Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 57, 1998, s. 235 - 254 
GDK: 149.74 Canis lupus: 151.2: (497.12) 
Prispelo/Received: September/September 1998 
Sprejeto/ Accepted: Oktober/ October 1998 
Izvirni znanstveni članek 
Original scientific paper 
THE RETURN OF THE WOLF (Canis lupus) INTO ITS HISTORIC 
RANGE IN SLOVENIA-IS THERE ANY PLACE LEFT AND HOW 
TOREACHIT? 
• 'V* • ** *** Miha ADAMIC , AndreJ KOBLER , Marko BERCE 
Abstract 
In the course of a post- World War II anti-wolf campaign in Slovenia, the range ofthe species has been 
reduced. The wolfwas nearly extenninated in the northern and north-western Dinarics and in the Prealps. 
The range of the wolf in Slovenia over that period, was reduced by about 2000 sq.km. 40 km of fenced 
highway Vrhnika-Postojna-Razdrto was put into operation in 1972. Historic corridor habitats, leading 
from the south-east towards the north have thus been affected and since that period, few reliable reports 
on the occurrence of wolves on northern side of the highway have been gathered. All-year protection of 
the wolf over an area of 1000 sq.km in south-central Slovenia in the border area with Croatia, adopted in 
1976 was followed by aslow increase in the population. But, despite promising population trends and 
projected plans on the conservation management of lurge eumivorcs in Slovenia, the retum uf lhe wulwes 
into their historic range will probably be affected or even rendered impossible by the development of 
State supported sheep farming, accelerated construction of the highway network, and also by other kinds 
ofwolf-unfriendly human activities. 
Key words: wolf. historic range, expansion, highway, sheep farming, Slovenia 
POVRATEK VOLKA V OBMOČJE HISTORIČNE 
RAZŠIRJENOSTI V SLOVENIJI - ALI JE TAM ŠE KAJ 
PROSTORA IN KAKO GA DOSEČI? 
Izvleček 
Območje razširjenost volka v Sloveniji se je med kampanjo za uničevanje volkov po II.svetovni vojni 
močno skrčilo. Volk je praktično izginil iz severnih in severozahodnih delov dinarskega ter iz 
predalpskega območja. V tem obdobju se je površina območja razširjenosti volka v Sloveniji zmanjšalo 
za okoli 2000 km2• Leta 1972 je bil zgrajen in ograjen 40 km dolg odsek avtoceste Vrhnika-Postojna-
Razdrto, s čimer so bile prizadete historične koridorske povezave med habitati volka na jugovzhodu in 
tistimi na severozahodu. Po tem obdobju je bilo le malo preverjenih informacij o pojavljanju posameznih 
volkov na severni strani avtoceste. Po uveljavitvi celoletne zaščite volka na okoli 1000 km2 območja v 
osrednjem delu južne Slovenije ob meji s Hrvaško leta 1976, je pričela populacija ponovno rahlo 
naraščati. Kljub obetavnim populacijskim trendom in veljavni strategiji ohranitve velikih zveri v 
Sloveniji pa bo povratek volka v območja nekdanje razširjenosti otežen ali celo onemogočen z nadaljnjim 
razvojem od države podprte ovčereje, pospešeno gradnjo avtocestnega omrežja ter drugimi oblikami 
volku-neprijaznih človekovih dejavnosti. 
Ključne besede: volk, areal razširjenosti, širjerife, avtocesta, ovčereja, Slovenija 
Ph.D., Assoc. Professor, University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Forestry 
and Renewable Forest Resources, Večna pot 83, 1000 Ljubljana, SLO 
** BSc For., Slovenian Forestry Institute, Vecna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, SLO 
BSc. For., Slovenia Forest Service, Regional Unit Postojna, Wildlife Reserve Jelen-Sneznik, 
1386 Stari trg pri Lozu, SLO 
236 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 57 
CONTENTS 
VSEBINA 
1 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE WOLF - HUMAN 
INTERACTIONS ON TODAY'S TERRITORY 
OF SLOVENIA KRATKA ZGODOVINA 
ODNOSOV MED VOLKOM IN ČLOVEKOM NA 
DANAŠNJEM OZEMLJU SLOVENIJE ................................ 237 
2 RECOVERY OF THE POPULATION OF 
WOLF IN SLOVENIA - RESULTS OF 
MONITORING IN THE SNEŽNIK WILDLIFE 
RESERVE, SOUTH-CENTRAL SLOVENIA 
PONOVNO NARAŠČANJE VELIKOSTI VOLČJE 
POPULACIJE V SLOVENIJI - UGOTOVITVE 
MONITORTNGA V GOJITVENEM LOVIŠČU 
JELEN-SNEŽNIK, V OSREDNJEM DELU JUŽNE 
SLOVENIJE ............................................................................ 240 
3 WHAT ARE THE CHANCES FOR THE 
RETURN OF THE WOLF INTO ITS 
HISTORICAL RANGE IN THE ALPS AND 
WHAT WOULD BE THE ROLE OF ALPINO-
DINARIC CORRIDOR 
KAKŠNE SO MOŽNOSTI ZA POVRATEK 
VOLKA V OBMOČJE HISTORIČNE 
RAZŠIRJENOSTI V ALP AH IN KAKŠEN 
POMEN PRI TEM BO IMEL ALPSKO-DINARSKI 
KORIDOR ............................................................................... 242 
4 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................... 246 
POVZETEK ........................................................................... 248 
REFERENCES 
VIRI ......................................................................................... 252 
237 
Adamič, M in sod.: The return ofthe wolf ... 
1 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE WOLF - HUMAN 
INTERACTIONS ON TODAY'S TERRITORY OF 
SLOVENJA 
KRATKA ZGODOVINA ODNOSOV MED VOLKOM IN 
ČLOVEKOM NA DANAŠNJEM OZEMLJU SLOVENIJE 
For the third time in the 20th century, the wolf (Canis lupus L.) is trying to resettle its 
historic habitats over the greater part ofEurope and North America. Social life, intelligence, 
high rates of reproduction, opportunistic carnivore feeding, skillfulness in using human-
owned food sources, and low non-hunting mortality are the triggers, conditioning positive 
trends of wolf populations in the periods of low human pressure upon the species 
(SCHRODER, PROMBERGER 1993, MECH 1995, ZEDROSSER 1995, BOITANI 1997, 
BREITENMOSER 1998, ADAMIČ, KOREN 1998, etc.). This phenomenon is a real 
challenge for traditionally rigid attitudes of Europeans towards the wolf, which play a 
pronnounced negative role in their minds and literature, even in children tales. Although 
living in the periods of worldwide efforts on preserving rare animal species, rain forests and 
general biotic diversity, we are not yet aware that this very tirne we are realy capable of 
sharing our tiny European landscapes with the wolf, as a member of the biotic communities 
there. It is much easier for the European mind to cope with the survival of Indian tigers, than 
to imagine the wolf living in neighbouring forests. 
Southem Slovenia represents the very northwestem edge of the Balcano-Dinaric range of the 
wolfwhich extends from Greece and Albania, over a great part of sparsely settled mountain 
areas ofthe fonner Yugoslav republics. The species range is spatialy covered with that ofthe 
brown bear (Ursus arctos L.). The actual range of the wolf in Slovenia is limited to the 
Dinaric High Karst forests of Notranjsko and Kočevje and is much smaller than was the 
historic one (ADAMIČ 1986, 1993). Following older published data on wildlife on today's 
territory of Slovenia (FREYER 1842, SCHOLLMAYER 1889, HILTL 1893, SKJOLTE 
1909, etc. ), the greatest part of extensive forest areas was inhabited by the wolf til! the mid-
l 9th century. Under the provisions of Austrian hunting legislation adopted in 18th century, 
large predators, the wolf, the brown bear and lynx (Lynx lynx L.) have been persecuted all-
year, since that period on. In the second half of the 19th century, an anti-predator campaign 
became so efficient that the lynx disappeared from the whole area, and the wolf and brown 
bear were nearly extenninated (ŠIVIC 1926). It is important to stress that in the period up to 
the end of 19tl1 century, the greatest part of the forests in the area was still unlogged and 
unopened with forest roads (HUFNAGL 1898, MOHORIČ 1958), but it is also true that the 
238 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 57 
forest surface was much smaller than is the actual one. State given bounties might have been 
an important economic trigger ofthe anti-predator campaign. 
30 ~-------------------------~, 
25 
20 
15 
10 
5 
o 
Figure 1: Adjusted data on the harvest of the wolf on the today 's territory of Slovenia in the 
period 1874 - 1996 (different sources). 
Grafikon 1: Prilagojeni podatki o odstrelu volkov na današnjem ozemlju Slovenije v obdobju 
1874 - 1996 (po različnih virih) 
The population of wolves rose again at the end of World War I. As old proverb known 
among people in the Dinarics saying, " wolf and war are brothers" proved to be realistic. 
The anti-wolf campaign in the post-1920 period was led by the Wolf Extermination 
Comittee, established in 1923 in Kočevje, with most of the members being professional 
hunters. In the period between 1923 and 1930, 127 wolves were destroyed on the teritory of 
the county of Kočevje (BIŽAL 1939). Similarly, the wolf was chased in other parts of the 
then territory of Slovenia. Following efficient extermination campaigns in late thirties. the 
wolfbecame very rare even in its core range in the central Dinarics. 
The range and density ofwolves in Slovenia increased again at the end of World War II. In 
post-War period the wolf extended its range towards north and northeast. On Pohorje, a vast 
forested mountain area in north-eastem Slovenia where, according to HIL TL (1893) the 
wolf disappeared in the first half ofthe19th century, the wolves appeared again in 1952, after 
an absence of about 100 years. Despite continuous persecution, led by professional hunters 
of the then State Game Reserve Pohorje, the wolf persisted in the area till 1956. In 1953 
even a litter of2 pups was detected (AČKO 1955). Altogether 3 wolves, 2 adults and 1 pup 
239 
Adamič, M. in sod.: The return o/ the wolf ... 
were shot on Pohorje in the campaign till 1956. Since after 1956, no signs of wolf occurence 
on Pohorje was noticed (FAJMUT 1956). Up tol960 the wolfwas still present on the whole 
area of the northwestem Dinarics including Nanos, Hrušica, Trnovski gozd and Idrija 
mountains. 
According to the Law on Hunting in Slovenia, adopted in 1949, all kinds of extermination 
including trapping and use of poisonous baits were legal. The Wolf Extermination 
Comittee, reelected in 1950 in southcentral Slovenia was active in State Wildlife Reserves 
of Kocevje. Similar anti-wolftactics to that ofthe post-World War I campaign were used. 
The detection and destroying of litters, as well as killing the parent-wolves at waterholes 
was the most efficient tactic in their reduction (ŠVIGELJ 1954). In 1962 the use of 
poisonous baits was forbidden due to accidental death cases among humans, mainly 
children. As efficient anti-wolf campaign was led in neighbouring Gorski Kotar in the 
same period (FRKOVIC 1973,1975). 
Fulluwing lhe successful release ofthe lynx in 1973 into the area of Kočevje (ŠTRUMBELJ 
1974), the wolf, top ungulate predator was systematicaly persecuted in the area of Kočevje, 
particulary in State Wildlife Reserves, regardless of "the acceleration of natura! selection 
pressure upon ungulate populations and reduction of forest damages through lynx predation" 
being stated among the goals of the reintroduction (ČOP 1990). The ban of wolf bounties in 
1973 had a neglible effect upon the intensity of wolf extermination. In 1976 the legal hunting 
season for wolf (1.10.-28.2.) was adopted by Law on management and hunting of wildlife in 
Slovenia. Litter destroying was thus forbidden for the first tirne in a long history of 
persecution ofthe wolf. 
Yearlong protection of the wolf in whole of Slovenia was proposed in 1990 by the Slovene 
Hunters Association. But due to an outbreak of rabies in Slovenia, the Ministry of Slovenia 
for the Agriculture and Forestry decided not to adopt it. The Act on the Protection of Rare 
and Endangered Species in Slovenia was issued in October 1993 by the Ministry of Slovenia 
for Culture, by which yearlong protection of the wolf on the whole territory of Slovenia was 
adopted. By the same act, the State became responsible for compensation for the damages to 
human property, caused by large predators, including the wolf. After severa! hundreds years 
of permanent extermination, the chances of cohabitation among the wolf and humans also 
became realistic in Slovenia. 
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Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 57 
2 RECOVERY OF THE POPULATION OF WOLF IN 
SLOVENIA - RESULTS OF MONITORING IN THE 
SNEŽNIK WILDLIFE RESERVE, SOUTH-CENTRAL 
SLOVENIA 
PONOVNO NARAŠČANJE VELIKOSTI VOLČJE POPULACIJE 
V SLOVENIJI - UGOTOVITVE MONITORINGA V 
GOJITVENEM LOVIŠČU JELEN-SNEŽNIK, V OSREDNJEM 
DELU JUŽNE SLOVENIJE 
Being aware that hunting pressure upon wolves, although not supported by the State 
Agencies, would be supressed since the decision of the Slovene Hunters Association from 
1990, we initiated in 1991 the all year monitoring ofthe population dynamics ofthe wolf (as 
well as of brown bear and lynx) in the Snežnik Wildlife Reserve. The target area of 276 
sq.km is situated in south-central Slovenia. About 90% ofthe area is covered by forests, with 
prevailing mixed beech (Fagus sylvatica) - fir (Abies alba) stands. On its southem and 
southeastem edges Snežnik Wildlife Reserve borders on the vast forests of Gorski Kotar in 
Croatia. There is no permanent settlements in the area. According to BERCE (1986) there 
were more than 400 km of forest roads, accessible by 2-wheel drive vehicles in the area in 
1985, which corresponds to road density of about 1460 m / l sq.km of the area. MECH et al 
(1988) reported that wolves in Minnesota, USA prefer areas with road density less than 360 
m / 1 sq.km of the area, but avoid those with densities exceeding 830 ml sq.km. The same 
authors concluded that the areas with denser road networks are easier reached by-the hunters, 
who represent the main threat to the wolves. If the habitat suitability of Snežnik Wildlife 
Reserve for wolves would be ranked by the same criteria, with about 1460 m of 2-wheel 
drive roads/ 1 sq.km, the area is unsuitable for the wolves. But it is important to stress that 
the wolves have been all year protected in the area since 1976. Also forest roads in remote 
parts ofthe reserve are left unploughed in winters. 
All year mapping of reliable signs of wolf presence (sightings, wildlife prey rests, scats, 
howling, tracks) inside 1 x 1 km grid cells (n = 306) was launched in 1991. The share of 
wolf positive days (WPD in which the presence of the wolf was detected), compared to total 
monitoring days per year is shown in table 1. 
241 
Adamič, M in sod.: The return ofthe wolf ... 
Table 1: Percent (%) shares ofwolf-positive days - days withfresh signs ofthe presence oj 
wolf (WPD) in the Snežnik Wildlife reserve, compared to total monitoring days / 
year in the period 199/-1997 
Preglednica 1: Letna razmerja med skupnim številom opazovalnih dni in številom dni z 
ugotovljenimi znaki prisotnosti volkov v Gojitvenem lovišču Jelen-Snežnik v 
obdobju 1991-1997 
No. of monitoring No. ofwolfpositive Share (%) of 
Year days per year days (WPD) per year WPD peryear 
Leto Število opazovalnih Število pozitivnih volčjih dni Delež(%) PVD 
dni na leto (PVD) na leto na leto 
1991 1057 22 2,08 
1992 845 17 2,01 
1993 919 27 2,94 
1994 846 52 6,14 
1995 657 55 8,37 
1996 849 101 11,89 
1997 608 96 15,79 
TOTAL 
6081 370 6,08 Skupaj 
The share of WPD in yearly ammounts of monitoring days increased in the period 1991 -
1997 (r=0,9276, n=7, p <0,001). 
Data on the size of sighted groups of wolves in the Snežnik Wildlife Reserve ( average size ± 
SD etc.) are shown in table 2. 
Table 2: Data on registered (sighted) groups oj wolves (mean size ±SD, median group 
size, etc.) in Wildlife Reserve Sneznik in the period 1992 1997 
Preglednica 2: Podatki o registriranih, direktno opaženih skupinah volkov (povprečno število ± 
SD, mediana velikosti skupin, itn.) 
No. of sighted Mean group size Median group 
Year groups Povprečna SD CV(%) Min. Max. size 
Število opaženih velikost skupine Mediana 
Leto skupin SD CV(%) Min Max. velikosti 
skupin 
1992 16 2,19 1,60 73,l 1 8 2,0 
1993 19 3,53 2,25 63,7 l 8 3,0 
1994 46 2,93 1,99 67,9 1 8 2,0 
1995 47 3,32 1,85 55,7 1 7 3,0 
1996 53 3,62 1,99 55,0 l 7 3,0 
1997 70 3,00 1,59 53,0 l 6 2,0 
242 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 57 
Successfuly raised litters inside the Snežnik Wildlife Reserve, but also in surrounding 
forested areas have also been registered nearly every year. 
3 WHAT ARE THE CHANCES FOR THE RETURN OF THE 
WOLF INTO ITS HISTORICAL RANGE IN THE ALPS AND 
WHAT WOULD BE THE ROLE OF ALPINO-DINARIC 
CORRIDOR 
KAKŠNE SO MOŽNOSTI ZA POVRATEK VOLKA V 
OBMOČJE HISTORIČNE RAZŠIRJENOSTI V ALP AH IN 
KAKŠEN POMEN PRI TEM BO IMEL ALPSKO-DINARSKI 
KORIDOR 
According to the study on the historic distribution of the wolf on recent territory of Austria 
(ZEDROSSER 1995,1996), the migration corridor Slovenia-Italy-Carinthia was the main 
connection between the Dinaric range of the wolf and the Alps. Alpino-Dinaric large 
predator corridor (ADAMIČ, KOREN 1998), which extends from Gorski Kotar, along the 
Sneznik-Javomik mountain ridge into Nanos and Trnovski gozd and towards the northwest 
into Prealps and Alps, was therefore the main target of our study on current wolf expansion. 
Simultaneously to increased occurrence of the wolf in the Snežnik Wildlife Reserve, where 
the species was fully protected since 1976 on, the cases of the penetrations of single animals 
and small groups into the species' historic range in the northwestem Dinarics, became more 
frequent. Our speculations that wolves established new trails, enabling them to cross the 
fenced Ljubljana-Razdrto highway section, built in 1972 were confirmed in winter 1993. On 
March 24th, 1993 a pack of 6 wolves (3 adults + 3 subadults) was sighted and tracked in 
snow on their two days excursion into the Nanos mountains. On their way back into Sneznik 
on March 25th, according to the tracks in snow, the group crossed the highway again, 
following the same trail, leading beneath the Ravbarkomanda highway viaduct, with the 
length of 595 m„ Altogether, the two day excursion of wolves from Snežnik to Podkraj on 
Nanos and back, was about 120 km long. 
• 
• 
• • • • . • . • • .. 
.. 
• . . 
•• ., 
• 
. . 
. .. . ., . . . . 
• 
• 
243 
Adamič, M in sod.: The return oj the wolf ... 
Republic Croatia 
5 O 5 10 l<ilcrrelers -"k--
Figure 2: The situation of the Alpino-Dinaric corridor of the wolf in Slovenia. The locations of 
registered wolf signs in the period 1991-1997 is shown by black dots. The network of 
the highways in the area is shown by black lines 
Slika 2: Položaj Alpsko-Dinarskega koridorja volka v Sloveniji. Lokacije inventariziranih 
znakov prisotnosti volkov v obdobju 1991-1997 so prikazane s črnimi pikami. Omrežje 
avtocest v območju je prikazano s temnimi linijami. 
Reliable snow tracks of single wolves have been observed in fir-beech forests of Trnovski 
gozd even previously, in winters 1991 and 1992. On June 4th, 1995 two wolves were shot 
on the northwestem edge of current wolf range, on two different locations within a distance 
of about 40 km. The male wolf of 37 kg was shot at Stomaž on westem slope of Nanos. 
According to the official statement of the hunter, the single animal chasing roe deer 
(Capreolus capreolus) in the dusk was thought to be a stray dog. Similar was the explained 
reason for the shooting of a female of 26 kg, being in the group of two animals, also chasing 
244 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 5 7 
roe deer at Novaki, on notheastem slope of Mt.Porezen. Both hunters have excused their 
illegal act by long years absence ofwolves in the area. 
Altogether 535 signs ofwolf occurrence in Alpino - Dinaric corridor, including the Snežnik 
Wildlife Reserve were registered in the period 1991-1996 (table 3) 
Table 3: Types of registered signs of wolf inside the Snežnik Wildlife Reserve and other 
parts of Alpino-Dinaric corridor 
Preglednica 3: Primerjava strukture registriranih znakov prisotnosti volkov v Gojitvenem 
lovišču Jelen-Snežnik in drugih delih Alpsko-Dinarskega koridorja v obdobju 
1991-1997 
Type of the signs of Snežnik Wildlife Other monitored parts of Whole Alpino -
wolf occurence Reserve (n=415) Alpino-Dinaric corridor Dinaric corridor ( 
(n = 120) n = 535) 
Gojitveno lovišče Drugi deli Alpsko- Celoten Alpsko-
Vrsta znakov Jelen Snežnik Dinarskega koridorja Dinarski koridor 
(n=415) (n=120) (n=535) 
Tracks 
22,9 40,0 26,7 Sledi 
Sightings* 
41,0 30,8 38,7 Dir. opazovanja 
Predation upon 
Iivestock 0,2 6,7 1,7 
Napadi na živino 
Prey rests (wildlife) 
35,9 20,8 32,5 Ostanki plena (divjad) 
Wolfshot o 1,7 0,4 Odstreljeni volkovi 
Tota! 
100,0 100,0 100,0 Skupaj 
* Females with pups have been sighted in 13 cases. Average litter size = 2,38 ± 0,65, median 2,0. 
The signs of wolf occurence gathered in the Snežnik Wildlife Reserve, with more sightings, 
prey rests, and less predation upon livestock, when compared to other parts of the Alpino-
Dinaric corridor, prove that the preserved suitability of the Sneznik area will be of crucial 
importance for further expansion of the wolf into the Alps. According to the Figure 3, all 
year occurence ofthe wolfsigns was registered in both parts of Alpino-Dinaric corridor. 
% 
245 
Adamič, M in sod.: The return ofthe wolf ... 
20 T;::=========::;------------,1 
jimW.R.Sneznik ll!!ll!Other partsj 
15 
10 
5 
o 
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 
Figure 3: Comparison o/% monthly occurrence ofwolf signs in the Snežnik Wildlife Reserve 
and in other parts of the Alpino-Dinaric Corridor in the period 1991-1997 
Grafikon 3: Primerjava mesečnih deležev (%) znakov volčie prisotnosti v Gojitvenem 
lovišču ZGS Jelen-Smežnik in drugih delih Alpsko-Dinarskega koridorja v 
obdobju 1991-1997 
In October 1997, the crossing of the highway by the wolves beneath the Bandera viaduct 
(281 m) on the westem edge of the historic range of the species was confirmed for the first 
tirne. Since, the wolves were often tracked on sand beds, put in the underpasses and the 
viaducts on the Razdrto-Kozina highway section, opened for the traffic in 1995. In May 
1998, 74 sheep, kept in poorly protected enclosure on northem side of the highway were 
killed by a pack of 3 wolves in 4 successive nights. In every single night the wolves 
approached the enclosure over a 6 m wide highway bridge, connecting the target enclosure 
to a vast forested area on southem side of the highway. Observations there prove that the 
highway is not an ultimate obstacle for the wolves, which using their intelligence are able to 
distinguish what is real danger for them and what is not. 
The wolves have already penetrated into the foothills ofthe Jelovica plateau in Prealps (June 
1995 - male wolf shot by local hunter, November 1997 - 2 wolves sighted). If current wolf-
friendly legislation in Slovenia is not changed, we expect them to reach the Alps in a few 
years. According to the trends of european wolf populations, discussed by HELL and 
DURICKA (1991 ), LANDRY (1996), BOITANI (1997) and BREITENMOSER (1998), the 
expected return of the wolf into Slovenian Alps is fully realistk and is just the question of 
tirne. 
246 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 57 
4 CONCLUSIONS 
Although put on the Red List of threatened species in Slovenia, but also yearlong 
protected since 1993, the future welfare ofwolfin Slovenia is yet uncertain. Recently the 
wolves in Slovenia are, more or less constantly present only in southcentral parts of the 
State, primarly in remote forested areas along the border with Croatia. The greatest part of 
those animals are actually temporal migrants that circulate in the forests on both sides of 
the State border. Steady trails are used during the circulations, which is especially obvious 
in snow rich winters (BRANCELJ 1981, ŠTRUMBELJ 1995, ŠTIMAC 1996). In the 
periods with deeper snow the red deer winteryards were regular targets of wolf invasions. 
Because of evident transboundary connections between wolf subpopulation in 
southcentral Slovenia and those in Gorski Kotar and Lika in Croatia, future welfare of the 
species thus depends, not only on legal status of wolf in Slovenia, but also on that in 
Croatia. Establishment of interstate cooperation among Slovenia and Croatia for joint 
conservation of natura! resources in border areas and the creation of Dinaric Large 
Predator Mega-reserve, with extensive conservation managenent strategy for ali large 
predator species would be the best solution. The challenge and significance of cross 
boundary management plans of expanding wolf populations have been stressed by several 
authors, as most reasonable and efficient conservation solution for the welfare of the 
species (MECH 1995, NOSS et al 1996,) 
Despite yearlong protection of the wolf in Slovenia was proposed by the Hunters 
Association of Slovenia in 1990, the late did not hesitate in autumn 1997 to put in the 
application for "preventive extraction of three wolves". Its initiative was not triggered by 
elevated cases of wolf predation upon livestock, but due to the predation upon red deer in 
hunting reserves of the Hunters Association. It is hard to speak about the degree of poaching 
of wolves, but there were some evidences about it which might be seriously taken into 
account. 
The development plans of State supported sheep-farming in southcentral and northwestem 
Slovenia pose a serious threat to future welfare ofthe wolf, as well as that ofthe lynx and the 
brown bear. Thus induced human-predator conflicts and rising aversion of the farmers 
against the protection of large camivores in Slovenia, will doubtless make the conservation 
management action plans uncertain. 
Despite our own observations on the abillities of wolves to cross man-made obstacles, we 
suspect that ongoing construction of the highways in Slovenia will doubtless affect the 
chances for further expansion of the wolf and resettling of its historic range, if proper 
247 
Adamič, M in sod.: The return ofthe wolf ... 
mitigation measures would not be adopted. Historic corridors and localy established trails 
between Gorski Kotar and southeastem Slovenia will also be affected by the planned 
highway connections in Croatia (ŠTRUMBELJ 1995). 
There are some irnportant securing facts, conceming future welfare of the wolf in 
Slovenia that were not yet fully achieved e.g.: 
- preservation of key habitats in the core area, especially those surrounding the natural 
parks and reserves, but also those in new population islands will hardly to be reached 
on large enough level. Planning the levels of sustainable use of natural resources 
especially those of timber extraction inside crncial wolf habitats is still to be taken as 
an utopic goal in Slovenia. But being typical forest dwellers, the welfare of large 
predators in Slovenia strongly depends upon future forest management, as well as by 
other activities which might affect suitability of declared predator conservation areas, 
- implication of compulsory mitigation measures into the process of the construction of 
highway network in Slovenia towards improved permeability of newly induced 
ubslades. If further expansion of the wolf into yet suitable, unoccupied habitat islands 
in outer area is to be expected, the functionning of ( e )migration corridors, linking 
newly occupied habitats to source population areas should be ensured even by the 
additional construction of the ecoducts on traffic loaded highway sections, 
extension of current research on human-wolf relations and human attitudes towards large 
predators in Slovenia. The late might be an important part of the study on human 
dimensions of the conservation of large predators in Europe. According to the results of 
current studies on human attitudes upon large predators in Slovenia (KORENJAK 1995), 
the wolf gained the lovest rank of symphaty among investigated groups. Therefore we 
find the positive conditioning of puhlic opinion towards the wolf among the most 
important future tasks ofthe long-tenn conservation ofthe species in Slovenia, 
- reinforcement of the S tate adopted regulations upon the obligatory use of anti-predator 
protection devices on sheep pastures in the areas of regular and/or periodic presence 
of wolf and other large predators, 
achieving legal, yearlong protection of the wolf on whole territory of Slovenia with 
implicated pennalties even for incidently shooting of wolves. Any extraction of single 
problem animals will have to be adopted by State nominated expert group, and will 
have to be carried out by professional emergency team, but not by local amateur sport 
hunters, 
keeping elevated densities of ungulate populations particulary those of red deer 
(Cervus elaphus), representing the key prey source of the wolf in the core area 
(ADAMIČ; BERCE 1995). 
248 
Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 57 
If proposed will be implemented in the legislation and in real life, the chances of long 
term persistence of the wolf and other two large predators in Slovenia will look more 
realistic than recent ones. It is to stress that anything which is going to happen to the 
population of the wolf in Slovenia, will be of crucial impact for projected retum of the 
species into Eastem Alps. Therefore, the conservation of viable populations of large 
predators in Slovenia is also ofEuropean extensions. 
POVZETEK 
Slovenija predstavlja severozahodni rob kontinuiranega Dinarsko-Balkanskega območja 
razširjenosti volka, ki se razteza od Grčije in Albanije, čez redko naseljena gorata območja 
nekdanjih jugoslovanskih republik in, ki se prostorsko praktično prekriva z območjem 
razširjenosti rjavega medveda. V biogeografskem smislu pa slovensko ozemlje predstavlja 
funkcionalno povezavo med Alpami in Dinaridi. Na pomembnost Slovenije v procesu 
mednarodne akcije za povratek velikih zveri v Alpe, poleg današnje razširjenosti opozarja 
tudi ugoden populacijski status teh vrst pri nas. Današnje območje razširjenosti volka v 
Sloveniji je dejansko omejeno na visokokraške jelovo-bukove gozdove Kočevske in 
Notranjske in je (še) precej manjše kot v obdobju do srede 19. stoletja. Sodeč po starejših 
pisnih virih o razširjenosti divjih živali na današnjem ozemlju Slovenije so volkovi 
naseljevali vsa večja gozdna območja. O tem, ne nazadnje, pričajo tudi mnoga ledinska in 
domača družinska imena v različnih delih Slovenije. 
Iz ohranjenih podatkov o odstrelu volkov na okoli 280 km2 velikem veleposestvu rodbine 
Auersperg na Kočevskem v obdobju od sredine 18.stoletja pa do konca !.svetovne vojne je 
razvidno, da je uničevanje volkov potekalo podobno kot v drugih evropskih deželah. 
Zakonodaja iz srede 18.stoletja je v avstrijskih deželah sprožila kampanjo organiziranega 
uničevanja volka, rjavega medveda in risa pa tudi jelenjadi in divjega prašiča. Preganjanje je 
bilo tako učinkovito, daje v drugi polovici 19. stoletja ris že povsem izginil, rjavi medved in 
volk pa sta bila tik pred tem. Podobno so zveri preganjali tudi na današnjem ozemlju 
Hrvaške. Šele reinterpretacija takratnega bistveno manjšega prostorskega deleža gozdov v 
pokrajini ter takratne velikosti kontinuiranih gozdnatih območij nam dopušča razumeti, kako 
so kljub slabemu orožju, primitivnim komunikacijam in slabi odprtosi gozdov v 18. in 
19.stoletju uspeli praktično iztrebiti velike zveri. Življenjski zgodbi volka na Kočevskem in 
v Snežniških gozdovih v 19.stoletju opozarjata, da človekova naklonjenost in/ali averzija 
determinirata "politični aspekt" (ne)primemosti habitatov. Te dragocene zgodovinske lekcije 
se moramo zavedati vsi, ki kakorkoli sodelujemo pri oblikovanju ohranitvene strategije 
249 
Adamič, M .in sod.: The return ofthe wolf ... 
velikih zveri in drugih problematičnih živalskih vrst, ki s človekom tekmujejo v izkoriščanju 
istih (enakih) naravnih virov, mu lahko povzročajo škodo in so mu izjemoma lahko celo 
nevarne. 
Izjemna vitalnost, inteligenca ter visok reprodukcijski potencial so tiste značilnosti, ki so 
volku omogočile, da je preživel večstoletna preganjanja in, da v 20.stoletju že tretjič poskuša 
zasesti območje svoje historične razširjenosti v Sloveniji pa tudi drugod v Evropi. Prvič se je 
številčnost volkov na slovenskem ozemlju povečala po koncu !.svetovne vojne. Lovci takrat 
niso držali križem rok. Leta 1923 so v Kočevju ustanovili Odbor za pokončevanje volkov. 
Njegovo glavnino so sestavljali poklicni lovski čuvaji, uslužbenci Auerspergovega 
veleposestva ter čuvaji zakupniških lovišč. V obdobju med letom 1923 in 1930 so samo v 
Kočevskem srezu uničili 127 volkov. Podobno so volka pred II.svetovno vojno preganjali 
tudi v drugih delih današnje Slovenije. Učinkovita je bila protivolčja kampanja tudi v drugih 
delih predaprilske Jugoslavije tako, da je volk v poznih 30.letih postal redek celo v osrednjih 
Dinaridih. 
Drugič je volk uspešno izkoristil predah v preganjanju, ki ga je prinesla II.svetovna vojna. 
Le-ta je zajela celoten Balkanski polotok in onemogočila oziroma prekinila kontinuirani 
človekov pritisk na to živalsko vrsto. V Sloveniji se je volk v tem obdobju razširil proti 
severu in severovzhodu. Na Pohorju, kjer so volka iztrebili že v prvi polovici 19 .stoletja, 
se je ta ponovno pojavil leta 1952. Zakon o lovu iz leta 1949 je dovoljeval vse mogoče 
načine iztrebljanja volka, nastavljanje zastrupljenih vab, pasti in odstrel. Ponovno je 
zaživel Odbor za pokončevanje volkov. Jedro Odbora so sestavljali izkušeni poklicni 
lovci takratne Uprave gojitvenih lovišč s Kočevske in Notranjske. Posebno spretno so 
izkoriščali nekatere vedenjske značilnosti volčjih družin v času vzreje mladičev, itn .. 
Konec 60.let so volkove še vedno sistematično uničevali po celi Sloveniji, enako na 
Hrvaškem. Zaradi drastičnega zmanjševanja številčnosti volkov v osrednjem območju 
razširjenosti, na Kočevskem, Notranjskem in v sosednjem Gorskem Kotaru so se 
zmanjševali tudi znotrajvrstni pritiski, ključna prožila za emigracije. 
Ograjena avtocesta Vrhnika-Postojna, ki so jo dogradili in za promet odprli decembra 
1972, leta 1974 pa podaljšali do Razdrtega, je močno prizadela širjenje volkov iz 
osrednjega območja proti severu. Vendar pa so se posamezne živali, kljub temu (še) 
pojavljale na severni strani avtoceste. Verjetno so posamezni volkovi že takrat odkrili 
ohranjene odprte poti skozi avtocestno oviro in so se za prehajanje iz osrednjega območja 
proti severu posluževali avtocestnih podvozov in maloštevilnih viaduktov. V 80.letih so 
tako sledili volkove na severni strani avtoceste v bližini manjšega viadukta nad 
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Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 57 
počivališčem na Lomu. Domnevamo, da pod tem okoli 100 m dolgim viaduktom vodi en 
krak koridorja po katerem prihajajo volkovi iz osrednjega območja ter nadaljujejo pot v 
Hrušico in naprej proti Trnovskem gozdu, kjer so jih po letu 1990 že večkrat sledili in 
videli. 
S tretjim poskusom širjenja vrste se v Zahodnih Dinaridih, v Sloveniji in na Hrvaškem 
ponovno soočamo v 90.letih .. Prožilo za to je celoletna prepoved lova volkov v Sloveniji, 
ki jo je leta 1990 predlagala Slovenska lovska organizacija, dokončno pa jo je leta 1993 
uveljavila Uredba Vlade Republike Slovenije o zavarovanju ogroženih živalskih vrst v 
Sloveniji (Ur.list RS 57 /93), ki je volka uvrstila v seznam celo leto zaščitenih vrst. 
Evropske civilizacijske norme zapisane v Bernski konvenciji so nas očitno dosegle pozno. 
Od 16. maja 1995 je volk tudi na Hrvaškem uvrščen na seznam zaščitenih vrst. 
Po letu 1990 so se informacije o pojavljanju volkov na severni strani avtoceste Vrhnika-
Razdrto pričele gostiti. 23.marca1993 je več ljudi opazovalo in v snegu sledilo skupino 6 
volkov, ki so iz Javornikov pod viaduktom Ravbarkomanda nadaljevali pot v smeri 
Podkraja in se naslednji dan (24.marca) po isti poti vrnili. V najnovejšem poskusu širjenja 
proti severu so volkovi leta 1995 prodrli v okolico Novakov pri Cerknem, nedaleč od 
južnega vznožja Jelovice. 3.junija 1995 je bil v okolici Novakov "pomotoma" ustreljen 
37 kilogramski volk-samec. Leta 1996 je bil 1 volk opažen in sleden pri vasi Bate na 
Banjški planoti. Decembra 1997 so se volkovi pojavili v Čavnu. Pričakujemo, da se bodo 
volkovi ponovno pojavili na Jelovici in od tu po zahodnem koridorju prodrli naprej v 
Alpe. 
Volkovi so odkrili tudi odprtino pod viaduktom Bandera v bližini Dolenje vasi pri 
Senožečah. Ta 281 m dolg in več 10 m visok viadukt predstavlja glavni prehod skozi 
odsek ograjene AC Razdrto-Čebulovica, o čemer pričajo registrirane sledi volkov in 
drugih velikih sesalcev na peščeni sledilni blazini pod viaduktom, na kateri redno 
odčitavamo sledi živali, ki so prehode uporabile 
Osrednje območje današnje razširjenosti volka v Sloveniji predstavljata Kočevska in 
Notranjska v povezavi z Gorskim Kotarom na Hrvaškem. Kot pri večini vrst velikih 
sesalcev so vsa dogajanja v zvezi z robnim širjenjem populacije volkov in njihovim 
povratkom v historične dele habitatov povezana z dogajanjem v osrednjem območju 
razširjenosti, smo leta 1990 pričeli z integralnim monitoringom prisotnosti velikih zveri in 
njihovih plenskih vrst na območju Gojitvenega lovišča Zavoda za gozdove Slovenije 
Jelen-Snežnik, na površini okoli 280 km2. Izbrano območje na jugu in jugovzhodu meji 
251 
Adamič, M in sod.: The return of the wolf ... 
na Gorski Kotar. Iz tako zbranih podatkov (tabela 1) je razvidno, da pogostnost 
inventariziranih znakov prisotnosti volkov, od leta 1991 do vključno leta 1997, značilno 
narašča ( r2 = 0,92767, n=7, a< 0,001) in, da v Snežniškem območju očitno narašča tudi 
velikost populacije volkov. O pozitivnih številčnih in prostorskih trendih volkov, 
prostorskem ter njihovem naraščajočem vplivu na plenske vrste poročajo tudi s Kočevske. 
Ker sodi naraščanje velikosti populacije med najpomembnejša prožila za (e)migracije in 
širjenje populacijskega območja, lahko v prihodnje pričakujemo tudi prodor volkov v 
oddaljena območja. V kolikor se, zaradi pritiskov ciljnih skupin prebivalcev v osrednjem 
območju razširjenosti volka v Sloveniji (ovčerejci, lovci) zaščita volka ne bo poslabšala, 
lahko v nekaj letih pričakujemo prodor volkov v Alpe. Da so tovrstne ocene realne, 
pričajo tendence vrste, ugotovljene v drugih alpskih deželah. V Italiji so volkovi iz 
osrednjega Apeninskega polotoka v 80.letih prodrli v okolico Torina, leta 1992 pa so se 
pojavili v Nacionalnem parku Mercantour v Primorskih Alpah v Franciji. 
Snežniško območje, ki smo ga izbrali kot izhodiščni del naših raziskav o širjenju volka v 
historične habitate, se ponaša z več kot 90 % gozdnatostjo. Tudi večina novih območij, v 
katerih so volkove bodisi opazovali ali sledili je znotraj gozda. Mnenja evropskih 
raziskovalcev ekologije volka pa se glede pomenskih razsežnosti deleža gozda v volčjih 
habitatih precej razlikujejo. Rezultati raziskav v različnih delih geografske razširjenosti 
vrste dokazujejo, da volkovi naseljujejo različne tipe habitatov in torej niso izključna 
znotrajgozdna vrsta.Vsi pa ugotavljajo, da sta dostopnost prehranskih virov in človekova 
toleranca oziroma nepreganjanje, pomembni determinanti primernosti habitatov. Iz naših 
dosedanjih raziskav v Alpsko-Dinarskem koridorju pa je razvidno (tabela 3), da si 
volkovi celoten skup, za življenje potrebnih "orodij" najlažje poiščejo v obsežnih 
gozdnatih območjih. V SO.letih, ko so se volkovi pojavili v gozdovih na Jelovici in na 
Pohorju, je minilo kar nekaj let preden so jih lovci Uprave gojitvenih lovišč uspeli 
iztrebiti. Ob ponovnem povratku v Alpe se bo tudi volk verjetno najprej naselil v gorskem 
gozdu. Zgodovinski spomin, ki je generacije volkov opozarjal na človekovo nevarnost bo 
treba šele premagati. Zato pa bo potreben čas. 
Kljub očitnim pozitivnim trendom populacije volkov po celoletni zaščiti v Sloveniji in na 
Hrvaškem pa ostaja povratek vrste v še primerne dele historičnih habitatov vprašljiv. Da 
bi omogočili postopno revitalizacijo in dolgoročno preživetje vitalne populacije bi bilo 
potrebno zagotoviti: 
ohranitev veljavnega varstvenega statusa volka oziroma zagotoviti celoletno zaščito 
vrste na celotnem ozemlju države. Vsak neupravičeni, tudi naključni odstrel je zato 
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Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva, 57 
potrebno primemo sankcionirati. Za izločitev problematičnih osebkov ali manjših 
skupin volkov mora biti pooblaščena ustrezno usposobljena profesionalna skupina, 
povračilo škode, povzročene od volka in drugih velikih plenilcev. Lastnike drobnice v 
izpostavljenih območjih je treba motivirati k uporabi učinkovitih varovalnih sredstev, 
zavarovanje ključnih delov habitatov v osrednjem območju razširjenosti ter omogočiti 
volku dostop do potencialnih habitatov v širšem območju Slovenije. Potencialne 
habitate je potrebno najprej opredeliti in nato poiskati poti za njihovo zavarovanje, 
- prepustnost že zgrajenih in načrtovanih avtocestnih odsekov, ki sekajo ali se dotikajo 
pomembnejših krakov migracijskih koridorjev. Ograjene avtoceste brez zadostnega 
števila primemo oblikovanih in razmeščenih (lahko tudi večnamenskih) avtocestnih 
podvozov, mostov in viaduktov reducirajo ali celo blokirajo možnost širjenja vrste, 
razmere za ohranitev povečane gostote preferiranih plenskih vrst Gelenjad!) v 
osrednjem območju razširjenosti, s čimer bo mogoče povečati dopustno gostoto 
volkov, pospešiti njihovo širjenje in zagotoviti še sprejemljiv obseg plenilskih 
napadov na domače živali. 
Šele po zagotovitvi razmer za uspeh naštetih ukrepov v · širšem območju današnje 
razširjenosti lahko pričakujemo tudi dejanski premik v dosedanjem sobivanju človeka in 
volka tudi v Sloveniji. 
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