerable impact on Austrian educational instiUitions. As a consequence, the second generation after these migrant workers, assimilated “successfully” by more or less losing their native language and original identity. This changed considerably after the second immigration, or rather refugee wave in connection with the Balkan crisis in the early 90’s. During that time Austria’s population increased by more than a million to over eight million people altogether. Nowadays, approximately 45 % of all non-Austrian residents in this country are nationals of former Yugoslavia, and 17.5 % are of Turkish origin1 (Statistik Osterreich 2001). Statistical evidence shows an average percentage of immigrant and refugee children in Austrian elementary education of about 12 %, whereas Vienna has an average percentage of more than 33 % and in elementary schools in some parts of the city more than 85 % of non-native pupils. In Graz and Linz, the two other major cities of the country, the situation is similar. This time, everyone in Austria is also aware of the fact that the “new” immigrants will never return to their home countries but stay and that fact requires adequate political economic decisions. 1 In 2001, 764 314 residents (9.4 % of the total population) were non-Austrian nationals. Of these, more than a third (286 661) live in the capital, Vienna. The percentage of non-Austrian nationals in Vienna was 17.83 % in 2001 with more than 25 % in certain districts. In the eight other federal states, the percentage varies from 4.5 % (Burgenland) to 13.55 % (Vorarlberg), asf] iaosdjf aijdsf aidsf dapoisf aids fapids 2. IMMIGRANT CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS The Austrian constitution stipulates that state schools be accessible to all pupils, regardless of origin, gender, race, class, language, or religious belief. School attendance is compulsory for nine years for all children who have their permanent residence in Austria, regardless of their nationality. The total number of pupils attending compulsory schools in 2002/03 whose mother tongue is a language other than German was 103 877 (15.2 % of all pupils) (Statistik Osterreich 2003). The establishment of separate classes for immigrant pupils needs the consent of the Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, which is usually given only in special or emergency cases, as Austrian education policy rejects the idea of segregation. Hence pupils who are not Austrian citizens and whose mother tongue is not German are taught together with their native Austrian colleagues. Lack of German language skills is a major stumbling block in the adjustment of many immigrant children to their new schools, affecting their reading comprehension and accordingly many other areas. The significance of the children’s mother tongues in this context has so far been grossly underestimated by school representatives. Linguists claim that a full-fledged linguistic competence in the respective mother tongue does not only guarantee the child’s intellectual and emotional development but also facilitates the acquisition of a second language and improves academic achievement in general. This insight is backed up by the daily experience of teachers who work with immigrant children (Rosier 1994: 33). Many immigrant children are bilingual. They experienced primary socialization in their native language and acquire German as a second language. The problem is that they often only have a basic knowledge of their native language and a functional competence of German, mainly for “surviving” in schools. This leads to a de facto semi-bilinguality (Luchtenberg 1991: 56). Many native languages are regarded of lower value than German or English and often teachers do not allow their use within the class-room, as this is seen as a disturbing element. Therefore immigrant children often start disrespecting their own mother tongue that can even lead to a refusal to use it (GrieChaber/Ozel/Rehbein 1996: 173). Mother tongue instruction is not offered at a large scale level, however, due to lacking financial means and the large number of different native languages. Currently, the following languages are offered: Albanian, Arabic, Bulgarian, Chinese, Farsi, Hungarian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Romany, Russian, Serbo-Croat (Bosnian/Croat/ Serbian), Slovak, Spanish and Turkish. Any language may be taught, provided that there is enough demand, that trained teachers are available for the language in question. Also sufficient posts have to be provided for in the annual budget. Mother tongue teachers are employed throughout Austria, though some of them, notably teachers for the less common languages, work part time, teaching only a few lessons per week2. 2 Since 2000/01, it has been possible to study the two most commonly spoken languages of immi- It should be noted that there are no separate curricula for each language, but there exists one curriculum that can be used as a basis for all the languages offered3. The pupils’ mother tongues may be taught as optional subjects, either in separate (afternoon) classes or integrated into the general schedule, with the mother tongue teacher working alongside the class or subject teacher in the form of team teaching. The integrated model is widely practiced in Vienna, whereas afternoon provision is preferred in the other federal states. The number of lessons may vary from two to six a week. Mother tongue instruction is part of the mainstream school system, and the teachers are employed by the Austrian school authorities like all other teachers. Pupils are admitted to school according to their age. There are no formal test procedures for assessing the child’s competence in German. When a six-year-old child is enrolled at school, the head teacher usually talks with the child in order to find out whether he or she understands German or not. Pupils whose competence in German is not yet sufficient to follow classes held in German are admitted as so-called ex-ma-tricular pupils for a maximum period of two years. This is the case for six-year-olds as well as for iate comers’ (pupils older than six years of age) who have not studied German as a foreign language in their country of origin (bmbwk 2003). Ex-matricular pupils do not necessarily get grades during this period and automatically move up the next year. After this period of special status, it is assumed that pupils can generally follow instruction in the classroom, even though their competence in German is not yet comparable with that of native speakers. However, the general assessment criteria, as laid down in the legal guidelines, do not take into account the special learning situation of these pupils, so that they are basically treated like everyone else when it comes to grading. On the other hand, teachers have a wide range of discretion and are actively encouraged not to neglect the pupils’ individual circumstances. This shall contribute to an avoidance of school failure of immigrant pupils (Eurydice 2004). Ex-matricular pupils in compulsory schools may have up to twelve “German as a second language” lessons per week, matricular pupils in primary schools may have a maximum of five “German as a second language” lessons per week, and in secondary and pre-vocational schools the maximum number of “German as a second language” lessons is six a week. In all other school types the number of lessons per week is laid down by the school itself. A major reason why immigrants do not achieve in school, is their lower socioeconomic status, which affects the financial and parental support that children have at grants in Austria (i.e. Serbo-Croat and Turkish) as foreign languages at general secondary schools. It should be pointed out, however, that this option is not frequently exercised as, in practice, English is offered as a first foreign language by the overwhelming majority of all secondary schools. Serbo-Croat, but not Turkish, has been added to the curriculum of some academic secondary schools. 3 The curriculum for mother tongue instruction at primary schools is laid down in BGB1. 528/1992, the curriculum for (general and academic) secondary schools is laid down in BGB1. II Nr. 134/2000 respectively in BGB1. II Nr. 133/2000. home, and which is a proven factor in academic performance (Coleman 1986). There are significant differences in current living conditions between many native bom Austrian children and people of foreign origin. More advantaged pupils have educational supports such as encyclopedias and personal computers and can be offered additional private lessons in the afternoon that are quite expensive in Austria. They are also likely to have better educated parents who can help them with their homework, and can set an example of academic achievement. Immigrant pupils in general have higher dropout rates than the native-born. Here, again, German language proficiency plays an important role. It is true that all these negative effect may also be a problem for Austrian pupils from poorer, less educated families. But they are still in advantage compared to their foreign colleagues as their primary socialization was already oriented at Austrian norms and values which usually makes an adaptation to school life easier for them. 3. LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS Children of foreign citizens do not automatically receive the Austrian citizenship even if they are bom in this country. They have the same citizenship as one or both of their parents. In former days this fact could have far-reaching consequences for them as soon as they wanted to enter the labor market. Having been subjected to special laws could have restricted their access. Application for the Austrian citizenship has become less complicated nowadays, as most of the immigrants are applicable after ten years of having lived in this country4. Nevertheless, can a different citizenship have negative consequences on the integration process. It makes identification with the Austrian country and society more difficult and can contribute to the development of a divided identity. 4. TEACHER TRAINING Teachers and other school staff have an essential part to play in heightening awareness of cultural diversity and respect for differences on the part of pupils. Reacting to stereotyping by pupils calls for a complex type of skill that does not only involve the acquisition of a theoretical body of knowledge but above all the confrontation with real situations and practical experience. In almost all European countries, initial teacher education covers the inter-cultural dimension of teaching, which is also often included in in-service training. Several schemes have recently been started to help teachers in this 4 The Austrian Nationality Act 1985 [BGB1. Nr. 311/1985, most recently amended by BGB1.1 Nr. 124/1998, Article 10 defines the rules for naturalisation: These provisions may be disregarded on the grounds of a special consideration’. Under Article 4 Z 1, birth in the federal territory is seen as such a special consideration. respect, whether through the preparation of teaching materials aimed at an inter-cultural approach or by offering them support from specialists in this area (bmbwk 2003). Pre-service teacher training institutions offer classes on inter-cultural education, but mostly as electives at spme universities and teacher training colleges in Austria. Moreover, they are not taken by the majority of students on a regular basis. Major areas covered in these programs are: raising awareness of problems stemming from migration, the situation of different ethnic groups in Austria, a critical reflection of the concept of identity, a discussion of the attitudes required in a multi-cultural society, the recognition of one’s own and other people’s values, etc. The teacher-qualification program ‘German as a foreign language’ puts special emphasis on the inter-cultural dimension since the program is directed to facilitate the integration of immigrant children. It is offered as an optional program at most universities and teacher training colleges. Institutes for in-service teacher training also offer a variety of courses and seminars in “German as a second language”. It must be noted, however, that in-service training is not compulsory. While some “German as a second language” teachers have additional competence in the field of language teaching, others are not sufficiently qualified to teach this subject. 5. INTER-CULTURAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA By law, immigrant pupils shall be integrated and at the same time their cultural identity be conserved and promoted which often creates problems with the daily school routine. To realize this legal requirement, inter-cultural education was introduced into the Austrian school system as a so-called educational principle in the academic year of 1991/92. Teachers have to integrate inter-cultural topics into their instruction regardless of the subject they teach. Inter-cultural education aims at a mutual understanding between pupils of different social, cultural and linguistic backgrounds and is meant to make them aware of similarities and differences and to fight racism. The problem is that teachers are not sufficiently prepared to deal with the required educational principles. Moreover, teachers who have never questioned their own value system and pre-conceived ideas are unlikely to live up to the concept of inter-cultural education (Friehs 2004: 83). An inter-cultural approach is encouraged to highlight the enriching effect of cultural difference and stressing the need to avoid discrimination and hostility towards immigrants. The curriculum aims at strengthening the ability for self expression, imparting tradition, encouraging problem-solving and cooperative behavior, promoting peaceful resolution of conflicts, imparting a knowledge of cultural customs (e.g. calendar of religious festivals) and at the same time supporting a critical analysis of social values. An “educational principle” is not a subject but a theme that teachers are recommended to take into account across the curriculum. Inter-cultural education is covered in a cross-curricular approach involving all subjects or those that are more appropriate (history, geography, foreign languages, etc.). Other ‘educational principles’ are environment education, sex education and political education. Inter-cultural education aims at a mutual understanding between pupils of various social, cultural and linguistic backgrounds. It also aims to make them aware of their similarities and differences and to combat Euro-centrism and racism. Linguistic and cultural diversity should be adequately reflected in the classroom (posters and worksheets in different languages, celebration of Christian and non-Christian holidays etc.). The inter-cultural approach is not limited to curricular provision but can also be part of other aspects of school life such as the organization of events or forms of entertainment to promote cultural diversity and exchanges with pupils from other countries. Developing an inter-cultural approach to education for all pupils is vital in facilitating the integration of immigrant pupils by fostering a dialogue between cultures. In order to develop inter-cultural competence, children and young people must learn about the traditions and patterns of their own and other cultures. The Austrian syllabi contain elements that are deemed relevant in acquiring a knowledge of cultural, religious and ethnic backgrounds and interrelationships and an understanding of how to live together in a multicultural society. Like in other European countries among many other topics the following are part of instruction: Information about characteristic features of one’s own and other cultures, common features of and differences in cultures and their mutual influence, human rights and their universal validity, development and relevance of prejudices, reasons for discriminatory attitudes, reasons for and effects of present and past migrations, international efforts to solve religious, ethnic and political conflicts, possibilities for minorities and majorities to live together in multicultural societies (Eurydice 2004). 6. PROBLEMS IN THE DAILY SCHOOL ROUTINE The huge immigration wave has caused additional major challenges for teachers in the daily school routine. The Christian value system prevailing in Austria is not compatible with a lots of Muslim values, even though within schools this seems to be a larger problem in Germany or France. In Austria the Muslim dress code of female teachers and pupils is not forbidden by law. So they can cover their heads and wear their traditional clothing anywhere they like. As only a very small number of girls and women does it in Austrian schools, this has not caused any problems so far. An explanation could be that Muslims from former Yugoslavia are by far lager in number than for example Muslims from Turkey and the former did not know a strict dress code back in their old home country either. A more liberal understanding of Muslim religion by the majority of Austria’s immigrant population is also the reason for fewer restrictions by parents when it comes to the participation of Muslim girls in school activities like excursions or field trips. Usually they take place like everyone else. This is also true for sports lessons, even though it would be acceptable by law to stay away. Missing acceptance of female teachers by male Muslim pupils, as reported in Germany, cannot be observed in Austria at a large-scale (Trenz 1994: 210). Rising fundamentalist ideas among pupils like in other Western European countries are not a problem in Austria, so far. Not even the crucifix as the predominant Christian religious symbol that can be found in every classroom in Austrian schools, has been seriously challenged yet. This does not mean, however, that there are no problems at all in Austrian schools. One is a separation along nationalities within class-rooms (Esser 1990: 192). There is a general lack of inter-cultural friendships among pupils which often leads to an outcast-situation for immigrant pupils. This could be due to the general low status of immigrant pupils in schools (Muller 1994: 40). Avery important reasons for this fact is the low socio-economic status of their families. Many immigrant pupils cannot participate in trendy leisure-time activities, cannot afford brand-mark clothes and have less money available than their Austrian colleagues, as the lack of an attractive income situation of their parents does not allow major spending. Little family resources also contribute to low achievements in schools. So only 6 % of all Turkish pupils and 12 % of all pupils from former Yugoslavia that now live in Austria finish school with an A-level-certificate. Even though, a low family income also does not support a successful school career of Austrians, their number of high-school graduates is much higher (Haider et al. 2005). Many immigrant pupils develop identity problems as they have the feeling that they do neither belong to the culture of their origin, nor to the Austrian one. Neither one offers them the roots that are needed for the development of a strong personality and identity. Conflicts between differing expectations of the immigrant families and Western culture add to this confusing situation. This may lead to an alienation process from their own families and/or to integration problems into the Austrian society (Herrmann 1993: 13). 7. FORTHCOMING REFORMS The occurrence of immigration is now regarded as part of our increasingly mul- ticultural societies. The successful integration of immigrants into their “host society” is a growing concern for policy-makers. Schools have to play an important part in this process. All pupils shall learn to have respect of other cultures. Teachers are not supposed to evaluate different cultures, but stimulate an „inter-cultural dialogue14 and their pupils shall be enabled to participate in this mutual dialogue. In this way, migrant pupils shall be enabled to live within two cultures instead of living between them. Since the PISA 2000 study proved that pupils from immigrant families performed relatively poorly in the field of literacy, the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Culture considers it an absolute priority to improve the reading skills of pupils whose mother tongue is a language other than German (Haider et al. 2005; Eurydice 2004). Specific measures have not been implemented yet, however. Another topic discussed very vividly is the introduction of an compulsory year in kindergarten for children with a limited command of German before starting school to facilitate this transition. In the future further reforms will be necessary. Among them will be the development of practical suggestions and best practices on how to include inter-cultural aspects into teaching, a reduction of the prevailing mono-cultural orientation of syllabi and textbooks, improved offers in teacher education, and the enhancement of the cooperation between schools and teachers to exchange knowledge and experience in the field of inter-cultural education. Also improved measures to integrate immigrant pupils into the daily school routine are necessary. Last but not least and maybe most important of all is the removal of the prevailing unequal opportunities for school and life careers for immigrant pupils (Wenning 1996: 151). Teachers will have to try even harder to avoid unconscious discriminating actions towards immigrant pupils. On the other hand, a positive discrimination of immigrant pupils by teachers can be problematic, too, as this would mean a disadvantage for Austrian pupils. So teachers have a very difficult task to fulfill - to guarantee equal opportunities for all their pupils. How to do this, will probably have to be decided independently with every single case (Radtke 1995: 862). Education is a key indicator for future economic and social perspectives. In principle, there is no formal ’’discrimination” of immigrant children by the Austrian school system. However, low educational attainment levels are still being transferred from one immigrant generation to the next. The result is that children of immigrants are not able to close the educational gap between themselves and their native Austrian counterparts. One long-term consequence will be a large number of poorly qualified persons in the work force, who are much more likely to face severe labor market problems and as such will be a problem for the Austrian economy for many years to come (bmbwk 2003). REFERENCES Auemheimer, Georg (1995): Einflihrung in die interkulturelle Erziehung. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. bmbwk (2003): Informationsblatter des Referats fiir interkulturelles Lemen, 2/2003. Wien. Beer-Kem, Dagmar (1992): Lern- und Integrationsprozess auslandischer Jugendlicher in der Berufsausbildung. Berlin/Bonn: Bundesinstitut fur Berufsbildung. Bommes, Michael/Radtke, Frank-Olaf (1993): Institutionalisierte Diskriminierung von Migrantenkindem. In: Zeitschrift fur Padagogik, 3/93, 483-497. Coleman, Joseph (1986): Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office. Esser, Hartmut (1990): Interethische Freundschaften In: Esser, Hartmut/ Friederichs, Jurgen (Eds.): Generation und Identitat. Opladen: Leske und Budrich, 185-206. Eurydice (2004): Integrating immigrant children into schools in Europe - Austria 2003/04. Eurydice. (http://www.eurydice.org). Friehs, Barbara (2004): Einfiihrung in die Theorie der Schule. Graz: Leykam. GrieBhaber, Wilhelm/Ozel, Bilge/Rehbein, Jochen (1996): Aspekte von Arbeits-und Denksprache tiirkischer Schuler. In: Ulonska, Herbert/ Kraschinski, Sven/ Bartmann, Theodor (Ed.): Lemforschung in der Grundschule. Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt 160-179. Haider et. al (2005): Zukunft: Schule. Strategien und MaBnahmen zur Qualitatsent-wicklung. Wien: BM fur Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kultur. Herrmann, Helga (1993): Auslandische Jugendliche in Schule, Ausbildung und Beruf. Koln: Bohlau. Lentz, Astrid (1994): Institutionelle Grenzen interkultureller Bildung und Erziehung. In: Informationsdienst zur Auslanderarbeit: Interkulturelle Bildung und Erziehung, 2/94, 40-43. Luchtenberg, Sigrid (1991): Zu Zweisprachigkeit und Bikulturalitat auslandischer Kinder. In: Lajios, Konstantin (Ed.): Die Zweite und dritte Auslandergeneration. Ihre Situation und Zukunft in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Opladen: Leske und Budrich, 55-90. Luchtenberg, Sigrid/Nieke, Wolfgang (Eds.) (1994): Interkulturelle Padagogik und Europaische Dimension. Herausforderungen fur Bildungssystem und Erziehungs-wissenschaft. Munster: Waxmann, 181-187. Muller, Jurgen G. (1994): ...und raus bist du. Soziale Kompetenzen ttirkischer und deutscher Kinder in der Hauptschule. Frankfurt am Main: Lang. Poschner, Hans (1996): Die Effekte der Migration auf die soziale Sicherung. Weiden/ Regensburg: Eurotrans. Rademachers, Gunther (1996): Konflikte und Konfliktbewaltigung in intra- und inter-kulturellen Freundschaften. Frankfurt am Main: Campus. Radtke, Frank Olaf (1995): Interkulturelle Erziehung. Uber die Gefahren eines padago-gisch halbierten Anti-Rassismus. In: Zeitschrift fur Padagogik, 6/95, 853-864. Rosier, Dietmar (1994): Deutsch als Fremdsprache. Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler. Statistik Osterreich (2001). Wien. Statistik Osterreich (2004). Wien. Trenz, Gunter (1994): Interaktionsprozesse im Unterricht. In: Bovet, Gislinde/Huwen-diek, Volker (Ed.) Leitfaden Schulpraxis. Berlin: Comelsen, 197-220. Wenning, Norbert (1996): Die nationale Schule. Offentliche Erziehung im Nationalstaat. Munster/New York: Waxmann. POVZETEK PRISEUENSKI OTROCI V AVSTRIJSKIH ŠOLAH Barbara Friehs Približno 45 % vseh neavstrijskih prebivalcev v Avstriji je pripadnikov narodov bivše Jugoslavije, 17,5 %jih je turškega izvora. To dejstvo gre pripisati predvsem geografski legi Avstrije, njeni politiki zaposlovanja tujih delavcev, ter v začetku devetdesetih, sprejemanju beguncev iz bivše Jugoslavije. Avstrijska ustava določa, da morajo biti državne šole dostopne vsakomur ne glede na narodnost, spol, raso, jezik ali vero. Devetletno osnovno šolanje je obvezno za vse otroke s stalnim bivališčem v Avstriji ne glede na njihovo narodnost. Skupno število učencev, ki so obiskovali osnovno šolo v letu 2002/2003 in njihov materni jezik ni nemščina, je 103.877 (15,2 % vseh učencev). Avstrijska izobraževalna politika zavrača idejo segregacije. Zato učenci, ki niso avstrijske narodnosti in katerih materni jezik ni nemščina, ne obiskujejo ločenih šol ali razredov, ampak se izobražujejo skupaj z avstrijskimi vrstniki. Po zakonu naj bi se priseljenski otroci integrirali in hkrati ohranili ter gojili svojo kulturno identiteto, kar pogosto povzroča probleme v vsakodnevni šolski rutini. Zaradi tega jev začetku devetdesetih v avstrijske osnovne in srednje šole uvedeno medkulturno izobraževanje, imenovano ‘izobraževalno načelo ’. Namen medkulturnega izobraževanja je doseči medsebojno razumevanje med učenci različnih socialnih, kulturnih in jezikovnih izvorov. Usmerjeno je tudi k osveščanju glede podobnosti in različnosti ter k zmanjševanju evrocentrizma in rasizma v avstrijskih šolah. Kakorkoli že, stvarnost kaže, da je nerešenih problemov še veliko. Tuji učenci imajo v avstrijskem izobraževalnem sistemu slabše možnosti kot njihovi avstrijski vrstniki, čuti se pomanjkanje medkulturnega prijateljstva med učenci, kar pogosto vodi v izobčenje priseljenskih otrok ter v konflikte med pričakovanji priseljenskih družin in ‘zahodno kulturo ’. To spet vodi v odtujitev od družin in/ali integracije in problemov identitete priseljenskih otrok. Zato morajo biti v izobraževalno politiko uvedeni številni ukrepi. Pri tem ima prednost medkulturni pristop kot možnost medsebojnega učenja iz različnih kultur. MULTILINGUAL CONFERENCING: ONE CITY’S RESPONSE TO EDUCATING PUPILS FROM ASYLUM SEEKING FAMILIES Geri Smyth* COBISS 1.03 ABSTRACT Multilingual conferencing: one city’s response to educating pupils from asylum seeking families In response to the dispersal of 1200 children from asylum seeking families across Britain to schools in Glasgow, Scotland, units were established in schools across Glasgow, in which specialist teachers support the English language development of the newly arrived pupils and enable their integration into the mainstream classes by team teaching. This paper, based on ethnographic research, conducted within a European project, reports on how one such unit has become an integral part of the mainstream school due to creative pedagogy and how the school has accessed what the pupils already know in order to help them make sense of learning in a new language. KEYWORDS: bilingual pupils, creative learning and teaching, asylum seeking families IZVLEČEK Večjezična konferenca: dovzetnost nekega mesta za izobraževanje učencev iz družin prosilk za azil Kot odgovor na razporeditev 1200 otrok iz družin prosilk za azil v Veliki Britaniji v šole v Glasgowu na Škotskem so bili po šolah v Glasgowu ustanovljeni oddelki, v katerih specializirani učitelji pomagajo novodošlim učencem pri učenju angleškega jezika in skozi skupinski pouk omogočajo njihovo integracijo v večinske razrede. Pričujoči prispevek temelji na etnografski raziskavi, ki je bila izpeljana v okviru evropskega projekta, in pojasni, kako je tak oddelek zaradi kreativne pedagogike postal sestavni del večinske šole ter na kak način seje šola dokopala do vedenja o znanju, ki ga imajo učenci že osvojenega z namenom pomagati jim razumeti smisel učenja v novem jeziku. KLJUČNE BESEDE: dvojezični učenci, učenje in poučevanje, družine prosilke za azil INTRODUCTION The dispersal of around 1200 children from asylum seeking families to Glasgow schools, resulted in the setting up of the Glasgow Asylum Seekers Support Project (GASSP) funded by National Asylum Seekers’ Support (NASS). The educational * Geri Smyth, Faculty of Education, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G13 1PP, Scotland; e-mail: g.smyth@strath.ac.uk Dve domovini • Two Homelands 22 • 2005, 21-28 wing of this project established bilingual units in schools across Glasgow, in which specialist English as an Additional Language (EAL) teachers would support the English language development of the newly arrived pupils while enabling their integration into the mainstream classes by team teaching. This new initiative has a management structure that exists in parallel to Glasgow City Education Authority. The project provides clear support guidelines for teachers in the bilingual bases, which, while not in contradiction to the curricular frameworks of national documentation1, do prioritise teaching and learning strategies over curriculum content. Thus the rationale for educational provision for children from asylum seeking families2 urges schools and teachers to take into account breaks in education (experienced by the children) and English as an Additional Language (EAL) needs, based on existing best practice. The GASSP rationale for the curriculum makes no explicit mention of national curricular frameworks but rather emphasises that the curriculum must be guided by principles of good practice in bilingual education and cites references to the research that identifies good practice. Children and teachers are at the heart of this rationale rather than a curriculum, societal needs or performativity policies. CONTEXT The research was conducted in one of the GASSP primary schools, Lady Jane Grey3. Lady Jane Grey primary school is a three-storey red sandstone Victorian school building in the centre of a housing scheme in the city of Glasgow. The school is surrounded by high-rise flats built in the late 1960’s and now due for demolition. There is large-scale deprivation in the area marked by high rates of crime, illegal drug use and suicide. This housing scheme is now one in which Glasgow City Council have chosen to house dispersed asylum seeker families as they await the Home Office decision as to their status. Consequently, the school which until recently had very few non-white, non-monolingual English speaking pupils, now has almost 100 pupils from Somalia, the Congo, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, the Lebanon, Zimbabwe, Russia and Lithuania. These children, by dint of having to use English for the purposes of education in the classroom and using at least one other language at home to communicate with their families, can be deemed bilingual.4 There are a total of 200 pupils in the school, aged 5-12 years old. The school has a bilingual base which employs four teachers in addition to the seven mainstream classes. All newly arrived children from asylum seeking families (and other bilingual children) are registered with an age appropriate mainstream class. They all go 1 SEED (2000) (revised version) The Structure and Balance of the Curriculum: 5 tol4 National Guidelines, Edinburgh 2 GASSP Education Handbook, 2001 3 All names are pseudonyms to protect confidentiality. 4 A bilingual pupil is one who uses one or more languages in their everyday life. (Wiles, 1984) to their register class at the start of the day and attend this class for art, drama, music, physical education, religious education, science, technology, health education and social subjects. They are taught in the bilingual base for maths and language until the base teachers and mainstream teachers together assess that they have enough English to be able to work within the mainstream classroom. The children with very little English also have an hour a day in the base for ‘reception time’ to improve their English. The teachers from the base team teach in the mainstream classrooms for part of the time. All teachers in the school participate in running after school clubs for the children, e.g. computer, art, netball, football etc. In these ways, the teachers from the bilingual base are not viewed by the pupils as only being there to support the bilingual pupils. A two year ethnographic study in this site led to a clearer understanding of how the GASSP project was responding to the needs of the asylum seeking pupils and their families. EDUCATION OF BILINGUAL PUPILS IN SCOTLAND There is currently no national policy for the education of bilingual pupils and this can lead to confusion amongst teachers as to what is the best practice to adopt. The development of a policy through the GASSP project has enabled mainstream teachers to see good practice in action and has had an impact on their understandings and practices as will be highlighted in this paper. In a complex situation of limited national policy and conflicting government reports, teachers may have to resort to their common sense beliefs, or folk theories about how best to teach bilingual pupils. Teaching practices also to what support systems for bilingual pupils were available in the different education authorities. The CLASP project was investigating creative learning and I was interested to discover if the newly arrived, bilingual pupils from asylum seeking families could be engaged in creative learning when they and their teachers did not share a language. Woods (1990)5 suggests that one of the empirical features of creative teaching is the relevance of the curriculum and teaching practices that operate within a broad range of accepted social values while being attuned to students’ identities and cultures. Woods et al (1999:10)6 propose that the relevance of values in, and the context of, the curriculum is especially significant in the teaching of bilingual children as a critical factor in creative teaching. They suggest that this relevance is manifested particularly in the encouragement of children’s free play, in activities that start from the child ; in the development of home-school links; in the teaching that occurs ‘in the margins’ of programmed activity and through spontaneous reaction to children’s interests. 5 WOODS, P. (1990) Teacher Skills and Strategies London: Falmer 6 WOODS, P., BOYLE, M. and HUBBARD, N. (1999) Multicultural Children in the Early Years Cleveden, Multilingual Matters Cummins (1996:73)7 writes that human relationships are central to effective instruction -particularly in the case of second language learners who may be trying to find their way in the borderlands between cultures. While not explicitly mentioning relevance here, Cummins goes on to write that For students to invest their sense of self their identity, in acquiring their new language and participating actively in their new culture, they must experience positive and affirming interactions with members of that culture. B entley, (2001: 136-137)8 proposes a number of ways in which schools need to be restructured into learning communities and to develop abilities and forms of creativity which resonate with the 21st century, including the ability to transfer what one learns across different contexts and real world outcomes so that creativity and motivation are reinforced by the experience of making an impact and giving benefit to others. SCHOOL SOLUTIONS The responses in Lady Jane Grey and indeed in all the schools in the GASSP programme have been based on three main principles: team teaching, community involvement by and from the schools and developing an anti-racist ethos. These principles accord with the proposals of Woods, Cummins and Bentley as discussed earlier. The practice of these principles has resulted in schools where the EAL teachers work in the mainstream classes alongside the class teachers. On many occasions the whole class, bilingual and monolingual, work in the bilingual pupils’ base with both teachers. There is shared decision making about pedagogy between both teachers and indeed the pupils. The local environment is used as a learning resource. Parents, volunteers and specialist workers, e.g. community artists, are brought into the school to increase the relevance of the curriculum. All languages and backgrounds are respected. The whole school is involved in its change to a multilingual school and there are clear guidelines for racist incidents If the knowledge conveyed to children by teachers is relevant to their concerns and reflects their societal and cultural knowledge, then it will be more easily internalised by the child and turned into personal knowledge (Woods and Jeffrey, 1996, opus cit: 116). However the societal and cultural knowledge of bilingual pupils is not prominent in the curricular guidelines for teaching in Scotland. So relevant teaching occurs where teachers strive, often against the prescribed curriculum, to construct knowledge that is meaningful within the child’s frame of reference. Teachers use strategies to share and create knowledge through imagination and children’s prior knowledge. 7 CUMMINS, J. (1996) Negotiating Identities: Education for Empowerment in a Diverse Society, Ontario: California Association for Bilingual Education 8 BENTLEY, T. (2001) ‘The Creative Society: Reuniting Schools and Lifelong Learning’ in Fielding, M. (ed.) Taking Education really Seriously: Four Years’ Hard Labour, London: Routledge Falmer By putting relevance at the forefront of their teaching, the teachers created what I have characterised as a Multilingual Conference in Lady Jane Grey School. In this conference, the teachers were highly effective keynote speakers who provided the stimulus for the children’s development of their own learning. Much has been written about the benefits of play in learning for enabling children to develop knowledge through practical experience. Writing about play, however, tends to focus onyoung children’s learning stategies (e.g. Bruce, 19919; Meek, 198510; Moyles, 1989"). Teachers in Lady Jane Grey however are convinced of the need for play throughout the school. Teachers recognised the need for active involvement and acknowledged that this is what the children wanted in order to make the learning relevant to them. Thus the conferencing happening in Lady Jane Grey involved active participation where the children responded to the teachers’ keynote speeches by deciding how to interpret them to take the learning further. Making games was a strategy used for the children to demonstrate knowledge about the local environment. For bilingual learners of all ages, play optimises their use of their first language, enables them to bring their own cultural knowledge and understanding to bear and enables collaboration with others. The children in this study however were not passive recipients of instructions to play, but initiated play as a way to make sense of a new language and a new curriculum. The teachers had provided them with a stimulus that they then took control of and developed in ways in which the teachers could not have predicted. Teachers may be reluctant to describe classroom activites as play, due to the overemphasis on play as a medium for learning for younger children. Play can also be seen as exploratory interactions between children and adults, perhaps fostered by the adults, but developed into meaningful activity . In Lady Jane Grey, parents and volunteers were welcomed in the classroom to interact with all the children but often orally responded to what pupils had written in English, their new language, by discussing the content in their first language. This first language interaction acted as a powerful force for the bilingual children’s cognitive, social and cultural development and gave validation to what had been written. The non-teaching adults who worked with the children offered them an audience for their ideas: an audience which admired and valued their multilingualism. 9 BRUCE, T. (1991) Time to Play in Early Childhood Education, Sevenoaks: Hodder and Stoughton 10 MEEK, M. (1985) Play and paradoxes: Some considerations of Imagination and Language in Wells, G. and Nicholls, J. Language and Learning: an Interactional Perspective, London: Falmer Press 11 MOYLES, J. (1989) Just Playing? The role and status of play in early childhood education: Buckingham, Open University Press The multilingual conference that is Lady Jane Grey Primary uses, in addition to inspiring keynote speakers, or teachers, a range of workshop facilitators and seminar leaders, in the shape of community workers and volunteers. These workshop facilitators and seminar leaders with specific talents of their own provided an important additional layer in the children’s educational experience, helping to ensure that education was not just about becoming enmeshed in school practices but had a role in the development of the children as bilingual learners, translators and multilingual beings. Many of the teachers in Lady Jane Greybelieved firmly in making learning meaningful by taking up issues and enquiries initially introduced by the children. Starting with the child’s knowledge and interests often led to the children going beyond the original enquiries and surprising the teachers. The teacher provided the initial stimulus, but it was the children who decided how and what they would learn from this. In such situations the teacher was caught up in the children’s learning and was liberated from the constraints of the curriculum by the children’s ability to create their own learning situations from the initial enthusiasm and stimulus of the keynote speaker. The children needed to make connections between what was happening in school and what was happening at home. For the majority of these children from asylum seeking families, the educational experience in Scotland was significantly different to what they or their parents had known before. There were frequent occasions when the children demonstrated an ability to recreate skills and knowledge learned in school into the home context, thus increasing the relevance for them of their learning and giving them increased ownership of the learning. They talked about how they had showed their parents what they had been doing in school and tried out new art techniques, science experiments and forms of writing at home, bringing in the results of their labours into the classroom. This in turn gave the children public acknowledgement of the effort they were putting into making learning relevant to them. There were also many incidences of the children helping the teachers to make connections with their existing knowledge. Creative learning was enabled by an ethos which encouraged experimentation and home-school links. The children were enabled to be multilingual participants in their own learning. Collaboration was developed in the school as a teaching and learning strategy being worked towards for the mutual benefit of children, parents, staff and wider community. The interactions between teachers were marked by respect for and interest in others’ feelings and opinions and this respect is carried into the classrooms and marks the relationships between teachers and pupils and, thus, that fostered between the pupils by the teachers. In addition to the approaches described above, the teachers, both in the bilingual base and in the mainstream classrooms made use of learner inclusive/co-participative pedagogies which enhance the children’s ability to take ownership and control of their learning. Although the classes are initially organised on an age-related basis there were frequent opportunities for cross-age co-participation. Older children read their stories to younger children; younger children shared their findings with older children; mixed age groups went together on excursions into the community to investigate features such as recycling, play facilities and urban wildlife. Children were encouraged to use all their linguistic resources to enable learning to take place. Inter and intra-language collaboration enhanced the understanding as children helped newcomers to participate by repeating the task requirements in another language. Since the arrival of the bilingual base, the school involved adults other than teachers in the children’s education. Parents made costumes for school performances and made a mosaic to display in the school showing the languages of the school. The janitor and classroom assistants showed the children games they used to play in the playground. Volunteers from the community used their first language in the classrooms to communicate with children new to English. LADY JANE GREY PRIMARY AS A MULTILINGUAL CONFERENCE In this research site, collaboration between the children was essential, particularly due to the limited English of fifty percent of the pupils. The teachers used pedagogies such as cross-age co-participation and inter and intra-language collaboration to assist the children to be creative learners and also to enable integration of the children from asylum-seeking families. In addition to this, the teachers worked and played together, modelling team work and co-operation in their daily routines, although they do not suggest that this was easy. The arrival of the children from asylum seeking families, supported by the GASSP project teachers and guidelines, have changed a monolingual primary school into a daily multilingual conference where the pupils work as both participants, presenters and simultaneous translators. I have suggested that the teachers in the school provide the stimulus for the children’s development of their own learning, acting in this multilingual conference as highly effective keynote speakers. Other adults in the school and wider community are the audience essential to the children’s belief in themselves as participants and presenters. The creative pedagogies adopted by the GASSP teachers have inspired the mainstream staff and enabled them to be more creative themselves and more responsive to the needs and interests of all pupils. The creative pedagogies thus adopted across the school have enabled the children from asylum seeking families to use their linguistic and cultural resources to be creative learners in a new linguistic, cultural and educational environment. SUMMARY VEČJEZIČNA KONFERENCA: DOVZETNOST NEKEGA MESTA ZA IZOBRAŽEVANJE UČENCEV IZ DRUŽIN PROSILK ZA AZIL Geri Smyth Porazdelitev približno 1200 otrok iz družin prosilk za azil'2 v Veliki Britaniji po šolah v Glasgowu na Škotskem je bila temelj za zagon projekta Glasgow Asylum Seekers Project (GASSP) - Podporni projekt prosilcem za azil, ki ga financira National Asylum Seekers’ Support (NASS) - Nacionalna podpora prosilcem za azil. Izobraževalni del tega projektaje ustanovil dvojezične enote po šolah v Glasgowu, v katerih specializirani učitelji pospešujejo učenje angleškega jezika pri novodošlih učencih medtem ko s skupinskim poučevanjem omogočajo njihovo integracijo v večinske razrede. Kaj se zgodi, ko enojezična šola v ekonomsko deprivilegirani, brezperspektivni mestni četrti postane zaradi državne politike večjezična, večrasna šola (Listina o priseljevanju in azilu)? Kako otroci iz družin prosik za azil, od katerih mnogi do prihoda na Škotsko niso bili deležni nobene formalne izobrazbe in ki jim je angleški jezik tuj, dojemajo šolsko skupnost? Prispevek prinaša razlago kako dvojezična enota postane integralni del večinske šole zahvaljujoč kreativni pedagogiki, in na kakje šola prepoznala in ocenila znanje, ki ga ti otroci že posedujejo, z namenom pomagati jim razumeti smiselnost učenja v novem jeziku. Prispevek temelji na etnografski raziskavi, ki je bila izpeljana kot del European CLASP 13 project - evropski projekt Kreativno učenje in perspektive študentov — v dvojezični enoti ene od osnovnih šol v Glasgowu, Škotska. Kooperativni etos, ki se je razvil med učitelji, je vplival na načine, ki otrokom omogočajo odločitve v zvezi z njihovim učenjem, to pa je povratno vplivalo na pedagogiko celotne šole. V prispevku je nakazano kako je populacija teh visoko mobilnih učencev omogočila šoli boljše dojemanje perspektiv učencev ter kako je pripomogla k vzniku kreativne pedagogike v šoli. 12 Prosilec za azil: oseba, ki pri britanskem notranjem ministrstvu zaprosi za status begunca. Begunec: oseba, ki ima zaradi prošnje za azil ali izredno dovoljenje za bivanje, kar pomeni omejen status, ki dovoljuje začasno bivanje v Veliki Britaniji, ali pa status po konvenciji, ki osebi dovoljuje stalno bivanje v Veliki Britaniji. Obstaja pravica do izobraževanja za vse otroke ne glede na njihov statu, Konvencija Združenih Narodov o otrokovih pravicah 13 CLASP: Creative Learning and Student Perspectives (kreativno učenje in perspektive študentov) IS PRIMARY SCHOOL IN SLOVENIA JUST AND FAIR: THE CASE OF MIGRANT CHILDREN FROM FORMER YUGOSLAVIA Mojca Peček* COBISS 1.03 ABSTRACT Is primary school in Slovenia j ust and fair: the case of migrant children from former Yugoslavia This paper looks at the principle of justice as it is applied in the Slovenian school system on the case of migrant children from former Yugoslavia. It first analyses the school system at the formal level and then presents teachers’ views on migrant children as gathered in a survey carried out on a representative sample of teachers. Teachers’ answers seem to indicate their belief that shool must be just and fair towards migrant children, namely, that these children should not be taught in separate schools and classes. However, teachers showed less sensitivity when asked whether and what should be done for migrant children to help them become as successful as their peers. Their replies cannot be understood out of the context of the Slovenian school system. The school legislation itself is ambivalent, on the general level it subscribes to the principle of equal opportunity and the right of the individual to be different, yet in practice these principles are negated. KEY WORDS: justice, immigrants from former Yugoslavia, elementary school, teacher’s opinions IZVLEČEK Je osnovna šola v Sloveniji pravična in poštena: primer izseljenskih otrok iz bivše Jugoslavije Prispevek skozi obravnavo priseljencev iz bivše Jugoslavije postavlja v ospredje vprašanje, kako se načelo pravičnosti kaže znotraj slovenskega šolskega sistema. Šolski sistem najprej analizira na formalnem nivoju, kaže pa tudi, kakšen odnos imajo do otrok priseljencev učitelji. Pri tem izhaja iz analize vprašalnika, delanega na reprezentativnem vzorcu učiteljev. Iz odgovorov učiteljev je zaznati prepričanje, da mora biti šola pravična do otrok priseljencev in sicer v tem smislu, da otrok ne poučuje ločeno, v posebnih razredih ali šolah. Manj senzibilnosti pa je zaznati na področjih, ali bi moralo biti in kaj, drugačno za otroke priseljence, da bi bili lahko prav tako uspešni, kot njihovi vrstniki. Tega ne moremo razumeti izven formalnih okvirov slovenskega šolskega sistema. Šolska zakonodaja je namreč sama v sebi protislovna, z vidika splošnih načel sicer govori o načelu enakih možnosti s pravico posameznika do drugačnosti, vendar to v konkretnih izvedbah povsem zanika. KLJUČNE BESEDE: pravičnost, priseljenci iz bivše Jugoslavije, osnovna šola, stališča učiteljev * Mojca Peček, dr. pedagogike, docentka za teorijo vzgoje na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, Slovenija. Dve domovini • Two Homelands 22 • 2005, 29-48 INTRODUCTION Justice is one of the basic values in our society today, and a criterion used to evaluate actions of individuala as well as institutions. While trying to find an answer to the question to what degree school is a fair and just institution we will refer to one of the most frequently quoted writer in the field of social justice, John Rawls. In his view, justice is not just any one of the social values to which social institutions subscribe, it is one of the core values. He believes the main issue with justice is the “way in which the major social institutions distribute basic human rights and determine the division of advantages from social cooperation” (Rawls 1999: 6) In this regard, Rawls discusses two principles. According to the first principle, all primary advantages, such as rights, freedoms, opportunities, income, wealth and the social basis of self-respect should be equally distributed, whereas the second principle looks at the exceptions, maintaining that the first principle should be applied always, except in the case when an unequal distribution of advantages benefits those who are most deprived. Among them are those belonging to the lowest social classes, the less gifted, and the less fortunate. (Ibid: 266; Kodelja 2001: 10) “This shows us that the general concept of justice is on one hand closely tied to equal distribution of advantages, and on the other, to treating all people equal by eliminating not all inequalities but only those which disadvantage some groups.” (Kodelja 2001: 10) Applying his theory to education, we can see that the first principle in fact means implementation of equal opportunity in school. This principle had become prominent in school systems around the world in the 60s of the previous century, but in practice it soon became clear that all the measures taken to increase equal opportunity only furthered the advantages of the privileged. Such an understanding of justice in school is based on the belief that all students should be treated equally, but as mentioned before, it overlooks the fact that some are deprived due to their social hardship, culturally impoverished environment, special needs, etc. Treating them all equal would therefore lead to encouraging new forms of discrimination. Understanding justice in school in this sense also passes the responsibility for individual student’s school achievements on the student himself. He is indeed given equal educational opportunity, but it depends on him whether he is going to take it or not. For this reason it is necessary to add to our understanding of justice in the school system today the Rawls second principle, thus creating a situation in which the responsibility to empower the individual to take his opportunities are on the school. The school system needs to work in such a way that it equalises the objective differences among students, including those, which are the result of different socio-cultural factors. (Medveš 2002: 33-34) This would mean that different students should be treated differently with the view of equalising the objective differences and enabling them to achieve the same results. In order to realise this, the second Rawls principle should not be implemented only on the formal institutional level, it is necessary that it also enters the relationship level. Hence it requires a teacher who has the sensitivity to assess what is fair and just for different students on a case- to-case basis and who can justify why she treats one student differently than others. In this case, according to Rawls, it is possible to talk about a school system which provides equal opportunity. (Rawls 1999: 63; Kodelja 2001: 15-16) The creators of the Slovenian school system took account of the above mentioned principles in their consideration of a fair and just school. Hence the White Paper on Education in the Republic of Slovenia, laying down the core principles of the current Slovenian school system, declares that “it is typical of primary school to have a tendency to unite equality with diversity. At the same time, it should be pointed out that the consensus on the universal right to education (without any discrimination of an individual or a group) does not mean equal education for all. Equal opportunities in education should be coordinated with the individual’s right to be different and with the society’s right to use the human and material resources available in the optimal way with respect to overall development, as well as with the right of a democratic state to ensure that each individual can be, and is, prepared to participate in democratic processes. Equality should not be a synonym of equalization, nor of suppression of individual differences and restriction of pluralism.” (White... 1996: 42-43) In practice, this means that “additional activities should be organized for culturally and socially deprived children to balance out social deprivation and interrupt the vicious circle of academic failure .... It is highly important that a more effective integration of children from culturally weaker environments into school activities does not lead to lower standards in knowledge or assessment; on the contrary, it should centre on the introduction of mechanisms for balancing the initial state (the so-called starting base) and providing equal opportunities for achievement.” (Ibid: 40) From the above guiding principles of the Slovenian school system it seems that both the principle of equality and the principle of difference have been adopted. However, their realisation in practice and the organisation of the Slovenian school system itself raise serious doubts that Slovenian school system could indeed be called just and fair. In this paper we will present on the case of migrants from former Yugoslavia how the principle of justice is applied in practice. It has already been indicated that the Slovenian school system has a declared interest in adjusting programs and developing new ones in order to give the so-called ‘different’ students a better starting position and enable them to achieve as high level of knowledge as possible, most effectively and visibly reflected in students’ marks. It, however, raises the question whether this is the right answer to the migrants^individual needs and potentials and whether it compensates for their lacking arising from cultural differences. In this paper we will also present the answers Slovenian teachers provided when we asked them about their views on the most appropriate form of teaching to cater to migrant students. WHO ARE SLOVENIAN CITIZENS AND WHAT ARE THEIR CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS? According to the last census in 2002, there are 16.97 % people living in Slovenia who do not describe themselves as Slovenian. The native language data shows a slightly different picture: 87.7 % reported Slovenian as their native language, or, in other words, 12.3 % of the population reported other languages than Slovenian as their mother tongue. Among them, only 0.2 % use Italian as their mother tongue and 0.4 % use Hungarian, the two ethnic minorities living on the territory of Slovenia; a further 0.2 % described themselves as native speakers of the Romani language, their situation also holding a special position in the Slovenian legislation. 2.7 % of the population did not answer the question about their mother tongue. The rest are largely native speakers of the languages spoken in former Yugoslavia. What are the rights of those whose mother tongue is not Slovenian? According to Article 61 in the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, every person has a “right to freely express his ethnicity, to pursue and practice his culture and use his language and alphabet,” while according to Article 63, it is “unconstitutional. .. to encourage ethnic, racial, religious or any other kind of discrimination and to incense ethnic, racial, religious or any other kind of hatred or intolerance.” Article 14 is also interesting for our purposes, as it declares: “In Slovenia, every person is guaranteed equal human rights and basic freedoms regardless of his ethnicity, gender, language, religion, political or any other beliefs, wealth, birth, education, social status or any other personal freedom.” (Uradni list RS: 33/91) Bearing the three articles in mind, it could be assumed that in Slovenia the guaranteed human rights - to which the country fully subscribes - ensure that every person can publicly express his ethnicity, practice his culture and use his own language, while any form of disregard and discrimination is explicitly unconstitutional. It should also be noted that not all ethnic groups who live on the territory of Slovenia (the largest among them are the ethnic groups from former Yugoslavia) have constitutionally and legally regulated status of their political identity, although they are of course all guaranteed all human rights. This is important because in Slovenia there are two ethnic groups (the Italian and Hungarian) who hold a special status as ‘territorially dependant’ enjoying special rights and symbols of their political identity, while the Romani community, as mentioned above, even though treated differently, also holds a special status. IS IT POSSIBLE TO IDENTIFY THE EQUAL OPPORTUNITY AVAILABLE TO MIGRANT CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS IN SLOVENIA? At the school level the Act on Management and Funding in Education in its Article 2 lists the objectives of the education system in Slovenia. Among them are: • to ensure optimal development of every person regardless of his gender, social and cultural background, religion, ethnicity and his physical or mental constitution; • to promote and develop linguistic skills and awareness of the Slovenian language as the official language in Slovenia; in the areas designated as ethnically mixed, also to promote and develop the Italian or Hungarian language; • to promote awareness of nationality and national identity and knowledge of history of Slovenia and its culture; as well as • to encourage awareness of every person’s integrity (Šolska zakonodaja 1996: 10). It is questionable whether these objectives are at all compatible. From the migrant perspective this means that school in Slovenia on one hand guarantees optimal development while on the other it expects migrants to accept the Slovenian language as the language which they will promote and in which they will express themselves. At the same time, they are also expected to develop an awareness of their Slovenian ethnicity. It seems that the objectives do not anticipate the possibility that for some Slovenian citizens Slovenian might not be their native language. The listed goals do not mention development of one’s ‘native language’ but specifically refer to ‘Slovenian’; there is no mentioning of any other ethnicity, all Slovenian citizens are expected to accept and develop and promote their Slovenian ethnicity. It can thus be concluded that the objectives are counteractive, in conflict with the human and children rights and in conflict with the core principles of the school system in Slovenia as outlined above. The right of members of other ethnic groups to develop their own and special identity can be deduced from the first objective (ensuring optimal development of each person), they can also be assumed from the respect for human rights, nevertheless, the status of the Slovenian ethnic group is a privileged one per se. Relevant to this issue is also the Primary School Act which in Article 8 states that “for children of Slovenian citizens living on the territory of Slovenia whose native language is not Slovenian,..., classes shall be organised in their native language and culture in accordance with international agreements, and additional Slovenian language classes can also be provided.” (Šolska zakonodaja 1996: 111) Migrant children are thus entitled to additional hours of Slovenian. In their first year in Slovenia they are entitled to two hours per week of one-to-one or group lessons. A teacher who teaches a migrant child is required to prepare an individual program for the child. (Urejanje... 2004: 3). After the first year, schools can organise additional after-hours classes available to all students with learning difficulties, but usually this is not enough. This is why there have been examples when schools specify migrant children as children with special needs, even though the legislation regulating education of children with special needs does not include them in this context. For schools, this is the way to secure additional finances from the Ministry of Education to fund one-to-one classes with these children. (Skubic Ermenc, 2004) Rare are even academics in the field who support teaching the language of the environment according to the specific needs of the population or teaching the language of the environment as the second language, as is the usual practice in many other countries. By law, migrant children have the right to learn their native language and their own culture which could lead us to believe that on the formal level there are traces of multiculturalism in the way Slovenia treats its migrants. However, it is important to note that the Article above adds “in accordance with international agreements”, which in practice means that classes in their native language are organised only when Slovenia and their country of origin have signed an international agreement regulating such classes. Such after-hours language learning is usually provided in three to five hour blocks once a week but mostly not organised within the primary school framework. It has mostly been initiated by the Macedonian, Albanian and Arabic associations and the Macedonian and Croatian Embassy in Slovenia. In the academic year 2003/04, there were 52 students learning Macedonian in Ljubljana, Kranj, Nova Gorica and Jesenice; 16 students learning Serbian in Maribor, and 35 students learning Croatian in Novo mesto, Ljubljana, Maribor and Radovljica. (Roter 2004: 266) According to Skubic Ermenc, schools are not familiar with language learning lessons organised by the associations and are thus unable to send potentially interested parents and children to such facilities. Besides, such a provision of native language learning for migrants and refugees “may be - even if not satisfactory - understandable, but when we are talking about Slovenian citizens (of‘non-Slovenian’ background) it means passing the responsibility for our own citizens on to other countries and denying our duty of care for their well-being.” (Skubic Ermenc 2003: 155) The writer further points out that the Article above is clearly based on the assumption that migrants will return to their country of origin, even though this assumption was “overcome in the EU countries in the 70s of the previous century when they realised that their migrants were not going to return but had rather become part of their society and culture. In Slovenia we may not expect our citizens ... to leave Slovenia as this would mean a catastrophe for the country and its economy, yet we still do not want to recognize them as equal.” (Ibid: 159) It should be noted that after-hours lessons in the native language organised by associations may be the practice to which they resort in many Western countries, but even there it has been recognised that such lessons do not contribute towards better equal opportunity but merely satisfy the formal requirements of human rights. In recent years primary school has provided an opportunity to learn one’s native language within optional subjects available to all students in the final three years of primary school. In the year 2003/04, only two schools in Slovenia offered and provided Croatian as an optional subject, a syllabus is currently being developed for Serbian, and an approval for syllabuses for Macedonian, Albanian and Bosnian language respectively has also been granted. (Roter 2004: 267) It can be concluded that the education policy in Slovenia does not provide migrant children with enough opportunity to learn about their own culture and language; instead it presupposes they will assimilate as quickly as possible and adopt the culture and language of the majority - which is in breach of General Declaration on Human Rights and other relevant international documents (Convention against Discrimination in Education, Convention on the Rights of the Child, etc.) representing the basic standard upon which the new legislation in Slovenia shall be measured. Another indication that the concept of the Slovenian school system is in conflict with the above mentioned documents is an example of reduction taken from the White Paper on Education in the Republic of Slovenia which states: “The ability to communicate, the capacity to understand and express oneself (in the broadest sense of the word) in both Slovene and inforeign languages is of the utmost importance. Developmental trends in the education systems of the world show that, in addition to the thorough teaching of the Slovene language inseparably connected with its literature, it is necessary to begin teaching a first foreign language as soon as possible... . It is extremely important for us, since we belong to a group of smaller European countries.” (White... 1996: 38) Of special interest is the stress on the trends in development of school systems around the world which shows the importance of‘thorough teaching of the Slovenian language’. This raises the question whether the claim is an (unwitting) error as other school systems are probably more concerned with their own mother tongue than the Slovenian language. And what does this mean for around 11,000 (around 5.2 %) primary school children, migrants from former Yugoslav republics, whose mother tongue is not Slovenian?1 It is blatantly clear that in this context they are denied their right to their mother tongue stated in the Convention on the Rights of a Child. Considering the range of languages offered by the Slovenian primary schools, it is obvious there is a hierarchy among the languages: there are desirable languages which students are encouraged to learn (the so-called world languages, such as English, German, French), whereas languages of our co-citizens with precious few exceptions are left out of this offer. PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS ON MIGRANT CHILDREN In the second part of this paper we will take a look at the answers provided by primary school teachers to questions related to migrant issues. We were interested to find out what was in their view the best approach to teaching children from the former Yugoslav republics. At the end of 2003 and beginning of 2004 we surveyed a representative sample of class and subject primary school2 teachers using our questionnaire ‘Teachers on Different Groups of Children in the Slovenian Primary School’. The aim of the questionnaire was to establish teachers’ attitudes towards different groups of children, namely towards girls and boys, Romani children, migrant children from the 1 According to 2002 census, this is the number of school-age children whose native language is not Slovenian. As the number of non-Slovenians in the population is twice as high, it is possible to assume that the number of these children is actually higher. 2 Primary school in Slovenia takes nine years, children start school at the age of six. School is divided into three three-year blocks: the first three years is taught by class teachers, the last three years is taught by subject teachers and the second three years are a combination of both. former Yugoslav republics, children with special needs, and wealthy and poor children3. In this paper we will present one part of the results: we will look at the part in which we asked teachers the following questions: (1) would they accept a migrant child into their class; (2) what would be in their view the best way of teaching migrant children; (3) what was their attitude towards migrant children learning their native language and Slovenian; (4) to what degree they believed migrant children were affected by not being taught in their native language; and (5) was the Slovenian school system fair and just towards migrant children? In questions 2 and 3 we were also interested whether teachers’ attitudes were correlated to the length of their experience, level of education, position, school location (town versus country), level of teaching (class versus subject teachers) and their gender. As the share of male class teachers is negligible, the last question was analysed only for subject teachers. METHOD Research method Empirical research based on the descriptive and causal non-experimental method. Sample of the population The sample of the surveyed population included teachers who worked at primary schools in Slovenia in the academic year 2003/2004. The sample size was determined by the main aims of the questionnaire and included 207 class teachers and 207 subject teachers. Both samples were stratified in accordance with the following criteria: town/ country, region, teacher’s gender. The choice of schools within these parameters was random. The study included class and subject teachers from 41 schools in Slovenia. The sample of teachers from first three-year block and partly the second included 3.4 % male and 96.6 % female teachers; 91.2 % were class teachers, 3.9 % taught after-school care classes; 3.4 % were pre-school teachers teaching Year 1 and 1.5 % were subject teachers. Most teachers had university degree (46.6 %), a few less held a teacher college diploma (45.9 %); 7.2 % had high school education and 0.5 % had a postgraduate diploma, masters degree or doctoral degree. Their average age was 38 years, and their average years of experience 15 years. In the final three year block and partly the second all teachers were subject teachers. Among them, there were 19.8 % male teachers and 80.2 % female teachers. Most teachers had a teacher collage diploma (48.5 %), a few less had a university degree (47.5 %), 3.4 % had high school education and 0.5 % completed a postgraduate course. Their average age was 41 years and on average they had 16.6 years of experience. 3 The questionnaire is a part of a larger research project titled ‘Justice in Educational Systems - A Contrasting Approach’ (core research project by the Slovenian Ministry of Education and Sport), project leader Mojca Peček. Method of data collection Initially, we prepared a draft questionnaire which was tested on a pilot sample of class and subject teachers. Using the answers we were able to make further amendments and then proceeded to create the final version of the questionnaire. We divided it into seven sections: girls and boys, Romani children, migrant children from the former Yugoslav republics, wealthy children, poor children, children with special needs, and justice in education. The survey started on a selected sample of teachers in October 2003 and finished in March 2004. Filling in questionnaires was led by researchers who had in advance organised their meetings with teachers in writing and over the phone. When the basic analysis of the questionnaire was completed we went back in the academic year 2004/05 and presented the results to the interested schools, asking them to interpret their responses4. In this way, our quantitative analysis was further advanced by a qualitative analysis. The reliability of the final questionnaire form was tested by Cronbach coefficient alpha which was for the part of questionnaire under our consideration for subject teachers 0.78 and class teachers 0.74. Its validity was verified by the percentage of explained variance by the first factor in factor analysis. For subject teachers it was 23.16 %, and for class teachers 20.37 %. Its reliability was further verified by factor analysis. With all common factors there is 63.10 % explained variance among class teachers, which means its reliability is rn = 0.79, whereas for subject teachers there is 56.57 % of explained variance, which means that the reliability of this part of the questionnaire is rt= 0.75. Data processing The statistic analysis was carried out by software program SPSS 12.0. Calculated were the measures of central tendencies and dispersion. We carried out a chi-square test of the independency hypothesis, as a limit of statistical significance we took p < 0.05. We carried out a factor analysis to define validity (% of explained variance by the first factor) and reliability (% of explained variance by common factors) and Cronbach Alpha coeficient as a measure of questionnaire’s reliability. In order to simplify data processing, we adjusted the years of experience for some participating teachers. Based on Razdevšek-Pučko (1990: 147-149) and Marentič Požarnik (1993: 13-15) analysis, teachers professional development could be split into the following stages: 1. period of idealistic vision - the period of study and occupational training; 2. period of survival - the first year of teaching or the trainee period; some data shows this period can last up to two years; 3. period of experienced teacher: teachers believe it starts at around the third year of teaching and continues to around twenty years of teaching; 4 Out of 41 primary schools such a wish expressed six schools. Till the moment we finished that article, we realized presentation in four schools. 4. period of renewed susceptibility to influences - twenty to thirty years of teaching experience; 5. period of gradual distancing and getting ready for retirement — over thirty years of teaching experience. According to this analysis we put teachers with less than two years experience in the first group. Considering the third period in this classification is rather long we further split it into two subgroups: a group of teachers with teaching experience between 3 and 10 years and a group of teachers with teaching experience between 11 and 20 years. Teachers with teaching experience of 21 to 30 years constituted the fourth group, and teachers with more than 31 years of experience were put in the fifth group. RESULTS Teachers were asked to choose which children they would accept in their class and which they would not if it were up to them to decide. It should be noted that we did not include all ethnic groups from the former Yugoslavia who live in Slovenia but only a selection. Another thing to note is the name for migrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina which has changed many times in the censuses since the WW II. In 1948, they were recorded as undeclared Muslims (in Slovenian spelled in lower case), in the 1953 census they featured as undeclared Yugoslavs, in the 1961 census they were described as Muslims (spelled in upper case) in the sense of an ethnic group, and from 1971 they have been considered Muslims as a nationality. In the 2002 census in Slovenia, they described themselves as Muslims in the ethnic sense and as Bosnian in accordance with the Bosnia and Herzegovina constitution. (Dolenc 2004: 44-45) Since the term ‘Muslim’ in the ethnic sense has been used in Slovenia for a long time, we also used it in our questionnaire. Table 1: If you could choose, would you accept a migrant child into your class? YES CT (%) YES ST (%) NO CT (%) NO ST (%) Can’t make up my mind CT (%) Can’t make up my mind ST (%) Muslim 88.9 90.6 3.6 2 7.5 7.4 Serb 90 92 3 1 7 7 Croatian 93.5 91.1 2.5 1 4 7.9 Albanian 87.4 89.6 4 2.5 8.6 8 CT - class teachers ST - subject teachers A quick look at the table above shows that quite a few teachers had a problem deciding whether to accept a child of a different nationality into their class or not, and there is even a percentage of teachers who would not accept him at all. In this regard, the class teachers proved a bit less tolerant than the subject teachers. If we add together those teachers who were decidedly against accepting a child of a different nationality into their class and those teachers who were undecided, the total percentage in relation to some nationalities, e.g. Albanians followed by Muslims, is more than 10 per cent. We get a clearer picture of the conditions under which teachers were willing to accept a migrant child into their class from the results of further analysis. We asked teachers to choose the statement which was the closest to their views on the way in which migrant children should be taught: a) From the beginning, migrant children should be taught under the same conditions as the Slovenian children. ST-57.0% CT - 62.1 % b) Before starting school in Slovenia, migrant children should complete a course in the Slovenian language. ST - 35.5 % CT - 28.7 % c) Migrant children should as often as possible be taught individually, separately from other children in the class. ST - 6.5 % CT - 8.7 % d) Migrant children should be taught in a separate class. ST-1.0% CT - 0.5 % As we can see, less then one tenth of teachers agreed with segregated teaching as offered by answers c) and d). The highest level of agreement was assigned to the statement that migrant children should be taught from the very beginning under the same conditions as Slovenian children. When we went back to schools to deliver the survey results, teachers found this answer self-evident. When we further asked what they understood under ‘equal conditions’ they described them as equal opportunity to choice and to being included; as a teacher’s effort to deliver subjects in such a way that children can understand them; as a right to additional hours of Slovenian language lessons if the migrant child is defined as a child with special needs. In one school, teachers said it would be necessary to adjust the syllabus to accommodate migrant children culture. The second answer, with which about a third of teachers agreed, suggested a Slovenian language course which children would complete before entering the Slovenian school. This response can be explained as awareness among teachers that a child who cannot speak Slovenian find it hard to follow lessons in Slovenian and that his poor knowledge of the language can lead to poor success in other subjects as well. It should be noted that legislation in Slovenia does not allow for such an option. It is indeed reasonable to ask whether it would not be better for children if they had the option to attend some kind of a language course. Or in Skubic Ermenc’s words: “If many studies show that bilingual children or rather migrant children whose native language is not Slovenian would be given much better opportunity by having some kind of (at least transitional) bilingual schooling, can we really take the responsibility - to ourselves and to the international community - of refusing to even think about it? Based only on our care for our ‘little’ language? Don’t we show so much more care for our language by truly helping those who do not know it to learn it? Is it responsible to say (or send such message by refusing to discuss it) that migrants should worry about it themselves?” (Skubic Ermenc 2003: 156) We also checked whether there were any differences in replies by class and subject teachers and came to the conclusion that there were no statistically significant differences. There are, however, differences among subject teachers in respect to their gender and education. Gender shows chi-square 9.922 (p=0.019) df=3 and indicates that males were more inclined to choose answers a) and d), and females answers b) and c). The level of education shows chi-square 21.928 (p=0.009) df=9. There was a higher share of teachers with teachers college diploma in favour of answer a), whereas teachers with a university degree were more in favour of answers b) and c). Replies to the next question show an even clearer picture of how teachers see migrant children education. We asked them which statement was the closest to their views on teaching migrant children their native language and the Slovenian language. a) Migrants should make an effort and speak Slovenian at home as often as possible. ST - 45.3 % CT - 53.7 % b) Migrants should speak to their children in their native language; children will learn Slovenian in their environment, in a day-care centre and in school. ST-35.3% CT - 21.4 % c) Migrant children should learn Slovenian as well as their native language at home, in a day-care centre and in school. ST-19.4% CT - 24.9 % d) Migrant children should be taught in a day-care centre and in school in their native language, they should learn the Slovenian language as a foreign language. ST -/ CT-/ As we can see, most teachers agreed with the statement that migrants should make an effort and speak Slovenian at home as much as possible. When we presented the results of the survey back to teachers and asked them to interpret their replies, some said that every family was in a position to make a decision in which language its members would speak at home. Others believed it was normal that knowledge of Slovenian was required in school as this was the communication language of the majority in this environment, adding that they had cases in school where parents were learning Slovenian through their children. However, there seemed to be a general expectation that the family at home should prepare their child for school in the Slovenian language. The parents could best fulfil this duty by speaking Slovenian to their children. It is questionable whether teachers understand that parents with such an attitude towards their own mother tongue can do more harm than good. First, because they do not have a good command of Slovenian and can pass that on to their children - parents can help their child becoming familiar with, develop communication skills, develop understanding and expressing themselves in the widest sense of the word in their own language, but certainly not in Slovenian. Second, using Slovenian in the family environment could affect their quality and quantity of communication. The next reason comes from studies which indicate that if a child who experiences difficulties with the language of his environment is not given an opportunity to develop his native language in an elaborated code, he finds it even harder to cope with the language of the environment, and subsequently this affects his results in all other school subjects as well. Finally, migrants can do more harm than good by communicating at home in Slovenian as in this way they encourage assimilation into the culture of the majority and deny their child a chance to cultivate and develop his own cultural identity (e.g. Smyth 2001) Subject teachers chose statement b) as the second most preferred - that migrants should speak with their children in their native language while their children would learn Slovenian in their environment, in a day-care centre or in school. Among class teachers this reply was in the third place. This reply reflects teachers’ belief that migrants should keep their native language to the private sphere, although it remains questionable to what degree the private and the public sphere can be separated in this sense. Class teachers chose the reply that children should learn their native language as well as Slovenian as their second most preferred, whereas subject teachers put this reply in the third place. Taking into account the fact that “the key element of international protection of ethnic minorities, as developed since the end of cold war in Europe, ... is to ensure the conditions in which the minority languages can be used, maintained and developed,” (Roter 2004: 238), it is probably reasonable to conclude that this is the most desirable concept from the point of view of international documents. From the point of view of numerous studies this is also the concept recognised as the one which helps migrant children achieve their best school results (Smyth 2001). It assumes teaching migrant children and members of the majority group together by maintaining and encouraging the development of cultural identity not only of the majority but also that of ethnic minorities. Among Slovenian teachers this concept is probably not well-known rather than not acceptable. Not one teacher chose the last option which is the closest to the Slovenian current situation in regards to ethnic minorities. Answers to this question showed some statistically significant differences among class and subject teachers. Chi-square is 9.689 (p=0.008) df=2 and shows that class teachers were more inclined to choose a) and c) replies, whereas subject teachers favoured replies a) and b). This was the only difference shown among teachers in relation to this question. As we can see, a large number of primary school teachers see assimilation of migrant children into the culture of the majority as fairly unproblematic. In this respect, teachers’ replies are very similar to the replies received in other research studies. In a survey of public opinion in 1992,60 % of the people participating in the survey replied to the question how non-Slovenians from ‘other republics’ who had lived in Slovenia over a longer period of time should be treated that they “should learn Slovenian and adjust to our situation here, while among themselves they should use their language and practice their culture”. The next most preferred reply with which 12.9 per cent of the surveyed population agreed was that “they should drop their culture and language and accept the Slovenian language and culture as their own” (Klopčič, Komac, Kržišnik-Bukič 2003: 106) The idea of schooling for migrant children in their native language, which would mean a similar arrangement as in the cases of the Italian and Hungarian ethnic minorities, received no support among teachers. And what did the above mentioned public opinion survey show? We present the results in comparison with the views on the autochton ethnic minorities living on the territory of Slovenia, which show a more tolerant attitude towards the minorities than towards migrants. In the public opinion survey in 1990, 83.6 % of the population maintained that a free use of their own language should be included in the constitution for the autochton ethnic minorities, whereas only 55.5 % of the population agreed with the same treatment of the languages of migrants. 85.8 % of the population agreed with autochton ethnic minorities practising their own culture publicly and 67.4 % of the population agreed with migrants practising their culture publicly. Giving them a right to develop their own schooling was agreeable to 53.8 % of the population in the case of the autochton ethnic minorities and only to 24.1 % of the population in the case of migrants. (Ibid: 113) Even though the percentage in the case of independent schooling for migrants seems low, it is still much higher than the percentage we got from teachers. It is true, however, that the public opinion survey was carried out before Slovenia became independent. It is interesting to see what migrants from former Yugoslavia themselves think about the treatment they are receiving. In a recently carried out research titled ‘Perceptions of the Slovenian Integration Policy’, migrants were asked how their native language learning should be organised for children whose at least one parent’s native language was not Slovenian. Most of the population surveyed (33 %) replied that children should learn their native language at home; 27 % of the population believed they should learn the language in school in an after-hour program; 22 % thought children should learn the language in school as part of the regular curriculum, offered as an option; 11 % maintained children should learn the language at their ethnic associations, and 2 % believed they should leam it at their own schools. (Roter 2004: 262) As we can see, 49 % of migrants agree with their children being taught their native language at school. The study also showed in some other respects that language was “an ethnic marker in all ethnic communities who live on the territory of Slovenia” (Ibid: 241) On the other hand, they see knowledge of the Slovenian language as the most important factor of inclusion in the Slovenian society (ibid: 248). Migrants have high expectations from school in this respect as they believe school will develop their children’s Slovenian language skills. Finally, we would like to draw attention to the results from another question by which we wanted to find out whether teachers were aware of the problems migrant children might have due to their not being taught in their native language. Table 2: Migrant children’s main problem is that they have to study in a foreign language. 1 2 3 4 5 Class teachers Subject teachers 6.0 % 4.9 % 31.1 % 39.3 % 18.6% 22.5 % 34.2 % 28.4 % 10.1 % 4.9 % 1 - don’t agree at all, 2 - do not agree, 3 - can’t make up my mind, 4-1 agree, 5 -1 strongly agree. We can see that teachers’ opinions on whether migrant children have learning difficulties because they do not study in their native language are divided. 44.3 % of class teachers and just over a third of subject teachers think so, while other teachers remain undecided or do not agree. Do such results indicate a lack of sensitivity on the part of teachers and their poor understanding of what kind of problems can arise from migrant children not being taught in their native language? Even so, teachers’ replies cannot be fully understood unless we take into account the fact that there is a lack of sensitivity also on the side of politics and in the expert circles. The teachers participating in our survey expressed their agreement with the statement that Slovenian school is fair and just. Table 3: Slovenian school is fair and just towards migrant children. 1 2 3 4 5 Class teachers Subject teachers 0.5 % / 2.9 % 3.4 % 16.4% 19.2% 52.7 % 49.8 % 27.5 % 27.6 % See note no. 4. Most teachers, around 80 %, believe that Slovenian school is fair and just towards migrant children which means that a majority of teachers agree with the school system in regards to migrants as is. 3.4 % of teachers did not agree while almost one fifth remained undecided. CONCLUSION Even though a large number of teachers agree with the statement that Slovenian school system is just and fair towards migrant children, we find such a statement hardly acceptable. A comparative analysis by three authors in Academia Europea shows, for example, that migrant schooling in Europe has undergone three stages: (1) assimilation; (2) multiculturalism (meaning that migrant children have a right to leam their native language and their culture); (3) integration and interculturalism (establishing a reciprocal system, development of communications between cultures, integration of various ethnic identities and cultures). (Husen et al. in Skubic Ermenc 2003: 15). It is a known fact that the notions of multiculturalism as well as interculturalism are vague and understood differently from one country to another, from one author to another. However, this is not of our concern here. The important thing for us at this moment is the fact that the school system in Slovenia has only started establishing stage two in relation to educating our migrant children. Teachers answers clearly indicate that teachers firmly believe in a fair and just school for migrant children, namely, they think children should not be segregated, that is, they should not be taught separately, in special classes and schools. They show less sensitivity when thinking about introducing changes, which would help migrant children become as successful as their native Slovenian peers. We have already asked whether teachers show enough sensitivity in regards to the migrant children specific problems, nevertheless, we should not interpret their answers out of the formal context of the Slovenian school system. Our school legislation, as we mentioned above, is ambivalent. At the general level, it subscribes to the principle of fair and just school, equal opportunity and the right of every individual to be different, at the realisation level, however, these principles are negated. The principle of equal opportunity for ethnic groups and communities residing outside the ethnically mixed areas remains on the declarative level only. Migrant children in our school system in Slovenia are not paid enough attention by expert circles, politics and subsequently teachers themselves. Why not? First of all, because of the way in which the Slovenian school system is dealing with the individual’s right to maintain and develop his mother tongue. At the formal level, it allows for additional classes in the native language, however, the way in which this right is supposed to be realised leaves no doubt that it is there only to satisfy some formal criteria and does not arise from a serious commitment of a school system to accept and contribute to the development of one’s native language and his special ethnic identity. This can also be seen from the Slovenian understanding of the project of the European Council to encourage language learning within the European Union. As part of this project, the Ministry of Education and Sport will provide additional funding for assistant teachers for primary and high school to teach English, French, German, Italian, Spanish and Russian. Some subjects will even be partly taught in a foreign language. In Slovenia, we understand this project as an encouragement to learn the so-called ‘world’ languages; in Sweden, for example, they understand it as an encouragement to learn the languages spoken by the citizens and residents of Sweden. In this regard, our thinking in Slovenia is similar to German thinking: in Germany, language learning is an expression of multiculturalism, but in a more international sense, i.e., in the sense of establishing good relationship with nations beyond the country’s borders. Such multiculturalism is valued and seen as prestigious, while the need for multiculturalism in schools remains neglected. (Skubic Ermenc 2003: 156-157) At the level of maintaining and developing child’s own culture we can also see obstacles to the optimal individual’s development. There is a lack of awareness of what it means to a child to be exposed to two kinds of cultural influences: one kind in his family and another kind in the environment in which he lives. In his mind, there is a unison and a conflict of two cultural traditions, two languages and two different ways of life, since in many cases the family and the environment do not work together as two harmonised factors. This can also be reflected in the development of child’s identity The child’s identity can include “elements of the new social and cultural environment, its attitude towards being different and his own position in this situation”. (Lukšič-Hacin 1995: 131). In some cases the two sets of processes can lead, according to Lukšič-Hacin, to a split personality. The child feels himself as a member of the new community, yet the community rejects him and makes him feel as an alien. Schools in Slovenia do not deal with this problem. It is often said that migrant children may experience socialisation problems, what kind of problems and how to deal with them remains an open question. The next problem are Slovenian language classes for migrant children. Neither the expert circles nor the system try to answer the question what kind of problems migrant children encounter in school due to the fact that their native language is not Slovenian. One of the reasons why there is no such awareness lies probably in the linguistic similarity between the Slovenian language and the languages spoken in the former Yugoslav republics which has certainly facilitated easier communications. However, is this difference really so insignificant from the child’s point of view? How long does it take before they can fully master the language? Until they master it, would it not be better if they were offered a new subject, Slovenian as a second language, as they do in many other countries? How should children whose native language is not Slovenian be taught at all? Our study has confirmed that migrant children in primary school achieve worse results than their average Slovenian peers, and it can be assumed that this is partly the result of their difficulties with the Slovenian language. Due to their worse results from primary school, migrant children have worse opportunities for future education, which leads to the feeling of subordination, insecurity, apathy, despair, alienation and poor self-respect. Such feelings are not constructive for an individual or for the development of the society as a whole in the sense of tolerance and acceptance of differences. As we mentioned before, it happens occasionally that such children are specified as children with special needs in order to secure additional funds from the Ministry of Education and Sport for extra one-to-one Slovenian language lessons. Cultural differences are thus perceived as a handicap and bilingualism (in the case when the first or the second language is not one of the ‘world’ languages) as a deviance which children are advised to overcome as quickly as possible. Another failing of the Slovenian school system shows in the syllabus themes which do not take into account the features and specifics of various ethnic groups. It would be sensible to take the advice of the High Commissioner for Ethnic Minorities at the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe which says that countries should enable “participation of representatives of ethnic minorities in devising educational programs.” (Roter 2004: 247) Finally, we would like to make a note of general atmosphere in schools and classrooms in Slovenia. In this text it has often been questioned whether teachers possess enough sensitivity to deal with the migrant children problems. This does not mean that they are not searching for solutions - in spite of vagueness of the system - to create a better atmosphere in the classroom. Unfortunately, many of their solutions are bound to fail. As long as a school which does not allow children to talk about their ethnicity and religion is presented as an example of a successful school (Zupan 2004: 3) it is hard to believe in fair and just relations in schools in Slovenia. REFERENCES Dolenc, D. (2004), Priseljevanje v Slovenijo iz območja nekdanje Jugoslavije po II. svetovni vojni, Percepcije slovenske integracijske politike, (edited by Komac, M., Medvešek, M.), Ljubljana: Inštitut za narodnostna vprašanja, p. 37-88. Klopčič, V., Komac, M., Kržišnik-Bukič, V. (2003), Albanci, Bošnjaki, Črnogorci, Hrvati, Makedonci in Srbi v Republiki Sloveniji, Ljubljana: Inštitut za narodnostna vprašanja. Kodelja, Z. (2001), Pravičnost: najpomembnejša vrlina šole kot socialne institucije, Sodobna pedagogika, No. 5, p. 8-18. Lukšič-Hacin, M. (1995), Ko tujina postane dom, Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče. Marentič Požarnik, B. (1993), Kako se učijo učitelji; kognitivni pogled na učiteljev profesionalni razvoj in posledice za izobraževanje učiteljev, Vzgoja in izobraževanje•, No. 1, p. 13-15. Medveš, Z. (2002), Nova paradigma pravičnosti v šoli, Sodobna pedagogika, No. 5, p. 24-41. Razdevšek-Pučko, C. (1990), Spremembe v stališčih in značilnosti posameznih obdobij v poklicnem razvoju učiteljev, Učitelj, vzgojitelj - družbena perspektiva, Bled: ZDPDS, p. 147-149. Rawls, J. (1999), A Theory of Justice, Oxford: University Press. Roter, P. (2004), Vloga jezika v integracijskem procesu, Percepcije slovenske integracijske politike, (edited by Komac, M., Medvešek, M.), Ljubljana: Inštitut za narodnostna vprašanja, p. 237-268. Skubic Ermenc, K. (2004), Prispevek k razpravi o posebnih potrebah z vidika učencev priseljencev, Vzgoja in izobraževanje, No. 6, p. 53-56. Skubic Ermenc, K. (2003), Enakost izobraževalnih možnosti v slovenski osnovni šoli s perspektive interkulturnosti, Doctoral thesis, Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Oddelek za pedagogiko in andragogiko. Smyth, G. (2001), Odziv učiteljev na dvojezične učence v šestih osnovnih šolah na Škotskem: etnografska študija, Sodobna pedagogika, No. 2, p. 100-121. Šolska zakonodaja (1996), Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za šolstvo in šport. Ustava Republike Slovenije (1991), Uradni list, No. 33. Urejanje problematike šolanja otrok priseljencev v Sloveniji (2004), Eurydice Zupan, M. (2004), Zamižati ali ukrepati, Šolski razgledi, No. 18, p. 3. White Paper on Education in the Republic of Slovenia (1996). (edited by Krek, J.), Ljubljana: Ministry of Education and Sport. POVZETEK JE OSNOVNA ŠOLA V SLOVENIJI PRAVIČNA IN POŠTENA: PRIMER IZSELJENSKIH OTROK IZ BIVŠE JUGOSLA VIJE Mojca Peček Izhajajoč iz Rawlsovega pojmovanja pravičnosti mora šolski sistem, da bi ga lahko imenovali pravičen, zagotoviti formalno enake možnosti izobraževanja, hkrati pa tudi izravnavati objektivne razlike med učenci, oz. dajati različnim učencem različno z željo po doseganju enakih rezultatov. Šolski sistem teh zahtev ne sme uresničevati le na formalnem, institucionalnem nivoju, temveč mora nujno poseči tudi na odnosni nivo. Zahteva namreč učitelja, ki je senzibilen za to, kaj je v določenem primeru za različne učence pravično in kaj ne, učitelja, ki zna tudi strokovno utemeljiti, zakaj z nekim učencem ravna drugače kot z drugimi. Prispevek nam na primeru priseljencev iz bivše Jugoslavije pokaže, kako se zgoraj pojmovana pravičnost uresničuje znotraj slovenskega šolskega sistema. Najprej kaže, kaj šolski sistem na formalnem nivoju omogoča priseljencem iz bivše Jugoslavije, nato pa si zastavlja vprašanje, kakšen odnos imajo do njih učitelji. Pri tem izhaja iz analize vprašalnika, delanega na reprezentativnem vzorcu razrednih in predmetnih učiteljev v slovenski osnovni šoli. Iz odgovorov učiteljev je jasno zaznati prepričanje, da mora biti šola pravična do otrok priseljencev in sicer v tem smislu, da otrok ne segregira, kar pomeni, da se jih ne poučuje ločeno, v posebnih razredih ali šolah. Manj senzibilnosti pa je zaznati na področjih, ali bi moralo biti in kaj, drugačno za otroke priseljence, da bi bili lahko prav tako uspešni, kot njihovi vrstniki. Vprašanje ali so učitelji dovolj senzibilni za problematiko otrok priseljencev ne moremo razumeti izven formalnih okvirov slovenskega šolskega sistema. Šolska zakonodaja je namreč sama v sebi protislovna, z vidika splošnih načel sicer govori o pravičnosti šole, načelu enakih možnosti s pravico posameznika do drugačnosti, vendar to v konkretnih izvedbah povsem zanika. Načelo enakih možnosti z vidika otrok priseljencev ostaja na deklarativni ravni. Otroci priseljencev znotraj slovenskega šolskega sistema niso deležni ustrezne pozornosti stroke in politike, posledično tudi učiteljev. THE RESPONSE OF SLOVENIAN TEACHERS TO THE MIGRANT CHILDREN FROM FORMER YUGOSLAVIA Irena Lesar* COBISS 1.03 ABSTRACT The response of Slovenian teachers to the migrant children from former Yugoslavia This article looks at the options primary schools in Slovenia offer children of immigrants from former Yugoslavia in regards to their cultural and language differences. The paper is based on the results from empirical research which indicate that the existing system in Slovenian schools developed to cater for the needs of immigrant children is not successful, be it in terms of learning or in terms of personal development. The question therefore is where this feeling of irresponsibility towards immigrant children felt by teachers comes from, given that the teacher plays a key role in realising formal requirements set by the education system. KEY WORDS: migrant children from former Yugoslavia, Slovenian primary school teachers, school results, social inclusion, teachers’ responsibility IZVLEČEK Odziv slovenskih učiteljev na otroke priseljencev iz bivše Jugoslavije V prispevku izhajamo iz konkretnih rešitev, kijih slovenske osnovne šole ponujajo otrokom priseljencev iz bivše Jugoslavije zaradi njihove kulturno jezikovne drugačnosti. Pri tem se opiramo na rezultate empirične raziskave, ki kažejo, da trenutno vzpostavljen sistem za otroke priseljencev ni uspešen niti iz vzgojnega niti iz izobraževalnega zornega kota. Ob tem se sprašujemo, čemu lahko pripišemo v raziskavi prepoznani občutek neodgovornosti učiteljev za otroke priseljencev, še posebej zato, ker predpostavljamo, daje učitelj bistven pri konkretizaciji zahtev na formalni ravni. KLJUČNE BESEDE: otroci priseljencev iz bivše Jugoslavije, slovenski osnovnošolski učitelji, učni uspeh, socialna inkluzija, odgovornost učiteljev PROLOGUE The aim of this article is to highlight the situation of the migrant children from former Yugoslavia in primary school in Slovenia. Contemporary school presents teachers with new and relatively high demands, which should contribute towards democratisation of relationships and social justice in school. From the aspect of learning outcomes, teachers are required to offer differenti- * Irena Lesar, mag., asistentka za področje teorije vzgoje, Pedagoška fakulteta v Ljubljani, Slovenija, e-pošta: irena.lesar@guest.ames.si Dve domovini • Two Homelands 22 • 2005, 49-58 ated and individualised lessons which should enable students to acquire as high levels of knowledge as possible. From the developmental aspect, they are required to include all students who should with maximum assistance achieve at least minimal levels of knowledge. Thus, the teacher is expected to be willing to build a class community of individuals who show solidarity and responsibility towards each other, who are able to show respect for and acceptance of difference, and are thus developing their skill to constructively participate in a society of different human beings. We asked ourselves to what extent teachers felt responsible for the migrant children school results and their social inclusion in the class. With regard to the first question, we asked a representative sample of primary school teachers whether factors such as the child’s traits, the situation in the class and the situation at home affect the migrant child’s level of school achievement, and if so, to what extent. As regard the second question, we tried to establish the role of the child’s parents, the child himself, the other children and their parents, and the teacher in the migrant child’s social inclusion in the class. Slovenian teachers feel considerably less responsible for the achievements of migrant children than for the achievements of other children, and, furthermore, do not feel responsible for migrant children’s successful inclusion in the class. The question therefore is where this feeling of irresponsibility towards migrant children felt by teachers comes from. For this reason, it is necessary to pay utmost attention to making teachers aware of their key role in implementing moral and educational goals of education as well as teaching them to be more sensitive to the real problems of migrant children and to be better prepared for intercultural education. Introduction In the 90s of the previous century, education in Slovenia had seen dramatic changes both in the sphere of the school system, including education management and the scope of choice, and in the sphere of redefining the educational function of school. The teacher today needs to be a real expert in order to do her/his job well as she/he is expected to satisfy a complex set of educational goals. The Act on Education Management and Funding in the Republic of Slovenia lists 15 goals, including the first two quoted bellow: • “to ensure optimal development of every person regardless of one’s gender, social and cultural background, religion, ethnicity and his/her physical or mental constitution; • to promote tolerance, to develop awareness of gender equality, to respect difference and to co-operate with others, to respect child’s and human rights and basic freedoms, and to develop the skill of living in a democratic society.” (Šolska zakonodaja 1996: 10) Ensuring optimal development for all students is closely related both to acquiring quality knowledge and to developing personality traits which will contribute to tolerance, solidarity and responsibility, the three basic values on which school today is founded. Clearly, the teacher is the key element in achieving these goals: the quality of her/his work very much depends on her/his awareness of one’s responsibility both for the development of knowledge and personality traits in the students. In this paper we will try to provide an answer to the question how the changed teacher’s role in the new system of primary school is defined in the founding documents, which outline education in Slovenia, as well as in academic papers relating to this sphere. In continuation we will also take a look at how teachers see their responsibility for the school results and inclusion of migrant children from former Yugoslavia. How much responsibility is put on teachers to fulfil the declared educational goals? In recent years, the views on the teacher’s role have considerably changed in the Western countries: the teacher today is no longer ‘the only disseminator’ of knowledge, she has to overcome the role of the ‘solo player’ in which she/he spreads his her knowledge to the ignorant pupils, and to adopt the role of an ‘assistant’ who should help students find, organise and manage their knowledge. (Učenje - skriti zaklad 1996: 136) There is also a clear link between the teacher’s teaching and the learner’s learning according to which the teacher is expected to promote learning at higher levels by using a wide range of teaching techniques and methods as well as adjusted instruction matter to suit the needs of the students. Such an understanding of a changed teacher’s role and her/his influence on the students builds on awareness that mostly the reasons for poor school results can be found 'in the teaching system rather than with students themselves.’ (Blažič et al. 2003: 91) The researchers believe, that what takes place in the classroom, along with the factors linked to student’s personal traits (skills, previous knowledge, emotional and behavioural features, metacognition and learning strategies), is the second very important factor directly affecting students’ learning results. Beside these two factors, there is another group of elements directly affecting results, namely, the family, its culture, the way of life and the socio-economic status. (Požarnik 2000: 132) In our core documents, the emphasis is not only on every child’s right to basic education but also on every child’s right to good quality knowledge and development. Hence they pay a special attention to the role teachers have in facilitating educational goals, which translate at the classroom level into flexible adjustments to teach real students with their specific needs with the view of enabling every student achieve the best possible school results, and to the teacher’s awareness of her responsibility for students’ school results. What kind of expectations of responsibility for fulfilling moral and value dimension of educational goals is placed on teachers by the system and by the discussion in academic circles? The teacher’s role and her understanding of her own responsibility are very important from the point of view of fulfilling moral and value goals. Clearly, the teacher’s work cannot be simply split into strictly personality development and strictly knowledge teaching for we subscribe the Herbart’s principle of ‘Make your instruction educative”. In this age, it is not possible to overlook the educative effects education has (instructional matter, techniques and methods of work). Many factors can be classified as educative factors, their inclusion very much depending on the classification criteria and the educational discipline to which we subscribe. Within the curriculum theory, they can be categorised as factors of hidden and official curriculum, didactics puts more weight on the study matter, techniques and methods of work, the whole learning situation as well as the teacher’s and student’s roles in the pedagogic communication. Most academic papers in Slovenia on school education discuss them as the efficient (hidden curriculum) or the most acceptable factors (as highlighted by didactics). The question, however, is whether this idea of education, which is in Slovenia recognised as the only acceptable path of school education really brings satisfying and indeed even acceptable results. The most interesting classification of educative factors for us is the one based on the basic principles of personalism and Gogala’s “attempt at transferring the personalistic concept of human being and mind to the field of pedagogy.” (Kroflič 2004: 81) In this respect, the “key factor in education in public school is /.../a personal contact carrying values over a wide range of personal relationships and providing an experience of values lived by the school community.” (Ibid) The teacher should play an active and not passive role in the shaping of the class as a school community generating ties of belonging, commitment, solidarity and responsibility. Awareness of the key role the teacher plays is important in realising the requirement of school today to include all students. We are interested here in the inclusion of every individual who in one more or less important aspect differs from others (socioeconomic, cultural, linguistic, religious background and those with different mental or physical abilities). By inclusion we do not mean adjustment of the minority to the majority, but maintaining one’s own identity. Being different should not threaten either the majority or the minority population; instead, it should be a source of enrichment and a challenge to find new forms of living together (cohabitation). In the second part of this paper we will take a look at how teachers see their role and understand their responsibility for the school results and the social inclusion of migrant children from former Yugoslavia, who represents the majority among the one tenth of non-Slovenians. ' With notion “educative” we mean moral and value dimension of education. Research At the end of 2003 and in the beginning of 2004, we asked a representative sample of primary school teachers to fill in our questionnaire titled ‘Teachers on Different Groups of Children in Primary School in Slovenia’2. In this paper we will present partial results of the questionnaire, namely the part in which we asked teachers about their views on the factors affecting the school results of migrant children from former Yugoslavia and on the factors affecting migrant children’s social inclusion in the class3. The results and interpretation of the question regarding the factors affecting the school results of migrant children First we will present teachers’ answers in regard to the question about the factors affecting children’s school results. We asked them whether in their view the listed factors affect the school result of migrant children from former Yugoslavia. If they answered YES, they were further asked to decide on the degree to which the factor was important. The factors, which affect the school results of migrant children from former Yugoslavia were ranked by teachers in the following manner: Table 1: Factors affecting the school results of migrant children from former Yugoslavia and their degree of importance. NO NO YES YES DEGREE % DEGREE % CT ST CT ST CT ST a) Child s abilities (5) 0.5 % (5) 1.5% (1)99.5% (2) 98.5 % (1)32.96% (1)32.63 % b) Child's activity (5) 0.5 % (6) 0.5 % (1)99.5% (1)99.5% (2) 19.87 % (2)21.43% c) Teacher s teaching method (3) 6.3 % (2) 12.2% (4) 93.7 % (5) 87.8 % (3) 13.40% (3) 12.92 % d) Atmosphere in the classroom (4) 5.3 % (4) 8.4 % (3) 94.7 % (3)91.6% (5) 11.42% (5) 11.96% e) Family culture and the way of life (2) 10 % (3) 11.1 % (5) 90 % (4) 88.9 % (4) 12.95% (4) 11.22% f) Family socio-economic status (1)24% (1)27.5% (6) 76 % (6) 72.5 % (6) 9.40 % (6) 9.84 % CT - Class teachers, SP - Subject teachers ( ) The number in brackets shows ranking. 2 The questionnaire is a part of a larger research project titled Justice in Educational Systems - A Constrasting Approach (core research project by the Ministry of Education and Sport), project leader Mojca Peček-Čuk. 3 About the research method, the sample of the population, the method of collecting data and about data processing see the article of Peček, published in this volume of the journal Two Homelands. If we first take a look at the first two columns which show teachers’ agreement, it is clear that most teachers believe that the listed factors are relevant to the results of migrant children from former Yugoslavia. In assessing the degree of importance for each factor, the class teachers and subject teachers seem to agree. More than 50 % of school results are subscribed to children themselves, the rest is divided among other listed factors. The classroom atmosphere seems to be slightly more important than the family circumstances. It may be interesting to note the number of teachers who believe that the classroom atmosphere is not a factor affecting the school results of children from former Yugoslavia: among class teachers, this number is almost half (11.6 %) of the number of the subject teachers (21 %). We expected teachers to distribute their answers more evenly among the factors related to the child itself, the classroom and family circumstances. Considering the results from other research studies4 we expected that ours will also show around a third of vote assigned to each group of factors. It should be noted that in the questionnaire we also asked teachers about the factors affecting school results of‘ordinary’ children in primary school in Slovenia, which showed very similar results to those presented above. (For more see Lesar, Čuk, Peček 2005). Results on the teachers’ views about the inclusion of migrant children in schools in Slovenia We asked teachers to choose the level of their agreement with the statements listed below (see table 2): Bearing in mind these results, it can be concluded that teachers in their work do not differentiate between migrant and other children, they have similar expectations from both and they see migrant children as helpful in teaching everyone tolerance. They seem to have a similarly constructive opinion about the migrant and other parents. They are undecided with regard to how migrants’ culture and language affect the migrant children’s school success, to what degree the migrant child is responsible for his/her own inclusion in the class, and to what degree Slovenian parents are happy with having migrant children in their child’s class. Rectangular rotation of factor analysis of the main components resulted in six factors in the class teachers group (63.1 % of explained variance), and five factors in the subject teachers group (56.57 % of explained variance). Scree test in both groups produced three important factors, which we rectangularly rotate according to the Var-imax method. 4 Meta-analysis of many research studies from the USA shows that subgroups of direct factors are ordered hierarchically according to their importance, or rather their intensity of influence, however, the intensity of influence among all three subgroups is about equally high. Average T-results between each group of factors and school results /.../ produced results: 55, 53, 51, /.../ respectively.’’(Marentič Požarnik 2000: 132) Table 2: The frequency structure of the level of agreement by class and subject teachers with the listed statements. 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MIHAEL KUZMIČ (1942-2005 Janja Žitnik Konec avgusta nas je pretresla zares težko dojemljiva novica o nenadni smrti prof. dr. Mihaela Kuzmiča, dolgoletnega sodelavca Inštituta za slovensko izseljenstvo, kolega, katerega navidez neizčrpna raziskovalna, organizacijska in duhovna energija je obogatila vrsto naših projektov in publikacij, predvsem pa tudi tako rekoč vsa naša znanstvena srečanja. 29. avgusta je na svojem domu v Ljubljani v zgodnji jutranji uri podlegel usodnemu srčnemu napadu. Prof. dr. Mihael Kuzmič seje rodil 22. septembra 1942 v prekmurskem naselju Vadarci, a se je družina že čez nekaj let preselila v Veščico pri Murski Soboti. Po osnovni šoli v Kupšincih ter višji gimnaziji in Ekonomski srednji šoli v Murski Soboti je bil tam tri leta zaposlen v TMI. Leta 1966 seje z ženo preselil v Ljubljano, kjer sta vzpostavila delovanje protestantske Binkoštne cerkve. Ob pastorskem deluje študiral teologijo na Protestantski teološki fakulteti v Zagrebu in na Evangelijski teološki fakulteti v Osjeku. Po diplomi leta 1991 je na slednji še magistriral s področja cerkvene zgodovine (1997). Do tedaj pa je imel za sabo že vrsto let raziskovalnega dela. Po krajšem začetnem obdobju preučevanja slovenske protestantske cerkvene zgodovine in teološke problematike seje od leta 1982 posvečal tudi raziskavam prekmurskega izseljenstva, ki jih je pozneje usmeril zlasti v preučevanje zgodovine in kulturne dediščine slovenskih protestantskih priseljencev v ZDA in deloma Južni Ameriki. Leta 2000 je na Oddelku za anglistiko in amerikanistiko Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani obranil doktorsko disertacijo Slovenski izseljenci iz Prekmurja v Bethlehemu, Pa., ZDA, v letih 1893-1924: naselitev ter njihove zgodovinsko socialne, politične, literarne in verske dejavnosti. Od 1996-2000je bil ravnatelj Evangelijskega teološkega centra v Ljubljani, v okviru katerega je vodil in uresničeval versko izobraževalno, izdajateljsko in raziskovalno dejavnost, predvsem na področju protestantizma v matični Sloveniji in izseljenstvu. Od leta 2000 je bil razpet med Ljubljano, kjer seje odtlej posvečal predvsem raziskovalni dejavnosti, in Osjekom, kjer je bil zaposlen kot izredni profesor in akademski dekan na Evangelijski teološki fakulteti, hkrati pa je vodil Institut za protestantske študije. Leta 2002 ga je Znanstveni svet ZRC SAZU izvolil v naziv znanstveni sodelavec, marca 2003 pa v naziv višji znanstveni sodelavec. Njegova bibliografija obsega 550 enot. Dr. Kuzmič je bil avtor dveh samostojnih znanstvenih monografij in še sedmih knjig, soavtor treh znanstvenih monografij, avtor Dve domovini • Two Homelands 22 • 2005, 221-223 37 izvirnih ali preglednih znanstvenih člankov ter 11 objavljenih znanstvenih prispevkov na konferencah (na različnih znanstvenih srečanjih je imel 21 referatov in predavanj, vendar je nekatera nadgradil in jih objavil kot znanstveni članek). Poleg tega je med drugim objavil 80 strokovnih člankov in prispevkov, 30 gesel v Enciklopediji Slovenije, 36 knjižnih ocen, 18 spremnih besedil k različnim knjigam in 35 prispevkov za radio in televizijo. Seznam njegovih predavanj na tujih univerzah (največ v Osjeku, precej pa tudi v različnih evropskih državah in v ZDA), drugih javnih nastopov (predavanj in govorov, največ v ZDA), objavljenih prevodov, študijskih skript, poljudnih in drugih člankov ter diskusijskih prispevkov pa je skoraj nepregleden. Dr. Kuzmič je bil tudi urednik časopisov Golgotska vest in Duhovno obzorje ter petih knjižnih izdaj. Kot mentor/somentor je v okviru mednarodnega študija usmerjal osemnajst študentov diplomskega programa, pet magistrandov in pet doktorandov ter jih spodbujal k sistematičnemu raziskovanju na področju teologije, protestantizma in zgodovine Cerkve v njihovih državah. Ob takšnih rezultatih širokega spektra njegove znanstvene in pedagoške dejavnosti je bilo kar samoumevno, da mu je Pomurska akademsko znanstvena unija podelila naziv pomurski akademik. Spoznala sva se leta 1985, ko seje začela moja raziskovalna pot na Inštitutu za slovensko izseljenstvo. V naslednjih dvajsetih letih je plodno sodeloval z Inštitutom, redno objavljal v Dveh domovinah, prijavljal in izvajal skupne projekte v okviru Inštituta, predaval na mednarodnih znanstvenih konferencah, ki jih je organiziral Inštitut, in že v letu ustanovitve naše monografske zbirke Migracije objavil obsežno samostojno znanstveno monografijo kot njen drugi zvezek. Leta 1997 meje prosil, da mu kot tuja recenzentka napišem oceno njegovega magistrskega dela za Evangelijsko teološko fakulteto v Osjeku, odtlej pa sva sodelovala tudi pri pripravi njegove doktorske disertacije in dveh njegovih knjig, za kateri sem tudi prispevala spremno besedilo. Po enem zavrnjenem in kar nekaj odobrenih ter uspešno realiziranih skupnih projektih smo znova združili moči leta 2002, ko je kot član pripravljalnega odbora pomagal organizirati našo mednarodno znanstveno konferenco Sezonstvo in izseljenstvo v panonskem prostoru: sosedstvo Avstrije, Hrvaške, Madžarske in Avstrije v Radencih, na kateri je tudi sam nastopil z izvrstno pripravljenim in podanim predavanjem o vlogi Aleksandra Kardoša pri ohranjanju slovenske jezikovne in narodnostne identitete prekmurskih izseljencev v ZDA. Najino najtesnejše in najplodnejše sodelovanje pa je potekalo v letih 1994-1998 v okviru temeljnega raziskovalnega projekta Slovenska izseljenska književnost. Na osnovi obsežnih terenskih raziskav na študijskih potovanjih po ZDA, kabinetnega dela in rednih delovnih sestankov raziskovalne skupine je kot svoj del osrednjega rezultata projekta, sintetičnega pregleda književnega dela slovenskih izseljencev (Slovenska izseljenska književnost, 3 zvezki, Ljubljana: Založba ZRC in Rokus, 1999, 1291 str.), prispeval samostojno poglavje o literarni dejavnosti prekmurskih Slovencev v ZDA. Upoštevajoč, da se dotlej še ni intenzivneje ukvarjal s književno zgodovino in analizo leposlovnih besedil z vidika literamoestetskih meril, smo bili kolegi s področja literarnih ved presenečeni nad njegovo vsestransko dojemljivostjo za raziskovalne metode znanstvene discipline, v kateri seje tedaj kot popoln novinec dobro znašel. V naslednjih letih so me njegove objave in predavanja, pa tudi prodornost in dorečenost njegovih širokopoteznih načrtov - med drugim za vrsto nesojenih prihodnjih zvezkov naše knjižne zbirke Migracije, ki jih je že snoval - vedno znova fascinirali. Tako sem v Poročilu o znanstvenoraziskovalnem delu dr. Mihaela Kuzmiča - v razdelek Splošni vtis o delu kandidata - leta 2002 zapisala: »Objavljeni rezultati znanstvenoraziskovalnega dela dr. Kuzmiča odražajo široko poznavanje obravnavane problematike, pester izbor virov, avtorjevo podrobno seznanjenost z njihovo vsebino ter kompleksen način njihove obravnave. Mimo njegovih objav se kaže znanstvena avtoritativnost dr. Kuzmiča še zlasti v njegovih javnih nastopih. V strokovnih in znanstvenih diskusijah suvereno pojasnjuje vprašanja, ki zahtevajo ne le temeljito obvladovanje predmeta njegovih raziskav, temveč tudi celovito poznavanje in razumevanje širšega zgodovinskega, socialnega in kulturnega ozadja obravnavanih migracijskih procesov in pojavov. Spričo svoje komunikativnosti je dr. Kuzmič dobrodošel gost številnih množičnih medijev, s čimer uspešno popularizira svoje znanstvene rezultate. Pri uresničevanju zastavljenih ciljev je izredno vztrajen, njegova delovna strategija, ki vključuje oporo na široko mednarodno mrežo sodelavcev, pa prinaša odmevne rezultate.« Novi izzivi pa so bili še naprej osrednje vodilo dr. Mihaela Kuzmiča. Leta 2002 je svoj Opis znanstvenoraziskovalne dejavnosti v zadnjih dveh letih, ki gaje oddal s svojo vlogo za izvolitev v naziv znanstveni sodelavec ZRC SAZU, zaključil z mislijo, da - glede na dosedanje opravljeno delo, dober pregled nad potrebnimi raziskavami v prihodnosti in zbranim gradivom, pa tudi glede na dokaj dobro osebno psihofizično stanje - upa in načrtuje, da bo v tej raziskovalni smeri še naprej aktivno delal. Kot članica Znanstvenega sveta ZRC SAZU, ki gaje izvolil v omenjeni znanstveni naziv, sem tem besedam v svoji utemeljitvi glasu brez pomislekov pritrdila. Svojo zgoraj navedeno napoved je dr. Kuzmič že v naslednjih dveh letih dodobra uresničil. Z impresivno znanstveno in strokovno bibliografijo v letih 2002-2004 (med drugim je objavil še dve novi knjigi) je lahko že septembra 2004 kandidiral za predčasno izvolitev v naziv višji znanstveni sodelavec, saj je v tem času dejansko izpolnil pogoje celo za najvišji znanstveni naziv. Tudi tokrat je svoj življenjepis, ki gaje dodal vlogi za izvolitev, zaključil z natančno opredeljenimi in daljnosežnimi načrti za prihodnje raziskovalno delo. Kljub temu, da simptomov napredujoče bolezni svojega preobremenjenega srca, ki jih je opažal zlasti potem, ko je julija 2004 izgubil svojo najboljšo prijateljico, sodelavko in življenjsko sopotnico, ni nikomur omenjal, pa je posamezne dele raziskovalnega gradiva iz obsežnega arhiva, ki gaje zbral in uredil v petindvajsetih letih svojega raziskovalnega dela, vendarle začel postopoma predajati drugim (med njimi tudi, denimo, Petri Čeme, magistrandki na Oddelku za anglistiko in amerikanistiko Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani) in se spraševati, kdo od njih bo morda nekoč odigral vlogo njegovega naslednika. Bojim se, da njegove vsestranske, na področju slovenske zgodovine protestantizma in prekmurskih migracijskih študij pa izstopajoče vloge v pravem pomenu besede ne bo nasledil nihče. KNJIŽNE OCENE r^q jjy Z £ u w z až BOOK REVIEWS >N \> hH -» O z o ^ PQ Milan Mesič, Medunarodne migracije. Tokovi i teorije, Societas, Zagreb 2002, 406 str. Preučevanje migracij je dandanes eno najbolj dinamičnih in naglo razvijajočih se področij, ki se vztrajno širi in posega na polja številnih humanističnih ter družboslovnih ved. Številne raziskave, diskusije, študije v obliki monografij in zbornikov, skušajo razrešiti vprašanja ter dileme, ki se zastavljajo raziskovalcem. Migracijske teme so si utrle pot tudi v dodiplomske in podiplomske študijske programe številnih fakultet in pojavila seje potreba po kvalitetni študijski literaturi. Študentom je bilo treba ponuditi tako temeljna dela, kot tudi sodobno literaturo, pa tudi najnovejše raziskave s področja migracij. To pa je težko delo, saj zahteva temeljito poznavanje obsežne domače in tuje literature, poleg tega pa je povezano tudi z redno nabavo in po potrebi tudi s prevodi najpomembnejših del. Vse to je težko doseči oziroma uskladiti, še posebej če gre za relativno mlado polje raziskovanja, zato je včasih situacijo treba reševati postopoma S temi problemi seje srečeval tudi prof. dr. Milan Mesič, profesor na Oddelku za Sociologijo Filozofske fakultete v Zagrebu, ki tam predava Sociologijo migracij, zato je sklenil zapolniti praznino, ki je na tem področju prisotna na FIrvaškem. Ker pa se je zavedal, da gre za obširno tematiko, ki jo je nemogoče v celoti zajeti naenkrat, se je odločil za nekaj kompromisov. Kot sam poudari v uvodu, je najprej imel v mislih krajši pregled različnih teoretskih pristopov in koncepcij raziskovanja sodobnih mednarodnih migracij, nato pa seje odločil, da poskusi tudi s sistematizacijo pomembnih migracijskih procesov in tokov od prazgodovine do danes. Menil je, da bralcem, kijih zanimajo samo dejstva o posameznih migracijskih premikih ta koncepcija omogoča, da preprosto izpustijo teoretski del, medtem ko tisti, ki jih zanima teorija, lahko preskočijo zgodovinsko-deskriptivni pregled migracijskih procesov in tokov. Prvi del knjige se začne z prazgodovinskimi migracijami, nadaljuje z pred-modemi-mi, nato pa se posveti modernim migracijam. Obravnava torej obdobja od prazgodovine do konca druge svetovne vojne, torej tisočletja, ko so nastajale in propadale civilizacije, izoblikovale so se številne kulture, pisal seje dobršen del svetovne zgodovine. Preteklost avtor uporablja predvsem kot podlago za naštevanje in opisovanje različnih vrst migracij, zato se poslužuje skoraj izključno politične zgodovine. To ga neposredno vodi v opisovanje množičnih premikov oziroma na makronivo, kjer ni prostora za manjše skupine, kot so gospodinjstvo, družina ali pa posameznika. Takoj pa se vidi, da so sodobne mednarodne migracije avtorju kot sociologu bližje. To poglavje, ki se ukvarja z obdobjem po drugi svetovni vojni, je ambiciozno zastavljeno in temeljito obdelano. Ukvarja se s številnimi povezavami, kot so na primer povojne migracije in razvoj mednarodnega izseljenske prava, konec kolonializma in izseljevanje iz bivših kolonij v Evropo, nedokumentirani priseljenci in različne politike kontrole na nedokumentiranimi migracijami, razmišlja pa tudi o globalizaciji in njenimi posledicami. Z vrtenjem globusa se posveti tudi migracijam na različnih kontinentih in njihovim posebnostim. Dve domovini • Two Homelands 22 • 2005, 227-235 Tu so mu na pomoč že lahko priskočile različne teorije o mednarodnih migracijah in njihovi pristopi, kar je omogočilo večplastno raziskovanje fenomena migracij. Na voljo je tudi bogata domača in tuja literatura s tega področja, kar odpira pogled na to, kako interdisciplinarno je lahko raziskovanje človeških premikov. Ker je Mesič v tem poglavju že očrtal nekatere prijeme teorij o mednarodnih migracijah, bralec lahko že začne pogledovati proti drugemu delu knjige, kjer je govora o osnovnih pojmih in teorijah. Tudi tu je avtor metodičen in nas najprej seznani z interdisciplinarnim značajem migracij, se posveti njihovemu definiranju in tipologiji. Govori tudi o modelih migracije, kijih določimo s pomočjo podatkov in informacij ter se posveti enemu od bolj zanimivih fenomenov znotraj migracij, njihovi selektivnosti. Vse to pa je le uvod v obširno poglavje, v katerem se seznanimo z zgodovino razvoja teorij o migracijah , z njihovimi prijemi in ugotovitvami. Seznanimo se s številnimi raziskavami, ki sojih te teorije spodbudile in z njihovim vplivom na politiko. Knjiga se zaključi z zanimivim razmišljanjem o koncu modemih teorij o mednarodnih migracijah, kjer se razmišlja predvsem o novih poteh pri raziskovanju. Knjiga »Medunarodne migracije. Tokovi in teorije« je predvsem učbenik, kjer se lahko seznanimo z vso zapletenostjo mednarodnih migracij in njihovega raziskovanja. Našteta je tudi obsežna literatura za vse, ki bi radi svoje znanje na določenih področjih še poglobili, ne smemo pa pozabiti tudi na terminologijo, pri kateri seje avtor še posebej potrudil z ustreznimi prevodi in izpeljankami. Jure Gombač Abdelmalek Sayad, The Suffering of the Immigrant, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2004. Ko je Abdelmalek Sayad čakal na težko operacijo, je svojemu dobremu prijatelju in kolegu, Pierru Bourdieuju, izročil kup tekstov in okvirni načrt, kako bi jih rad objavil v knjigi. Dolgoletno raziskovanje fenomena migracij, kije ostalo zapisano v ločenih tekstih, je želel povezati v obsežno znanstveno in strokovno monografijo. Ko je umrl, seje Pierre Bourdieu potrudil, daje knjigo po njegovih načrtih sestavil in ji napisal uvod. Tako je The Suffering of the Immigrant, obsežno delo na tristoštiridesetih straneh z odličnim uvodom vodilnega sodobnega sociologa, izpolnitev zadnje želje velikega strokovnjaka za migracije. Tema raznolikih tekstov, ki jih je Bourdieu povezal v celoto tako, da sploh ne opazimo, da prvenstveno niso bili napisani kot poglavja knjige, je izseljevanje Alžircev v Francijo, ali drugače, alžirsko izseljensko. Temeljni razmislek Abdelmaleka Sayada pri proučevanju alžirskega izseljenstva pa izhaja iz dveh fenomenov - izseljevanja in priseljevanja, ki sta različna, pa vendar neločljiva in ju moramo zato vedno in za vsako ceno obravnavati skupaj. Po mojem mnenju je poleg številnih drugih kvalitet knjige potrebno posebej poudariti prav ta temeljni premislek - naj uporabljamo kakršnokoli metodologijo in terminologijo, kakršnekoli vire in kontekste, pomembno je, da nam predmet raziskovanja ostajata izseljevanje in priseljevanje kot dela nerazdružljive celote. Abdelmalek Sayad (1933-1988) je vedel, zakaj vztrajati pri tem pravilu. Sam je bil celo življenje oboje: izseljenec in priseljenec, iz Alžirije in iz Francije, povezan z nevidnimi nitmi s sorodniki in kulturami na obeh straneh Sredozemskega morja, pa vendar ne Francoz in ne Alžirec, ne od tu in ne od tam, povsem asimiliran in hkrati popolnoma odtujen, tujec in domačin v dveh kulturah, dveh domovinah, dveh jezikih, dveh nacionalnostih, priviligiran na eni strani in izobčen na drugi, razseljena oseba nekje vmes, na tistem posebnem mestu, ki gaje Platon definiral kot mejo med obstojem in socialnim neobstajanjem. Zato je bil njegov raziskovalni pristop dosledno oseben in angažiran, njegov znanstveni cilj pa odkriti »princip solidarnosti srca«. Že v sedemdesetih letih je preko raziskovanja alžirskega izseljenstva izpostavil neustreznost terminov kot so, izseljenci in priseljenci, ki so politično definirani za potrebe vsakdanje politike in jih je znanost v Evropi brez večjih težav prevzela. Razlagal je, da mora biti sociologija migracij samorefleksivna, kar pomeni, daje vsaka raziskava migracijskih fenomenov hkrati socialna zgodovina teh fenomenov in hkrati socialna zgodovina diskurzov raziskovanj fenomena migracij. Bolj kot pri kateremkoli drugem družbenem fenomenu je znanstveno raziskovanje migracij podrejeno politiki. Razlog je v tem, da gre za fenomen, kije v vseh oblikah, demografskih, ekonomskih, socialnih, kulturnih in političnih, pripet na vzpostavljanje in krepitev družbenega reda in stabilnosti. Fenomen migracij seje zaradi političnih potreb razbil na dva ločena dela in se v okviru različnih znanstvenih disciplin začel proučevati na ločenih področjih izseljevanja in priseljevanja. Na tak način je bil vzpostavljen redukcionističen pristop, ki omogoča povsem različne premisleke iz različnih gledišč, ne da bi bilo zaradi tega raziskovalcem (pustimo politike pri tem primeru ob strani) nerodno. Vzpostavljena je bila znanstvena terminologija, kije legitimirala politično ideološke diskurze, v katerih so postali priseljenci v Evropi nosilci problemov in zla, evropski izseljenci pa v zgodovinskem in sodobnem kontekstu nosilci napredka in razvoja. Različni in ločeni načini proučevanja ‘njih’, ki prihajajo, in ‘naših’, ki odhajajo ali so odhajali, so vzpostavili logiko ločenih gledišč, zaradi katerih so potrebni resni napori, če hočemo zagledati fenomen migracij v njihovi večdimenzionalni kompleksnosti. Dober primer so delavci na začasnem delu v tujini. Že pred desetletji je Sayad z obsežnimi raziskavami razgradil mit o delavcih na začasnem delu v tujini, kije obvladoval migracijske in politične razprave v Franciji in Nemčiji, pa tudi drugih evropskih državah. Z natančnim proučevanjem migrantov iz Alžirije v Franciji in migrantskega okolja v Alžiriji in Franciji je razkril kompleksnost situacije, v kateri se posamezniki odločijo, da migrirajo in posledice, kijih imajo njihove odločitve za države, iz katerih odhajajo in države, kamor prihajajo. Pojasnil je, da priseljenci niso delovna sila, ki jo država uvozi na galone tako kot nafto. Da tudi niso pari rok, ki so v izvornem okolju nezaposlene, v razvitih evropskih državah pa jih zaposlimo za določen čas in, ko jih ne potrebujemo več, se vrnejo nazaj, od koder so prišle. Redukcionističen način razumevanja migrantskih procesov, ki ga z delitvijo na priseljenstvo in izseljenstvo krepi znanstveno razglabljanje in proučevanje, seveda omogoča, da se nerazumevanje fenomena migracij krepi in širi. Omogoča, da nas ob vprašanjih, kako in kam se ljudje selijo, takoj zanese v prijazno primerjavo z naravo in pticami, o katerih so nas v šoli učili, da se po dolgih selitvenih poteh vedno vračajo v isto gnezdo. Redukcija migrantov na delovno silo temelji na postopku dehumanizacije, ko migrante razumemo kot delovno silo, kot krepke roke ali spretne prste. Vendar je pri tem ključna tudi različnost gledišč. Naši krepki fantje, ki so iz slovenske domovine odhajali v ameriške, francoske, nemške rudnike in železarne, so bili najbolj ambiciozni, prodorni in krepki del prebivalstva. Iz ameriškega gledišča so bili to sicer res krepki pari rok, vendar poleg tega samo še necivilizirani pol ljudje iz jugovzhodnega dela Evrope, čigar pol človeška posebnost je bila v tem, da so pripadali strašljivi in nesprejemljivi veroizpovedi, katolicizmu. Če obrnemo čas in gledišče v drugo smer, vidimo, da so naši pogledi na ljudi, ki danes prihajajo v nekdanjo domovino slovenskih krepkih fantov povsem identični: so zgolj dehumanizirani delavci, ki prihajajo delati težka in za Slovence nesprejemljiva dela iz čudnih južnih in vzhodnih krajev nekih drugih celin in so nemalokrat tudi strašljivih veroizpovedi. Tako kot krepki fantje v Združenih državah Amerike pred drugo svetovno vojno, tudi jugoslovanski in turški gastarbajteiji v Nemčiji ali alžirski delavci na začasnem delu v Franciji niso odšli domov, ko so sezidali ceste, skopali premog in stalili neskončne količine jekla. Ne samo, da so ostali, pridružile so se jim ženske in potem so se rodili otroci in nastale so družine, ki so si ustvarile svoj domove, poslale otroke v šolo, se naučile jezika. Izseljensko priseljenska perspektiva politično determiniranega proučevanja migracij se ob teh dejstvih pogosto zdrzne. Kot se zdrznejo politiki in policaji, ko odkimavajo z glavami in mečejo roke v zrak, rekoč: »Pa saj vendar ni bilo tako mišljeno, to mora biti pomota!« In potem investirajo velike količine denarja v deportacijske akcije, ko poskušajo pare rok naložiti na letala in jih čimprej odpeljati iz tega nesrečnega kraja med obstojem in socialnim neobstajanjem. Saj žuljave roke so bile že prej tam, le da je bila družbena in politična volja, da jih ne vidimo, tako močna, da jih prav zares nismo opazili. Morda smo zaradi njihove »nevidnosti« občutili samo rahel občutek nelagodja in zadrege. Seliti se, poudarja Sayad - ne priseliti ali izseliti, ampak prav seliti se - pomeni seliti se skupaj s svojo zgodovino, tradicijo, načinom življenja, čutenja, delovanja in razmišljanja, s svojim jezikom, vero in drugimi socialnimi, političnimi in mentalnimi strukturami svoje družbe. Seliti se torej na kratko pomeni, seliti se s svojo kulturo. Na primer, kaj so migranti iz slovenskih krajev, ki so v ZDA spadali med »pol-ljudi« in najslabše plačano nekvalificirano delovno silo, ustvarili s svojimi prispevki v prvi polovici dvajsetega stoletja? Zgradili so velike in bogate cerkve s šolskimi poslopji, narodne domove z moderno opremljenimi odri, slovenske čitalnice, tiskarne in časopisne hiše, ustanavljali bratske podporne organizacije, dramske, plesne in pevske skupine, kulturna društva, ansamble, zbore, časopise. Temu se ni mogoče čuditi. Povsem jasno je, in temu je bilo posvečenega tudi veliko raziskovalnega in znanstvenega napora, da so se Slovenci selili prav tako, kot to poudarja Sayad, torej »s svojo kulturo«. Ne moremo dvomiti, daje prav enako veljalo tudi za francoske, nemške in druge migrante iz Evrope. Če gledišče, kontinent priseljevanja in terminološki vrtiljak zavrtimo, pa dobimo v fokusu kar naenkrat povsem drugo podobo - priseljence in začasnost njihove prisotnosti, gole roke brez kulturnega in socialnega konteksta, nelagodje in zadrego. O tem na dolgo piše Sayad. In o tem na zelo dolgo govorijo Alžirci v Franciji, Alžirci v Alžiriji, in tisti vmes, knjiga pa jim posveča dovolj prostora, da njihove zgodbe niso okras, ampak temelj, na katerem Sayad razvija teoretske in konceptualne premisleke. Velika odlika knjige je uporaba metode ustne zgodovine in pa to, da so zgodbe in pričevanja objavljene v celoti ali pa le malenkostno skrajšane. Poleg tega so v skladu s principom selitve in skupnega gledišča, objavljene zgodbe tako iz Francije kot Alžirije, prav tako je obravnavan tudi družbeni in politični kontekst ter lokalne značilnosti v obeh državah. Sayad se je s svojimi sogovorniki v Franciji in Alžiriji pogovarjal o razlogih in načinih selitev ter o tem, kako se sprejemajo odločitve na lokalni ravni in na podlagi kakšnih informacij. Iz ozkega lokalnega okolja potem v knjigi preide na temo, ki je z njim neposredno povezana, to je državna politika naturalizacije in državljanskih pravic ter vstopnih dovoljenj in dovoljenj za delo ter družinske zakonodaje. Pripovedovali so mu o pogojih dela, ločenosti od družin, letnih obiskih domačih vasi, odnosu Francozov do njih in njihovem odnosu do Francozov, sam pa jek temu dodal natančne in podrobne opise pravnih, zakonskih, političnih aktov in, seveda, svoje analitične razmisleke. In kaj je trpljenje izseljenca iz naslova knjige? Sayad je ugotovil, da temeljijo selitve Alžircev na kolektivni nepoštenosti, na prirejeni resnici o pogojih dela in življenja v Franciji. Resnico prirejajo izseljenci iz potrebe, da ohranijo ponos in zato ne priznajo ponižujočih okoliščin, v katerih živijo in delajo. Njihovi domači in bližnji želijo prirejeno resnico slišati zato, da ohranijo vero, daje bila odločitev o selitvi pravilna in zato ne priznajo, kako hudo jim je brez njih, ki so odšli. Na podlagi tega kolektivnega rituala izmenjave sporočil in informacij se obnavlja in ponavlja izseljevanje ljudi iz vedno istih krajev. Izseljenci so odsotni tam, od koder so odšli, a odsotni so tudi v kraju, kamor so se izselili. Oropani svoje človeške, intimne, kulturne in politične identitete obstajajo zgolj kot nevidni, nepriznani, izključeni prebivalci države, v kateri so preštete samo njihove roke v statistiki »delovne sile«. Iluzije, kijih delijo vse vpletene strani, izhajajo iz redukcije priseljevanja na ekonomsko dimenzijo in iz definicije priseljevanja kot začasnega reverzibilnega procesa. So politična legitimacija državnega razmišljanja o migracijah. Sayad sprašuje, ali o migracijah in migrantih sploh lahko razmišljamo izven konteksta (evropskih) nacionalnih držav in izven konteksta državnih ozemelj, mitoloških etničnih, nacionalnih meja. Ali se lahko potrudimo, da o migracijah delovne sile razmišljamo kot o družinskih migracijah, kar dejansko so, in o ljudeh, ki naj bi bili tam, ker nočemo, da so tu, razmišljamo kot o ljudeh, ki tam ne morejo biti, kajti - nelagodju in zadregi navkljub - vendarle so tu. Vprašanja, o katerih je vredno razmisliti. Mirjam Milharčič Hladnik Leksikon yu mitologije (ur. Iris Adrič, Vladimir Arsenijevič in Borde Matič), Rende in Postscriptum, 2004, 463 str. Verjetno sem iz zadnje generacije klincev, ki ob prebiranju Leksikonayu mitologije začuti tisti prijetno sladek, omamljajoč občutek, poznan tudi pod suhoparnim imenom nostalgija. Zato bo najverjetneje ocena izpod mojih prstov oziroma s sladkobo omamljenega subjekta svetlobna leta stran od kakršnekoli (v posvečenih znanstvenih sferah tako čislane) objektivnosti. Nekoliko let mlajši mulci, ki jim ni bilo dano, da se (popolnoma) socializirajo s kulturo »životinjskega carstva«, Danijelove Džuli, Odpisanih, bratov Petrovič in Vujovič, Alana Forda, »Džirlo djevojk« in še in še neizbrisljivega, takorekoč večnega, bi bili brez dvoma veliko primerjnejši osebki za tovrstno raboto, skratka zmnožni objektivneše ocene. Modro-belo-rdeča knjiga z zvezdo na sredini obeh platnic je bila, kot lahko zvemo iz prav tako obarvanega predgovora, zamišljena že davnega leta 1989. Avtoiji so takrat postokali, »da ne obstojajo artikuliram pojmi jugoslovanske popularne kulture, ki bi pripomogli definiranju naših identitet.« Toda od vprašanja »kaj smo?« je po vsem, kar je Jugoslavijo za nekaj let prestavilo v osrednji termin TV novic po vsem svetu, prišlo do vprašanja »kaj smo bili?«. Projekt je ponovno zaživel v drugi polovici devetdesetih in sicer s postavitvijo spletne strani in »ne prevelikimi upanji«. Toda potem se je zgodila čudna stvar. Po brodolomu so se s sporočili v steklenicah začeli oglašati številni brodolomci, z vseh koncev sveta. Nanašalo je spomine, individualne in kolektivne, pozabljena in še živa imena, podobe, like, fenomene, artefakte, mite in vse mogoče jugoslovanske popularne kulture. Včasih so bili to kratki, »resnobni« odstavki, včasih esejistični, literarni teksti, pogosto mešanica različnih stilov in žanrov, v različnih jezikih nekdanje skupne države, pač glede na provenienco piscev posameznih gesel. In uredniki so gesla tudi taka pustili, v ekavščini, ijekavščini, slovenščini, srbohrvaščini, srbščini itd. (nobenega gesla ni moje ne ravno sokolje oko zasledilo v albanščini in makedonščini), v skoraj že zehajoče dolgih in smešno kratkih dolžinah, v ultra-zabavnih in resnobnih stavkih. Seveda pa se je pri takšnem konceptu treba zavedati (vsaj) naslednjega: Lepa Brena in Bajramovič Šaban sta pomenila oziroma pomenita nekdanjemu ljubljanskemu pankerju drugo stvar kot večnemu »seljaku« iz okolice Požarevca, feminiziran evrovizijski Daniel (Džuli) je za ženski spol eno in za moški spol drugo in po vsej nekdanji državni prodajani simi burek je v BiH neumnost tipa Angola naj večja država v Evropi. Tega se seveda uredniki zavedajo in sem in tja tako (s)pustijo več subjektivnih pogledov na fenomen, geslo. Toda to bi lahko -vsaj pri tistih geslih, kjer spolne, etnične, generacijske, mesto/vas idr. razlike zelo pomembno vplivajo na odnos do fenomena - storili večkrat. No, mogoče pa bodo to še storili, saj uredniki - kot preberemo na spletnih straneh, ki so (bile) med drugim začetni in konstituitivni temelj enciklopedije - pričakujejo nove pošiljke, za nove razširjene, odebeljene ponatise. Nekakšna Borgesovska enciklopedija jugoslovanskega medijskega, političnega, potrošniškega, ideološkega in še kakšnega vsakdana od leta 1945 pa do danes, seveda ni delo, ki bi prisegalo na »objektivnost«, takšno in drugačno »nevtralnost« ter druge težko uresničljive, abstraktne vrednote. Svobodni princip, »da lahko vsi pišejo«, je zakrivil več »neuravnoteženosti« v tekstu. Hamad Dogani ima tako sedemkrat daljši tekst od Josipa Broza Tita. Nekatere (navidez) minome, marginalne stvari so razgaljene na več straneh, drugim, ki bi v tradicionalnih leksikonih kraljevale po dolgem in počes, pa ni namenjena niti beseda. Zgodba o Moši Pijadi, ki pravi, »jebeš zemlju koju Bosne nema«, morda tudi izmišljena, je kulturološko gledano povednejša od tisoče drugih klasičnih leksikonografskih podatkov o tem jugoslovanskem vele-možu. Največ gesel se vrti okoli osemdesetih let, manj okoli sedemdesetih, zelo malo okoli šestdesetih in skoraj nič okoli petdesetih. Če bi rekli, da o štiridesetih ni potrebno izgubljati besed, pa bi se hudo zmotili. Vsa partizanska, NOB mitologija in ikonografija, od Tita in Luksa, Jajca, Antifašitične fronte žena, Golega otoka pa konec koncev do filmskih epopej, prvega maja, dneva mladosti in še marsičesa brez prve polovice štiridesetih preprosto ne bi bilo. Med avtorji gesel se zdi da močno prevladuje urbana populacija, rojena v šestdesetih letih. Skratka tisti, kije najbolj prevzel občutek jugoslovanstva. Seveda vsega naštetega na razumem kot kakršne koli pomanjkljivosti. Z razliko od akademske historiografije, standardnih zgodovinskih učbenikov in leksikonov, ki se jim zdijo »male stvari« resnično zelo majhne, leksikon od Adrije (mednarodni cirkus) pa do žmurke (igra), dokazuje, da se večina velikih stvari (ekonomija, politika, /etno/nacionalizmi itd.) pravzaprav preigrava na ravni malih stvari. Preigrava? Da, z razliko od teritorij alne metafore od Vardar a pa do Triglava metafora od Adrije pa do žmurke skriva subverzivno idejo o jugoslovanski kulturi kot igri. Recepcija Leksikona je neizbežno generacijsko in politično opredeljena. Mlajši, ki Jugoslavijo poznajo le posredno preko veliko starejših bratov in sester ali staršev bodo Leksikon najverjetneje brali bolj kot fikcijo. Vsi starejši pa lahko Leksikon hitro razumejo bodisi kot nekakšno povsem nepotrebno sentimentalno stokanje za Jugoslavijo bodisi kot sveto, večno knjigo živega in živetega jugoslovanstva. Toda, kar je pri vsej stvari zelo pomembno je to, da v geslih ne najdemo reference na devetdeseta leta. Uredniki so »očistili« vso »umazanijo«, ki sojo prinesla grda devetdeseta. In zakaj to psevdo-recenzijo zelo sumljivih kvalitet berete v resni, znanstveni in za povrh še »ozko« - migracijam posvečeni reviji. Gesel, ki se eksplicitno nanašajo na migracijske vsebine, je namreč tako absolutno kot relativno zelo malo (»gastarbaj-terji«, »Stranci« in še bi se mogoče kaj našlo). Med branjem pa nam zelo hitro zasveti žarnica: kako je pravzaprav popularna kultura tesno povezan s migracijami. Od raznih polbožanstev (fuzbaleiji, košarkaši in drugi nacionalni junaki), ki so se v tujini udinjala za devize; legendarnega ajvarja, ki ga žene gasterbejterjev na tujem pripravljajo nič manj angažirano kot doma; najbolj butastega predmeta v zgodovini vesolja - gospodinjstva, ki je poskušal zapolniti »kulturni manjko« še včerajšnjih »seljakov« priseljenih v mesta; popzveznikov, ki so naredili karijero med gasterbajteiji; televizijskimi reklamami, ki so prepričevale izseljence naj varčujejo doma, vojnih oficirjev, skoraj vedno priseljenimi od nekje daleč stran, in njihovih otrok, ki so najpogosteje zasijali v rock zvezde na jugoslovanskem nebu; direktnih vprašanj naslovljenih na emigrante: »obstojajo čevapčiči severno od Save?«; najbolj znanega Afričana v Jugoslaviji Steva Hanningtona, ki je s bizar-hitom, nekakšno predelavo ene od starogradskih, polnil radijski eter v osemdesetih in do vseh kulturnih in vsemogočih vplivov, likov, podob in še marsičesa, kar se je pač moralo vsaj »malo zmigrirati« od nekod. Če se vam ne da stopiti do knjižnice ali knjigarne, si stvar poglejte na spletnih straneh (www.leksikon-yu-mitologije.net). To pa bo tudi vse, z moje strani. Namreč veliko prijetneje je Leksikon brati kot pa o njem pisati. Kar pa ne morem reči za ... Jernej Mlekuž Knjižna zbirka je namenjena objavam znanstvenih monografij in zbornikov s področja humanističnih in družboslovnih ved, ki obravnavajo vprašanja, povezana z mednarodnimi migracijami. Zbirko izdaja Inštitut za slovensko izseljenstvo ZRC SAZU. Urednica zbirke: Janja Žitnik. DOSLEJ IZŠLO Zvone Žigon: LJUDJE ODPRTIH SRC. Slovenski misijonarji o sebi 2005, (Migracije, 7), 240 str., ISBN 961-6500-93-7. Cena: 2.350 SIT. Jure Gombač: ESULI ALI OPTANTI? Zgodovinski primer v luči sodobne teorije 2005, (Migracije, 6), 152 str., ISBN 961-6500-83-X. Cena: 2.350 SIT. Marie Pislar Fernandez: SLOVENCI V ŽELEZNI LORENI (1919-1939) SKOZI DRUŽINSKE PRIPOVEDI / Slovenes en Lorraine du fer (1919-1939) a travers des recits de families 2004, (Migracije, 5), 344 str., ISBN 961-6500-61-9. Cena: 3.470 SIT. SEZONSTVO IN IZSELJENSTVO V PANONSKEM PROSTORU. Sosedstvo Avstrije, Hrvaške, Madžarske in Slovenije. Uredila Marina Lukšič - Hacin 2003, (Migracije, 4), 2 zvezka, 573 str., ISBN 961-6500-05-8. Cena: 4.870 SIT. Zvone Žigon: IZZIVI DRUGAČNOSTI. Slovenci v Afriki in na Arabskem polotoku 2003, (Migracije, 3), 152 str., ISBN 961-6358-86-3. Cena: 1.990 SIT. Mihael Kuzmič: SLOVENSKI IZSELJENCI IZ PREKMURJA V BETLEHEMU V ZDA 1893-1924. Naselitev in njihove zgodovinske, socialne, politične, literarne in verske dejavnosti 2001, (Migracije, 2), 325 str., ISBN 961-6358-38-3. Cena: 3.490 SIT. Zvone Žigon: IZ SPOMINA V PRIHODNOST. Slovenska politična emigracija v Argentini 2001, (Migracije, 1), 391 str., ISBN 961-6358-35-0. Cena: 3.230 SIT. Informacije in naročila: Založba ZRC Novi trg 2, p. p. 306, 1001 Ljubljana tel.: 01/470 64 64; faks: 01/425 77 94 e-pošta: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si Jure Gombač ESULI ALI OPTANTI? Zgodovinski primer v luči sodobne teorije Središčni problem knjige je raziskava migracijskih valov iz koprskega okraja v Italijo, še posebej tistega med letoma 1954 in 1957. To je bil zadnji, pa tudi najmočnejši izselitveni tok iz istrskega etnično mešanega prostora, spodbujen s podpisom Londonskega memoranduma v začetku oktobra 1954. Avtor je računalniško obdelal arhivsko gradivo iz Pokrajinskega arhiva Koper, ki v svojih depojih hrani dokumente Tajništva za notranje zadeve Okraja Koper. Izdelal je bazo podatkov o 10.265 ljudeh, ki so iz različnih razlogov želeli zapustiti koprski okraj in oditi v Italijo. Poznavanje literature, zgodovine, razvoja, metod in glavnih značilnosti sodobnih teorij o migracijah je avtorju pomagalo podatke o tej migraciji umestiti v širši okvir in s tem omogočiti primerjave njenih značilnosti z drugimi podobnimi migracijskimi procesi. Poudarjeno je dejstvo, daje čedalje težje govoriti o enem samem motivu za izselitev. Ena od pomembnejših ugotovitev pravi, da je ta tok migracije je v sebi zmešal tako prisilne kot prostovoljne migrante, in čeprav glede na definicije vsebuje elemente množičnega eksodusa, množične izključitve, etničnega čiščenja, mu po drugi strani za ta poimenovanja manjkajo glavne značilnosti. 2005, 152 str., 17 x 24 cm, broširana, ISBN 961-6500-83-X. CENA: 2.350 SIT. DDV in stroški pošiljanja so všteti v ceno. Informacije in naročila: Založba ZRC Novi trg 2, p. p. 306, 1001 Ljubljana tel.: 01/470 64 64; faks: 01/425 77 94 e-pošta: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si Esidi ali optanti? JURE GOMBAČ Marie Pislar Fernandez SLOVENCI V ŽELEZNI LORENI (1919-1939) SKOZI DRUŽINSKE PRIPOVEDI Slovenes en Lorraine du Fer (1919-1939) A travers des recits de families Delo nam s pomočjo zgodovinskih virov in osebnih pripovedi izseljencev prikaže, zakaj, kako in kam v Francijo so se izseljevali Slovenci in kako so tam živeli v času med obema vojnama. Marica Pišlar, zgodovinarka in magistrica slovenskega jezika, je potomka izseljencev iz Primorske in ena redkih slovenskih intelektualk v Franciji, kije posvetila pozornost življenju slovenskih rudarjev v železni Loreni. Delo je objavljeno v slovenščini in francoščini. V branje ga uvede dr. Antonija Bernard ____________________________________________ (INALCO, Paris), v kontekst širših migracij j Slovencev v Evropi pa ga umesti dr. Marjan Drnovšek (Inštitut za slovensko izseljenstvo ZRC SAZU v Ljubljani). 2004, 344 str., 17 x 24 cm, 4 tabele, 10 zemljevidov, 35 fotografij in kopij dokumentov, broširana, ISBN 961-6500-61-9. CENA: 3.470 SIT. DDV in stroški pošiljanja so všteti v ceno. Informacije in naročila: Založba ZRC Novi trg 2, p. p. 306, 1001 Ljubljana tel.: 01/470 64 64; faks: 01/425 77 94 e-pošta: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si MARIE PISIAR FERNANDEZ SKOZI DRUŽINSKE PRIPOVEDI A TRAVERS DES RECITS DE FAMILLES Katalog izdaj založbe si oglejte na: www.zrc-sazu.si/zalozba Zvone Žigon LJUDJE ODPRTIH SRC Slovenski misijonarji o sebi Danes je v svetu okoli sto slovenskih misijonarjev. Zaradi svoje specifične oznanjeval-ske vloge so bili ti atipični »izseljenci« vedno obravnavani predvsem kot nosilci akul-turacije, kot prenašalci kulturnih modelov iz »razvitejših« v »manj razvite« nekrščanske kulture. Manj znana pa je vloga misijonarja kot posameznika, »stisnjenega« med dve kulturi: tisto, iz katere prihaja in ki ga kulturno določa, in tisto, v katero se mora vživeti, če naj uspešno, v njenem kulturnem jeziku, prenaša svoje (versko) sporočilo. Prepuščanje vplivom nove kulture mora biti zelo nadzirano, da se ne bi zamajala misijonarjeva osebnostna identiteta in s tem njegovo poslanstvo. Avtor se ne spušča v religiologijo in misiolo-gijo, pa tudi ne v vrednotenje, smisel oziroma upravičenost misijonarstva kot dela akulturacijskih procesov. Osredotoča se predvsem na svojevsrten položaj misijonarja - posameznika, postavljenega med dve kulturi. Največjo sporočilno in subjektivno vrednost knjige predstavlja izbor pisem in intervjujev, v katerih misijonarji vsak na svoj način opisujejo ne le svoje življenje in delo, ampak zlasti lastno doživljanje položaja med dvema kulturama in doživljanje poslanstva, ki so mu žrtvovali mesece, leta ali celo življenje. 2005, 240 str., 17 x 24 cm, broširana, ISBN 961-6500-93-7. CENA: 2.350 SIT. DDV in stroški pošiljanja so všteti v ceno. Informacije in naročila: Založba ZRC Novi trg 2, p. p. 306, 1001 Ljubljana tel.: 01/470 64 64; faks: 01/425 77 94 e-pošta: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si ZVONE ŽIGON Revija Dve domovini • Two Homelands je namenjena objavi znanstvenih in strokovnih člankov, poročil, razmišljanj in knjižnih ocen s področja mednarodnih migracij z vidika različnih humanističnih in družboslovnih disciplin. Revija je večdisciplinama in večjezična. Članki so objavljeni v slovenskem in angleškem, po odločitvi uredniškega odbora tudi v drugih jezikih. Članki so recenzirani. Rokopisov, ki jih prejme uredništvo revije Dve domovini • Two Homelands, avtorji ne smejo hkrati poslati kaki drugi reviji. Dolžina prispevka naj ne presega 25 tipkanih strani (45.000 znakov skupaj s presledki). Recenzije knjig in revij, poročila o znanstvenih konferencah in drugih temah, povezanih z usmeritvijo revije, naj obsegajo od 3 do 8 strani (5400-14.400 znakov, vključno s presledki). Rokopisu morata biti priložena avtorski povzetek (2700 znakov, vključno s presledki) in izvleček s podatki o avtoiju (600 znakov, vključno s presledki). Rokopisi niso vrnjeni avtoiju. Priloge (grafikoni, ilustracije, tabele ipd.) morajo biti v čmo-beli tehniki v enem od standardnih računalniških programov. Vsaka priloga naj bo shranjena v svoji datoteki! Označite približno lokacijo posamezne priloge v tekstu, npr. »Tabela 3«. Vse preglednice v članku so oštevilčene in imajo svoje naslove. Če avtorji prevzemajo gradivo iz drugih virov, morajo sami pridobiti dovoljenje za objavo. Prispevki se oddajo uredništvu na formatirani disketi (Microsoft Word) ali po elektronski pošti in v dveh priloženih iztisnjenih izvodih. Na prvi strani prispevka mora avtor navesti ime in priimek, znanstvene nazive, naslov ustanove, kjer je zaposlen, elektronski naslov, številko faksa in telefona. Opombe in bibliografske navedbe. 1. Med besedilom se lahko sklicujemo na kratko v oklepaju (priimek avtorja, letnica izida publikacije, stran). Primer: (Žitnik 2002: 165-167). Če se sklicujemo na več del istega avtorja, ki so izšla v istem letu, dodajamo letnici male črke (1998a, 1998b). Seznam uporabljene literature na koncu članka naj v tem primeru vsebuje naslednje podatke: a. pri knjigah priimek in ime avtorja, (leto izida), naslov knjige, kraj, založbo, strani [Žigon, Zvone (2003). Izzivi drugačnosti: Slovenci v Afriki in na Arabskem polotoku. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, 152 str.] b. pri člankih v zborniku priimek in ime avtoija, (leto izida), naslov članka, naslov zbornika, (ime urednika), kraj, založbo, strani [Drnovšek, Marjan (2004). Izseljenke v očeh javnosti. Zbornik referatov 32. zborovanja slovenskih zgodovinarjev, (ur. Aleksander Žižek). Ljubljana: Zveza zgodovinskih društev Slovenije, str. 383-393.] c. pri člankih v periodiki priimek in ime avtorja, (leto izida), naslov članka, naslov revije, letnik, številka, strani [Žitnik, Janja (2002). Literarno povratništvo in meje narodne književnosti. Dve domovini/Two Homelands, 15, str. 163-178.] 2. Poleg tega načina sklicevanja so dopustne tudi bibliografske navedbe v opombah. V tem primeru je leto izida na koncu navedbe, sledi stran [Zvone Žigon, Izzivi drugačnosti: Slovenci v Afriki in na Arabskem polotoku, Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, 2003, str. 77.] 3. Pri citiranju arhivskega gradiva morajo biti navedeni naslednji podatki: i. ime arhiva: [Arhiv Republike Slovenije (kratica AS) ii. signatura fonda ali zbirke: AS 33 iii. ime fonda ali zbirke: Deželna vlada v Ljubljani iv. ime dokumenta in njegov datum: Zapisnik 3. redne seje, z dne 14. 2. 1907 v. oznaka arhivske enote (a.e.): 1567 vi. oznaka tehnične enote', škatla 15.] Dve domovini • Two Homelands is a journal devoted to the publication of scholary and specialist papers, reports, reflections and book reviews in the field of international migraton, viewed from different angles of social sciences and humanities. The journal is multi-disciplinary and multi-lingual. Papers are published in Slovenian and English, and the editorial board may also decide to publish some of them in other languages. Articles undergo a review procedure. Manuscripts submitted to Dve domovini 'Two Homelands cannot be submitted simultaneously to another publication. Articles should not exceed 25 typed pages (45,000 characters, including spaces). Reviews of books and journals, as well as reports on scientific meetings and other subjects of interest to the journal, should occupy three to eight pages (5,400-14,400 characters, including spaces). Along with the paper a summary (2,700 characters, including spaces) should be submitted and an abstract with a note on the author (600 characters, including spaces). Manuscripts are not returned to authors. Graphic material (graphs, illustrations, tables etc.) should be submitted (in black and white technique) in accordance with standard modes of computer design. Please save each table in a separate file! Insert a location note, e.g., »Table 3 about here«, at the appropriate place in the text. All tables are numbered and have their own titles. If such material is taken from other sources, the author is obliged to secure copyright permission. We prefer to receive disks in Microsoft Word in a PC formar, or by e-mail, and in two printed copies. On the first page of the paper the author should write only his or her name, surname, and the name and address of the institution in which he or she is employed. It is also necessary to give an e-mail address, fax and telephon number. Footnotes and references. 1. Brief references can be given in brackets in the body of the text (surname of the author, year of publication, page number). (Puhar 1982: 325-371) If several works by the same outher published in the same year are cited they should be marked in the following way (1998a, 1998b). In this case the list of references at the end of the article should contain the following information: a. (for books) the author’s name, (the year of publication), the title of the book, place of publication, publisher, pp. [Furlan, William P. (1952). In Charity Unfeigned. The Life of Father Francis Xavier Pierz. St. Cloud (Minn.): Diocese of St. Cloud, 270 pp.] b. (for articles in collections of papers) the name of author, (the year of publication), the title of the article, the title of the collection of papers, the name of editor, the place of publication, (the publisher), pp. [Cohen, Robin (1999). Shaping the Nation, Excluding the Other: The Deportation of Migrants from Britain. Migration, Migration History, History. Old Paradigms and New Perspectives, (edited by Jan Lucasen and Leo Lucassen). Bern, Berlin; Frankfurt a. M.; New York; Paris; Wien: Lang, pp. 351-373.] c. (for articles in periodicals) the name of the author, (the year of publication), the title of the article, the title of the periodical, volume, number, pp. [Westin, Charles (2003). Young People of Migrant Origin in Sweden. International Migration Review, Volume XXXVII, Number 4, pp. 987-1010.] 2. Alternatively, references may be given in the form of footnotes. In this case the year of publication at the end of the reference is followed by the the page number [William P. Furlan, In Charity Unfeigned. The Life of Father Francis Xavier Pierz, St. Cloud (Minn.): Diocese of St. Cloud, 1952, p. 88] 3. When quoting archive material the following information must be stated: i. the name of the archive: [Archives of the Republic of Slovenia (short AS) ii. the signature of archive group or collection: AS 33 iii. the name of the archive group or collection: Provincial government in Ljubljana iv. the title and the date of the document: The Minutes of the 3rd session on February 14, 1907 v. the number of archive unit: 1567 vi. the number of the box andfile: box 15.] DVE DOMOVINI • TWO HOMELANDS Razprave o izseljenstvu • Migration Studies 22 • 2005 Razprave in članki / Essay's and Articles Immigrant children in Austrian schools (Barbara Friehs) Multilingual conferencing: one city's response to educating pupils from asylum seeking families (Geri Smyth) Is primary' school in Slovenia just and fair: the case of migrant children from former Yugoslavia (Mojca Peček) The response of Slovenian teachers to the migrant children from former Yugoslavia (Irena Lesar) Književnost priseljencev v Sloveniji - njene značilnosti in položaj v slovenski kulturi (Lidija Dimkovska) Slovenski prevodi literarnih del priseljenskih avtorjev po letu 1990 (Maruša Mugerli) Slovenski selitveni tokovi v Nemčijo in spreminjanje vloge slovenščine (Saška Štumberger) Umetniška ustvarjalnost migrantov: primer Slovencev v Nemčiji (Kristina Toplak) Migracijska situacija v Evropi po drugi svetovni vojni in postopna (politična) usklajevanja med članicami EGS (Ed) (Marina Lukšič -Hacin) Meje multikulturne komunikacije: etnično-simbolne reprezentacije v avstralskem prostoru (Maša Mikola) Subjektivna realnost migracijskih procesov: brati, poslušati in razumeti migrantske izkušnje (Mirjam Milharčič-Hladnik) Slovenski izobraženci iz Prage na Hrvaško (Irena Gantar Godina) Portreti / Portraits Mihael Kuzmič (1942-2005) (Janja Žitnik) Knjižne ocene / Book Reviews Milan Mesič. Medunarodne migracije. Tokovi i teorije, Societas, Zagreb 2002, 406 str. Abdelmalek Sayad. The Suffering of the Immigrant, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2004 Iris Adrič, Vladimir Arsenijevič in Dorde Matič (ur.). Leksikon yu mitologije, Rende in Postscriptum, 2004, 463 str. ISSN 0353-6777 9 770353 " 677013