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received: 2020-04-28                 DOI 10.19233/ASHS.2021.04
CHALLENGES OF ADAPTIVE REUSE IN NEW FUNCTIONAL TYPOLOGIES 
OF SOCIALIST MODERNISM ARCHITECTURE: INTANGIBLE DIMENSIONS
Egle NAVICKIENE
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, 
Pylimo 26, 01132 Vilnius, Lithuania
e-mail: egle.navickiene@vilniustech.lt
Jelena MITROVIĆ
Bulevar cara Lazara 27,  21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
e-mail: mmitrovicjelena@gmail.com 
ABSTRACT
The paper explores the reasons for the difficulties to find an efficient adaptive reuse scheme for the abandoned 
socialist modernism buildings representing new functional typologies, which were established for emerging uses 
imposed by bygone socialist regime. The paper deepens into intangible aspects tackled by adaptive reuse: rising 
from modernism and socialism ideological backgrounds, resulting in comprehension of architectural objects, and 
featuring cultural significance attributed nowadays. New architectural typologies: Funeral Palaces in Soviet Lithuania 
and Museums of Revolution and memorial centers in socialist Yugoslavia, are discussed with a closer focus on 
Funeral Palace “Sorrow” in Kaunas, Lithuania, and Home of Revolution in Nikšić, Montenegro. 
Keywords: twentieth-century architectural heritage, socialist architecture, new architectural typology, 
adaptive reuse, Funeral Palace, Home of Revolution
SFIDE DEL RIUSO ADATTIVO NELLE NUOVE TIPOLOGIE FUNZIONALI 
DELL’ARCHITETTURA MODERNISTA SOCIALISTA: DIMENSIONI INTANGIBILI
SINTESI
L’articolo esplora le ragioni delle difficoltà nel trovare uno schema di riqualificazione adattativa per gli edifici del 
modernismo socialista abbandonati rappresentanti le nuove tipologie funzionali istituite per gli usi emergenti imposti 
dal regime socialista del passato. L’articolo approfondisce gli aspetti intangibili che la riqualificazione adattativa 
affronta: il fatto di derivare dai contesti ideologici del modernismo e del socialismo, risultando nella comprensione 
degli oggetti architettonici, ed essendo caratterizzato dall’importanza culturale che gli viene oggi attribuita. Nuove 
tipologie architettoniche: Palazzi Funerari nella Lituania sovietica e Musei della Rivoluzione e memoriali nella Jugo-
slavia socialista vengono discussi ponendo particolare attenzione al Palazzo “Tristezza” a Kaunas, Lituania, e alla 
Casa della Rivoluzione a Nikšić, Montenegro.
Parole chiave: eredità dell’architettura del ventesimo secolo, architettura del periodo socialista, nuova tipologia 
architetturale, riqualificazione adattativa, Palazzo Funerare, Casa della Rivoluzione
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INTRODUCTION 
Contemporary societies face huge challenge of 
renovation, reuse, and conservation of 20th century 
buildings, as they form a significant part of our built 
environment. The modernism legacy is an extremely 
important resource both in terms of social, economic 
and environmental sustainability, and as a part of 
architectural heritage to be preserved for future gen-
erations. Reuse is a common architectural practice 
to keep on buildings functioning. In general, reuse 
is applied for the buildings that lost their original (or 
previous) function, and do not meet the standards for 
efficiency or comfort and needs of society anymore; 
it is a pragmatic transformation of a building driven 
by functional and financial intentions. Whereas 
the strategy of adaptive reuse brings disciplines of 
architecture and conservation together, as it points to 
reuse of historic buildings driven by heritage preser-
vation intention (Plevoets & Van Cleempoel, 2011). 
Internationally acknowledged The Burra Charter 
refers to adaptive reuse (adaptive re-use) that calls 
for minimal change and minimal impact on cultural 
significance of the place during the introduction 
of new uses (ICOMOS – International Council on 
Monuments and Sites, Australia, 2013), thus it points 
to the deep respect for cultural significance of an 
architectural object.
The paper approaches the problem of adaptive 
reuse of socialist modernism public buildings that 
feature cultural significance. The question is com-
plex. Basically, it covers questions that are general 
to adaptive reuse of modernist buildings. Moreover, 
modernist buildings built under socialist regime are 
loaded with ideology that melted away along with 
geo-political overturns. Post-socialist societies face 
challenge of adapting buildings of socialist modern-
ism that lost their original function. However, in 
certain cases, efficient reuse scheme is not achieved, 
and abandoned buildings are left to devastation. The 
more culturally significant architecture of a building 
is, the more anxiety its degradation causes.
The paper explores the reasons for the difficulties 
to find an efficient adaptive reuse scheme for the 
abandoned buildings representing new functional 
typologies in socialist architecture. New functional 
typologies, that had no prototypes and were expected 
to be developed up to repeatability, were established 
for emerging uses imposed by socialist regime. New 
functional typologies represent the problem of adap-
tive reuse of socialist legacy in the sharpest way 
as these buildings accommodate programs guided 
mostly by ideological rationale by bygone regime. 
The studies of buildings of pioneering socialist 
typologies, functions of which lost their relevance 
in contemporary post-transitional society, help to 
reveal the importance of functional and ideological 
manifestation in their architecture that cause a lot of 
specific challenges in their adaptive reuse at present. 
The fundamental questions explored by case stud-
ies point to functional and ideological resilience of 
socialist modernism architecture: as “Can you distin-
guish a building from its function? Can the building 
be separated from the ideals that lie at its core? Does 
that result in anything other than an empty shell?” 
(Hatherley, cited in de Boer, 2008); rephrased, if the 
project was designed to propagate socialist ideology, 
can the building be adapted to the relevant needs of 
the post-socialist society under the changed politi-
cal, economic, social, and cultural contexts? 
The paper focuses on intangible dimensions, 
or, referring to the dichotomy of form and content, 
on the content of an architectural object, leaving 
the material dimensions of adaptability, which is a 
planar-spatial or technological flexibility of an archi-
tectural object, aside. In the theoretic part, it deepens 
into intangible aspects that abandoned building ac-
commodates and its adaptive reuse is going to face: 
rising from modernism and socialism ideological 
backgrounds; resulting in perception of architectural 
objects; and featuring cultural significance attributed 
to it by contemporary post-socialist society. 
Further, the new functional typologies are dis-
cussed that were developed in socialist Yugoslavia 
(1945–1992) and Soviet Lithuania (1944–1990). 
Although both countries have suffered a transition 
from socialist to capitalist state at the end of the 20th 
century due to political upheavals, they represent dif-
ferent types of socialist regime. Soviet Lithuania, as a 
republic of Soviet Union, represents country of highly 
centralized government and planned economy, while 
socialist Yugoslavia deliberately positioned itself 
halfway between the Eastern and Western blocs as a 
federation based on self-managed system and market 
economy. Alongside with new urban planning and 
architectural concepts and practices that are char-
acteristic for Eastern Bloc, these two socialist states, 
have developed new functional typologies that were 
unique for these particular countries and not applied 
elsewhere: Funeral Palaces in Soviet Lithuania, and 
Museums of Revolution and memorial centers in 
socialist Yugoslavia. Each typology’s specific ideo-
logical background, architectural design peculiari-
ties and the use of this legacy at present is analyzed 
with a closer focus on a selected representative. The 
selection criteria for the representatives: the building 
is characteristic example of modernist architecture 
of a new functional typology; its original function is 
abandoned and it has been degrading; it draws at-
tention of professional community as a high-quality 
piece of architecture. The selected representatives 
are Funeral Palace “Sorrow” in Kaunas, Lithuania 
(arch. A. Paulauskas, completed in 1978), and Home 
of Revolution in Nikšić, Montenegro (arch. M. Mušič, 
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competition in 1976 – not completed). Both case 
studies enable to understand the impact of modern-
ism and socialism ideologies on architectural design, 
its perception through meanings communicated and 
atmosphere produced, and attribution of cultural 
significance nowadays, having in mind the differ-
ences of political, social and economic contexts of 
the building time and the present time. 
CONTRADICTIONS IN ADAPTIVE REUSE THAT RISE 
FROM IDEOLOGY OF SOCIALIST MODERNISM
Ideological implications in socialist modernism 
architecture
Socialist modernism covers the architecture from 
the socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe in 
the period from Stalin’s death resulting in the end 
of Stalinist socialist realism in 1955, until the end 
of socialist era in early 1990s. Modern Movement 
tendencies in socialist modernism architecture were 
followed in the specific ways, mostly determined by 
political, economic and social reasons. 
In spite of geo-political peculiarities, the basic 
challenges towards conservation and adaptive 
reuse of architecture of modernism, and socialist 
modernism as well, rise from functional integrity as 
a central theme in Modern Movement. The truth of 
architecture, among the other aspects, was under-
stood as the relationship between the form and the 
use of the building. Modernists were not interested 
in continuity or eternity: for the sake of objectiv-
ity and truthfulness, they often proclaimed total 
replacement of a building instead of its adaptation 
(Perkkio, 2016; Kuipers, 2016). In such a way, ideol-
ogy of modernism presupposes limited possibilities 
for functional flexibility. Two concepts – adaptive 
reuse, and function as a reason for the existence of 
a building – contradict and predetermine questions 
addressing the very idea of reuse of modernist ar-
chitecture. The Madrid – New Delhi Document calls 
to “establish limits of acceptable change” in imple-
menting conservation planning processes in adaptive 
reuse of 20th century modernist buildings (ICOMOS 
& ISC20C – International Scientific Committee on 
20th Century Heritage, 2017). Identification of the 
limits of acceptable change of function is one of the 
key questions in the field.
It is difficult to mark the distinction between so-
cialist and international architecture of modernism. 
In Lithuania, international professional experience, 
by means of architectural magazines or study trips 
to Finland, was leaking through the Iron curtain. In 
Yugoslavia, the possibilities to follow international 
tendencies in architecture were open. The main dif-
ferences between socialist and international archi-
tecture of modernism lie not in stylistic tendencies, 
functional or aesthetic priorities, but in saturation 
with ideology of political regime. The socialist archi-
tecture was deeply influenced by the socio-political 
and economic agenda of the countries. In socialist 
countries, state apparatus turned architecture into an 
ideological tool of communication targeted to im-
pact social behavior towards the one of the so-called 
‘socialist society’. Architects were intended to create 
the ways to communicate the ideological ‘truths’, 
especially in design of public buildings.
After the collapse of socialist regime resulting in 
sovereignty of Lithuania and breakup of federation 
of Yugoslavia, political, socio-economic and cultural 
circumstances in these countries changed significantly. 
However, socialist public buildings that were designed 
to carry ideological load explicitly, still keep the poten-
tial of political codes, for example, heraldic symbols, 
and resonate ideological meanings memorizing indoc-
trinated functions, narratives or practices. G. Brooker 
describes such a building as politically or ideologically 
‘contaminated’, therefore, it is subjugated by its past; 
the infection lies in domination of “the propagandistic 
role that it once contained and subsequently is there-
fore corrupted by the associations and memories of 
its previous purpose” (Brooker, 2006, 2). In the eyes 
of post-transitional society, ‘contaminated’ socialist 
buildings are dissonant to contemporary mindset. Soci-
ety would favor the maintenance or reuse of symbolic 
buildings excluding communication of ideological 
codes and meanings (Petrulis, 2019). Is it possible to 
strip off ‘contaminated’ codes, meanings, and associa-
tions from a building without undermining its cultural 
significance? This could be explained by program.
 
Program as a uniting principle in modernist 
architecture
The primacy of the program became one of 
the ultimate strives of modernist architecture. “In 
1960, the fundamental question was the nature of 
the “program” conceived of in the widest possible 
sense, adopted for architecture, a program that com-
prehended and subsumed both function and form” 
(Vidler, 2003, 73), along with environmental con-
cerns, technology, into an integral single discourse. 
According to U. Eco, beside the primary function 
utilitas or the use of the building, there is a second-
ary – communicative – function of architecture or, as 
he calls it, architecture’s symbolic connotations. He 
calls “the symbolic connotations functional because 
although they may not be immediately identified 
with the functions narrowly defined they do repre-
sent (and communicate) in each case a real social 
utility of the object” (Eco, 1997, 179). The logic that 
initially grounds the implementation of the integrity 
of form, function, symbolic connotations and other 
concerns is determined by program. 
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Program is understood as the system of intenti-
ons through which the future spatial system of 
the building is made, the relationship between 
space and masses, and even the standpoints of 
the architect towards different functions of archi-
tecture: the language, ways of communicating, 
goals of representation of certain beliefs, social 
relations and such. (Konstantinović, 2013, 19) 
As a system of determinants, program guarantees 
that any component of buildings and spaces cannot 
be omitted without affecting the others. The complex 
integrity established by program complicates reuse 
of modernist architecture, as the function is embod-
ied in volumetric-spatial design and communicated 
by symbolic connotations. Accommodated program 
assures that in case the function is stripped off an 
architectural object, its integrity is violated, as it 
loses one of the determinants. In case of socialist 
public buildings, secondary function is fueled by 
Modern Movement’s truths and doctrine of social-
ism. While the evidence of the first one is considered 
as an intrinsic mark of the 20th century architecture, 
the manifestation of the latter’s political ideology 
at present is referred to as ‘contaminated’. That is 
why rooted, and objectionable at the same time, 
position of socialist ideology in the very core of an 
architectural object complicates its adaptive reuse 
for the needs of contemporary post-socialist society 
even more.
Pioneering practice in new functional typologies
Architecture is reproduced through functional 
types that express the continuing patterns and fea-
tures, which connect them with the past. A need for 
a new use arises induced by exterior impulse like 
breaks (or lack) in society, economics, culture, etc. 
In case of new socialist typologies, a role of an exte-
rior impulse is played by socialist ideology, directing 
towards an intended shift in society’s mentality. 
When an architect got state commission to initiate 
and design a building for an emerging use, he had to 
invent the future building’s program, forasmuch no 
prototype, no tested program was set to follow. In or-
der to achieve a desired social behavior, an architect 
had to settle symbolic connotations and ideological 
standpoints into functional arrangement, and to 
translate programmatic ideas into a genuine form. 
That kind of creative process – setting interrelations 
to be developed up to repeatability, in other words, 
building a prototype – proves to be pioneering, as 
the new typology outreaches the unique solutions 
within the frame of existing typology. 
“When a new type emerges – when an architect is 
able to describe a new set of formal relations which 
generates a new group of buildings or elements – then 
that architect’s contribution has reached the level of 
generality and anonymity” (Moneo, 1978). Generality 
allows repeatability; an object for an emerging use 
becomes a prototype for a new functional typol-
ogy. Architectural, moreover, cultural significance of 
establishing new functional typologies by the means 
of architectural design lies in its pioneering practice 
and its complexity. The set up complexity proves 
that physical envelope of these buildings is just a 
constituent part of the whole, an output of system of 
correlations. Therefore, adaptive reuse scheme cannot 
focus on materiality of a building underestimating its 
intangible dimensions and integrity of the whole.
IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCTION OF MEANINGS 
AND ATMOSPHERE
The further set of intangible aspects that are of 
major importance to adaptive reuse and enable 
deeper perception and conception of an architec-
tural object, comprise meanings communicated and 
atmosphere produced as an outcome of the program. 
Notion of meanings in architecture refers to the 
definition given in The Burra Charter: “Meanings 
denote what a place signifies, indicates, evokes or 
expresses to people” (ICOMOS Australia, 2013, 5). 
Architecture communicates with its users through 
meanings, both the meanings intended initially, and 
the symbolic connotations attributed by the people 
inhabiting it. They speak about the social utility 
of a building, about the values of certain groups 
using that building, state that ordered it, or the 
architect that designed it (Eco, 1997). Architecture 
is capable of multiple interpretations from the mo-
ment of conception to the moment of interpretation 
by the person using it, and the original idea of the 
creator may differ from the way the public inter-
prets it (Whyte, 2006). The production of meanings 
is a continuous process, as meanings develop and 
change over time. 
Another intangible dimension of architecture 
that relates to the production of meanings is the 
atmosphere (ambiance) of space that is linked to 
feelings, emotions and perception, and that refers to 
comprehension or grasping the meaning. The notion 
of atmosphere in architecture could be paralleled 
to the concept of spirit of place (genius loci) con-
sidering their content and significance. Concept of 
atmosphere of space does not disregard the rational 
approach, it is “rather supplementing it with an ad-
ditional contribution which would see it as a ‘genera-
tor’ of feelings and which adds comprehension to the 
explanation” (Napoleone, 2017, 232). Preserving of 
the fragile atmosphere of space during the adaptive 
reuse is a vulnerable issue. Maintaining material ele-
ments is not enough to ensure the preservation of the 
spirit of place. Changes in atmosphere may cause 
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the feelings of loss or betrayal, and the quality of 
the new design is insufficient to compensate the loss 
(Napoleone, 2017).
In the buildings that lost their original function, the 
meanings architecture once expressed through its use, 
activities, shared values and interpretations by society 
at that time, remain as traces of their former selves, 
still readable in structural and physical elements, 
still alive in memories, narratives, associations, and 
still comprehendible in its atmosphere. Adaptive 
reuse strategies towards ideologised architecture, 
as Brooker argues, can be used to either activate or 
suppress meanings and memories a building evokes 
through the process of uncovering, clarification and 
interpretation; intervention can be destructive as 
much as it can be constructive. During the reuse, re-
edification of these memories, values, and narratives 
leads to a complexity that is impossible to replicate in 
new build architecture (Brooker, 2006). 
CHALLENGES BY CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 
ATTRIBUTED BY CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
Since the inceptive international charters for cultural 
heritage, it is recommended to use historic objects in 
order to ensure the continuity of their life. The Athens 
Charter (1931) recommends that “they should be used 
for a purpose which respects their historic or artistic 
character” and “their use makes it possible to avoid the 
dangers of dismantling and reinstating the portions to be 
preserved” (ICOMOS, 1931). The Venice Charter (1964) 
turns recommendation into requirement that the reuse 
“must not change the lay-out or decoration of the build-
ing” (ICOMOS, 1964). Concentrating on the 20th century 
architectural heritage, Madrid – New Delhi Document 
emphasizes: “when change of use is under considera-
tion, care must be taken to find an appropriate reuse that 
conserves the cultural significance” (ICOMOS & ISC20C, 
2017). Therefore, adaptive reuse is required instead of 
insensitive reuse or demolition.
After the collapse of socialist regime, the buildings rep-
resenting new typologies intended for socialist societies 
became hostages of a contradictory situation. They lose 
relevance and dissonate to the changed political-ideolog-
ical and social-cultural contexts, although in many cases 
feature architecture of high quality – as V. Petrulis points 
out, objects that communicate strong message are often 
outstanding from artistic point of view (Petrulis, 2019, 24). 
In many cases, because of values attributed, this type of 
architecture becomes a part of heritage, either legalized 
or potential. As a witness of its time and political regime, 
socialist heritage is controversial by its nature. Using the 
term coined by J. E. Turnbridge and G. J. Ashworth, it is 
a representative of ‘dissonant heritage’, a culturally con-
structed heritage with a big variety of possible heritages, 
each shaped for the requirements of specific consumer 
groups (Turnbridge & Ashworth, 1996). Since the concept 
of cultural heritage covers the relationship between 
people, places and stories, the difficulties in evaluating 
and preserving socialist heritage stem precisely from the 
fact that it stands as a reminder of the previous system. 
Political narrative is recognizable and symbolic potential 
is readable, therefore, it revives controversial memories 
and emotions, and causes a negative stance of the public 
opinion in certain cases (Petrulis, 2019). However, The 
Declaration of San Antonio (ICOMOS, 1996) argues that 
conflicting interests if mediated successfully in a tolerant 
and inclusive way might actually increase and diversify 
values connected to the heritage site.
Evaluating 20th century architectural heritage, “its 
cultural significance may rest in its tangible attributes, 
including physical location, views, design […]. Significance 
may also lie in use, historic, social, scientific or spiritual 
associations, or evidence of creative genius and/or in its 
intangible values” (ICOMOS & ISC20C, 2017). In order to 
keep peculiar, meaningful attributes during adaptive reuse, 
it is important to clarify what elements contribute to cultural 
significance. Referring to G. F. Araoz, “what really is crucial 
for and at the very core of conservation is understanding 
where those values rest, for that is what we are called to 
conserve and protect. These are what I call the vessels of 
values and significance” (Araoz, 2011, 59). In conservation 
of modernist architecture, the integrity of the building that 
is predetermined by its program is prioritized over mere 
materiality (Perkkio, 2016). Admitting that the values of 
heritage lie first of all in the content that is accommodated 
by and attributed to material substance (Petrulis, 2019), 
intangible attributes like use, symbolic connotations, and 
the resulting atmosphere, cannot be overestimated, even in 
the buildings with negative connotations.
It is crucial to preserve symbolic connotations and at-
mosphere during the adaptive reuse, in order to maintain 
continuity in communicating meanings and resonating 
feelings, as these intangible aspects, in synergy with 
material substance and use, determine what the place 
actually is, how people understand, perceive and feel it, 
and, therefore, vessel its cultural significance. 
CASES OF NEW SOCIALIST ARCHITECTURAL 
TYPOLOGIES
The architectural typologies that provided domestic, 
cultural and social welfare of socialist people, were de-
veloped thoroughly on ideological foundation of socialist 
social and cultural policies, and standardized regulation. 
Besides the ongoing architectural typologies adapted and 
rearranged, there were new typologies established. They 
had to set ideologically programmed social behavior by 
accommodating newly founded social practices of social-
ist society. Focus countries experienced the new typologies 
on different basis. In socialist Lithuania, because of Soviet 
anti-religious policy, new typologies of civil ceremonial 
buildings were developed in order to replace the sacred 
spaces: Wedding Palace instead of church and Funeral 
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Palace instead of traditional places of mourning rituals 
such as a cemetery chapel or home (Drėmaitė, 2017). The 
paper focuses on the latter functional typology as only Fu-
neral Palaces remained unique to socialist Lithuania and 
were not implemented elsewhere. In socialist Yugoslavia, 
the specific hybrid typologies of Museums of Revolution 
and memorial centers, unique for the federation, merged 
memorial, cultural and educational functions. They 
were built upon the endeavor to use culture for spread-
ing socialist ideology and to enable homogenization of 
Yugoslav peoples and nations (Stevanovic, 2017, 378).
Funeral Palaces in Lithuania
As Soviet regime directed its attention to so-called 
civil ceremonies of secularized society, the new func-
tional typology of Funeral Palaces was commissioned in 
the 1960s. The typology was a result of atheistic politics 
of Soviet Union. It was intended as a place for socialist 
ceremonies and rituals based on traditional mourning 
rituals stripped off their religious content (Drėmaitė, 
2014). Several funeral buildings were built in the largest 
Lithuanian cities with a creative aspiration for an original 
Figure 1: Drawing of Funeral Palace “Sorrow” in Kaunas, Lithuania by the architect A. Paulauskas (Source: 
Courtesy of private archive of A. Paulauskas. Reproduced with permission from his daughter).
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piece of architecture featuring dramatic narrative and 
strong emotional impact. The first representative of this 
typology was built in Vilnius in 1975. Later, the Funeral 
Palace “Sorrow” was erected in Kaunas in 1978. Besides, 
two projects for a small funeral building were realized, 
one of them, in an identic shape in three Lithuanian cities 
(Drėmaitė, 2017). 
Setting the program for Funeral Palace was a chal-
lenge for architects, as they had to construct a prototype. 
Besides the functional and spatial arrangement of the 
ceremony, the architectural program covered ideological 
load with secularized and re-developed rituals, narratives 
and meanings, and emotional effect on the observer. 
It seems that tradition (in a very broad sense) 
influenced the new architectural spaces created 
to practice new secular socialist rituals. Therefore, 
from the social point of view, these buildings are 
seen as substitutes for sacral spaces […]. From 
the architectural point of view, they represent late 
Soviet mannerism in architecture as a certain simu-
lacra filled with surplus meanings and decorations. 
(Drėmaitė, 2014, 64) 
All funeral buildings implemented share similar 
perception process and impact on the observer, which is 
reinterpreted manner of experiencing sacral buildings. The 
funeral buildings are situated distanced from neighboring 
buildings, and stand out natural environment or cemetery 
in the background. The volumetric structures feature the 
expressive dynamic composition of diagonal shapes and 
the contrast between one floor part of stowed standard 
spaces and the part for mourning rooms exposed in high 
volumes. In the mourning spaces, daylight penetrates 
through single stained glass surface or spotlights high 
above, both cutting off any connection to neighborhood 
and everyday life out there. A lot of attention is paid to cre-
ate powerful dynamics of spatial experience. After enjoy-
ing the expressive sculpturesque exterior, one firstly enters 
cramped low space that eventually overflows in the morn-
ing rooms. Specific architectural design solutions are used 
to resonate with the mourning rituals set by the particular 
function. Architecture reflects several ideologies inter-
twined. Modernism grounds the integrity of form, function 
and meanings, and sets late modernism volumetric spatial 
relationships and architectural language. Socialist ideology 
guides the intentions of functional organization and cen-
sors meanings. As any Christian symbolism is forbidden, 
signs and associations from ethnic tradition, like shape of 
archaic house or symbol of pagan sun-cross, replace them. 
The particular set that was never used before and that 
comprises volumetric spatial relationship, solemn inward 
oriented atmosphere rich in meanings and symbols, and 
specific way of perception organized to experience the 
ceremony – support the novelty of functional type, and 
quality of this synergy and its manifestation ground the 
artistic, historic and social values.
Comparing four implemented original projects as the 
only representatives of this specific typology, the one in 
Kaunas features perhaps the most expressive, meaningful 
and emotionally powerful architecture. Consequently, 
it has been listed on the Register of Cultural Property of 
Lithuania. Paradoxically, this Funeral Palace was no 
longer in use since 2006, as the owners did not wish to 
continue it, while most of the other ones were renovated 
according to the contemporary standards in order to be 
able to compete with traditional sacred spaces and mod-
ern well finished facilities to be used for funerals.  
Funeral Palace “Sorrow” (Laidotuvių rūmai “Liūdesys”) 
in Kaunas, Lithuania, was designed by the architect Alfre-
das Paulauskas (1928-2013) and was built in 1978. The 
building of Funeral Palace “Sorrow” in Kaunas represents 
expressionist architecture in the late modernism style. 
It features dynamic sculpturesque volumetric spatial 
arrangement, and visually effective architectural expres-
sion. The building’s exterior is a figurative interpretation 
of a church, its interior spatial structure and light articula-
tion alludes to gothic chapels (Almonaitytė-Navickienė, 
2018). 
When talking about the spatial distribution of functions 
that settle down the ceremony according to mourning 
Figure 2: The plan of Funeral Palace “Sorrow” in Kaunas, 
Lithuania (Source: Courtesy of private archive of A. Pau-
lauskas. Reproduced with permission from his daughter).
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rituals, “Sorrow” has an elongated hall, with the entrance 
on one end, and the exit on the other end as an allusion 
to an existential journey. Both doors are seen from the 
main street – the entry is smaller and closer to the street. 
The bigger exit, more distanced from the street, forms 
a plateau in front of the building, marked by the statue 
“Sorrow”. Along the length of the hall, three mourning 
rooms are attached, where the coffins are displayed (Fig. 
1, 2). The spatial order enables the full immersion into the 
ritual without distractions.  
High emotional effect on its user is achieved by 
architectural means of spatial disposition, highlights 
and interior finishing. The spatial narrative is similar to 
the dynamics of spatial experience in sacral objects, 
as distinction between public and private spaces was 
strengthened by the differences of heights. “The dramatic 
feel of its interior space was heightened by black, violet 
and red ceramic work, sculptural details, local lighting, 
and torch-like glass light fixtures” (Drėmaitė, 2017). The 
main hall offers only one source of natural lighting at 
the end of the hall. The mourning rooms are artificially 
lighted with the aforementioned torch-like lamps (an al-
lusion to archaic tradition), but also have a diffuse light 
with the invisible opening above the coffin. All of the 
interior elements and furniture used in the building were 
designed for this specific object. The synergy of interior 
arrangement and elements comprise a solemn, focused, 
and surreal atmosphere in line with the mourning ritual 
(Fig. 3). Inward exposed interior spaces are similar to 
other Funeral Palaces. 
The distinctive intangible features of Funeral Palace 
derive from the aims of typology and the guidelines of 
the architectural program. The symbolic connotations 
and, consequently, atmosphere produced rise from 
secularized, yet spiritually rich, emotionally powerful 
and semantically meaningful architecture. The archi-
tect carefully constructed the communication through 
meanings and associations by means of smartly solved 
coherent function and articulated spatial performance, 
also through a subtle choice of materials, treatment of 
light, and interior details. A specific strong atmosphere 
overwhelms the user – it impresses in a ceremonial yet 
Figure 3: Interior photo of the hall in Funeral Palace “Sorrow” in Kaunas, Lithuania (Source: Courtesy of private 
archive of A. Paulauskas. Reproduced with permission from his daughter).
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somber manner and, in such a way, it accomplishes the 
performance of the building in a full scope. The synergy 
of architectural expression and intangible qualities that 
saturate it, both rising from the pioneering program 
and peculiarities of function, should be acknowledged 
as the vessel of its values and cultural significance in 
terms of statements by G. F. Araoz (2011); consequently, 
these complex relationships should inspire, guide and 
enrich the re-interpretation of the object during the 
adaptive reuse.
Since the political situation changed after regaining 
the Independence of Lithuania in 1990, the mourning 
places are no longer restricted to secular ones, and this ty-
pology as a simulacra of sacred spaces is not in a demand 
as such. As many buildings from Soviet period, they need 
a thorough renovation to meet contemporary needs and 
standards. When the Funeral Palace “Sorrow” was sold 
to the private owner, he had a goal to demolish it and to 
build a commercial building. Architects’ community had 
an urgent reaction and due to their efforts, the building 
was included into the national Register of Cultural Prop-
erty in 2009, where outstanding architectural characteris-
tics, non-traditional creative approach and the fact, that it 
represents a rare functional typology were pointed out as 
the values (Kultūros paveldo departamentas, 2009). Legal 
status prevented it to be torn down; nevertheless, it was 
left to devastation as an improvised cable storage for sev-
eral years (Fig. 4). One of the main reasons given by the 
owner for not preserving the building was an economic 
one – high heating cost. Later on, there were changes in 
ownership and in attempts to reuse it for such functions 
as residential, administrative or a hospital. These attempts 
were ineffective for the object that features such a strong 
synergy between function, architectural expression and 
intangible characteristics, and these reuse projects were 
not carried out. It took more than a decade to realize 
that the building with such a powerful character and 
integral performance can accommodate nothing else 
but the ceremonial function for funerals. Meanwhile, the 
present owner restores the initial use of the building, and 
the implementation of its extension and renovation up to 
contemporary funeral house is on the way. 
In spite of the attempts, the function was not changed 
neither in this Funeral Palace, nor in any other socialist 
funeral building in Lithuania. There are more reasons for 
irreplaceability of function in this typology besides the 
specific performance of building design set initially and 
rising from socialist ideology. The present-day social 
expectations that are fueled by the perception of these 
buildings, expanded by the collective memories, associa-
Figure 4: Degradation of Funeral Palace “Sorrow” in Kaunas, Lithuania (Photo: Andrius Liakas, 2019; Reproduced 
with author’s permission).
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Egle NAVICKIENE & Jelena MITROVIĆ: CHALLENGES OF ADAPTIVE REUSE IN NEW FUNCTIONAL TYPOLOGIES OF SOCIALIST MODERNISM ..., 49–64
tions and atmosphere inscribed there, saturate heritage 
values by social dimension. In case a funeral building 
loses its initial use, a driver that determines what the 
building is and how society perceives it, the risk emerges 
that its cultural significance is violated because of ex-
ceeding aforementioned “limits of acceptable change” 
(ICOMOS & ISC20C, 2017). 
Museums of Revolution and memorial centers in 
socialist Yugoslavia
The interlinked functional typologies of Museums of 
Revolution and memorial centers were developed exclu-
sively for the socialist Yugoslavia. A clear self-awareness 
of uniqueness of the federation, although deeply con-
tradictory one, was used as an important ingredient in 
the construction of a new socialist culture (Kulić, 2009). 
Therefore, the new functional typologies were intended 
to provide ideological education and utopian vision 
in order to set up shared values and common goals of 
Yugoslav peoples and nations.
At mid-1950s, a new functional typology of ideologi-
cal-historical museum – the Museum of Revolution – was 
established to represent ideological indoctrination and 
consumption of memory. It merged functions like an 
educational establishment, a scientific institution and 
a memorial to the so-called “victory of the Yugoslav 
peoples in fighting for national liberation and effectua-
tion of socialist society” (Stevanovic, 2017, 148). In the 
culturally and politically hybrid state, the major objec-
tives of Museum of Revolution were to project political 
values into the memorial, and, afterwards, to construct 
and use the memorial values to get Yugoslav peoples 
together around the idea of brotherhood and unity. The 
prominence of representative status enabled positioning 
them as architectural landmarks situated in significant 
urban locations. Specific volumetric solutions comprise 
the elevated buildings on the pedestal, detached from the 
surroundings; floating concrete cubes above the ground 
floor; a feeling of lightness and openness. The designs 
of architectural icons achieved clarity, simplicity and 
delicacy in application of modernist postulates. While the 
main exhibition spaces are physically deliberated of any 
ideologically charged symbolical reference, ideological 
signs are highlighted in artistic inclusions (Stevanovic, 
2017; Kulić, 2009). 
Later, since mid-1960s, memorial centers, a similar 
functional typology was developed from Museums of 
Revolution. It merged functions of a museum (exhibition 
and memorial), and a cultural (educational, recreational) 
Figure 5: Plan of Home of Revolution in Nikšić, Montenegro (Source: Courtesy of “Arhitektura”, No. 158–159, 
1976. P. 129; Reproduced with permission from Croatian Architects’ Association).
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center according to social necessities of local communities 
in smaller towns. Memorial centres implemented specific 
cultural programme where culture was not only an artistic 
and intellectual product, but also an ideological instru-
ment for spreading socialist ideology among the masses 
(Stevanovic, 2017). The hybrid function was supposed 
to reflect values of the socialist state, to present it as the 
democratic state based on the firm grounds of liberty, and 
to build the national Yugoslav identity (Konstantinović, 
2013). A big number of memorial centres was built in 
Yugoslav republics with blurring boundaries of functional 
typology. From architectural point of view, memorial cen-
tres were manifestations of outstanding building design 
and complex flexible organizational scheme appropriate 
for multiple uses, where volumetric spatial fragmentation 
emerged from compound functional programme. Memo-
rial centres were developed as composite and diversified 
structures with specific spatial relationship with the city 
at large, instead of a singular composition integrated into 
the urban fabric. Avant-garde late modernist or postmod-
ernist design resulted in dynamic, unusual and vibrant 
forms, spatial fragmentation, expressiveness, symbolism, 
and diversity. It enabled particular interior flow, and cre-
ated dynamic, multi-layered and flexible space, diverse 
in meanings and references (Stevanovic, 2017). 
From ideological point of view, life’s continued tri-
umph over death is celebrated. As Todorović argues, the 
juxtaposition of the contemporary and memorial priorities 
in new typologies is closely connected to the relationship 
between state spectacle (parade, performance or other 
event used to demonstrate the power of the state) and 
utopia. As the past, the present, and the future is exposed 
in every utopia, the past is there to remind of the Golden 
Age that might have never existed but gives the promise 
of a brighter future under the current reign (Todorović, 
2010). 
The decline of socialism and the introduction of the 
market economy and multi-party system in the newly 
emerged countries, besides many other effects, led to 
rejection of the bearers of symbolic capital of the former 
system. The memorial and aesthetic values of such ob-
jects were being questioned, challenged and/or denied 
(Social Fringe & ICOMOS Croatia, 2017, 3–4). As the role 
of educational institutions created for spreading socialist 
ideology vanished in post-socialist societies, a part of Mu-
seums of Revolution were adapted to updated needs of 
museums. After the alteration of program, they lost their 
former cultural significance and exceptional social status, 
even the ones that are well functioning. Many memo-
rial centers are emptied and face degradation or damage 
Figure 6: Model photo of Home of Revolution in Nikšić, Montenegro (Source: Courtesy of “Arhitektura”, No. 158–159, 
1976. P. 129; Reproduced with permission from Croatian Architects’ Association).
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because of incapability to adapt them to present-day 
cultural needs and economic possibilities. Even buildings 
declared as cultural heritage continue to be neglected in 
terms of maintenance and adaptive reuse (Stevanovic, 
2017, 375–380). 
Home of Revolution (Dom Revolucije) in Nikšić, 
Montenegro was designed by Slovenian architect Marko 
Mušič (b. 1941). The competition for this memorial 
project was held in 1976. The architecture of the build-
ing represents the style of late modernism. The existing 
structure was originally intended to represent the socio-
political structure of Nikšić, Montenegro and Yugoslavia 
itself, by a mega building that was unfinished due to its 
colossal increase in size and costs. The significance of 
the representative building for Nikšić city was enhanced 
by location in the city center, spatial domination over 
the settled urban structure and urban composition, its 
enormous size and concentration of social activities. 
Functionally the building follows a hybrid program 
of a memorial center – a new functional typology unique 
to socialist Yugoslavia. It comprises the cultural facilities 
(educational and recreational ones, and a youth club) 
and the memorial to the fallen soldiers. As the author 
himself explains the functional scheme of this project, 
the group of educational-occupational contents is stra-
tegically located alongside the promenade. At the end 
of the promenade, the main auditorium is located. It 
is interconnected both with the youth club and work-
shop rooms, therefore, it enables the flow of activities 
throughout the building. The memorial rooms are situ-
ated on the opposite side (Fig. 5, 6). By its very character 
and significance, the group of memorial spaces is the 
strongest magnet for turning pedestrians into the depth 
of the complex (Mušič, 1976). 
  Ideologically, the memorial space – the past – is cel-
ebrated. It points to the idea that Home of Revolution is a 
contemporary cultural center established for the wellbeing 
of people on the grounds of revolutionary memory. Fol-
lowing utopian program, the memorial function reminds 
of the glorious past and, in synergy with the contemporary 
cultural function, offers a bright outlook towards the future. 
The volumetric composition and spatial arrangement is 
an agglomerate of fragmented volumes as ‘a city within a 
city’ with the very expressive formal outcome that features 
horizontal and vertical continuity, accented elements, 
interactive free spaces, visual connections the goal of 
which is to initiate creativity and diverse social activities 
(Konstantinović, 2013, 204; Stamatović Vučković, 2012, 
167). The architecture delivers the message about the 
values of democracy, creativity and liberty of the socialist 
society, a new Yugoslav culture, enabled by revolutionary 
sacrifices in the past. The connection of the building with 
the surrounding urban context is realized through the 
promenade, suggesting that this building and social values 
it reflects are an integral part of the life of the city. 
Home of Revolution was a very ambitious project 
that was never fully realized (Fig. 7). It started as a 9000 
m2 competition solution, but during building process 
from 1978 to 1989, it became a giant decaying complex 
of 24000 m2 made from concrete, red metal trusses and 
abundant glazing. The building of such a size would 
never work in a city like Nikšić. Thus, it became a 
completely utopian project revealing the distinction 
between how the state viewed and wanted to present it-
self, and what were its real abilities. There were various 
causes why this building was never used and remained 
degrading for such a long period. The practical reason 
is obvious – its size that exceeded the needs and the 
Figure 7: Degradation of Home of Revolution in Nikšić, Montenegro (Photo: Jelena Mitrović, 2018).
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possibilities of socialist Yugoslavia, even more so of the 
contemporary Montenegro society. Reasons that are 
more complex lie in the incapability to adapt program of 
the whole building to new cultural needs of citizens and 
thus convert it into socially necessary and economically 
sustainable institution. Changed geo-political situation, 
social circumstances, economic possibilities, and nega-
tive attitudes brought to the disregard of its operative 
and cultural potential.
Efforts towards adaptive reuse of the building would 
focus on searching for a use in the contemporary capital-
ist state that would benefit from the monumental spatial 
structure, the ideas of democracy and liberty, and open 
atmosphere. What are the needs of the society where 
there is no revolution anymore? A public competition 
for a design proposal for reconstructing and redesign-
ing the building was organized in 2015. The winning 
design by HHF Architects and SADAR+VUGA predicted 
the reconstruction and reprogramming of the building 
that was treated as an urbanscape rather than a building, 
and which would serve the city and its residents as a 
kind of social activator. They suggested to revitalize and 
settle a permanent social, commercial or educational 
function only in 10% of the building; the other part of 
the building would be secured and partly renovated 
(HHF Architects, n.d.). However, the competition design 
has not been implemented. The latest processes that 
take place in Home of Revolution are controversial. 
City initiatives started to crumble the building into 
small parceled pieces, some of them intended to be 
demolished, some – to be rented to local enterprises 
and renovated, regrettably, in a disconnected way. No 
overarching concept and strategy for adaptive reuse 
for the whole building is developed, at least how to 
avoid discrediting the cultural significance of existing 
architecture. The manifestation of original concept of 
the outstanding architectural object with a leading role 
to concentrate civic activities, to consolidate people and 
to contribute to their wellbeing is vanishing. Along with 
operational effectiveness, social and cultural potential 
of the building as all-encompassing medium is disap-
pearing. The complex functional programme is breaking 
into self-sufficient fragments. Consequently, amplified 
secondary function of the representative of new typol-
ogy, which was fulfilled through communication of 
paramount role, ideological meanings and democratic 
open atmosphere, is evolving to a source of collective 
memories and associations about bygone utopian ambi-
tions in arts and culture of socialist Yugoslavia. 
CONCLUSIONS
Adaptive reuse of socialist modernism architecture 
is a big challenge as it is neither universal nor flexible. 
Adaptive reuse of buildings of new socialist typologies 
is even more controversial for complex reasons. The 
ideological narrative embodied in architecture remains 
like ghost from the past. It is still present in architecture, 
communicated through meanings, associations, and at-
mosphere, although the reasons for such an architecture 
are gone, intentions are outdated, and geo-political, 
social and economic circumstances have changed. 
Ideology and enormous ambitions of socialist regime 
resulted in monumental and surreal pieces of architec-
ture. At present, these expressive manifestations tackle 
rational priorities and pragmatism of contemporary 
capitalist mentality. 
The values of architecture of a new socialist typology 
rest in its experimental nature and pioneering program, 
that flourish in a particular synergy of extraordinary 
designs, elaborated function and are expressed by abun-
dant meanings and raw poetics. In order to preserve 
cultural significance of such a building, the complex 
interrelation between its material substance and its 
intangible elements like use, symbolic connotations, 
and atmosphere, which all together are predetermined 
by initial program and perceived by contemporary so-
ciety that attributes meanings and values from today’s 
perspective, should be considered. The “limits of ac-
ceptable change” that Madrid – New Delhi Document 
points to, should be questioned through this complex 
interaction in order to achieve successful results, in line 
with cultural significance and social role of such an 
architecture.
When contemporary society acknowledges cultural 
significance of a building of a new socialist functional 
typology, the possible scenarios for its adaptive reuse 
should be considered very carefully. Immaterial content 
like its use and its reflection in intangible dimensions 
lie in the core of this architecture. Acceptable tolerance 
of change of use should be critically acknowledged 
(like the case of Funeral Palace “Sorrow” proved to 
have a very narrow range of the tolerance for reuse). In 
adaptive reuse of buildings with contradictory conno-
tations, original program should work as a generator to 
memorize, interpret, and manifest the original function 
through integrating traces of usage into redevelopments 
and creating the highlighted dialogue between the past 
and future. Thorough and respectful comprehension 
of a building, reading its site-specific narratives and 
tracing the collective memories enable reactivation of 
its cultural, social and operational potential and pres-
ervation of its meaningful history and symbolic power. 
Such manifestation of original use and social role 
would add vigour, multiplicity and exceptional quali-
ties to a transformed object, which accordingly stand 
out a new build architecture. If the balance between 
original and new function is not equilibrated or the 
initial integrity breaks into pieces (like in the case of 
Museum of Revolution), the significant part of its core 
values are lost, and the building becomes an ‘empty 
shell’ accommodating random activities.
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IZZIVI ADAPTIVNE PONOVNE UPORABE V NOVIH FUNKCIONALNIH TIPOLOGIJAH 
SOCIALISTIČNE MODERNISTIČNE ARHITEKTURE: NEMATERIALNE DIMENZIJE
Egle NAVICKIENE
Tehnična univerza Gediminas v Vilnius, Fakulteta za arhitekturo, Oddelek za arhitekturo,
Pylimo 26, 01132 Vilnius, Litva
e-mail: egle.navickiene@vilniustech.lt
Jelena MITROVIĆ
Univerza v Novem Sadu, Fakulteta za tehnične vede, Oddelek za arhitekturo in urbanizem,
Bulevar cara Lazara 27, 21000 Novi Sad, Srbjia
e-mail: mmitrovicjelena@gmail.com 
POVZETEK
Prispevek preučuje razloge za težave pri iskanju učinkovite sheme adaptivne ponovne uporabe zapuščenih stavb 
socialističnega modernizma, ki predstavljajo nove funkcionalne tipologije, ki so bile vzpostavljene za novonastajajo-
če namene, ki jih je narekoval pretekli socialistični režim. Prispevek se poglablja v nematerialne vidike, s katerimi se 
spoprijema adaptivna ponovna uporaba: ideologija modernizma in socializma, razumevanje arhitekturnih objektov 
in danes pripisani kulturni pomen, ob upoštevanju razlik v političnem, sociokulturnem in ekonomskem kontekstu 
časa gradnje in sedanjega časa. Nove arhitekturne tipologije: Obravnavane so pogrebne palače v sovjetski Litvi in 
muzeji revolucije ter spominski centri v socialistični Jugoslaviji, podrobneje pa sta obravnavana Pogrebna palača 
“Žalost” v Kaunasu v Litvi in Dom revolucije v Nikšiću v Črni gori. 
Vrednote arhitekture nove socialistične tipologije tičijo v njeni eksperimentalni naravi in pionirskem programu, ki 
cvetita v določeni sinergiji izjemnega oblikovanja, dodelane funkcije in pomenljive vsebine. Kompleksno povezavo 
med materialno substanco in nematerialnimi elementi, ki so jedro te arhitekture, je treba obravnavati v mejah spreje-
mljivih sprememb. Ponovna aktivacija kulturnega, družbenega in operativnega potenciala ter prikaz prvotne rabe in 
družbene vloge, ob hkratnem ohranjanju pomenljivih pripovedi, bi povečali arhitekturno raznovrstnost in dopolnili 
kulturni pomen.
Ključne besede: arhitekturna dediščina dvajsetega stoletja, socialistična arhitektura, nova arhitekturna tipologija, 
adaptivna ponovna uporaba, pogrebna palača, Dom revolucije
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Egle NAVICKIENE & Jelena MITROVIĆ: CHALLENGES OF ADAPTIVE REUSE IN NEW FUNCTIONAL TYPOLOGIES OF SOCIALIST MODERNISM ..., 49–64
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