V olume 24 Issue 4 Ar ticle 2 December 2022 E ff ect of W ork-F amily Conflict on Job Satisfaction of Small E ff ect of W ork-F amily Conflict on Job Satisfaction of Small Enterprise Managers Enterprise Managers Joseph K wadwo T uffour Univ ersity of Pr of essional Studies, Accr a, Ghana , joseph.tuffour@upsamail.edu.gh Flor ence Mansa Bor te y Univ ersity of Pr of essional Studies, Accr a, Ghana F ollow this and additional works at: https:/ /www .ebrjournal.net/home P ar t of the Entr epr eneurial and Small Business Oper ations Commons Recommended Citation Recommended Citation T uffour , J., & Bor te y , F. (2022). E ff ect of W ork-F amily Conflict on Job Satisfaction of Small Enterprise Managers. E conomic and Business Re view , 24 (4), 208-221. https:/ /doi.or g/10.15458/2335-4216.1310 This Original Ar ticle is br ought t o y ou for fr ee and open access b y E conomic and Business Re view . It has been accepted for inclusion in E conomic and Business Re view b y an authoriz ed edit or of E conomic and Business Re view . ORIGINAL ARTICLE Effect of Work-Family Conflict on Job Satisfaction of Small Enterprise Managers Joseph K. Tuffour*, Florence M. Bortey University of Professional Studies, Accra, Ghana Abstract Balancing priorities and demands of work and family at the same time can be quite hectic and likely to generate conflicts.Workersmustfindstrategiestomanagetheexigenciesofmodernlivinginordertomaintainjobsatisfactionas well as family relationships. This study investigates the effect of work-family conflict's two directions on job satisfac- tion,andthemoderatingroleofresilience.Thestudyusedacross-sectionalsurveymethodtocollectdatafrom293small- scale enterprise managers, utilizing a structured questionnaire. Correlation and analysis of variance techniques were used.Theresultsrevealthatthework-familyconflicthasasignificantpositiveeffectonjobsatisfaction.Smallenterprise leaders experience enough job satisfaction to better withstand the conflicts that arise from their work roles due to some context-specific factors. As small enterprise leaders' job role conflicts increase, there is also an increase in resilience to overcome the conflict. Also, resilience positively moderates the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction.Increasinglevelsofentrepreneurs'work-familyconflictcomewithincreasinglevelsofresilience.Moreover, resilience also positively moderates the effect of family-work conflict on job satisfaction. It is recommended that or- ganisationsandpolicy-makersshouldundertakeresiliencetrainingtoequipsmallenterpriseleaderstocopebetterwith stress, be more satisfied and productive. Keywords: Work-Family conflict interface, Job satisfaction, Small enterprise managers, Developing economy JEL classification: J12, J28, M12 Introduction I n the past few years, one third of the full-time working individuals globally, reported that managing work and family has become more diffi- cult (Ernst& Young, 2015). Small enterprise leaders are determined to grow their businesses into suc- cessful ventures. However, managers (leaders) of small enterprises encounter not only challenges from their work roles but also the competitive work environment (Baron et al., 2016; Umukoro & Okur- ame, 2017). Small enterprises are confronted with a lot of uncertainty as a result of the speedy dyna- mism of the work environment. The continual changes in technology and level of knowledge (Tuffour et al., 2020), employee commitment (Tuf- fouretal.,2019),consumertasteandthepressureof competitorscreate boththreatandopportunitiesfor the enterprises (Ofuonye, 2017). Small enterprise leaders face high work pressure to meet deadlines, huge work demands, lack of needed resources and facilities, and stress arising out of the changing situations both at work (Rubel et al., 2017) and in personal lives (Kumari & Sang- wan, 2015). Boakye-Mensah and Marfo-Yiadom (2005) assert that 60% of Small and Medium Enter- prises (SMEs) fail within the first five years of operation, despite their significance. Such an assertion could create fear in the Ghanaian SME leaders. The fear of enterprise failure could exert pressure and stress on these leaders. For an SME manager, long working hours inter- fere with family responsibilities. In Ghana, research among the workforce in Accra found that they work longer hours. Themajority ofthe workforce, eighty- seven per cent (87%) had concerns with the ten hours that most of them worked daily (Darko-Asu- madu et al., 2018). Long working hours, demanding Received 3 May 2020; accepted 21 November 2021. Available online 1 December 2022 * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: joseph.tuffour@upsamail.edu.gh (J.K. Tuffour), ransrence@live.com (F.M. Bortey). https://doi.org/10.15458/2335-4216.1310 2335-4216/© 2022 School of Economics and Business University of Ljubljana. This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). and stressful work (Rubel et al., 2017) may also create tensions and lead to work-family conflict (Annik et al., 2017). The individual's desire is to achieve the demands of the roles of their work and family domains. Inability to meet these roles brings tension between these roles. Inter-role conflict cre- ates imbalances between work and family (Green- haus&Beutell,1985).Theoperationsofthebusiness spill over into their personal lives, leading to work- family conflict and poor work-life balance. An SME manager's job satisfaction can be the pleasurable or positive emotional state emanating from the appraisal of the person'sworkexperi- ences (Schneider & Snyder, 1975). Agho et al. (1993) refer to job satisfaction as the degree of desirability of work. Likewise, SME managers in Ghanaputapremiumonsatisfaction,sinceitfuels work performance leading to business profits (Lin et al., 2015). Some authors have noted that employee's job satisfaction depends on factors such as their ex- pectations about their work, business contexts and work-relatedexperiences(Ayranci&Ayranci,2015). For others, job satisfaction level indicates the posi- tive or negative attitude of employees towards their own profession influenced by many factors (Me- rino-Plazaetal.,2017).Fisher(2001)assertedthatjob satisfaction can be achieved when an individual perceivesthat hisor her jobmatchesthe values that the individual considers to be important, but dissatisfaction occurs when the job and values are contradictory.Eachemployeeconsiderstheirroleas a family member as important in their lives and a desire to play roles well (Choi & Kim, 2012). But when their job does not match with their desires or the values that they consider to be important, they are not able to achieve job satisfaction. Thus, when theirjobsbringconflictbetweenthosetwodomains, that is work and family, individuals experience less job satisfaction (Netemeyer et al., 1996). Individuals who are aware that their work-related duties and family duties are incompatible tend to be more dissatisfiedwiththeirjob(Pasewark&Viator,2006). The level of work-family conflict that individuals experience and the degree to which they appraise their job as either satisfying or dissatisfying under that conflict may depend on their evaluation of the situation (Grandey et al., 2005). The pressure and stress that are experienced due to dealing with family issues will reduce an individual's time and energy on their work, which will cause attitudinal responsessuchasjobsatisfaction.Thestresscaused by dealing with family issues will spill over to work roles, thus reducing the individual's resources, leading to a decrease in job satisfaction (Bramade- wandhana & Parahyanti, 2018). According to Khairuddin (2015), some of the rea- sons for work-family interface issues with small enterprises which put stress and pressure on man- agers are involvement in multiple tasks which translates into role overload, risk of failure or the fear of enterprise failure, a barrier to finance, pres- sure from competitors, employees, customers, sup- pliers and investors, working long hours with these sometimes flowing into midnight and weekends, fierce competition and technological changes in the business environment. Work-family conflict is a growing challenge, since workinterfereswithfamilyresponsibilitiesresulting in negative consequences for individuals and orga- nisations (Putnik et al., 2018). Organisations expe- rience the deleterious effect of work-family conflict (Ebyetal.,2005).Higherwork-familyconflictresults in employee job dissatisfaction (Dartey-Baah, 2015; Netemeyer et al., 1996; Williams et al., 2016). Job dissatisfaction results in high job turnover, poor interpersonal relationships, low motivation, nega- tive affective conditions and less enthusiasm for the work (Darmody & Smyth, 2016; Yildrim & Aycan, 2008). The interaction of family and work roles re- sultsintensionleadingtoabehaviouralresponseto the organisation (Mihelic & Tekavcic, 2014). Nega- tive behaviour from the effect of work-family con- flict includes poor work performance (Akinbode et al., 2018; Barton et al., 2015) and organisational commitment (Allen & Armstrong, 2006; Netemeyer et al., 1996). Work-family conflict leads to stress which spills over to the work and family spheres. The increased stress leads to family problems, low morale and individual health problems (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). The present study, therefore, centres on the con- flict aspect of the work-family interface nature by focusing on a country-specific work-family conflict in the Ghanaian context. The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Literature review is in section one, while the methodology is in section two. Data analysisandadiscussionoftheresultsareinsection threeandsectionfourcontainstheconclusionofthe study. Objective of the study The main objective of the study is to examine the effect of work-family conflict on small enterprise leader's job satisfaction. The specific objectives are to: a) assess the effect of work-family conflict on job satisfaction, b) assess the effect of family-work ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2022;24:208e221 209 conflict and job satisfaction, c) determine whether resilience moderates the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction, and d) determine whether resilience moderates the rela- tionship between family-work conflict and job satisfaction. Rationale of the study Studies have been conducted globally on the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction (Dartey-Baah, 2015; Seema & Mahesh- wari, 2015; Yustina & Valerina, 2018; Mensah Amissah & Nsaful, 2018). The studies have been conducted on several educated professions including accountants/auditors (Yustina& Valerina, 2018) and professional groups (Seema & Mahesh- wari,2015).Othersareacademicians(Rahmanetal., 2018) and working mothers (Berger, 2018). A review from the literature shows that the relationship be- tween work-family conflict and job satisfaction are frequently researched, yielding diverse results on therelationshipbetweenthetwoconstructs(Choi& Kim, 2012). These raise two issues that must be considered: what will be the outcome between the two variables from relatively less educated business owners and what are the specific results from Ghana's small-scale enterprises' sector? Most studies on small enterprises in Ghana have been on financial, managerial, performance and human capital issues (Adomako et al., 2016; Amoah & Amoah, 2018; Quartey et al., 2017) with no study toexaminethemanagers'work-familyinterfaceand its effect on job satisfaction. Work-family interface research has been based on the labour force in EuropeandAmerica(Savetal.,2014)and,toalesser extent, Asian countries, while countries in Sub- Sahara Africa have largely not been given the necessary attention on the work-family interface (Annor, 2016) and its effects on job satisfaction. Researchfindingsfromthesecountriesonthework- family interface cannot be readily applied to the Sub-Saharan context (Annor, 2016). Again, Lambert et al. (2017) argued that the outcomes cannot be universalized. Within these contexts, the extent to which resilience moderates the work-family inter- face isnot known in Ghana. The empirical evidence of the work-family interface and managers’ job satisfaction in the Ghanaian small-scale sector is rather limited. The research hopes to add to this body of research. The complexity of the business environment generates huge pressure, high stress (Rubel et al., 2017) and strains on the small enterprise leaders. This calls for leaders who can withstand daunting challenges and situations. Small business owners possesssomepsychologicalattributes(Balukuet al., 2018) and leadership styles (Tuffour et al., 2015; Tuffour & Matey, 2019). One of the key psycholog- ical attributes is resilience. Entrepreneurial resil- ience relates to the ability of entrepreneurs to anticipate potential threats, to cope effectively with unexpected events, and to adapt to the changes to becomestrongerthanbefore(Ducheck,2018).Fisher et al. (2016) found that entrepreneurs’ resilience leads to success in the business. However, little research has focused on the specific context of the resilience of owners of small enterprises. This pre- sent study contributes to filling this gap. 1 Literature review 1.1 The concept of work-family interface Work-family conflict is one of the sources of occupational stress (Piko& Mihalka, 2018) and may have a great impact on employees’ quality of life (Yucel, 2017). Researchers and practitioners around theworldhavetakennoticeofchallengesemanating from work and the family (Allen et al., 2015). Ac- cording to Greenhaus and Beutell (1985), the concept of work-family conflict is defined as a form ofinter-roleconflictinwhichtherolepressurefrom work and family domains are mutually incompat- ible in some respect. In work-family conflict, the problems and duties from work interfere with the performance of family responsibilities, these family responsibilities, in turn, interfere with work. Conversely, when family problems and duties interferewithjobtasks,theunfinishedjobtaskswill, in turn, interfere with family life (Lin et al., 2015). This bidirectional causality presents two issues: family roles have a significant effect on work roles and work roles have a significant effect on family roles. Familyandworkroleshavebecome critical issues for individuals, especially dual-earners who are parents (Isa et al., 2018). Failure to balance the two domains lead to work-family conflict. Work-family conflict is experienced by individuals, because they are in different relationships as sons, daughters, sisters, brothers, or may live with friends who function as family members. 1.2 Spill-over theory The spill-over theory has been one of the theories for assessing the work-family interface (Lambert, 1990). The spill-over theory is defined as the in- dividual's experience in one domain in life that 210 ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2022;24:208e221 affects their experience in another domain in life (Sirgy et al., 2001). Work-family spill-over involves the transfer of emotions, cognitions, behaviours, moods, attitudes, feeling and stress between work and home (Rothbard & Dumas, 2006). Larson and Almeida (1999) assert in their emotional trans- mission model that both an individual's daily emo- tions and events may predict subsequent emotions or behaviours in his or her family members. Again, the spill-over theory states that employees bear the attributes, skills, emotions and behaviours from their family life into their work roles and from their work roles to their family lives (Lambert, 1990). The spill-over theory is considered to have posi- tive and negative effects on work and the family. Positive spill-over can be defined as attributes from one domain affecting performance positively in the other domain (Lambert, 1990). Thus, satisfaction in the domain of a person's life is likely to affect satisfaction in the other domain (Martinez-Corts et al., 2015). The work-to-family domain is positive when a positive skill, sense of accomplishment and well-being generated are transferred from the work area in a way that benefits the family domain (Hanson et al., 2006). Negative spill-over is when negative experiences at work have adverse implications for an in- dividual's family (Bianchi & Milkie, 2010). When attributes from one area prevent the fulfilment of demands in another area, it is said to be a negative spill-over (Lambert, 1990). When adverse effects are experiencedinthenegativespill-over,theytranslate to conflict and non-beneficial support to the family structure (Hanson et al., 2006). 1.3 Job satisfaction Job satisfaction is of interest and great impor- tance to many scholars, individuals and organisa- tions worldwide. The individuals at the centre of this construct are the worker, group of workers or managers (Ayranci & Ayranci, 2015). Many re- searchersseejobsatisfactionfromvariouspointsof view, yet there is a consensus among scholars that it is all about the satisfied worker's likes, work, feel and sense of commitment to work (Ayranci, 2011). Locke (1969) defines job satisfaction as the plea- surable emotional state resulting from the appraisalofone'sjobasachievingorfacilitatingthe achievement of one's job values. This reflects the fact that it is the individual worker who can eval- uate their satisfaction level. Some scholars have conceptualised job satisfac- tion from the emotional and cognitive perspective aseithercomprehensiveorpartial(Linetal.,2015). This is in line with the definition of job satisfaction given by Downes et al. (2002) which states that job satisfaction is an individual's overall feelings and cognitive level towards the job itself and their working environment. According to Belias and Koustelios (2014), job satisfaction is the employee's perception of their working environment, relations among colleagues, earnings and promotion op- portunities. The definition brings out the fact that job satisfaction is directly linked to working con- ditions.Aperson'sfeeling of satisfaction in doinga particular job acts as a motivation to the work (Din et al., 2018). 1.4 Resilience Bergstr€ om and Dekker (2014) recognized that resilience happensat variouslevels; these are micro (human), meso (organisational), macro (societal) and cross-scale (social-ecological). Entrepreneurial resilience is most frequently associated with the aspects of the individual, the venture and the team. In this present study, resilience is examined at the micro-level, that is, at the entrepreneur level (Bergstr€ om & Dekker, 2014). Entrepreneurial resilience is defined as the abil- ity to overcome the entrepreneurial process in the face of adverse situations and unexpected out- comes (Awotoye & Singh, 2017). According to Ducheck (2018), entrepreneurial resilience is the ability of entrepreneurs to anticipate potential threats, to cope effectively with unexpected events and to adapt to changes to become stronger than before. Buang (2012) provided the meaning of entrepreneurial resilience as concerning an entre- preneur who exhibits (1) the ability to cope with turbulence and change in the business environ- ment, (2) the ability to consistently maintain good health and energy irrespective of business pres- sures, (3) the ability to respond to setbacks and adversities through adaptation and thriving, and (4) the ability to let adaptation express itself in a new and suitable way of managing the business andnotstagnateinadysfunctionalway.Additional factors associated with entrepreneurial resilience are the capacity to make realistic plans, self-confi- dence, positive self-image, communication skills and the capacity to manage strong feelings and impulses (Hedner et al., 2011). Individualentrepreneurialresiliencewasfoundto be a combination of hardiness and persistence in a study by Fisher et al. (2016). Hardiness is the ability of an entrepreneur to exercise personal control and not wait for the support of other people (Fatoki, 2018). This hardiness comes from their willingness ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2022;24:208e221 211 to work hard to reach their aspirations, goals and exhibit determination in their quest for success, especially when confronting a major challenge (Manzano-Garcia & Ayala, 2013). For persistence, the entrepreneurs believe that they can achieve theirgoalsandthinkofthemselvesasstrongpeople (Fisher et al., 2016). 1.5 Empirical literature review of work-family conflict interface and job satisfaction Many studies have been conducted globally on the relationship between work-family conflict and jobsatisfaction.Thestudieshavebeenconductedon several professions including accountants/auditors (Yustina & Valerina, 2018); university junior staff (Mensah et al., 2018); professional groups (Seema& Maheshwari, 2015). Others are academicians (Rah- man et al., 2018) and working mothers (Berger, 2018). Reviews from the literature indicate that the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction are frequently researched, yielding diverse results on the relationship between the two constructs (Choi & Kim, 2012). A study was con- ducted in South Korea among frontline employees in the hotel industry by Choi and Kim (2012). The results show that family-to-work conflict has a sig- nificant and positive relationship with job satisfac- tion. The results of Linh et al. (2016) indicated that work-to-familyandfamily-to-workconflictwerenot significantlyrelatedtojobsatisfactionforemployees of state-owned enterprises and foreign-invested enterprises. However, most findings from studies around the world from different countries and occupations show that work-family conflict unfavourably affects job satisfaction. For instance, Berger (2018) investi- gatedtherelationshipbetweenwork-familyconflict, family-work conflict and job satisfaction using a sample from the United States of America. The result of the study revealed higher work-family conflict and higher family-to-work conflict regard- less of the domain. The work-family conflict and family-work conflict were negatively related to job satisfaction, meaning that higher work-family con- flict leads to lower work satisfaction and higher family-work conflict leads to lower family satisfac- tion. Another study done in the USA by Armstrong et al. (2015) shows that work-family conflict was bi- directional. Also, the strain and behaviours-based work-family conflict and family-work conflict were negatively related to job satisfaction. Fisher et al. (2009) investigated the interaction between work- family conflict and job satisfaction with US man- agers from different organisations. The result was consistent with Berger (2018),a f firming that a negative relationship exists between work-family conflict and job satisfaction, but a null association was found between family-work conflict and job satisfaction. In the Middle East, a study by Habibian et al. (2018) on Iranian medical and administrative staff showed that there was a correlation between work- family conflict and job satisfaction. There was also a correlation between family-work conflict and job satisfaction. For Jordanian nurses, AlAzzam et al. (2017)revealedthatthenurseswereexposedtoboth subtypes of work-family conflict. InAsia,astudyontherelationshipbetweenwork- family conflict and job satisfaction include research by Seema and Maheshwari (2015) among profes- sional groups such as doctors, nurses, teachers and clerksinIndia.Theresultsindicatedthattherewasa negative correlation between work-family and job satisfaction among the groups. From the four pro- fessional groups, nurses have the highest work- family conflict with the least job satisfaction fol- lowed by clerks, teachers and doctors, respectively. In Korea, Choi et al. (2018) study on industrial workers revealed that work-family conflict was negatively related to job satisfaction. In Bangladesh, Rahmanetal.(2018)studiedacademiciansinprivate universities. The findings show that both work-to- family and family-to-work conflict had a negative relationship with job satisfaction. However, family- to-work conflict had no significant effect on job satisfaction among the academicians. Also, in Malaysia, Ng et al. (2016) examined the influence of work-family conflict and job satisfaction among healthcare professionals. They found that only family-to-workconflictwasnegativelyrelatedtojob satisfaction, but no significant relationship was found between work-to-family conflict and job satisfaction. They found that the physicians’ work- family conflict had a direct effect on job satisfaction. Bramadewandhana and Parahyanti, 2018 examined the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction among working mothers in Jakarta, Indonesia. They found out that there was a signifi- cant negative correlation between work-to-family conflict and job satisfaction. Studies in Africa, especially Ghana, have been in tune with what pertains to other countries. For instance, Mensah et al. (2018) examined the work- familyconflictandjobsatisfactionamonguniversity junior staff in Ghana. The results revealed a nega- tiveeffectofwork-familyconflictonjobsatisfaction. Similarly, Dartey-Baah (2015) conducted a study among corporate leaders on work-family conflict, demographic characteristics and job satisfaction. 212 ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2022;24:208e221 Dartey-Baah found out that leaders who experience ahigherlevelofeitherofthetwosub-typesofwork- family conflict have less job satisfaction. Burchell and Annor (2018) conducted a cross-national comparative study in Ghana and the United Kingdom. The finding revealed that there was a negative relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction. The conclusion is that work- family conflict is negatively related to job satisfac- tion. The empirical literature review indicates that there isabidirectionaland multidimensionalaspect of work-family conflict (Dartey-Baah, 2015; Mensah et al., 2018). Work-family conflict will negatively affect job satisfaction. Also, work interference with the family will negatively influence job satisfaction. Entrepreneurial resilience is defined as the ability to overcome the entrepreneurial process in the face of adverse situations and unexpected outcome (Awotoye & Singh, 2017). According to Ducheck (2018), entrepreneurial resilience is the ability of entrepreneurs to anticipate potential threats. The review serves as the basis for the framework. 1.6 Conceptual framework and empirical model Each employee considers their role as a family member as important in their lives and has a desire toplayroleswell(Choi&Kim,2012).Butwhentheir job does not match with their desires or the values thattheyconsidertobeimportant,theyarenotable to achieve satisfaction. Thus, when their jobs bring conflict between those two domains, that is work and family, individuals experience less job satisfac- tion (Netemeyer et al., 1996). Individuals who are aware that their work-related duties and family duties are incompatible tend to be more dissatisfied with their job. The interaction of work-family conflict and job satisfactioncanbeassessedbyviewingtheinfluence of work-family conflict's two directions on job satisfaction. The level of work-family conflict that individualsexperienceandthedegreetowhichthey appraisetheirjobaseithersatisfyingordissatisfying by that conflict may depend on their evaluation of the situation (Ergeneli et al., 2010). In family-to- work conflict, the pressure and stress that are experienced due to dealing with family issues will reduce the individual's time and energy on their work,whichwillcauseattitudinalresponsessuchas job satisfaction. Thus, stress caused by dealing with family issues will spill-over to work roles, then reducing individual's resources, leading to a decrease in job satisfaction. Few studies considered the moderating role of resilience in the link between job satisfaction and work-family conflict. Zheng et al. (2017) studied 874 nurses in Singapore. The results show a positive relationship between job satisfaction and resilience. Thus, job satisfaction is related to resilience, signi- fying its relevance to the present study. In another research on the potential roles of resilience and socialsupportintherelationshipbetweenstressand life satisfaction by Yang et al. (2018), the results show significant correlations among all the vari- ables. The implied empirical model for the present studyisthe structuralequation modellingproposed in Fig. 1, developed to achieve the study objectives. The framework shows the linkage from a work- family interface to managers’ job satisfaction within the moderating role of resilience. These therefore lead to the hypotheses as: Family-work conflict has a significant negative effect on job satisfaction. Work-family conflict has a significant negative effect on job satisfaction. Resilience moderates the relationship between work- family conflict and job satisfaction. Resilience moderates the relationship between fam- ily-work conflict and job satisfaction. 1.7 Operational definitions Some authors noted that employees’ job satisfac- tion depends on factors such as their expectations about their work, business contexts and work- related experiences (Ayranci & Ayranci, 2015). For others,jobsatisfactionlevelindicatesthepositiveor negative attitude of employees towards their pro- fession influenced by many factors. Fisher (2001) asserted that job satisfaction can be achieved when an individual perceives that his or her job matches the values that the individual considers to be important, but dissatisfaction occurs when the job and values are contradictory. Work-family spill-over involves the transfer of emotions, cognitions, behaviours, moods, attitudes, feeling and stress between work and home (Roth- bard&Dumas,2006)creatingconflictandimpacting jobsatisfaction.AccordingtoGreenhausandBeutell (1985), a work-family conflict is a form of an inter- role conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompat- ible in some respect. Thus, conflict is experienced when pressures arising from work-family are incompatible with pressures arising from the fam- ily-work role. Thereisnogeneralagreementonthedefinitionof small enterprises, and it varies across firms and countries. The present study adopted the definition ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2022;24:208e221 213 of Ghana Statistical Service (2017) for the research. The study combined the micro and small enter- prises and so classified them as small enterprises. Hence, the small enterprise for the present study comprised a firm with up to 30 employees. The present research, therefore, seeks to affirm or refute the conclusions of the extant literature in the field of work-family conflict interface and employer job satisfaction for relatively less researched small enterprise subsector. Also, the study contributes to thisfieldofstudybyassessing the role ofindividual resilience in mitigating the potential effects of any imbalance between the two study variables. The literature review gives a basis to extract the appro- priate method and materials. 2 Methodology 2.1 Study approach and design Thestudyusedthequantitativeresearchapproach, which allows social behaviour to be quantified and patterned, through cross-sectional design which provides an opportunity for statistical analysis (Creswell, 2009) for generalisation of results to study population and making predictions. Exploratory and descriptivestrategieswereemployedforthispresent researchtoclarifyideas,providelearningavenuesin newandvagueproblems(Cooper&Schindler,2014), andnewwaysofmeasuringorlookingatthings.The exploratory design helps to discover and assess how resilience moderates the capacity of small enterprise leaders concerning the work-family inter-role conflict. 2.2 Population, sample size and sampling technique The respondents were selected from different or- ganisationsoperatinginthesmallenterpriseprivate sector in Accra metropolis in the Greater Accra re- gion. The study population was owner-managers (leaders)small-scaleenterprises.Thesurveysample size was 293. This sample size was deemed appro- priatebasedontherecommendationsofTabachnick and Fidell (2007), where sample size (N) should be N > 50 þ 8M, with M being the total number of independent variables. For five key independent variables,oursamplesizeof293(whichrepresentsa return rate of 95.7% of 306 questionnaires distrib- uted) more than satisfies the recommended sample of 90 (using the formulae). The convenience sampling technique is used, although as with other techniques, it has some weaknesses (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). However, convenience sampling can still be a useful proced- ure. It can also be used to test ideas or even gain ideas about an area ofinterest (Cooper& Schindler, 2014).Findingsmayprovequiteinteresting(Bryman & Bell, 2015) and overwhelming (Cooper & Schin- dler, 2014). In business and management, as well as in areas such as consumer behaviour, research convenience samples have become the norm and are more prominent than samples based on proba- bility sampling (Bryman & Bell, 2015). 2.3 Data type, sources and collection The primary data for the present study was collected through the administration of question- naires to small enterprise leaders. A structured questionnaireisusedtocollecttheinformationfrom the small enterprise leaders from various sectors of firms from Accra metropolis over one month. Differentscalesdevelopedbydifferentauthorswere adapted for the study. The respondents did not disclose their identity. This is to ensure anonymity and to boost the confidence of the respondents, to be honest in their answers. The total number of completed and cleaned questionnaires obtained from the small enterprise leaders was 293. Each questionnaire was put in an envelope and hand- delivered to small enterprise leaders who vol- unteered to be respondents. For ethical reasons, the respondents were informed about the purpose of the study and confidentiality facilitated by sealing Resilience FWC WFC Job Satisfaction Fig. 1. Framework of the Study. Note: WFC¼ work-family conflict, FWC¼ family-work conflict. Source: Authors' development. 214 ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2022;24:208e221 the envelopes after completing the questionnaire. A pilot test of the instrument consisting of 20 small- scale managers was conducted in the La-Nkwan- tananMunicipalassemblytoascertainthereliability of the instrument. The pilot test results informed appropriate adjustment of the scales. 2.4 Constructs, instruments and interpretation The adapted scales used are the work-family con- flict scale, the family-work conflict scale, the job satisfaction scale and the resilience scale. The Work- Family Conflict Scale is a 10-item measure of work- family conflict constructed by Netemeyer et al. (1996). Five of the items measure work-to-family conflict. The other five measure family-to-work conflict. All the items on the scale are negatively worked to indicate the extent of work-family related conflict that the individual might be going through. The work-family conflict scale is measured on a 7- point Likert scale with points from 1 ¼ Strongly disagree to 7 ¼ Strongly agree. The five-item work- family conflict scale measures the extent to which work activities interfere with a leader'sfamilyactiv- ities,dutiesandresponsibilities.Theminimumscore is5andthemaximumscoreis35foranyrespondent. The higher the score, the higher the conflict. The Cronbach Alpha for work-to-family conflict is 0.73 and the family-to-work conflict scale is 0.80. For the job satisfaction scale, a 9-item version of the Index of Satisfaction originally developed by Brayfield and Rothe (1951) was adopted and used for Job Satisfaction (cited in Amankwah, 2018). The items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly agree. Scores range from a minimum of 9 to a maximum of 63. A higher score indicates higher job satisfaction. The Cronbach Alpha for the scale has been estimated to be 0.757. The revised and validated Connor-Davidson resiliencescale(CD-RISC-10)byCampbell-Sillsand Stein (2007) with 10 items is adapted. The original items were reworded so that the modified state- ments were all presented in the first person. This change prompts respondents to identify themselves as active participants in various items. For example, one item was reworded from “Able to adapt to change” to “I am able to adapt to change” allowing the reader to understand that he/she is intended to be the subject acting. The CD-RISC-10 is ranked on the 5-point Likert scale from ‘0¼ not true at all’ to ‘4¼ true nearly all the time’.The itemssummedup to produce a scale score that ranges from a mini- mum of 0 to a maximum of 40, which indicates the highest level of resilience. The CD-RISC-10 has a Cronbach Alpha value of 0.85 as indicated by Campbell-Sills (2007) and 0.95 by Shin et al. (2018). 2.5 Data analysis Data analysis usually involves reducing accumu- lated data to a manageable size, developing sum- maries, looking for patterns and applying statistical techniques (Cooper & Schlinder, 2014). The data collected were edited, coded and prepared for sta- tistical analyses. The statistical analyses were con- ducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. The data collected through the cross-sectional survey were quantita- tively analysed through regression and inferential statistics. Specifically, regression analysis is used to ascertain the effect of work-family bidirectional ef- fect on job satisfaction by moderating resilience. Furthermore, to identify whether there is a differ- ence in the work-family interface due to the resil- ienceofmanagers,atwo-way analysisofvarianceis employed. The Cronbach Alpha coefficients were computed as a measure of reliability for the vari- ables. The hypotheses were tested using correlation and analyses of variance techniques. Based on this methodology, the data are analysed and the results discussed. 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Results of socio-demographic characteristics A total of 64.5% of the respondents are male en- terprise leaders, while female small enterprise leaders constitute 35.5%. A critical examination of theagesrevealedthatbetween28and57yearsform the major age range of the small enterprise leaders. Concerning marital status, 64.2% of the small en- terprise leaders are married, while 20.1% are single. Only 15.7% of the respondents are divorced. Moreover, 73.7% have children. Only 26.3% had no children. However, nearly 70% have between one and five dependents to cater for. Furthermore,intermsofeducationalbackground, first-degree holders are made up of 42.3% of the respondents representing the majority. Those with Diploma/Higher National Diploma Certificates were 21.4%, while 14.3% had a master's degree, and 9.6% had primary education. About hours worked, small enterprise leaders commit 4 to 12 hours to workdaily.Also,37.9%ofrespondentswork8hours a day and 22.9% work 12 hours daily. The data revealed that 39.2% of the respondents take work home, while 45.7% sometimes take work home. Only 15% of the small enterprise leaders did ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2022;24:208e221 215 not take work home. In terms of receiving and responding to emails and phone calls about work at home, 60% of the small enterprise leaders commu- nicate regardingwork issues at home, while30%do this sometimes. Only 9.2% of respondents did not communicateaboutworkathome.Mostofthesmall enterprises (40.3%) have been running between one andfiveyears,but9.6%are21e25yearsinbusiness. In general, 24.9% of the small enterprise leaders have more than 31 years of working experience and 21.2% have 11e15 years of working experience. 3.2 Data quality: reliability and normality of scales From Table 1, it can be observed that the reli- ability coefficients for the Work-Family Conflict Scale, Family-Work Conflict Scale, Job Satisfaction Scale and Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale from the data are 0.70 and beyond. Vet et al. (2017) and Dadfar and Lester (2017) all agree that the Cron- bach's alpha of 0.70 and beyond can be considered reliable. Based on this, all four scales are reliable andforthatmatter canbe usedforanalysis tomake inferences about the effect of work-family conflict on job satisfaction. The normality of the sample data is checked by inspecting the skewness and kurtosis values of all the variables. The results of this analysis are pre- sented in Table 2. Table 2 shows the results of the descriptive sta- tisticsforthescalesused.Theskewnessandkurtosis scores showthatallscoresfallwithin the acceptable range ofþ2to 2 andþ3to 3 respectively which indicated that the scales are normally distributed and thus satisfy the condition for the use of para- metric tests (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Table 3 shows that there is a significant positive relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfactionamongleadersofsmallenterprises.This means that work-family conflict correlates with job satisfaction positively although the relationship is weak. As work-family conflicts rise, job satisfaction also rises, but as work-family conflicts decrease, job satisfaction also decreases. The results in Table 4 indicate that there is a sig- nificant negative relationship between family-work conflict and job satisfaction among leaders of small enterprises. This means that family-work conflict correlates negatively with job satisfaction. For that matter, as family-work conflicts rise, job satisfaction decreases. 3.3 Regression analysis and results From Table 5, it can be observed that work-family conflict significantly affects the job satisfaction of small enterprise leaders. Again, resilience signifi- cantly affects the job satisfaction of small enterprise leaders. Since both variables, work-family conflict and resilience impact job satisfaction, a moderation analysis reveals that resilience moderates the rela- tionship between work-family conflicts and job satisfaction at the 5% level. Furthermore, the effect size for the moderation effect of resilience on work- family conflict and job satisfaction can be inferred from the partial eta squared value, which is h 2 ¼ 0.121. The value of 0.121 indicates that 12.1% of the between subjects' variance is accounted for by the interaction of work-family conflict and resilience. Using Cohen's (1988) criterion, resilience contrib- utes positively to the effect that work-family conflict has on job performance. Similarly, it is observed from Table 6 that family- work conflict significantly affects the job satisfaction Table 1. Reliability statistics (Cronbach's Alpha) for instruments. Scale ɑ No. of Items 1. Work-Family Conflict Scale 0.91 5 2. Family-Work Conflict Scale 0.91 5 3. Job Satisfaction Scale 0.71 9 4. Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale 0.89 10 Source: Authors' calculations. Table 2. Normality test results. Scale Min Max Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis Work-Family Conflict Scale 5 35 22.53 8.92 0.44 0.95 Family-Work Conflict Scale 5 35 17.30 9.03 0.57 0.81 Job Satisfaction Scale 9 63 49.05 8.01 0.41 0.67 Connor-Davidson Resilience 0 40 27.75 6.95 0.72 0.14 Source: Authors' calculations. Table 3. Correlation results of work-family conflict and job satisfaction. Variable N Mean SD R p Work-Family Conflict 293 22.53 8.92 0.12 0.04* Job Satisfaction 293 49.05 8.01 Note: * Significant at the 0.05 alpha level (two-tailed). Source: Author's calculations. Table 4. Correlation results of family-work conflict and job satisfaction. Variable N Mean SD R p Family-Work Conflict 293 17.30 9.03 0.14 0.02* Job Satisfaction 293 49.05 8.01 Note: * Significant at the 0.05 alpha level (two-tailed). Source: Authors' calculations. 216 ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2022;24:208e221 of small enterprise leaders. Also, resilience signifi- cantly affects the job satisfaction of small enterprise leaders. The results reveal that resilience moderates the relationship between family-work conflicts and job satisfaction. Furthermore, the effect size (h 2 ¼ 0.132) for the moderation effect of resilience is that 13.2%ofthebetweensubjects’varianceisaccounted for by the interaction of family-work conflict and resilience. 3.4 Discussion of results The findings from the present study indicate that work-family conflict has a significant positive effect onjobsatisfaction.Someauthorsconcludedthatthe natureandstrengthoftherelationshipdiffergreatly from study to study (Allen et al., 2015). The result of Amankwah (2018) reveals that work-family conflict and job satisfaction were positively related. The present finding of the positive effect of work- family conflict on job satisfaction is significant for literature and it is intuitive. There may be some factors that account for the positive effect of work- family conflict on job satisfaction among small-scale owners in Ghana. First, entrepreneurs' choice of establishing a firm provides not only monetary benefits but also non-monetary benefits (Jensen et al., 2017). Work can help some adults in con- structing and developing their identities which is important for satisfaction (Nordenmark, 2018). Work can be financially, socially and emotionally rewarding. A job role forms a part of a person's identity and offers them personal significance, espe- ciallywhentheybrandthemselvesinsuchaposition within the social structure (Marcussen et al., 2004). Second, entrepreneurs have the opportunity to be their own bosses. Being an owner manager is important to entrepreneurs and is associated with higher job satisfaction. Two separate comparative studies on self-employment individuals and orga- nized employees concluded that self-employed in- dividualshave a higher level of job satisfaction than paid employees (Bradley & Roberts, 2004; Para- suraman & Simmers, 2001). Therefore, the role of being an owner/manager is important enough to earnthemhighjobsatisfactiontoovercomethehigh work-family conflict. Third,otherreasonsthatmayaccountforthenon- conformity of the findings to literature are the un- employment and underemployment situations in Ghana. According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2017), the 2015 labour force survey report gave the working-age group in Ghana to include all persons of 15 years of age and older. Those employed are more than half (67.9%) of the working-age popula- tion. The underemployed population is about 10%. Considering the prevalence of underemployment and unemployment, the entrepreneurs are more satisfiedinthissituationtohavetheirownbusiness. Job satisfaction drives the entrepreneur so much Table 5. Two-way ANOVA results of how resilience moderates the effect of work-family conflict on job satisfaction. Source Sum of Squares Df Mean Square FP h 2 Corrected Model 17,589.21 a 37 475.38 104.49 0.00* 0.938 Intercept 266,468.67 1 266,468.67 58,571.27 0.00* 0.996 Work-Family Conf. 6891.661 14 492.26 108.20 0.00* 0.856 Resilience 3186.751 15 212.45 46.70 0.00* 0.733 Work-Fa*Resilience 159.47 1 159.47 35.05 0.00* 0.121 Error 1160.12 255 4.55 Total 723,615.00 293 Note: * Significant at the 0.05 level of significance, a. Adjusted R Squared¼ 0.929. Source: Authors' calculations. Table 6. Two-way ANOVA results of how resilience moderates the effect of family-work conflict on job satisfaction. Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square FP h 2 Corrected Model 18,421.15 a 39 472.34 364.13 0.00* 0.982 Intercept 235,457.95 1 235,457.95 181,517.86 0.00* 0.999 Family-Work Conf. 8127.15 16 507.95 391.58 0.00* 0.961 Resilience 10,729.96 16 670.62 516.99 0.00* 0.970 Fa-Work*Resilience 49.85 1 49.85 38.43 0.00* 0.132 Error 328.18 253 1.30 Total 723,615.00 293 Note: * Significant at the 0.05 level of significance, a. Adjusted R Squared¼ 0.980. Source: Authors' calculations. ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2022;24:208e221 217 that they overlook the increasing work-family con- flict accompanying the business. Fourth, being an entrepreneur and owner/man- ager boosts image. These small enterprise leaders command respect and honour in society to the extent that they are called in Akan ‘edwumawura’, meaning the owner of a job. About 79.1% of re- spondents have a tertiary level education and it is encouraging that the tertiary respondents have taken the bold step to create their own businesses. According to Millan et al. (2013), people who start their own businesses could be more satisfied, because they were previously unemployed or un- deremployed. This may be part of the reason why they are able to hold their work-family conflict at bay, toallow job satisfaction tooverride the conflict. The result of the present study shows that family- work conflict also correlates negatively with job satisfaction, but when interacted with resilience, there is a significant positive effect on job satisfac- tion,signifyingtheimportanceofmanagers’levelof resilience. This finding is consistent with the research of Netemeyer et al. (1996), Hanson et al. (2006) and Dartey-Baah (2015). When the work of small enterprises is influenced by family issues, it creates restrictions on the performance of their work. This generates a high level of disruption both at home and in the workplace. Small enterprise leadersmaybeaffectedemotionallyandmaynotbe abletofocusorconcentrateontheirwork.However, in the presence of resilience, job satisfaction is at least maintained. Thus, their resilience buffers the negative effect of the family-work conflict. The findings of the current study show that resilience significantly and positively moderates the effect of work-family conflict on job satisfaction as well as family-work conflict on job satisfaction. The result of resilience from the current study of the small enterprise leaders is comparable to the resil- ience results obtained for entrepreneurs by Fatoki (2018). The small enterprise leaders in the present study have shown that as they experience high disruption of conflict or stress, they can reintegrate the conflict or stress with resilience or family sup- port, meaning that they gained some skills, knowl- edge, strength from the process of coping with the stress and this provides them with experience to handle stress or conflict as they encounter them. Armed with entrepreneurial resilience, small en- terprise leaders are equipped with the stamina to makerealisticplans,haveself-confidence,apositive self-image and the capacity to manage strong emotions and impulses. 4 Conclusion It is concluded that the work activities of small enterprise leaders generate conflict which spill over to the family setting. As a contribution to literature, the study reveals that, as much as job roles conflict of the small enterprise leaders’ increases, there is also an increase in job satisfaction brought about by the presence of enough resilience to overcome the conflict. The findings from the research reveal that small enterprise leaders experience sufficient job satisfaction to override the work conflict that arises from their work role. Another significance of the study to literature lies in the justification for this result which may be attributed to the identity as owners/managers of their businesses, recognition and respect from society as business owners and thereby escaping from the difficulty of unemploy- ment. Thus, they enjoy the autonomy andflexibility of their work schedule. The evidence from this present study shows that work-familyconflict'stwodirectionsrelatewellwith resilience. Thus, increasing levels of entrepreneurs' work-family conflict come with increasing levels of resilience. Small enterprise leaders can stand high levels of difficult business terrain, work hard and adapt to the situation through the presence of resilience. Resilience influences the interaction be- tween family-work conflict interface with job satis- faction. Resilience enhances job satisfaction which enables small enterprise leaders to overcome work- family conflict's two directions. 4.1 Implications and recommendations for practice The findings could be used by policy-makers to design interventions to help entrepreneurs. It is important for policy-makers in government agencies,suchastheNationalBoardforSmallScale Industries (NBSSI) and non-governmental organi- sationswithaninterestindevelopingentrepreneurs to be involved in the awareness creation and edu- cation to focus on how the small enterprise leaders could tackle work-family conflict and enhance job satisfaction. Resilience is said to be malleable, meaning that it can be taught and it can be learned. The effects of resilience training in the workplace can improve personal resilience, mental health and well-being, and improve performance. Again, resil- ience training in the workplace can equip people to cope better with stress, be more satisfied and pro- ductive. Hence, resilience training among entre- preneurs will go a long way to increase resilience and job satisfaction. 218 ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2022;24:208e221 4.2 Limitations of the study The study has some limitations, including the fact that small enterprise leaders were chosen from the Accra metropolis. This could affect the generalisa- tion ofthe results toothercitiesandregions.Also,a quantitative approach was used by the researchers which might give a narrow understanding of the reasons underlying some responses from the ques- tionnaire. The study was quantitative and cross- sectional in nature, which may not be ideal in research concerning the adaptation process such as that of resilience. However, the findings from a cross-sectional study can provide insights for lon- gitudinal research. These give room for future research areas. 4.3 Areas for further studies Future research on work-family conflict and the resilience of small enterprise leaders can be repli- cated in other cities or regions. The study could be extended to medium enterprise leaders. The com- parisons betweenfindings from other regions could broaden the understanding of the subject. Future research could consider adopting a mixed-method approach that would improve the strength of the research to provide both analytical and explanatory evidence. Also, more comprehensive information couldbeobtainedwiththeintegrationofqualitative and quantitative methods. Funding The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article. 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