Revija za elementarno izobraževanje Journal of Elementary Education ISSN 2350-4803 (splet/online) ISSN 1855-4431 (tisk/print) Revija za elementarno izobraževanje Odgovorni urednik: red. prof. dr. Matjaž Duh (Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Urednica za področje družboslovja: izr. prof. dr. Silva Bratož (Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Urednica za področje humanistike: izr. prof. Sonja Starc (Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Urednik za področje naravoslovja in doc. dr. Tomaž Bratina (Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška informatike: fakulteta, Slovenija) Tehnična urednika: doc. dr. Jerneja Herzog (Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija Jan Perša (Univerza v Mariboru) MEDNARODNI UREDNIŠKI ODBOR dr. Renate Seebauer, (Pädagogische Hochschule Wien, Avstrija), dr. Ligita Stramkale, (Latvijas Universitate, Riga, Latvia), dr. Herbert Zoglowek, (UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Troms0, Norveška), dr. Maria Aleksandrovich, (Akademia Pomorska w Slupsku, Poljska), dr. Nevenka Tatkovic, (Fakultet za odgojne i obrazovne znanosti, Sveučilište Jurja Dobrile u Puli, Hrvaška), dr. Grozdanka Gojkov, (Učiteljski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Srbija), dr. Jelena Prtljaga, (Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitača »Mihailo Palov« Vršac, Srbija), ddr. Jürgen Kühnis, (Pädagogische Hochschule Schwyz, Švica), dr. Marie Fulkova, (Pedagogicka fakulta, Univerzite Karlove, Praha, Češka), dr. Vera Janikova, (Pedagogicka fakulta, Masarykova univerzita, Brno, Češka), dr. Oliver Holz, Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Lueven, Belgija, (dr. Ljubica Marjanovič Umek, (Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dr. Janez Vogrinc, (Pedagoška fakulteta Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dr. Milena Valenčič Zuljan, (Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dr. Mateja Pšunder, (Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Majda Schmidt Krajnc, (Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Sonja Rutar (Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija), dr. Tina Štemberger, (Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) NASLOV UREDNIŠTVA Revija za elementarno izobraževanje, Uredništvo revije Revija za elementarno izobraževanje Koroška cesta 160, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenija, e-pošta: rei.pef@um.si, http://rei.um.si ZALOŽNIK Univerzitetna založba Univerze v Mariboru Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenija e-pošta: zalozba@um.si, http://press.um.si/, http://journals.um.si/ Članki se referirajo v: SCOPUS (Elsevier Bibliografhic Databases), DOAJ, ERIH PLUS, EBSCO (EBSCOhostweb), Ulrich's Periodicals Directory, IBZ (Internationale Bibliographie der Zeitschriftenliteratur), Proquest, dLib.si, DKUM, COBISS (Co-operative Online Bibliographic System and Services). Članki v reviji so recenzirani. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje je revija, ki jo izdaja Univerzitetna založba Univerze v Mariboru v soizdajateljstvu Pedagoške fakultete Univerze v Mariboru, Pedagoške fakultete Univerze na Primorskem in Pedagoške fakultete Karlove Univerze v Pragi. V njej so objavljeni prispevki s področja vzgoje in izobraževanja zlasti na predšolski in osnovnošolski stopnji. Avtorji prispevkov z znanstvenega vidika pišejo o problemih, ki zadevajo vzgojo in izobraževanje. Namen revije je spodbujati objavo znanstvenoraziskovalnih člankov. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje izhaja štirikrat letno. V njej so objavljeni prispevki v slovenskem ali angleškem jeziku oz. nemškem jeziku. Prispevke pošljite na naslov uredništva ali po e-pošti na naslov: rei.pef@um.si Journal of Elementary Education Editor-in-Chief: Editor for Social Sciences: Editor for Humanities: Editor for Nature and Information Sciences: Technical Editors: prof. Matjaž Duh, PhD (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) assoc. prof. Silva Bratož, PhD (Universitiy of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) assoc. prof. Sonja Starc, PhD (Universitiy of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) assist. prof. Tomaž Bratina, PhD (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) assist. prof. Jerneja Herzog, PhD (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) Jan Perša (University of Maribor) INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD Renate Seebauer, PhD (University College of Teacher Education, Vienna, Austria), Ligita Stramkale, PhD (University of Latvia, Faculty of Education, Psychology and Art, Riga, Latvia), Herbert Zoglowek, PhD (University of Tr0mso, Norwegian Arctic University, Alta, Norway), Maria Aleksandrovich, PhD (Pomeranian University in Slupsk, Faculty of Social Science, Slupsk, Poland ), Nevenka Tatkovic, PhD Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Faculty of Educational Sciences. Pula, Croatia), Grozdanka Gojkov, PhD (University of Belgrade, Teacher Education Faculty, Belgrade, Serbia), Jelena Prtljaga, PhD (Preschool Teacher Training College »Mihailo Palov«, Vršac, Serbia), Jürgen Kühnis, Phd, (The Schwyz University of Teacher Education, Goldau, Switzerland), Marie Fulkova, PhD (Charles University, Faculty of Education, Prague, Czech Republic), Vera Janikova, PhD (Masaryk University, Faculty of Education, Brno, Czech Republic), Oliver Holz, PhD (Faculty of Economics and Busines, KU Leuven, Belgium, Ljubica Marjanovič Umek, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Ljubljana, Slovenia) Janez Vogrinc, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia), Milena Valenčič Zuljan, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia), Mateja Pšunder, PhD (University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Maribor, Slovenia), Majda Schmidt Krajnc, PhD (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia), Sonja Rutar, PhD (Univesrity of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenia) Tina Stemberger, PhD (Univesrity of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenia) EDITORIAL OFFICE ADDRESS Journal of Elementary Education, Editorial Board of Journal of Elementary Education Koroška cesta 160, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenija , e-pošta: rei.pef@um.si, http://rei.um.si PUBLISHED BY University of Maribor Press Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia e-mail: zalozba@um.si, http://press.um.si/, http://journals.um.si/ Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: SCOPUS (Elsevier Bibliografhic Databases), DOAJ, ERIH PLUS, EBSCO (EBSCOhostweb), Ulrich's Periodicals Directory, IBZ (Internationale Bibliographie der Zeitschriftenliteratur), Proquest, dLib.si, DKUM, COBISS (Co-operative Online Bibliographic System and Services). Journal of Elementary Education is a peer-reviewed journal, open access journal that publishes scientific articles primarly but not limited to the area of elementary school education. JEE is published four times yearly and accepts articles in Slovene, English and German. JEE is published by the University Press University of Maribor with cooperate Faculty of Education University of Maribor, Faculty of Education University of Primorska and Charles University, Faculty of Education, Prague. Articles may be sent electronically to: rei.pef@um.si Revija za elementarno izobraževanje Journal of Elementary Education Volume 12 Number 3 September 2019 Kazalo / Table of Contents Prispevki / Articles Students' Ethnic Background as a Factor in their Involvement in 229 Bullying Etnično ozadje učencev kot dejavnik vpletenosti v medvrstniško nasilje Andreja Kozmus & Mateja Pšunder Primary Education Reform in Montenegro from The Perspective of 245 Teachers and Parents Reforma osnovne šole v Črni gori z vidika učiteljev in staršev Veselin Mičanovič Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 267 Within-class Pupil Grouping in Primary School and Flipped Learning and Teaching Romina Plešec Gasparič & Milena Valenčič Zuljan Teachers Competences for Using Visual Response Methods in the 291 Literary Education Communication Model Učiteljeve kompetence za uporabo Metode vizualnega odziva v komunikacijskem modelu književne vzgoje Kristina Šrot „Gender-Aspekte revisited" — Schulbücher für den 313 Fremdsprachenunterricht neu lesen „Nov razmislek o vidiku spola" — Vnovično branje učbenikov za poučevanje tujih Renate Seebauer Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev Prospective teachers' lesson plans Zlatan Magajna & Maja Umek 325 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMNTARY EDUCATION Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 229-244, September 2019 FE1 Students' Ethnic Background as a Factor in their Involvement in Bullying Potrjeno/Accepted 16. 7. 2019 Objavljeno /Published 17. 9. 2019 Keywords: bullying, immigrants, ethnicity, primary school Andreja Kozmus1 & Mateja Psunder1 1 University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Slovenia Korespondencni avtor/Corresponding author andreja.kozmus@um. si Abstract/Povzetek The multicultural character of EU countries has been steadily growing, and consequently, school classes are becoming increasingly ethnically diverse. Research performed worldwide on ethnic bullying in schools has yielded inconsistent results. The present empirical study investigated differences between groups regarding ethnicity and bullying among 782 students from grade 6 and grade 8 of Slovenian primary schools; among them, 140 were 1st- or 2nd- generation immigrants. The results showed that, compared to Slovenian boys, immigrant boys reported more often having been involved in bullying as observers, and 6th- grade immigrant students perceived themselves more often in the roles of observer and victim. Ključne besede: medvrstniško nasilje, priseljenci, etničnost, osnovna šola UDK/UDC 364.632:373.3 Etnično ozadje učencev kot dejavnik vpletenosti v medvrstniško nasilje Države EU postajajo vse bolj multikulturne, zato so tudi šolski razredi vse bolj etnično raznoliki. Raziskave medvrstniškega nasilja v osnovnih šolah po svetu, v povezavi z etnično pripadnostjo učencev, ne dajejo skladnih rezultatov. Predstavljena empirična študija je raziskala razlike med skupinami, glede na etnično pripadnost in medvrstniško nasilje, med 782 učenci iz 6. in 8. razreda slovenskih osnovnih šol, med katerimi je bilo 140 priseljencev 1. in 2. generacije. Rezultati so pokazali, da so, v primerjavi s slovenskimi dečki, dečki z etničnim ozadjem pogosteje opazovalci medvrstniškega nasilja, šestošolci priseljenci pa se pogosteje znajdejo v vlogi opazovalcev in žrtev medvrstniškega nasilja. DOI https://doi.Org/10.18690/rei.12.3.229-244.2019 Besedilo / Text © 2019 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). IIhIH University of Maribor Press 230 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction The multicultural nature of EU countries has been steadily expanding, and the same is happening in Slovenia. Consequently, school classes are becoming increasingly ethnically diverse. In the theoretical part of the article, we introduce data about the increasing number of immigrants in Slovenia, most of whom come from the former Yugoslavia ("SURS", 2018). Primary schools generally seek to integrate immigrants (1st- and 2nd- generation) from countries of the former Yugoslavia. The exact number of immigrant students in Slovenia's primary schools can be deduced only indirectly, but classes are certainly becoming increasingly ethnically diverse ("Strategija", 2007). Immigrant students bring with them different cultural patterns, are members of various ethnic groups and have varying language skills (Kremenšek, 1973; Smith, 1991; Komac, 2007), all of which constitute possible reasons for being bullied. According to Nastran Ule (2004), those who are different, whether they are members of other nations or nationalities, or belong to different ethnic communities, races, cultures or religions, exhibit a variant sexual orientation, have special needs, lead a different way of life, or exhibit an unusual visual appearance, are often targets of stereotypes and prejudices that can easily lead to violence and bullying. Research also confirms that being somehow different can be the cause of bullying (Thornberg & Knutsen, 2011; Wilton, & Campbell, 2011; de Olivera et al., 2015). Thornberg (2010) listed seven social representations of the causes for bullying, the most prevalent being bullying as a reaction to deviance (offered by 82% of children), whether that was deviant appearance, deviant behaviour, deviant characteristics, or disability. Research performed worldwide on ethnic bullying in schools has been inconsistent (Strohmeier, Fandrem & Spiel, 2012). According to some research, ethnic minority background is a risk factor for bullying (Graham 2006; Jansen et al., 2016), while others find no differences in bullying between native and minority students in general (Smith, Thompson & Bhatti, 2012). The aim of the present study was to examine bullying in Slovenian primary schools regarding ethnic background. Although we cannot simply equate nationality with ethnic background, the factors country of birth and language spoken at home are commonly used as proxies for ethnicity and can be simply and objectively assessed (Priest, King, Becares & Kavanagh, 2016; Jansen et al., 2016). We were interested in whether there were differences in being the bully, victim or observer in physical, verbal, relational or cyber bullying, depending on whether a student was a native Slovenian or an immigrant. A. Kormu:-. & M. Psunder: Students Ethnic Background as a Factor in their Involvement in Bullying 231 Immigrants in Shvenia According to the data, Slovenia is a relatively homogenous country; in 2002, around 84% of the population were native Slovenians ("List of Inhabitants", 2002). In Slovenia there also live (at least) the following ethnic groups: a) national minorities: Hungarian, Italian and Roma people (altogether less than 1%); b) immigrants from the former Yugoslavia; c) immigrants from the EU; d) non-EU immigrants (b +c + d = 6.1%), and e) other or unknown (8.9%) ("SURS", 2018). Specifically, immigrants in Slovenia comprise the following groups: a) former immigrants with Slovenian nationality (people who were born and are living in Slovenia, or people who were not born in Slovenia but gained Slovenian citizenship); b) people who do not have Slovenian citizenship but have permanent or temporary residence permission to live in Slovenia; c) refugees; d) EU members and e) children of Slovenian migrants and emigrants who have returned to Slovenia ("Strategija", 2007; "Vključevanje otrok priseljencev", 2017). The Statistical office of the Republic Slovenia reports that, between 2011 and 2018, the percentage of immigrants increased overall from 4.01% to 6.1%, with more males than females, according to data from October 2018 ("SURS", 2018) as much as 6.4%. The majority of these came from the former Yugoslavia (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Republic of North Macedonia, Serbia and Croatia); this number decreased, from 87.7% in 2011 to 76.2% in 2018. In contrast, the number of immigrants from other countries is growing: immigrants coming from EU countries (from 6.5% to 16.0% - it should be acknowledged that Croatia, a former Yugoslavian country, became a member of the EU in 2013) and immigrants from non-EU countries (from 5.8% to 7.8%) ("SURS", 2018). Immigrant Students in Slovenian Primary School The exact number of immigrant students in Slovenian primary schools can be only indirectly estimated because there is no central record of the number of children who speak Slovenian as a second language ("Strategija", 2007). According to data from the Ministry of Education, Science and Sport of the Republic Slovenia in 2010/2011, around 1% of the whole primary school student population were newcomer immigrant students attending Slovenian primary schools ("Bela knjiga", 2011, p. 176), based on the number of immigrant students for whom schools are demanding extra hours for the study of Slovenian language in the first and second years of their stay in Slovenia. The number has been increasing, from 1.3% in 232 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 2015/16 ("Vključevanje otrok priseljencev", 2017) to 1.46% in 2017/18 (Lunder Verlič, 2018). Some authors (Kumer, Zlatar, Uzelac and Šmid, 2009) assume that the total percentage of children with immigrant backgrounds in Slovenian primary schools is much higher. In 2014, 2.2% of pupils aged from 1 to 15 years were born outside Slovenia ("MIPEX", 2015), while another 6.5% had parents born abroad. According to the Statistical office of the Republic Slovenia ("SiStat", 2019), the number of first-generation immigrant children, aged from 5 to 14 years, is 5.56% and is increasing; the number of second-generation immigrant children is not known. Students" Ethnic Background and Bullying An ethnic group is a group of people that differs from others in cultural traits that are common to members of the group. What most often binds them are names, common beliefs, religion, values, norms, traditions, language, history, settlement area, awareness of belonging and ethnic identity (Kremenšek, 1973; Smith, 1991; Komac, 2007), sometimes also race and physical appearance (Peguero & Williams, 2011; Tippet, Wolke & Platt, 2013). Student immigrants (1st- and 2nd- generation) who live in Slovenia are mostly from the former Yugoslavia (probably because Slovenia shares with them a common historical identity, based on having once shared the same country); and Albania (Burdiak, 2010; Rapti & Karaj, 2012; "SURS", 2018). Stereotypes are general and simplified beliefs about characteristics, groups of people, things or events that are held regardless of circumstances (Nastran Ule, 1999). Collective notions about the world can be positive or negative; the latter, full of negative emotions, can lead to prejudice (Allport, 1958; Nastran Ule, 1999). The Balkans is a conglomerate of different cultures, religions and languages (Burdiak, 2010, Ultanir, Ultanir & Irkorucu, 2016), which has generated stereotypes about and prejudices between Balkan nations in all directions (Baltic, 2001; Rapti & Karaj, 2012; Ultanir, Ultanir & Irkorucu, 2016). Prejudices are judgments of individuals based on their membership in a specific social group (Musek, 1994; Baltic, 2001; Burdiak, 2010; Peguero & Williams, 2011; Tolsma, Van Deurzen, Stark & Veenstra, 2013), as for example, "Albanians are lazy" (Dekleva & Razpotnik, 2002; Europe is not dead). In the present article, we take into account bullying associated with the stereotypes and prejudices held by Slovenians against people of the former Yugoslavia (today A. Kormu:-. & M. Psunder: Students Ethnic Background as a Factor in their Involvement in Bullying 233 there exist the following independent former Yugoslavian countries: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo, whose status is still unclear), Roma people, Albanians, Romanians and Bulgarians (Dekleva & Razpotnik, 2002). Definitions of and Research on Ethnic Bulling Bullying is understood in accordance with Olweus' generally accepted definition (1995, 2003, cit. in Nansel et al., 2001; Kozmus & Psunder, 2018) as repeated violence against another person, involving an imbalance of power, used intentionally by the bully to cause harm and obtain benefits from and domination over the victim. The research already completed on ethnic bullying is inconsistent (Walsh et al. 2016). According to some research, ethnic background is a risk factor for bullying (Graham 2006; Jansen et al., 2016), while others state that ethnic background is not a risk factor for involvement in bullying (Smith, Thompson & Bhatti, 2012); or that involvement in bullying is a cross-cultural phenomenon and transcends ethnicity (Jimerson, Swearer & Espelage, 2010; Medaric & Sedmak, 2012). Research has also listed some factors connected to bullying, whether they are researching immigrant students' personal characteristics (Strohmeier, Kama & Salmivalli, 2011; Peguero & Williams, 2011; Strohmeier, Fandrem & Spiel, 2012) or the effects of primary and secondary socialization - e. g. low family income, low education level of the mother, peer rejection and friendlessness (Pecek & Lesar, 2008; Strohmeier, Karna & Salmivalli, 2011; Peguero & Williams, 2011; Medaric & Sedmak, 2012; Tippett, Wolke & Platt, 2013; Ultanir, Ultanir & IrkorucU, 2016) -or trying to define factors that influence the critical mass of social power to prevent bullying - e. g. the number of immigrants in a school, in a class, school composition or the classroom environment (Wright, Giammarino & Parad, 1986; Graham, 2006; Walsh et al., 2016). Some authors state that the reason behind the inconsistency lies in the different methodologies used by separate researchers, e. g. the use of small research samples mostly in Europe, compared to big samples in the USA (Tippett, Wolke & Platt, 2013; Walsh et al., 2016). 234 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Research Carried out in Slovenia In Slovenia there have been studies of bullying in schools and interethnic bullying among youth (Baltic, 2001; Dekleva & Razpotnik, 2002; Pecek & Lesar, 2008; Medaric & Sedmak, 2012). Most studies involved immigrants in general and focused on the importance of school inclusiveness. Pecek and Lesar (2008) state that immigrant students from the countries of the former Yugoslavia on average achieve lower learning outcomes compared to their peers. These results are related not only to ethnic background, such as language and culture, but also to the lower level of parental education. In schools, 1st- generation immigrants are less successful than their peers, a finding made clear in the PISA study (Sori, Susteric & Gaber, 2009). Dekleva and Razpotnik (2002) listed factors that predict the rate of being bullied in the future: biological and family factors, social position, value system, beliefs about violence and social skills. Methodology Aims of the Empirical Research In the empirical part of the study, we were interested in whether ethnic background is the object of bullying between primary school students in Slovenia. We conducted an empirical study, the aim of which was specifically to determine whether there were differences in the perception of bullying between native Slovenian students and their peers from minority ethnic groups, whether first- or second-generation immigrants. We posed the question of how often both groups of students perceive themselves as having different roles in the bullying dynamics - as observers or victims of or bullies involved in various types of bullying: verbal, physical, relational and cyber bullying. We were also interested in establishing whether there are differences among distinct groups of students in terms of the perception of bullying, depending on gender and age. Research Sample In 22 participating schools from 7 statistical regions of Slovenia, the survey was carried out in 2015 in one 6th grade class and one 8th grade class. The questionnaire was answered by a total of 782 pupils, 390 (49.9%) girls and 392 (50.1%) boys. 360 (46.0%) pupils were from the 6th grade (11 or 12 years old) and 422 (54.0%) from the 8th grade (13 or 14 years old). The ethnic background assigned to these children was based on their and their parents' national origin, as stated by students on a questionnaire. A student was classified as native Slovenian if he or she declared him A. Kormu:-. & M. Psunder: Students Ethnic Background as a Factor in their Involvement in Bullying 235 or herself and both parents as Slovenians. A student was classified as a firstgeneration immigrant if the student's and at least one parent's nationality was declared as other than Slovenian. A student was classified as a second-generation immigrant if that student declared him or herself as Slovenian but at least one parent's nationality was other than Slovenian. According to these criteria, in our sample 642 (82.1%) were native Slovenian students and 140 (17.9%) were immigrants. Data Collection Procedure The data was collected with questionnaires. The first part of the questionnaire comprises general data about the students (e.g. grade, gender, students' and their parents' national origin, and other data that are not used in this study). In the second part, the School Bullying Scales (Cheng, Chen, Liu, & Chen, 2011; translated and adapted for Slovenia by Pečjak & Jakin, 2012, cited in Pečjak 2014) were used as self-assessment measurement instruments to measure four types of school bullying - verbal, physical, relational, and cyber bullying - from the observer's, victim's and bully's point of view. Each student reported how often in the last 6 months he or she had been in the position of bully, victim or observer in each type of bullying behaviour. Each scale (the bully scale includes 15 items, the victim scale 14 items and the observer scale 16 items) was further divided into items of physical bullying (hitting or kicking, shoving or tripping, destroying goods, forcing others, taking others' belongings etc.), verbal bullying (laughing at someone, saying curse words, name-calling, speaking ill of others, treating others with disrespect etc.), relational bullying (isolating someone from a group, tattling, betraying friendship etc.) and cyber bullying (spreading rumours online, criticising others online, and posting disgraceful photos online without permission etc.). The questionnaires were completed during school time. School counsellors offered help to all students if they required it. Data was gathered anonymously; the choice of answers was not influenced in any way. Students recorded their answers on a five-part Likert scale: 0 - never, 1 - once or twice in 6 months, 2 - two or three times a month, 3 - once a week, 4 - several times a week. A higher score represents a higher degree of bullying behaviour, victimization and observation of bullying. The scales have good validity; the bully scale is positively related to antisocial behaviour, the victim scale to depression, fear and observation of violence in school as a safe environment (Cheng et al., 2011; Pečjak 2014). Internal consistency measured by the Cronbach's Alpha test in our 236 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION sample showed good reliability for the roles of bully (a = 0.85), victim (a = 0.86) and observer (a = 0.90). Data Processing Procedures The collected data was analysed with the statistical analysis software SPSS and by suitable multivariate statistical methods. When analysing data, we used various statistical proceedings: basic descriptive statistics and interference statistics. In the applied t-test, we verified the validity of the assumption of the homogeneity of variance with the Levene F-test. In all cases where this assumption is justified (P> 0.05), the results of the normal t-test are listed. Where this is not the case, we refer to the results of approximate methods. Results and Interpretation Prevalence Rate of Students' Bullying Behaviour by Ethnic Background, by Role First, we were interested in the roles students play in different bullying situations, whether observer, victim or bully, depending on their ethnic background. Table 1: T-test results for total observer, victim and bully scales, comparing the mean differences in student perceptions by ethnic background._ Test of Test of Role in bullying Nationality Mean Standard deviation homogeneity of variances differences between means F P t P Observer Slovenian 23.97 13.1G 9.G6 G.G3 -2.42 G.G2* Immigrant 27.28 15.G7 Victim Slovenian 8.76 8.14 13.74 G^ -2.G1 G.G5* Immigrant 1G.64 m52 Bully Slovenian Immigrant 6.G8 6.19 6.87 7^ G.68 G.41 -G.17 G.86 *Values were significant. As can be seen in Table 1, the results revealed significant differences between students by ethnic background on the observer and victim scale. Analysis showed that, compared to native Slovenian students, immigrant students more often reported that they had been involved in bullying as observers and victims. There were no significant differences between students by ethnic background on the bully scale. This means that native Slovenian and immigrant students were equally likely to perceive themselves as bullies. A. Kormu:-. & M. Psunder: Students Ethnic Background as a Factor in their Involvement in Bullying 237 Differences between Native Slovenian and Immigrant Students in Perceiving Bullying, by Gender We were interested in establishing whether there were differences in the perception of different roles in bullying between Slovenian girls (n = 309) and immigrant girls (n = 79), and Slovenian boys (n = 311) and immigrant boys (n = 63). The results are shown in Table 2. Table 2: Slovenian and immigrant students distributed by gender and role in bullying. Test of Test of Roles Gender Mean Standard deviation homogeneity of variances differences between means F P t P Observer Slovenian girls Immigrant girls Slovenian boys 24.20 26.85 23.76 12.75 15.46 13.44 5.78 3.46 0.02 0.06 -1.40 -2.17 0.16 0.03* Immigrant boys 27.83 14.68 Victim Slovenian girls Immigrant girls Slovenian boys Immigrant boys 8.54 9.79 8.96 11.71 7.56 10.18 8.65 10.91 7.39 6.89 0.01 0.01 -1.02 -1.89 0.31 0.06 Bully Slovenian girls Immigrant girls Slovenian boys 4.62 4.47 7.45 5.30 6.03 7.82 0.58 0.19 0.45 0.66 0.21 -0.84 0.83 0.40 Immigrant boys 8.35 7.57 * Values were significant The t-test for the roles pupils play in violent situations showed no significant differences between girls with Slovenian nationality and immigrant girls. However, in our sample, compared to Slovenian girls, immigrant girls more often reported having been involved in bullying as observers and victims, but less often as bullies. Furthermore, the t-test showed significant differences between Slovenian boys and immigrant boys in the role of observer. Compared to Slovenian boys, immigrant boys reported more often having been involved in bullying as observers. Although there were no differences between boys by nationality in the role of victim and bully, in our sample, immigrant boys more often reported having been involved in bullying as victims and bullies than did Slovenian boys. Differences between Native Slovenian and Immigrant Students in Perceiving Bullying, by Grade We sought to establish whether there were differences in perception of different roles in bullying between 6th grade students with Slovenian nationality (n = 289) and those who were immigrants (n = 71) and 8th grade students with Slovenian 238 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION nationality (n - 351) and those who were immigrants (n - 71). The results are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Slovenian and immigrant students distributed by grade and role in bullying. Test of Test of Roles Grade Mean Standard homogeneity of deviation variances differences between means F P t P 6th Slovenian 23.83 13.08 2.42 7.80 0.12 0.01 -2.31 -1.28 0.02* 0.20 Observer 6th Immigrant 8th Slovenian 27.94 24.09 14.71 13.13 8th Immigrant 26.62 15.51 Victim 6th Slovenian 6th Immigrant 8th Slovenian 8.83 11.99 8.69 8.01 10.89 8.26 11.47 1.87 0.00 0.17 -2.30 -0.54 0.02* 0.59 8th Immigrant 9.30 10.03 6th Slovenian 5.70 6.31 0.73 0.13 0.39 0.72 -0.24 -0.09 0.81 0.93 Bully 6th Immigrant 8th Slovenian 5.90 6.40 7.00 7.29 8th Immigrant 6.48 7.06 * Values were significant The t-test for the roles pupils play in violent situations showed no significant differences in the roles of observer, victim and bully between 8th - grade Slovenian students and 8th - grade immigrant students. Both groups perceived themselves with equal frequency as observers, victims and bullies of bullying behaviour. However, the t-test showed significant differences between 6th - grade Slovenian students and 6th - grade immigrant students in the roles of observer and victim. In both cases, compared to 6th - grade Slovenian students, 6th - grade immigrant students perceived themselves more often in the roles of observer and victim. There were no significant differences between 6th - grade Slovenian students and 6th - grade immigrant students in the role of bully. Prevalence Rate of Students' Bullying Behaviour by Ethnic Background, by Type of Bullying We analysed the differences between students by ethnic background on the total observer, victim and bully scales and verbal, physical, relational and cyber subscales. The results are shown in Table 4. A. Kormu:-. & M. Psunder: Students Ethnic Background as a Factor in their Involvement in Bullying 239 Table 4: T-test results for role scales and subscales for type of bullying, by ethnic background. Test of Test of Types of bullying Nationality Mean Standard deviation homogeneity of variances differences between means F P t P OBSERVER SCALE Verbal Slovenian 10.97 5.28 0.05 0.83 -1.58 0.12 Immigrant 11.77 5.46 Physical Slovenian Immigrant 7.26 8.21 4.66 5.23 5.02 0.03 -2.01 0.05* Relational Slovenian 4.13 3.20 14.89 0.00 -2.82 0.01* Immigrant 5.11 3.83 Cyber Slovenian Immigrant 1.62 2.20 2.39 2.88 11.12 0.00 -2.24 0.03* VICTIM SCALE Verbal Slovenian 4.67 4.39 11.12 0.00 -1.39 0.17 Immigrant 5.32 5.25 Physical Slovenian Immigrant 2.31 2.92 2.73 3.18 4.02 0.05 -2.14 0.03* Relational Slovenian 1.36 1.82 9.72 0.00 -1.35 0.18 Immigrant 1.63 2.22 Cyber Slovenian 0.42 1.12 28.50 0.00 -2.30 0.02* Immigrant 0.76 1.69 BULLY SCALE Verbal Slovenian 3.40 3.70 0.18 0.67 0.39 0.70 Immigrant 3.27 3.67 Physical Slovenian Immigrant 1.55 1.87 2.43 2.73 3.24 0.07 -1.38 0.17 Relational Slovenian 1.03 1.59 0.01 0.93 0.58 0.56 Immigrant 0.94 1.48 Cyber Slovenian Immigrant 0.10 0.11 0.59 0.48 0.06 0.80 -0.18 0.86 * Values were significant. A closer look at Table 4 — the observer scale, shows significant differences between students by nationality in all observer subscales, except on the verbal subscale. Analysis showed that immigrant students reported having observed physical, relational and cyber bullying more frequently than Slovenian students. There were interesting results in the case of verbal bullying. Although there was no significant difference between students by nationality, the mean values in our sample do show that immigrant students observed verbal bullying more often than Slovenian students. The result on the total observation scale (Table 1) also showed that, 240 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION overall, immigrants self-reported more frequent observation of bullying than Slovenians did. We analysed the differences between students by ethnic background on the total victim scales and victim subscales. The results are shown in Table 4 - victim scale. Results revealed significant differences between students by nationality on the subscales for physical and cyber victimization. Analysis showed that immigrant students reported having experienced physical and cyber bullying more frequently than Slovenian students. There were interesting results in the case of the verbal and relational bullying scales. Although there were no significant differences between students by nationality in these scales, the mean values in our sample do show that immigrant students reported more frequent experiences with verbal and relational victimization than Slovenian students did. The results on the total victim scale (Table 1) are in line with the stated results. This showed that, overall, immigrants reported having been victims of bullying more frequently than Slovenians did. We analysed the prevalence rate of student self-reported bullying behaviour by ethnic background. The results are shown in Table 4 - bully scale. The results revealed no significant differences between students by ethnic background in all bully subscales. This means that native Slovenian students and immigrants are equally likely to perceive themselves as bullies. Conclusions and Practical Implications This study investigated ethnic differences in bullying involvement among Slovenian students and immigrant students of the 1st- and 2nd- generation, aged from 11 to 14 years, as observers, victims or bullies in physical, verbal, relational and cyber types of bullying. The results showed that students with an ethnic minority background were at higher risk of becoming victims and observers of bullying. Compared to Slovenian boys, immigrant boys reported more often having been involved in bullying as observers. Sixth-grade immigrant students were more likely to perceive themselves than sixth-grade Slovenian students in the roles of observer and victim. Immigrant students reported having observed physical, relational and cyber bullying more frequently than Slovenian students did. Results also revealed differences between students by nationality on the physical and cyber victimization subscales, but no significant differences in all the bully subscales. Stereotypes and judgements that can easily lead to violence and bullying can be overcome most easily in youth (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006); therefore, schools play A. Kormu:-. & M. Psunder: Students Ethnic Background as a Factor in their Involvement in Bullying 241 a crucial role in educating youth about tolerance and inclusion. Teachers must be aware of bullying and of the fact that immigrants can often be a vulnerable group of students and in need of help. Important factors that predict teachers' readiness to intervene in bullying situations are the level of perceived seriousness (of all types) of bullying and the degree of emphathy towards victims of bullying (Posnic & Košir, 2016). Teachers must provide valid information about and experiences with varied groups of people, preventing the accumulation of unverified information. Knowing foreign cultures helps in overcoming incorrect opinions, stereotypes and prejudices; contact with members of other groups reduces the amount of misinformation about these groups. ("+ Break Barriers - No Prejudices", 2017). There is also a significant influence exerted by the social policy of the country, which can formulate measures to reduce institutionalized discrimination; according to the migrant integration policy index ("MIPEX", 2015), Slovenia is in 26th place regarding education (out of 38). Systematically educating teachers and raising their awareness about bullying should be the main focus of improvement, which is another purpose of our study. Research Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research In conclusion, some limitations of our research need to be mentioned. Although a high number of respondents was initially included in our study, only some were categorized as immigrants. Moreover, the sample is applicable only to the schools included in the study, and care should be taken when and if applying it to any other school, while the group of students with ethnic backgrounds is heterogeneous, and there are differences between various groups of immigrants, regarding country of origin (Haramija, 2016). In the future, it would be reasonable to explore the differences in bullying behaviour, regarding immigrants' nationality. Nor did we ask students about the language spoken at home, which could be helpful in determining the precise immigrant status of students (Jansen et al., 2016), particularly because there is no central register of all (1st- and 2nd- generation) immigrant students in Slovenia. In addition, our study discusses a contentious subject. 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Authors Andreja Kozmus, PhD Assistant professor, University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: andreja.kozmus@um.si Docentka, Univerza v Mariboru, Filozofska fakulteta, Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, e-pošta: andreja.kozmus @um.si Mateja Pšunder, PhD Full professor, University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: mateja.psunder@um.si Redna profesorica, Univerza v Mariboru, Filozofska fakulteta, Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, e-pošta: mateja.psunder@um.si REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMNTARY EDUCATION Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 245-265, September 2019 FE1 Primary Education Reform in Montenegro from The Perspective of Teachers and Parents Veselin Micanovic Potrjeno/Accepted 1. 7. 2019 Objavljeno /Published 17. 9. 2019 Keywords: Montenegro, reform, primary education, pupil, parent, teacher. Ključne besede: Črna gora, reforma, osnovna vzgoja in izobraževanje, učenec, starši, učitelj UDK/UDC 37.014.5(497.16) University of Montenegro, Faculty of Philosophy Nikšic Korespondenčni avtor/Corresponding author veselinm@ucg. ac.me Abstract/Povzetek The Montenegrin educational system at the beginning of the new millennium is characterized by intense reform efforts. The research aims to look at key aspects of the reform process in primary education in Montenegro from the perspective of its participants - teachers and parents. The qualitative research was carried out through focus group interviewing. The results show that considerable progress has been made, but they also point to serious shortcomings such as the lack of institutional support for schools in the processes of planning, teacher training and new curriculum implementation. Reforma osnovne šole v Črni gori z vidika učiteljev in staršev Za črnogorski sistem vzgoje in izobraževanja v začetku novega tisočletja so značilna intenzivna reformna prizadevanja. Cilj raziskave je ogledati si ključne vidike tega procesa v osnovnem izobraževanju v Črni gori z vidika njegovih udeležencev — učiteljev in staršev. Kvalitativna raziskava je bila izpeljana z intervjuvanjem fokusnih skupin. Rezultati kažejo, da je bil dosežen precejšen napredek, a pokažejo tudi resne pomanjkljivosti — pomanjkanje institucionalne podpore šolam v procesu tako načrtovanja, usposabljanja učiteljev kot implementacije novega kurikula. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.12.3.245-265.2019 Besedilo / Text © 2019 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). EH University of Maribor Press 246 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction Education reform is a complex and serious process that requires the full commitment of all actors in education and in the society as a whole. An education system is fully developed and democratic only if it is comparable to modern democratic educational systems. The reform processes in Montenegro have affected all educational stages, from preschool through primary and secondary school, to higher education. Many quantitative and qualitative changes have been introduced in primary education. The transition was made from content and goal-oriented planning to outcome-based planning. In this paper, we examine the changes in primary education from the perspective of teachers and parents of pupils attending primary school. The main axis of the education reform in Montenegro concerns the adjustment of the Montenegrin educational system to European education standards and the improvement of learning outcomes. Primary education in Montenegro is the initial and basic stage in the educational continuum. In the contemporary context, this educational stage, bounded by formal institutional frameworks, is becoming more visible and more marked, with the potential to develop faster and in a more comprehensive manner in the future. Educational systems are based on standards, and it is not advisable to have major differences in the interpretation of standards made by teachers and by the institutions responsible for their implementation (Nasstrom, 2009). It is no secret that school often has a detrimental effect on children's self-esteem. Ideally, school should provide an environment in which achievements would have fewer negative effects on self-esteem than in the real world (Brunner, 2000). A high-quality education system requires continuous monitoring, along with constant review, modification and improvement of its objectives, standards and outcomes. Since changes occur in different ways through the interaction of individuals in varied situations (Datnow et al., 2002), there is a need for a detailed monitoring of these changes in the classroom. The European Commission in Brussels agreed upon and underlined its standpoint that education is a fundamental factor determining development of a country, and that only an increase in pupil achievements can increase economic performance and competitiveness in an open economy (European Commission, 2010, 2011). Generally, each reform requires a detailed analysis of the existing situation, as this represents a basis for the preparation and implementation of changes that should contribute to improving that situation. Numerous studies have identified key competencies in sustainability education essential for the design of appropriate teaching and learning methods (Wiek, Withycombe, Redman, 2011). V. Micanovic: Primary Education Reform in Montenegro^ from The Perspective of Teachers and Parents 247 At the beginning of the 21st century, preparations began for launching the reform at all educational stages in Montenegro, but it was fully put into force in 2009. This was a serious and fully organized move, supported by all institutions within the system, while strategic reform goals were the developmental ones and integrated into the process of social, political and economic transition of Montenegro in the context of global changes. The fundamental goal of the reform was to create an educational system that would contribute to the creation of knowledgefor personal and social development. This goal presupposes the equipping of society members with competencies necessary for economic progress and active participation in a democratic political community, as well as for success in the world of rapid, continuous and global change (Backovic, 2001). Thus defined, the key goal of education required a fundamental transformation of the education system, and that is why the reform activities have resulted in significant structural changes. Some of these activities, such as the introduction of compulsory nine-year primary education and of the principles of inclusive education, aimed at increasing the availability and accessibility of education. Other activities focused on raising the quality of education and encompassed curricular reform (significant changes in the content and methods of teaching and learning, elective courses, etc.), but also the establishment of institutions with the responsibility for providing support to the system and improving the quality of education (Examination Center, Bureau for Education Services, etc.). Finally, a whole range of reform activities initiated changes in the management of the education system, guided by the principles of decentralization, deregulation and participation. Rapid development of science and technology and their expansion in the twentieth century had a strong influence on the development of education. Pupils are offered a variety of apps, important for the understanding of the lesson material (Hutchison, Beschorner, & Schmidt-Crawford, 2012). In such circumstances, new opportunities for acquisition of knowledge arise and consequently introduce innovations at all education levels. The reformed learning models require the use of diagrams, and pupils are required to explore and draw conclusions based on perception and interpretation of such diagrams (McTigue & Flowers, 2011) in order to make knowledge more functional. Understandably, complex social reforms such as an education reform need careful management. Such management is impossible without relevant information on the implementation of reform activities, goal-attainment and, finally, the outcomes of the education system. The goal-attainment evaluation as well as the evaluation of the effectiveness of changes in teaching and learning (reform output) need to be conducted not only within proportional time spans, but also after goal completion, which is logically possible only after a lengthy period. On the other hand, the evaluation of the degree of implementation of reform activities (reform input), that is the degree of realization of operational objectives, is possible throughout the 248 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION reform process, and it regularly provides essential information that enables changes to and adjustments of the planned activities. Therefore, monitoring and evaluation of reform are included in the Strategic Plan for Education Reform of the Government of the Republic of Montenegro (Government of the Republic of Montenegro, 2005). Some aspects of reform implementation captured the attention of the central institutions and organizations dealing with education. For instance, the Bureau for Education Services carried out a study on certain aspects of the reform processes in schools (Bogojevic, 2009) and evaluated a new curriculum for the first cycle of primary education (Bureau for Education Services 2005). In addition, the Association of Parents of Montenegro (2007, 2009) evaluated the changes related to the participation of parents in school management and the organization of school life. The Open Society Foundation Institute - Representative Montenegro (FOSI ROM) provided financial and expert help in these evaluations. However, these evaluations did not address the range of important reform aspects that would provide systemic insight into the effectiveness of the reform implementation and the major problems it faced. That is why FOSI ROM supported Montenegro Educational Reform Evaluation over the period 2010-2012. This evaluation considered the degree of achievement of the reform's operational objectives in primary and general secondary education, as well as the final effect of changes to the educational system of Montenegro. This paper focuses mainly on primary education, and the selected results are typical from a teacher's point of view. Teachers and parents from the perspective ofprimary education reform evaluation in Montenegro Although the educational reform in Montenegro is aimed at transforming the entire education system, we decided to present only a few aspects of this reform from the perspective of teachers and from parents whose children are directly involved in the educational process of primary school. Modernization of primary school currricula to offer more practical activities for solving problem situations is of particular importance, since learning should be experienced as fun and as a source of satisfaction (Lee, Kim & Yoon, 2015). The focus of reform evaluation from the perspective of teachers and parents involved six key aspects: 1. Reform evaluation 2. Teaching challenges 3. Teacher competencies 4. Parental participation V. Micanovic: Primary Education Reform in Montenegro^ from The Perspective of Teachers and Parents 249 5. The role of central educational institutions 6. Mechanisms for quality assurance and quality improvement. Methodology Since educational reform entails considerable change, our research focuses on the reform outcomes, or more precisely, on identifying the effects of primary education reform in terms of quality of work and results achieved. The key question that we seek to answer is related to the following: Determining the extent to which the reform has improved the quality of teaching and whether it is in line with the expectations of parents and teachers. Or, whether teachers think that the dominant type of teaching reflects the reform goals (active learning focused on attainment of higher taxonomic knowledge levels and development of higher cognitive skills, development of critical thinking, communication skills and competencies for teamwork). The answer to this question will include teacher views on instruction (learning and teaching), curriculum, textbooks, teacher competencies and mechanisms for monitoring and improving quality, as well as the parents' position on these topics. The subject and the purpose of the research is to obtain opinions of teachers and parents about the educational reform and its contribution to increasing the quality of teaching and the quality of the education system in general. The aim of the research is to provide a picture of the quality of work accomplished in schools, with the intention of increasing the effects of the educational process by using experience-based opinions and comparing the revised school curriculum with the traditional one. The research sample. Since the research deals with the reform that has taken root across the education system, we chose to include six focus groups in the survey sample (3 focus groups of teachers and 3 focus groups of parents) with an even number of respondents, 10 in each group from all three Montenegrin regions. Table 1. The Research Sample. Focus group Region Northern Central Southern Total Teachers 1 1 1 3 Parents 1113 250 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Research methodology. We conducted qualitative research, while implementing the research method of theoretical analysis, as well as the technique of group interviewing, which helped us gain a realistic picture of the problem from the perspective of teachers and parents. For the sampling method in the focus group of teachers, we used the principle of different profiles represented in each group (class teacher, teacher of the mother tongue, Mathematics teacher, foreign language teacher, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, History, Geography and Music/Art teacher). The focus group of parents comprised parents of children from each primary school grade (grades 1-9) and one parent of a child with special educational needs. The survey was conducted between September and December 2018. Research Results The results of the qualitative part of the research were obtained by interviewing six groups of primary school teachers coming from three main regions in Montenegro. The same questions were used for all groups of teachers and parents, and referred to the evaluation of reform in general, the evaluation of various aspects of teaching (learning and teaching process, curriculum, textbooks, and teacher competencies) and the evaluation of the central education institutions, with a special focus on the processes of quality assurance and quality enhancement of education. Evaluation of education reform in primary school from the perspective of teachers and parents The focus group discussions were organized with primary school teachers from the three regions in Montenegro, and the respondents were from Bar, Pljevlja, Berane, Podgorica and Niksic. Reform evaluation Primary school teachers gave different views on education reform, its impact and achievements in practice. They expressed both positive and negative impressions: Positive impressions: - The nine-year primary education, coverage of 6 years-olds and early involvement in school. - The opportunity to choose elective subjects. - Commitment to learning foreign languages. - English being a compulsory subject from the first grade of primary school. - Learning two foreign languages. - Education reform encourages development of thinking; greater cognitive activity of pupils. V. Micanovic: Primary Education Reform in Montenegro^ from The Perspective of Teachers and Parents 251 - Textbooks and workbooks are better, more attractive and more interesting to pupils. Negative impressions: - It is necessary to educate teachers before starting the reform. - Too much paperwork and too many administrative tasks. - Ambiguity. The objective-oriented planning was introduced first, and then was changed for outcome-based planning, which remained unclear to most colleagues. - Lack of material; it was necessary to equip schools with teaching materials and technology. - Too extensive a curriculum for the given number of hours. We can conclude that teachers are satisfied with the reform in terms of the increase in the quality of teaching and education in general. One of the positive aspects of the reform is the inclusion of six-year olds in primary school, because the early years of a child~s life are crucial for developing various skills. Besides, teachers believe that the reform has encouraged foreign language (English language) learning, since English became a compulsory subject from the first grade of primary school. During the first reform phase, a foreign language had the status of an elective subject, but in the most recent stage, in 2017, a foreign language was placed in the category of compulsory subjects. Among the education reform strengths are elective courses that pupils choose according to their individual capacities and preferences. In addition, teachers point out that the textbooks and workbooks are modernized and much better graphically illustrated to meet the needs of young people. In their opinion, teachers prepare lessons more thoroughly and are more productive than they were in the old system, thus making pupils participate actively and reflect intensely on the current problem. In addition to favourable opinions about some aspects of the reform, teachers express discontent with the training for implementing the reform solutions. Teachers expected the reform to admit the real problems of teaching. Therefore, teachers are not satisfied, since the reform did not provide adequate teaching equipment (classrooms and labs). The question is whether it is possible to organize a lesson so that it meets contemporary standards, requirements and needs by employing obsolete equipment or often without no teaching equipment in an outdated work space. The classroom environment is inadequate because it allows neither the selection of educational materials, nor an interactive and collaborative approach to problem solving; it also lacked a sense of privacy, i.e. distancing from other events and activities (Fields & Boesser, 1988). A learning space should be functional and adapted to the teaching methods applied by a given teacher (Kyriacou, 2001: 121). However, in our schools, especially in the higher grades, the 252 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION traditional seating arrangement still prevails, which is contrary to recent studies of the brain that indicate the pupils' need for more classroom dynamics and learning in motion. The traditional classroom seating arrangement is ineffective because most pupils, and even teachers, feel annoyed in such a classroom (Jensen 2003: 104). Furthermore, a substantial objection relates to the increased administrative work, often pointless, which did not burden teachers so much in the old school, when it used to be more functional. Moreover, teachers think descriptive assessment in the first cycle of primary school and written feedback interpreting a grade or a mark are unnecessary and constitute additional workload without positive effects. The teachers expressed dissatisfaction in relation to professional development. Teachers from the northern region (Pljevlja, Berane) are categorical in their statement that, although there are numerous accredited professional development programmes, teachers are not provided with sufficient opportunities to engage in professional development. They believe that the Ministry of Education and the Bureau for Education Services should provide regular annual training of teachers, but this has not been the case. In practice, the number of seminars has decreased, and some teachers did not even receive basic training before the reform implementation. At the same time, parents have pointed out the following: Positive impressions: - Teamwork among preschool teachers and class teachers in the first grade. - A much more flexible approach to children and learning. - A partner relationship of teachers with children and parents. - An electronic register book and the possibility to access it from home; everyday control of pupil achievements. Negative impressions: - The curriculum and pupil overload. Reform was supposed to identify practical and applicable knowledge and skills and to reject unnecessary information. - Teacher tardiness regarding electronic register books, because all marks are usually entered in the week when assessment is carried out, and parents lack timrly access to their children's achievements. - Descriptive assessment is unnecessary. It is motivating neither for children nor for parents. - Textbooks are too large, and schoolbags are too heavy. V. Micanovic: Primary Education Reform in Montenegro^ from The Perspective of Teachers and Parents 253 As for the positive experiences and views regarding the reform, parents are very pleased with the teamwork among preschool teachers and class teachers in the first grade. Interestingly, the respondents underline their satisfaction with the involvement of preschool teachers, both in terms of teamwork with the class teacher, and their individual work in before- and after-school care. Besides, parents noted greater flexibility in the reformed school as opposed to the traditional one. In this context, they emphasize teacher-parent and teacher-child relationships. The most recent reform measures and the development of an e-register book were both positively evaluated by parents in cases when information were available to them in the course of assessment and not after it. An e-register book enables parents to have access to their children's achievements from home, so they can monitor the child's activities and performance. Parents highlight both positive and negative effects of the reform, including curriculum and pupil overload. They also think unnecessary content overburdens children. Instead, emphasis should be placed on practical and applicable knowledge and skills. It is interesting to note that teacher tardiness in completing the e-register book is placed among the negative effects. Teachers usually enter the final marks in e-register books during the last week of the term, and parents cannot gain insight into their children's achievements earlier, to react in a timely manner and help them improve. Parents who have experience in pupil assessment pointed out that descriptive assessment in the first grade is unnecessary and proposed a measure to exempt the first graders from assessment. Unlike teachers, who say that new textbooks contribute to positive impressions about education reform, the parents interviewed feel that textbooks were too large and too heavy, so they are not enthusiastic about these books. Teaching challenges When asked to identify the current issues in the classroom, which hamper or impede the reform implementation, teachers gave the following answers: - The lack of teaching equipment, modern software and technology in their work. The reform included changes to the curriculum, but working conditions remain the same. - Inadequate support of competent services in the field of teacher training for implementing the new outcome-based curriculum. - Curriculum overload and instruction time (the number of classes). 254 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION - There is a mismatch between the educational cycles. The transition between cycles is difficult for pupils. (from grade 3 to grade 4, and from grade 6 to grade 7). - Poor cross-curricular links. Relying on teachers' answers, we can conclude that the reform did not yield the necessary investment in contemporary instructional materials and equipment. Teachers are dissatisfied with working conditions and believe that the reform should have changed that. Teachers also share their dissatisfaction regarding inadequate support from competent services in the field of teacher training for implementing the new outcome-based curriculum. They feel insecure and believe that the Ministry of Education and its departments should pay more attention to training, since they need to be well prepared to meet this new challenge. Furthermore, respondents in the focus groups highlight the major issue of curriculum overload and its relation to the instruction time allocated to school subjects (number of classes). in their view, it is necessary to reduce curriculum content or increase instruction time for successful curriculum implementation. Based on the survey responses, we can conclude that the reform has failed to overcome the main issues in relation to transition from lower to higher grades, particularly the transition from the fourth to the fifth grade of primary school. Teachers even see the transitions from third to fourth and from the sixth to seventh grade as critical ones. Moreover, the reform inherited poor cross-curricular links, but there is a growing need for different approaches to cross-curricular teaching and learning, as we all agree that interdisciplinarity turns knowledge into a coherent whole. It is interesting that the same remarks were made in all the focus groups, which means that these drawbacks are present in the system, and it is not about the subjective attitudes of respondents. When asked to determine issues concerning the reformed teaching, respondents gave the following answers. - Outdated, uninteresting teaching methods. The lack of visual teaching strategies. - Lack of teacher commitment to meeting pupils' needs and expectations. - Curriculum overload. - The lack of parental involvement in decision-making. Parents indicate that the lack of visual teaching strategies makes teaching methods outdated and uninteresting, which greatly affects the success of the reformed school. They believe that the reform does not pay enough attention to pupils' needs, and pupils are expected to give much more than they get at school, which has led to student anxiety. In addition, parents feel that they should be more involved in V. Micanovic: Primary Education Reform in Montenegro^ from The Perspective of Teachers and Parents 255 school life. To this end, it is necessary to train teachers on the application of the principles of the reform as a new philosophy, ideology and approach to education, with a detailed plan and guidelines (Gutek, 2004), in order to update the instruction and make it more interesting to pupils. Teacher competencies Educational reform entails the development of new teacher competencies. Of course, this means that new competencies should be understood as an upgrade to existing competencies that are innovated and adapted. This includes adopting the new approach to teaching and learning, planning the pupils' learning outcomes and moving in the direction of performing the teaching role more effectively. Many teachers are unable to strengthen their professional competencies throughout their careers, in an ongoing professional development process. In this, central institutions of the education system are particularly important, but at the same time, teachers should initiate and actively engage in planning and implementing the professional development activities by themselves or with the support of school management. In this respect, when asked about the competencies they need, teachers answered as follows: - All teachers must be trained in planning learning outcomes, and that should be a priority of the institutions responsible for teacher training in Montenegro. - We lack assessment competences in an inclusive school, even though we have been doing the task for years. - There is a lack of seminars about integrated learning. - Competence in critical thinking and learning is extremely important. - Continuing development of methodological competence for modelling teaching in line with the reformed school requirements. It is evident that teachers feel insecure in the field of planning for learning outcomes. This is one of the core competencies for successful learning, because positive results in learning are impossible without good planning. Teachers develop their own teaching skills as strategies that they use to facilitate pupils' learning. These skills are capable of being repeated in similar situations, and they should be encouraged (Wragg, 1993). Since training is one way to acquire particular skills, it is interesting that even though teachers received training for the reform implementation in Montenegro, many topics remain unclear to them. 256 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION It is also significant that teachers acknowledge their deficit of competencies for competent assessment in inclusive schools. Encouraging and developing of integrated learning by working on complex problems in a group, seems an inspiring field for the future development of teacher competencies. In this way, students construct higher level knowledge and expand the horizons of thought that would not be so successfully achieved in the usual activities (Sefer, 2005). In addition to these changes, an integrated approach to teaching and learning is a novelty in the work of teachers, and they are aware of lacking competencies for effective implementation of integrated teaching. Teachers think there has been little attention paid to critical thinking and to learning by critical observation of concepts and cause-effect relationships of a given phenomenon. For that reason, teachers need support in developing teaching competencies, because unconditional acceptance of and agreement with other opinions, often imposed, can lead to a position where black is white if others claim so (Stoll & Fink, 2000). Unfortunately, in our country, there is still a tradition that colleagues should have the same views and opinions. However, "being a colleague does not mean that you have to agree or share the same views" (Senge 2003, p. 238). Also, respondents state that they need continuous methodological training according to the requirements of the reformed school and the need to adjust their teaching practice to contemporary trends and pupil needs. On the other hand, parents were very cautious in speaking about teacher competencies; nevertheless, they said that teachers should possess the following competencies: - Good communication competencies necessary for developing partnership relationships. - Teamwork competency, as extremely important for helping teachers understand that pupils are overloaded by the curriculum and plan their activities accordingly. - Teaching outside the classroom would be much more effective, so teachers should develop competencies for this type of teaching and learning. Based on the answers given by the respondents from the focus groups of parents, we can conclude that parents expect teachers to have competencies in organizing learning activities in a democratic way. Taking into account the perspective of their children, parents think teachers should have competencies necessary for communication with pupils, as well as skills to treat them as partners, keep them entertained in class and involve them in learning. Parents assume that building partnership relationships in the classroom would improve pupils' results. Parents also emphasize the importance of the teamwork competence. Effective teamwork V. Micanovic: Primary Education Reform in Montenegro^ from The Perspective of Teachers and Parents 257 among teachers ensures an efficient teaching process. For example, collaborative planning may prevent teachers from conducting summative assessment of pupils in several subjects on the same day. Furthermore, teamwork competencies are of great importance for the establishment of trust in the classroom and for acceptance of obligations and commitments by all. An interesting observation is that teaching outside the classroom (a class in nature) would be much more effective, so teachers should develop competencies for this type of teaching and learning. According to some parents, the visual teaching of various topics would be more successful outside than in the regular classroom, since it would increase the pupils' interest in the subject matter. Such opinions should be considered in the reform efforts to overcome stereotypes and outdated habits in the organization of the learning process. Parental participation In order to enhance the quality of teaching and learning, parents should be involved in the processes of discussing, proposing and adopting various initiatives whose aim is to improve working conditions and enhance learning outcomes. One of the important functions of parents in school is their involvement in the Parents' Council. Teachers expressed the following opinions regarding parental involvement in school: - Parents play an important role in school life through the Parents' Council. - Perhaps parents should be more involved in planning of a non-teaching days in such a way that they could plan and carry out some learning activities (a visit to a rural household or to a craft shop, etc.). - There is a number of opportunities for parental engagement in school life, but given their indifference, such involvement does not often occur. Teachers' responses show that the Parents' Council has a significant role in school life, as it consists of parent representatives who can harness this body to initiate and implement their ideas in school. In addition, teachers highlighted that parents should have an obligation to prepare some learning activities that could be implemented on non-teaching days. For example, parents could familiarise children with their jobs or occupational roles. Teachers suggest that this could be done through visits to a rural household or to a craft shop typical of the local community. An important conclusion is that, although schools show appreciation, parents are not often interested in active 258 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION participation in school life. It is therefore necessary to encourage them continuously. Parents commented on the issue of parental involvement in school life in the following ways: - Participation of parents in school life is limited. There are bodies in the school through which we can launch an initiative, but it often remains unnoticed and therefore we do not attend the meetings of parents (PTA meeting and Parents' Council meetings). - Our participation in school life is reduced to occasional visits when teachers invite us to present our jobs and occupations, and that is where our involvement ends. - We believe that the reforms did not properly recognize parental involvement in school life, and if we want to make it sustainable, it needs to be legally justified. It is evident that parents are dissatisfied with their degree of engagement in school life and believe that it should have a legal justification in order to be recognized in the work of the school. The parents are not interested in launching initiatives that will be rejected, and that is why they often do not attend PTA meetings and Parents' Council meetings. Sometimes, class teachers in the lower grades of primary school invite parents to present their occupations to children, and that is where their involvement ends. The role of central educational institutions in the reform process Teachers' opinions indicate their disappointment with the performance of the central educational institutions in the educational reform. They say they are left on their own to deal with the challenges of reform. Moreover, there isn't sufficient support and understanding from those who lead the reform, and there are things that unnecessarily complicate their job: - The central educational institutions are constantly making new requests and have a commanding attitude. - Teachers are often required to fill in forms and provide various types of data. - These institutions exist, but they are of no use, because they are unaware of the difficulties of teachers' work. - Teachers often feel as if they have been trapped by paperwork. Specifically, in the course of primary education, there are three registers and the same data is recopied three times. - Central institutions fail to support schools, no matter how necessary it is at that moment. - Teachers were not provided with training for outcome-based planning, which is crucial for reform effectiveness and sustainability. V. Micanovic: Primary Education Reform in Montenegro^ from The Perspective of Teachers and Parents 259 Concerning teachers' attitudes towards institutional support in implementing the new approaches, we can conclude that there is general dissatisfaction with imposed administrative tasks. Likewise, respondents point out that there is no understanding and professional support from the relevant institution in resolving the numerous dilemmas in their work. These institutions are expected to help practitioners "break" the traditional approach, since they have "experience, systematic thinking and an original approach to the problem" (Vilotijevic & Vilotijevic, 2008, p.143). Understandably, such an attitude is the result of insufficient training in the course of reform preparation. Parents have a slightly different perspective on this issue and emphasize the following points: - Parents assume that the Ministry with its departments significantly affects the implementation of teaching in schools. - The reform can only be successful if all its steps are well-planned and if all its participants work collaboratively. - The central institutions have not accorded parents the role they should have in education reform. - There is an obvious lack of teaching aids. It is impossible to talk about reform and to have positive expectations given the existing conditions in classrooms and labs. Parents have one voice on the issue of the impact of the Ministry and its central institutions on the reform outcomes. Nevertheless, they are aware of the challenges that may determine the success of the reform in the absence of adequate institutional support for schools. Insufficient parental involvement in the reform process is also mentioned as one challenge of successful reform. In addition, they recognize poorly equipped classrooms as a key failure of the central institutions in promoting the quality of teaching and improving its outcomes. Mechanisms for quality assurance and improvement in primary education Quality assurance mechanisms and improvement strategies are essential for the sustainability of educational policies. Asked about the quality assessment mechanisms, teachers were highly critical. They believe that the existing mechanisms cannot determine the quality of teaching in a proper way, and these mechanisms should be revised and adjusted to real circumstances: - Quality assessment mechanisms should conform to educational purposes and feasible options for a school to organize the teaching process. 260 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION - Those who talk about quality know how to criticize but do not provide examples of how things should be done, because they do not know themselves. - The mechanisms for monitoring the quality of teaching include indicators for assessing the application of contemporary methodological approaches and the use of information and communication technology, and we know that a modernization of teaching practice was not achieved by the reform. - In practice, supervisors visit schools every four years. I do not understand how they can evaluate the quality of someone's work by observing only one lesson once in four years. - We are all different. One can work badly, but if he or she has connections in administration, his/her performance will be evaluated as excellent, and those who work well, will remain unperceived. - Mechanisms for quality monitoring and quality assessment are unfortunately quite subjective and thus fail to improve teaching and learning. The responses indicate serious deficiencies in the mechanisms for monitoring and determining the quality of the existing education system. If we start from the fact that analysis of everyday teaching situations is an element of a continuous learning process that ensures progress on a professional and personal level (Sagud, 2006, p.38), then we may rightly wonder whether the quality of an individual can be assessed during one visit in four years. Moreover, several quality indicators presuppose the modernization of teaching and learning, and in practice we know that reform did not tackle the issue of modernizing the teaching process and the school climate in which instruction is given. In addition, it is worrying that protectionism still exists in the field of education, which obstructs objectivity and proper use of the existing mechanisms. Therefore, teachers rightly emphasize the subjectivity of existing mechanisms and the need for their improvement. Parents have different experiences and therefore different opinions on the mechanisms for quality assurance and improvement in the quality of primary education: - Mechanisms for monitoring and determining the quality of teaching and learning should be more visible and accessible to participants in the educational process. - The previous practice yielded no progress in this direction; we are completely dissatisfied. V. Micanovic: Primary Education Reform in Montenegro^ from The Perspective of Teachers and Parents 261 - Mechanisms should promote teaching and learning but also protect and enhance the accountability of pupils and teachers. The parents express an objective opinion on the mechanisms for ensuring and further improving school quality. They suggest that not only teachers, but also pupils and their parents should become familiar with the mechanisms for preserving and enhancing the quality of school work. Parents also point out that the reform did offer innovative mechanisms; therefore, they highlight the need for developing objective mechanisms with a protective function, but also to increase accountability of both pupils and teachers. The final product would be better-quality outcomes of primary education. Proposals for improvement Teachers proposed measures for improvement of the current situation and expressed their expectations with regards to the reform changes: - Reform should encompass all spheres of education, curricula and textbooks. - It is necessary to create better working conditions. - Reform cannot succeed without investment. It is necessary to invest in education, to improve the economic status of teachers. - It is necessary to reduce the number of pupils per class. - It is necessary to intensify teacher training and to increase the number of trained teachers. - The Department for Textbook Publishing has a monopoly, and alternative versions of textbooks should be offered to teachers. By analysing teachers" recommendations for improving teaching quality in primary school, we find that they cover a wide range of topics and deal with the social and professional spheres of school life. It is true that teachers' economic status is a prerequisite for successful work and a motivation for continuous improvement. Moreover, teachers rightly point to the obvious drawbacks of the reform, such as the lack of investment in improving working conditions. We might rightly wonder whether to expect an increase in the quality of the teaching process in such poor working conditions. The reform should recognize the deficiencies of the previous system and plan and implement extensive changes accordingly. In addition to changes in curricula and textbooks, equipping schools with new technology, reducing the number of pupils per class, providing continued support for professional teacher development and offering alternative versions of textbooks are equally important for effective change in education. 262 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Parents proposed measures for improvement of the current situation and expressed their expectations with regards to the reform changes, offering the suggestions below: - Equip schools with the necessary equipment for the purposes of teaching in new and innovative ways. - Avoid overloading pupils. - Encourage the development of applicable knowledge rather than rote learning. - Pay greater attention to the needs of parents and children. - In addition to learning, give attention to the role of the school in children's upbringing, as well as to the social dimension of education. These suggestions point to the necessary intervention of competent institutions in the improvement of the teaching environment and in providing support for pupils and teachers in the organization of teaching and learning. In addition, parents indicate the similarity of the new school with the traditional one in terms of student overload. This should be changed by developing the necessary skills to apply knowledge in practical situations. There is also a suggestion that parent's and children's needs should be taken into account and that attention should be paid to the role of the school in children's upbringing, as well as to the social dimension of teaching. Conclusions and recommendations This study, although a qualitative one, forms a supplement to a major education reform evaluation that was completed in 2012. Although we have not dealt with the evaluation of textbooks, curricula and teaching practice, our research and findings have emphasized the need for substantial change in the educational system of Montenegro, which need to be done in order to improve the quality of the reform and meet the expectations of the stakeholders (teachers and parents). Research on primary education reform in Montenegro from the perspective of teachers and parents was conducted with the aim of analysing the quality of the reformed primary school context. The study focused on current problems, teacher competencies, parental involvement, the role of central institutions and mechanisms for quality assurance, i.e. on the building blocks of the teaching and learning environment for primary school children. Since the education system in Montenegro went through a process of transformation from the traditional to the modern system, comparable to developed education systems in Europe, the experience of respondents (teachers and parents) revealed a multitude of diverse, V. Micanovic: Primary Education Reform in Montenegro^ from The Perspective of Teachers and Parents 263 often fluid, but also developmentally important findings. Our research has shed light on several dilemmas in relation to the effects of education reform, from the perspective of separate categories of respondents. We uncovered a certain ambiguity, but also potential directions for further development of existing teaching practice in order to build a school tailored to 21st -century pupils. By analysing teachers' and parents' responses, we can see that teachers and parents are generally inclined towards the reform, but their expectations have not been completely fulfilled, which indicates serious failings in the implementation process. Poor socioeconomic circumstances in society at a given moment might have contributed to this, as there were no preconditions for reform implementation in all aspects of the educational process. Among the responses we received, one can be emphasised: parents and teachers consider the introduction of nine-year primary school and the inclusion of six-year olds in primary school a great success, because early childhood is the most intensive period for acquiring various skills. Analysis of the responses obtained in the focus groups generally confirms the fact that educational reform in Montenegro brought major changes, but because of the many unresolved problems that were present in traditional teaching, there is still the question whether its effects would be more productive than those obtained in the previous system. It raises the question of justification for such a reform. Bearing in mind that education reform in Montenegro took root a long time ago, allowing sufficient time for the public to reach an objective assessment of its effects, teachers and parents observed several limiting factors for successful implementation of reformed teaching in primary school. The key issues are the number of pupils per class, the lack of technology, the lack of professional literature and teacher professional competencies, as well as insufficient parental involvement in school life. The education reform in Montenegro, regardless of its shortcomings, should be seen as an attempt to improve the educational process and its effects. The research results showed that teachers have a positive opinion about the reform, when it comes to the need for change. However, regardless of this view from teachers, there are many problems hindering reform in the classroom. This study has managed to identify those problems that prevent efficient curriculum planning and implementation. 264 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION In order to overcome these problems, we propose the following measures: - Provide technical preconditions for the achievement of the intended learning outcomes. Equip classrooms and labs with modern teaching aids and didactic materials. - Provide effective continuing professional development for all teachers to enable them to address the challenges of the reformed teaching. - Reduce the number of pupils per class to 25, instead of 33, and in classes attended by children with disabilities, this number should be reduced by 20% or up to 50%, depending on the degree of disability, which should be determined by the special education commission. - Intensify the activities of the subject teachers' groups in schools in the field of exchange of experiences, teamwork, and co-planning of teaching in accordance with the reform requirements. - Improve measures for monitoring and quality evaluation of teaching practices in line with the reform requirements and in consultation with teaching staff and parents. - Intensify the support of the central educational institutions (Ministry of Education, Bureau for Education Services, Examination Centre and Department for textbooks publishing and teaching aids). - Reduce curriculum load. - Increase parental participation in school life. - Pay attention to the role of school in children's upbringing as well as to the social dimension of education. 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Author Veselin Micanovic, PhD Associate Professor, University of Montenegro, Faculty of Philosophy, Street of Danilo Bojovic no number, 81400 Nikšic, Montenegro, e-mail: veselinm@ucg.ac.me Izredni profesor, Univerza Črne Gore, Filozofska fakulteta, Ul. Danila Bojovica bš., 81400 Nikšic, Črna Gora, e-pošta: veselinm@ucg.ac.me 266_REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMNTARY EDUCATION Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 267-290 September 2019 FEI Potrjeno/Accepted 22. 8. 2019 Objavljeno /Published 17. 9. 2019 Keywords: učinkovit pouk, učne oblike, didaktična inovacija, obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje Ključne besede: effective instruction, within-class pupil grouping, didactic innovation, flipped learning and teaching UDK/UDC 373.3.091.3 UČNE OBLIKE V OSNOVNI ŠOLI IN OBRNJENO UČENJE IN POUČEVANJE Romina Plešec Gasparič1, Milena Valenčič Zuljan1 1 Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta Korespondenčni avtor/Corresponding author romina.plesecgasparic@pef.uni-lj.si Abstract/Povzetek Z učinkovitim poukom je povezana množica dejavnikov, ki naj bi jih spremljali šolska politika, šola kot institucija in tudi vsak učitelj, čigar vloga je še zlasti pomembna pri dejavnikih, ki vplivajo na didaktično zasnovo pouka, med katerimi izpostavljamo organizacijo učnih oblik. V prispevku predstavimo raziskavo, v kateri smo proučevali stališča in izkušnje slovenskih osnovnošolskih učiteljev z načrtovanjem, izvajanjem in evalvacijo učnih oblik. Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da učitelji pozitivno vrednotijo učinkovitost individualne učne oblike. Med pomanjkljivostmi posrednih interaktivnih učnih oblik pa po mnenju učiteljev najbolj izstopa časovna neekonomičnost, zato v prispevku predstavljamo didaktično inovacijo, t. i. obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje, ki odpira možnost za njihovo pogostejšo uporabo. Within-class Pupil Grouping in Primary School and Flipped Learning and Teaching There are many factors associated with effective instruction that should be taken into account by school policy, the school as an institution and each individual teacher. The teacher's role is of utmost importance when it comes to factors influencing the didactic design of instruction, among which we focus on within-class pupil grouping. The paper presents a study that examined attitudes and experiences of Slovenian primary school teachers with planning, implementing and evaluating within-class pupil grouping. The results of teacher assessments of the effectiveness of each form of grouping show that teachers give the highest rating to individualised learning. Among the disadvantages of interactive grouping, teachers emphasize time consumption. Thus, we present the didactic innovation of flipped learning and teaching, which offers the opportunity for more frequent use of interactive grouping. DOI https://doi.Org/10.18690/rei.12.3.267-290.2019 Besedilo / Text © 2019 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). EH University of Maribor Press 268 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Uvod Kakovostno izobraževanje vpliva na uspešnost posameznika na vseh življenjskih področjih. Za uresničevanje vzgojno-izobraževalnih ciljev je izjemnega pomena učinkovit pouk, ki podpira konstrukcijo trajnega in uporabnega znanja v spodbudnem socialnem okolju in tako omogoča doseganje optimalnih učnih dosežkov vsakemu posamezniku. Z učinkovitim poukom je povezana množica dejavnikov (Hallinger in Heck, 2011; Marzano, 2003; Slavin, 1996a), med katerimi je tudi organizacija učnih oblik, pri čemer sta pomembna kakovost izvajanja učnih oblik in njihovo ustrezno izmenjevanje (Kutnick idr., 2005; Strmčnik, 2001; Štefanc, 2011). V didaktični literaturi se poleg izraza učne oblike (Pletenac, 1991; Pranjic, 2005) uporabljajo še termini: oblike vzgojno-izobraževalnega procesa, organizacijske oblike, oblike pouka (Blažič, Ivanuš Grmek, Kramar in Strmčnik, 2003), socialne oblike (Jank in Meyer, 2006; Lavrnja, 1996); socialne učne oblike (Bognar in Matijevic, 1993), oblike dela (Pletenac, 1991), sociološke oblike, sociološke formacije (Poljak, 1974) in forme poučevanja in učenja (Lavrnja, 1996). V opredelitvi učnih oblik so avtorji bolj usklajeni kot pri terminologiji in pojasnjujejo, da učne oblike pomenijo organizacijo dela pri pouku (Poljak, 1974), urejajo razmerja med položaji in vlogami učiteljev in učencev ter med drugimi sestavinami in načini delovanja (Blažič idr., 2003; Kramar, 2009), določajo komunikacijo in sodelovanje med učitelji in učenci (Bognar in Matijevic, 1993) in opredeljujejo medsebojni odnos med učiteljem in učenci ter ponazarjajo, kako so v učnem procesu porazdeljene aktivnosti med njimi (Pranjic, 2005). Učne oblike torej opredeljujemo kot didaktični element, ki ponazarja notranjo organizacijsko strukturo pouka. Učne oblike so opredeljene s številom udeležencev (od enega do vseh) in odnosi med dejavniki učnega procesa (posredni, neposredni), predstavljajo osnovo didaktično-metodične diferenciacije in skupaj z učnimi metodami, artikulacijo pouka in didaktičnimi načeli pomembno prispevajo k uresničevanju vzgojnih in izobraževalnih ciljev pouka. Harmer (2001), Jank in Meyer (2006) ter Pletenac (1991) učne oblike delijo na frontalno, skupinsko in individualno učno obliko ter delo v paru, Lavrnja (1996) pa piše o frontalnem delu, individualnem in individualiziranem delu ter o kooperativnih oblikah dela, kamor uvršča delo v paru, skupinsko in timsko delo. R. Plešec Gasparič & M. Valenčič Zuljan: Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 269 Dosedanje raziskave s področja učnih oblik (Hage, 1985, v Gudjons, 2007; Meyer, 1987, v Gudjons, 2007; Poljak, 1974; Tomic, 2003) so pokazale prevlado frontalne učne oblike, ki jo učitelji ocenjujejo kot najbolj časovno ekonomično, hkrati pa jim omogoča pregled nad potekom dela celotnega razreda. Da bi navedene značilnosti te oblike delovale kot prednosti, je nujno, da jo učitelj premišljeno kombinira z drugimi učnimi oblikami. Za doseganje ciljev učinkovitega pouka je namreč zelo pomembna kakovost socialnih interakcij, ki jih omogočata skupinska učna oblika in delo v paru, pri katerih zmanjšujemo obseg vertikalne (učitelj — učenec) in povečujemo obseg horizontalne komunikacije (učenec — učenec) (Burns in Myhill, 2004; Galton, Hargreaves in Pell, 2009; Harmer, 2001; Strayer, 2007; Tomic, 2003; Veenman, Denessen, van den Oord in Naafs, 2003). Delo v paru zahteva od vsakega posameznega učenca, da se aktivno udejstvuje, praviloma pa zagotavlja tudi varno učno okolje. Učenci imajo možnost razvijanja komunikacije, strpnosti in spoštovanja različnosti, sposobnosti prilagajanja in argumentiranja (Blažič idr., 2003; Harmer, 2001). Pri skupinski učni obliki pride do večje izmenjave mnenj in idej, zato je prispevek k skupnemu učenju lahko še bogatejši kot pri delu v paru. Prednost je, da posamezniki pri tem niso tako izpostavljeni kot pri frontalnem pouku, zato je še posebej za učence, ki se ne želijo izpostavljati pred celotnim razredom, delo v paru in skupinsko delo »varnejša« učna situacija. Učenci skupaj postajajo samostojnejši v procesu pridobivanja znanja in vse bolj neodvisni od učitelja (Harmer, 2001). Veenman in drugi (2003), pišejo, da skupni cilji in individualna odgovornost motivirata učence pri pomoči drug drugemu, da bi bili čim uspešnejši. Pri pridobivanju spretnosti učenja, razvijanju samostojnosti in individualizirani zaposlitvi učencev ima nenadomestljivo vlogo individualna učna oblika. Pomembno je, da se učitelji zavedajo pomena učnih oblik, prednosti in omejitev vsake izmed njih ter številnih dejavnikov, ki jih je pri organizaciji učnih oblik treba upoštevati. Prav tako je pomembno, da imajo razvite didaktične spretnosti za učinkovito izpeljavo, pri svoji odločitvi glede izbora učne oblike pa učitelji izhajajo iz načrtovanih učnih ciljev, didaktičnih sredstev in okolja, števila ter značilnosti učencev; učence pa lahko grupirajo glede na njihove sposobnosti, dosežke, interese, učno vsebino in podobno v homogene ali heterogene skupine (Blažič idr., 2003; Crumbaugh, Frye, Schlagal, Schram in Trathen, 2001; Pigford, 1990). Da pa bi učitelj razvijal didaktično kompetenco načrtovanja in izvajanja učnih oblik, je med drugim pomembno, da učni proces reflektira in da je naklonjen vnašanju sprememb v lastno poučevanje. Avtorji razlikujejo med dvema modeloma vpeljevanja sprememb v šole: model od zgoraj navzdol oziroma od šolskih oblasti, pri tem učitelj ne zaznava potrebe po 270 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION inovaciji; ter model od spodaj navzgor, pri katerem na podlagi izkušenj in raziskovanja lastne prakse učitelj sam začuti potrebo po spremembi poučevanja (Sentočnik, 2006; Valenčič Zuljan, 1997). Novosti oziroma natančneje pedagoške ali didaktične inovacije so opredeljene kot »[...] novost, ki v procesu inoviranja pripelje do sprememb in izboljšav v šolski praksi, in sicer na nivoju: učiteljevih didaktičnih spretnosti ter njegovih pojmovanj, stališč in razmišljanja, šolske klime ter širšega učiteljevega razumevanja lastnega poklicnega razvoja« (Valenčič Zuljan in Kalin, 2007, str. 164). Za uspešno uvedbo inovacije mora učitelj poznati teoretično ozadje inovacije, imeti mora možnost razreševanja dvomov ob njenem vpeljevanju in pri tem prejemati konstruktivne povratne informacije ter pomoč (Valenčič Zuljan, 1997). Pomembno je, da učitelji poleg pridobivanja spretnosti ravnanja, ki jih inovacija zahteva, osmišljajo pojmovanja učenja in poučevanja, učiteljeve in učenčeve vloge (Sentočnik, 2006; Valenčič Zuljan, 2004) ter lastnega profesionalnega razvoja (Valenčič Zuljan, 1997). Učitelji se v tradicionalnem učnem procesu, ki predpisuje dinamiko izmenjevanja učnih etap in določa njihove nosilce, pogosto znajdejo v osebni in strokovni dilemi, saj bi si po eni strani želeli uporabiti pestrejši nabor učnih oblik, ki bi omogočal večjo miselno aktivnost in čustveno zavzetost učencev, po drugi strani pa jih skrbijo uresničevanje učnega načrta, prostorska opremljenost šole, število učencev v oddelku in drugo. Ena izmed možnih rešitev je vpeljevanje didaktične inovacije obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje, ki je bila v prakso vpeljana po modelu od spodaj navzgor, saj so bili pobudniki inovacijskega procesa učitelji (Bergmann in Sams, 2012, 2014). Začetnika ideje obrnjenega učenja in poučevanja naj bi bila Bergmann in Sams (2012, 2014), ki opozarjata, da se je model obrnjenega učenja in poučevanja oziroma obrnjene učilnice (ang. flipped classroom), kot je bil sprva poimenovan, kakovostno predrugačil. Izvorno se je osredinjal predvsem na učiteljevo kakovostno posredovanje učne snovi preko videoposnetka, pri čemer je bil v središču pouka učitelj. V naslednji stopnji razvoja je bil model še vedno osredinjen na učiteljevo poučevanje, vendar je bil upoštevan učni tempo učencev. Postopoma je koncept postavil v središče pouka učenca z večjim poudarkom na doseganju višjih taksonomskih stopenj učnih ciljev po Bloomovi taksonomiji kot pa na izdelavi kakovostnih videoposnetkov. V skladu s tem se je uveljavil pojem obrnjeno učenje (ang. flipped learning). V zadnji fazi razvoja je torej obrnjena učilnica postala prostor obrnjenega učenja — v središču pouka je učenec, uporabljene učne strategije pa prispevajo k poglobljenemu in trajnemu znanju učencev (Bergmann in Sams, 2012; Bormann, 2014). Ob tem moramo pojasniti razširitev pojma obrnjeno učenje na pojem obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje, kot ga uporabljamo v prispevku. Glede na to, da sta učenje in poučevanje kot dva didaktična podsistema pouka med seboj komplementarna in neločljiva (Blažič idr., 2003), je z didaktičnega vidika ustrezneje R. Plešec Gasparič & M. Valenčič Zuljan: Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 271 kot obrnjeno učenje uporabljati termin obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje oziroma obrnjen pouk (Plut-Pregelj, 2015), saj le tako zajamemo dejavnost učenca in tudi učitelja v učnem procesu. Obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje je opredeljeno kot kombinacija pedagoških pristopov z dvema sestavnima deloma, to sta: neposredni računalniško podprt individualni pouk zunaj razreda in interaktivne skupinske dejavnosti v razredu, pri katerih učitelj vodi učence pri preizkušanju konceptov in aktivnem ter ustvarjalnem dialogu z učno snovjo (Abeysekera in Dawson, 2015; Bishop in Verleger, 2013; Hamdan, McKnight, McKnight in Arfstrom, 2013). Bishop in Verleger (2013) pri tem izključujeta vse različice, ki ne vključujejo videoposnetka kot dejavnosti, ki jo učenec izvede zunaj učilnice. S tem se po njunem mnenju izogneta preširoki opredelitvi obrnjenega učenja in poučevanja, ki kot obrnjen proces sprejme že učenčevo branje gradiva zunaj učilnice in diskutiranje v razredu (prim. Berrett, 2012). Izhajajoč iz opredelitev tujih avtorjev obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje razumemo kot didaktično inovacijo, pri kateri učenci doma samostojno obravnavajo novo učno vsebino s pomočjo vnaprej pripravljenega interaktivnega gradiva (npr. videoposnetek), večji del pouka »v živo« pa zaradi prihranjenega časa lahko poteka v individualni in skupinski učni obliki ter v paru. Vnaprejšnja priprava učencev na pouk omogoča več problemskega pouka in projektnega učnega dela, učitelju pa predstavlja osnovo za didaktično-metodično diferenciacijo pouka »v živo«. Učitelj ima pomembno vlogo v fazah priprave, izvedbe in evalvacije obrnjenega učenja in poučevanja, zagotavlja sprotno povratno informacijo učencem glede učenja in skupaj z njimi reflektira izvajanje inovacije. Metodologija Namen in cilji raziskave Dosedanje raziskave s področja učnih oblik so pokazale prevlado frontalne učne oblike, za doseganje vzgojnih in izobraževalnih ciljev pouka pa je treba izvajati tudi druge, posredne učne oblike (Burns in Myhill, 2004; Galton idr., 2009; Harmer, 2001; Poljak, 1974; Strayer, 2007; Tomic, 2003; Veenman idr., 2003) in jih ustrezno kombinirati. Glavni namen raziskave je ugotoviti, kako preseči neskladje med obstoječim stanjem na področju organizacije učnih oblik in potencialom uporabe učnih oblik za doseganje visokih učnih dosežkov učencev in - posledično - večje učinkovitosti pouka. Z raziskavo ugotavljamo, na kakšen način bi ob nespremenjenih časovnih in učno-vsebinskih pogojih učitelji lahko v pouk poleg 272 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION frontalne učne oblike pogosteje in v večjem obsegu vključevali še druge učne oblike in jih med seboj ustrezno kombinirali. Raziskovalna vprašanja Pri raziskovanju so nas vodila naslednja raziskovalna vprašanja: 1. Kakšen pomen učitelji pripisujejo razmisleku o učnih oblikah? 2. Na kakšen način učitelji načrtujejo učne oblike in kakšne so razlike med njimi glede na delovno dobo? 3. Kako pogosto učitelji izvajajo posamezne učne oblike in kakšne so razlike med njimi glede na delovno dobo? 4. Kako učinkovita je posamezna učna oblika po presoji učiteljev? 5. Ali učitelji analizirajo izpeljane učne oblike in kakšne so razlike med njimi v pogostosti izbire posamezne učne oblike? 6. Ali učitelji na podlagi analize učnih oblik v svoj pouk vpeljejo spremembe? Raziskovalna metoda Raziskavo smo izvedli v skladu s kvantitativno raziskovalno paradigmo. Uporabili smo deskriptivno in kavzalno neeksperimentalno metodo pedagoškega raziskovanja (Cencič, 2009; Sagadin, 1993). Vzorec V raziskavo smo vključili slučajnostno izbrani reprezentativni vzorec učiteljev, ki poučujejo v različno velikih osnovnih šolah v Sloveniji. Vključeni so bili vzgojitelji, ki poučujejo kot drugi strokovni delavci v prvem razredu, učitelji razrednega pouka in učitelji predmetnega pouka. Zagotovili smo ustrezno regionalno pokritost šol vseh enot Zavoda Republike Slovenije za šolstvo. V raziskavi je sodelovalo 422 pedagoških delavcev, od tega 396 žensk (93,3 %) in le 26 moških (6,2 %). O svoji starosti sta poročala 402 učitelja, 20 pa jih ni želelo posredovati tega podatka. Povprečna starost učiteljev je 44,5 leta (SD = 9,02), pri čemer je najmlajši sodelujoči učitelj star 24 let, najstarejši pa 64 let. Največ udeležencev raziskave poučuje od 7 do 18 let (36,5 %), sledijo tisti, ki imajo 19-30 let delovne dobe (28,4 %) in več kot 31 let delovne dobe (19,9 %). Manjši delež predstavljajo učitelji, ki so v šolstvu zaposleni 4-6 let (6,6 %) in 1-3 let (5,7 %), najmanjši pa je delež učiteljev začetnikov, zaposlenih manj kot eno leto (2,8 %). Zaradi majhnega deleža učiteljev, ki poučujejo manj kot leto, smo to kategorijo združili z naslednjo in v vseh statističnih izračunih uporabili kategorijo »0-3 let delovne dobe«, v katero spada 36 učiteljev oziroma 8,5 % vseh sodelujočih učiteljev. R. Plešec Gasparič & M. Valenčič Zuljan: Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 273 Postopki zbiranja podatkov Ravnateljem izbranih osnovnih šol smo po elektronski pošti poslali dopis, v katerem smo jih prosili, da spletno povezavo do vprašalnika po elektronski pošti posredujejo učiteljem na svoji šoli, ki smo jih želeli vključiti v vzorec. Za spletni vprašalnik smo se odločili zaradi ekonomičnosti pridobivanja podatkov, pa tudi zaradi omogočanja prehodov med vprašanji, ki naj bi se jih v pisnih tiskanih vprašalnikih izogibali (Cencič, 2009). Učitelji so spletni vprašalnik izpolnili in oddali preko spletne aplikacije, s čimer smo zagotovili anonimnost podatkov. Ravnateljem smo v dopisu ponudili tudi možnost posredovanja tiskanih vprašalnikov. V postopku zbiranja podatkov smo tako pridobili 345 vprašalnikov, izpolnjenih preko spletne aplikacije, in 77 fizičnih vprašalnikov, izpolnjenih ročno. Opis merskih instrumentov Za namen raziskave smo oblikovali vprašalnik za učitelje, sestavljen iz naslednjih vsebinskih sklopov, to so: splošna vprašanja o načrtovanju, izvajanju in evalvaciji učnih oblik, učiteljevo izvajanje učnih oblik v določenem oddelku in pri določenem predmetu ter splošni podatki o učitelju. Preverili smo merske karakteristike vprašalnika za učitelje. Objektivnost smo zagotovili z enotnimi, natančnimi, nedvoumnimi in jasnimi navodili za izpolnjevanje ter s primerljivimi pogoji v fazi zbiranja podatkov. Občutljivost smo zagotovili z ustreznim številom stopenj znotraj ocenjevalnih lestvic in lestvic stališč ter z zadostnim številom ponujenih odgovorov in postavk. Vsebinsko veljavnost smo zagotovili s tem, da smo vprašalnik sestavili na podlagi teoretičnih izhodišč in pregleda izsledkov že opravljenih raziskav s področja učnih oblik (Crumbaugh idr., 2001; Cullingford, 1995; Harmer, 2001; Johnson in Johnson, 1999; Morgan, 2000; Pigford, 1990; Veenman idr., 2003). Za določanje konstruktne veljavnosti smo uporabili faktorsko analizo, zanesljivost pa smo preverjali s Cronbachovim koeficientom alfa in z izračunom odstotka pojasnjene variance z vsemi faktorji. Ocenjevalna lestvica učinkovitosti posamezne učne oblike dosega zadostno zanesljivost (a = 0,873; z vsemi faktorji je pojasnjene 70,24 % variance) in zadostno veljavnost (s prvim faktorjem je pojasnjene 35,39 % variance). Postopki obdelave podatkov Pri obdelavi podatkov smo uporabili deskriptivno in inferenčno statistiko. Podatke smo obdelali s statističnim programom SPSS za Windows (verzija 22). Za obdelavo podatkov smo uporabili naslednje statistične postopke: frekvenčno porazdelitev podatkov atributivnih spremenljivk in osnovno deskriptivno statistiko 274 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION numeričnih spremenljivk (mere srednje vrednosti in standardnega odklona). Za ugotavljanje statistične pomembnosti povezanosti opisnih spremenljivk smo uporabili %2-preizkus hipoteze neodvisnosti oziroma v primeru neizpolnjenih pogojev Kullbackov 2I-preizkus. Za ugotavljanje statistične pomembnosti razlik med več kot dvema skupinama smo uporabili neparametrični Kruskall-Wallisov preizkus. Za ugotavljanje trenda smo uporabili Jonckheere-Terpstrov preizkus in velikost učinka r za ta preizkus (Field, 2009). Rezultati in interpretacija Rezultate, pridobljene v raziskavi, predstavljamo v treh vsebinskih sklopih, v katerih smo analizirali načrtovanje, izvajanje in evalvacijo učnih oblik. Analiza načrtovanja učnih oblik Želeli smo ugotoviti, kolikšen pomen učitelji pripisujejo razmisleku o učnih oblikah. Učitelji so izbirali odgovore na 4-stopenjski lestvici in razmislek ocenili kot nepomemben, manj pomemben, pomemben ali %ei° pomemben. Večina učiteljev (61,6 %) meni, da je razmislek o učnih oblikah, ki jih bodo uporabili pri pouku, %eio pomemben. Skoraj vsi drugi učitelji menijo, da je o tem pomembno razmišljati (37,7 %), le malo pa je takšnih, ki menijo, da je ta razmislek manj pomemben ali nepomemben (skupaj 0,7 %). Odgovori kažejo na zavedanje učiteljev, da je pomembno, da pouk poteka v tisti učni obliki, ki kar najbolje upošteva potrebe in značilnosti učencev ter čim bolj zanesljivo in učinkovito prispeva k uresničevanju učnih ciljev (Kramar, 2009). Če učitelj želi kakovostno izvajati učne oblike, je zelo pomembno, da jih tudi ustrezno načrtuje, saj lahko, kot izpostavljajo Galton, L. Hargreaves, Comber, D. Wall in Pell (1999), učna oblika podpira ali pa zavira izvajanje učnih dejavnosti pri učencih. Načrtovanje učnih oblik je še posebej tesno povezano z didaktičnim načelom strukturnosti in sistematičnosti pouka, ki od učitelja zahteva njihovo premišljeno razvrščanje in postopnost znotraj artikulacijskih stopenj učnega procesa, to pa predstavlja tudi temelj za načrtovanje učnih metod in njihovega kombiniranja (Strmčnik, 2001). Želeli smo ugotoviti, v kolikšni meri učitelji razmislek o uporabi učnih oblik opravijo vnaprej (jo načrtujejo in izbiro zapišejo v učno pripravo) in koliko učiteljev se za izbiro učne oblike odloča spontano oziroma sproti med poukom. Pri tem je R. Plešec Gasparič & M. Valenčič Zuljan: Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 275 zanimiv tudi vidik prilagodljivosti učitelja — zanimalo nas je, koliko učiteljev oblike sicer načrtuje in zapiše v pripravo, pri čemer pa se zavedajo pomena učiteljeve fleksibilnosti in so jih zmožni po potrebi prilagoditi učni situaciji. Učitelji so imeli pri vprašanju: »Na kakšen način po navadi načrtujete učne oblike?« možnost izbirati med petimi različnimi odgovori. Večina učiteljev je izbrala možnost Učne oblike načrtujem vnaprej, vendarjih medpoukomprilagajam (70,1 %). Skoraj četrtina učiteljev (23,7 %) poroča, da učne oblike vedno načrtuje vnaprej in jih zapiše v učno pripravo. V manjšini pa so učitelji, ki načrtujejo na drugačne načine — ne zapišejo učnih oblik v učno pripravo, se zanje odločajo proti med poukom ali odločitev glede učnih oblik prepuščajo svojim učencem (skupaj 6,1 %). Glede na to, da so učitelji pri prvem vprašanju odgovorili, da se jim zdi razmislek o učnih oblikah pomemben ali zelo pomemben, je razumljivo, da so učitelji odgovorili, da učne oblike načrtujejo vnaprej. Hkrati pa so izrazili tudi prilagodljivost glede učnih oblik, na kar opozarja tudi Poljak (1974), ki poudarja, da je pouk živ proces, zato mora učitelj občasno odstopiti od svojega načrta, če tako zahteva trenutna situacija. Avtor pri tem svari, da mora biti odstopanje od učne priprave vedno v korist kakovosti pouka in naj bo razmeroma majhno, da učitelj ne zaide v spontano improviziranje. Izjemnega pomena je zato sprotna evalvacija učnega procesa, ki v prihodnje učitelju omogoča še bolj premišljeno načrtovanje. Pečar (2018) je v svoji raziskavi o prilagajanju pouka, v katero je bilo vključenih 723 slovenskih osnovnošolskih učiteljev, med drugim preučevala, kako učitelji ocenjujejo pomen prilagajanja različnih elementov pouka, med njimi tudi učnih oblik. Ugotovila je, da učitelji pomenu prilagajanja učnih oblik pripisujejo visok pomen, saj so ga na petstopenjski lestvici ocenili s povprečno oceno, višjo od 4 (x = 4,21). Višje so ocenili le še pomen prilagajanja učnih metod in zahtevnosti nalog. Izsledki raziskave se ujemajo tudi z našimi ugotovitvami, da za veliko večino učiteljev (93,3 %) drži ali popolnoma drži, da učne oblike prilagajajo učencem. Preverili smo razlike med učitelji glede načina načrtovanja učnih oblik, in sicer glede na leta delovne dobe učiteljev (tabelal). Ugotovili smo, da se učitelji statistično pomembno razlikujejo v načrtovanju učnih oblik glede na delovno dobo (21 = 27,611; g = 16;p = 0,035). Na prvi pogled so bili učitelji z različno delovno dobo precej usklajeni — približno četrtina jih je odgovarjala, da vedno načrtujejo vnaprej in učne oblike zapišejo v učno pripravo, tri četrtine pa, da učne oblike načrtujejo vnaprej, vendarjih med poukom prilagajajo. 276 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Tabela 1: Načini načrtovanja učnih oblik glede na delovno dobo učiteljev. Vedno načrtujem Učne oblike Učne oblike Za učne Učne oblike Skupaj Način načrtovanja vnaprej in učne oblike zapišem v učno pripravo. načrtujem vnaprej, vendar jih ne zapišem v učno načrtujem vnaprej, vendar jih med poukom prilagajam. oblike se odločim sproti med izvajanjem pouka. sproti med poukom predlagajo učenci. pripravo. 0-3 f 10 0 26 0 0 36 f % 27,8 % 0,0 % 72,2 % 0,0 % 0,0 % 100,0 % ~ 4-6 f 6 0 22 0 0 28 f % 21,4 % 0,0 % 78,6 % 0,0 % 0,0 % 100,0 % !u •jč 7-18 f 29 9 112 4 0 154 f % 18,8 % 5,8 % 72,7 % 2,6 % 0,0 % 100,0 % ž 19-30 0 f f % 35 29,2 % 7 5,8 % 77 64,2 % 1 0,8 % 0 0,0 % 120 100,0 % I >31 > f 20 0 59 4 1 84 f % 23,8 % 0,0 % 70,2 % 4,8 % 1,2 % 100,0 % a Z f 100 16 296 9 1 422 f % 23,7 % 3,8 % 70,1 % 2,1 % 0,2 % 100,0 % Glavne razlike se pojavijo pri učiteljih z delovno dobo 7-18 let in 19-30 let, ki so v enakem deležu (5,8 %) odgovarjali tudi, da učne oblike načrtujejo vnaprej, vendar jih ne zapišejo v učno pripravo. Učitelji z najdaljšo delovno dobo, 31 in več let, pa so v večjem deležu kot drugi učitelji (4,8 %) odgovarjali, da se za učne oblike odločijo sproti med izvajanjem pouka. Ob tem se zastavlja vprašanje, kakšni so razlogi, da učitelji z daljšo delovno dobo na videz manj načrtno in premišljeno pristopajo k načrtovanju učnih oblik oziroma da jih ne zapisujejo v pripravo ali se zanje celo spontano odločajo med poukom. Odgovor morda najdemo pri Clarku in Petersonu (1984), ki v svojem delu pišeta o učiteljevem miselnem procesu pri pripravi. Z raziskavo sta ugotovila, da tudi izkušeni učitelji vedno načrtujejo svoje poučevanje, vendar za to potrebujejo bistveno manj časa kot učitelji začetniki, pri čemer navajata štiri razloge za to: a) izkušeni učitelji si ustvarjajo bazo učinkovitih učnih priprav; b) izkušeni učitelji veliko časa posvetijo temu, da učence navadijo na rutinske postopke, to pa jim v nadaljevanju učnega procesa prihrani čas; c) izkušeni učitelji načrtujejo večji obseg učnega procesa naenkrat (tematsko), pri čemer so priprave na posamezno učno uro zgolj elementi tematske priprave, in č) izkušeni učitelji kompleksne odločitve sprejemajo intuitivno in hitro, zato so se sposobni, medtem ko aktivno poučujejo, prilagajati učencem in njihovim potrebam. R. Plešec Gasparič & M. Valenčič Zuljan: Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 277 Analiza izvajanja učnih oblik V drugem sklopu se bomo posvetili izvajanju učnih oblik, pri čemer nas zanima, kako pogosto učitelji izvajajo posamezne učne oblike in kakšne so razlike med njimi glede na delovno dobo. Odgovori učiteljev so bili vezani na razred, oddelek in predmet, ki ga poučujejo, da so odgovore lažje izbrali. Učitelji so pri vsaki učni etapi odgovarjali, katero od učnih oblik (frontalno učno obliko, individualno učno obliko, delo v paru ali skupinsko učno obliko) v določeni učni etapi najpogosteje izpeljejo. Odgovorov glede najpogostejšega izvajanja posameznih učnih oblik pa ne presojamo le z absolutno mero, saj Poljak (1974) pravi, da učne etape obsegajo različne deleže celotnega pouka. Avtor navede približne odstotke časa, ki naj bi jih učitelji porabili za posamezno učno etapo: 4 % časa za uvajanje, 35 % za obravnavo, 45 % za vadenje in urjenje, 10 % za ponavljanje in 6 % za preverjanje (in ocenjevanje). V tabeli 2 smo zato upoštevali Poljakova (1974) priporočila in izračunali, kolikšen delež pouka po navedbah učiteljev (ob upoštevanju obsega posamezne učne etape) zajema posamezna učna oblika. Izračunano sumacijsko spremenljivko smo poimenovali izbira učne oblike. Tabela 2: Opisna statistika izbire učnih oblik._ Izbira učnih oblik n Min Max x SD Frontalna učna oblika 418 0 1 0,28 0,18 Individualna učna oblika 418 0 1 0,25 0,23 Delo v paru 418 0 1 0,25 0,22 Skupinska učna oblika 418 0 1 0,22 0,23 Glede na celoten pouk med učitelji prevladuje izbira frontalne učne oblike (x = 0,28), sledita pa ji individualna učna oblika in delo v paru (obe učni obliki: x = 0,25). V povprečju je v najmanjši meri izbrana skupinska učna oblika (x = 0,22), treba pa je poudariti, da so razlike majhne in da je razmerje med vsemi štirimi učnimi oblikami precej enakovredno. Rezultati naše raziskave se bistveno razlikujejo od tiste, na katero se sklicuje Gudjons (2007), ki navaja, da frontalna učna oblika zavzema 76,86 % vsega pouka, 10,24 % pouka poteka v individualni učni obliki, 7,43 % v skupinski učni obliki (še dodatna 2,60 % predstavlja skupinsko delo celotnega kolektiva), le 2,88 % pa je dela v paru (Hage, 1985, v Gudjons, 2007; Meyer, 1987, v Gudjons, 2007). Ti podatki in pa navedbe številnih avtorjev, da je frontalna učna oblika tista, ki v pouku 278 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION prevladuje, nam vzbujajo vprašanja glede rezultatov, ki smo jih pridobili na podlagi poročanja učiteljev o najpogosteje izbrani učni obliki. Povsem neposredna primerjava rezultatov naše raziskave z navedbami drugih avtorjev sicer ni možna, saj ni bilo predstavljeno, s kakšno metodologijo so bili pridobljeni podatki v drugih virih (Meyer, 1987, v Gudjons, 2007; Poljak, 1974; Tomic, 2003). Ob kritičnem pomisleku avtorjev (Blažič idr., 2003; Harmer, 2001; Muijs in Reynolds, 2018; Poljak, 1974) glede uporabe frontalne učne oblike je treba poudariti, da je skrbno načrtovana in ustrezno izpeljana frontalna učna oblika še danes zelo pomembna pri doseganju ciljev kakovostnega pouka (Blažič idr., 2003; Gudjons, 2007; Hattie in Zierer, 2018), ključno pa je, da jo učitelj premišljeno izbere glede na številne dejavnike (značilnosti učne vsebine, učencev itd.) in jo kombinira z drugimi učnimi oblikami (Strmčnik, 2001; Štefanc, 2011). Pri interpretaciji naših rezultatov in primerjavi z drugimi raziskavami je treba upoštevati tudi kontekst pridobivanja podatkov, saj so učitelji odgovarjali o najpogosteje izpeljani učni obliki za vsako učno etapo in ne za celoten pouk, mi pa smo njihove odgovore utežili z deleži, ki jih po Poljaku (1974) v celotnem pouku zavzema vsaka od učnih etap. V nadaljnjem raziskovanju učnih oblik bi bilo smiselno, da bi učitelji tudi sami (neposredno) zapisali, kolikšen delež njihovega celotnega pouka v povprečju obsega posamezna učna etapa. Prav tako bi bilo dragoceno sistematično opazovati pouk, da bi pridobili dodaten vpogled tako v pogostost kot tudi v tudi kakovost izvedbe vsake od učnih oblik. Na takšen način bi lahko dopolnili trenutne ugotovitve, ki smo jih pridobili na podlagi poročanja učiteljev o svojem delu. Razlike med učitelji z različno delovno dobo glede pogostosti izbire posamezne učne oblike smo preverili z neparametričnim Kruskal-Wallisovim preizkusom. Statistično pomembne razlike glede na leta delovne dobe so se med učitelji pokazale v pogostosti izbire frontalne učne oblike (H = 10,098; g = 4; p = 0,039). Najpogosteje jo izbirajo učitelji z delovno dobo 0-3 let (Me = 0,39). V vzorcu delo v paru najpogosteje izbirajo učitelji z delovno dobo 4-6 let (Me = 0,45), skupinsko učno obliko pa tisti z delovno dobo 7-18 let (Me = 0,13). Ugotovili smo, da učitelji z delovno dobo 0—3 let v celotnem obsegu pouka v primerjavi z drugimi pogosteje izbirajo frontalno učno obliko. Valenčič Zuljan (1999, 2012) je ugotovila podobno — učitelji na začetku svojega profesionalnega razvoja, ki imajo nižja pojmovanja pouka, pogosteje uporabljajo frontalno učno obliko, ker jo dobro poznajo in jim ne povzroča večjih naporov. Največji delež teh učiteljev (94,4 %) je R. Plešec Gasparič & M. Valenčič Zuljan: Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 279 v naši raziskavi tudi odgovoril, da v etapi obravnave nove učne snovi najpogosteje izbirajo frontalno učno obliko. V prvi fazi profesionalnega razvoja je namreč učitelj usmerjen predvsem vase in v svojo vlogo v razredu, pri čemer sta mu zelo pomembna pregled in nadzor nad razredom, zato rezultati naše raziskave, da se učitelji v tem obdobju močno zanašajo na frontalno učno obliko, niso presenetljivi (Chickering, 1991, v Valenčič Zuljan, 1999, 2012; Huberman, 1992, v Valenčič Zuljan, 1999, 2012; Javrh, 2007). Analiza evalvacije učnih oblik Premišljena organizacija učnih oblik je neločljivo povezana z učiteljevo refleksijo pouka, njegovim pojmovanjem pouka, presojanjem učinkovitosti posamezne učne oblike in s pripravljenostjo vnašati spremembe v svoj pouk. Zanimalo nas je, kako učitelji presojajo učinkovitost učnih oblik, pri čemer smo bili pozorni na dve dimenziji: kako ekonomična je posamezna učna oblika po mnenju učiteljev in kako uporabna se jim zdi. Učitelje smo tudi vprašali, ali analizirajo izpeljane učne oblike in ali na podlagi lastnih ugotovitev vpeljejo spremembe na področju učnih oblik. Zanimalo nas je tudi, kakšne so razlike med učitelji v pogostosti izbire posamezne učne oblike. Za merilo učinkovitosti smo uvedli sumacijsko spremenljivko, sestavljeno iz spremenljivk ekonomičnost in uporabnost. Najprej smo ugotavljali ekonomičnost vsake od učnih oblik po mnenju učiteljev. Učitelji so presojali štiri vidike: zahtevnost priprave, porabo časa za pripravo, zahtevnost izvedbe in porabo časa za izvedbo pri vsaki od učnih oblik. Vsako od njih so ocenili z ocenami od 1 (najmanj zahtevna/porabim najmanj časa) do 5 (najbolj zahtevna/porabim največ časa). V koncept ekonomičnosti smo zajeli tudi načelo racionalnosti, ki pravi, naj z optimalnim vložkom moči, sredstev in časa dosežemo maksimalni vzgojno-izobraževalni učinek (Poljak, 1974; Strmčnik, 2001), kar smo povezali s kategorijo zahtevnosti priprave/izvedbe. Za merilo ekonomičnosti smo uvedli sumacijsko spremenljivko naslednjih spremenljivk: čas, potreben za pripravo posamezne učne oblike; zahtevnost priprave posamezne učne oblike; čas, potreben za izvedbo posamezne učne oblike, in zahtevnost izvedbe posamezne učne oblike. Lestvico vrednosti smo obrnili, tako da višja povprečna ocena pomeni višjo ekonomičnost in obratno. Izračunali smo srednje vrednosti ekonomičnosti vsake od učnih oblik (tabela 4). 280 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Za ugotavljanje presoje uporabnosti posamezne učne oblike so učitelji ocenjevali sedem postavk vezanih na vprašanje, katera od učnih oblik je po njihovem mnenju najprimernejša za doseganje različnih namenov (npr. v največji meri omogoča doseganje ciljev predmeta; je najbolj primerna %a starost učencev v izbranem oddelku; je najbolj primerna %a nadarjene učence; je najbolj primerna za učence z učnimi težavami; je najbolj primerna pri diferenciaciji pouka po težavnosti; je najbolj primerna pri diferenciaciji pouka po obsegu; je najbolj primerna pri dferentiaciji pouka po interesu). Za merilo uporabnosti smo prešteli, kolikokrat je bila pri vsaki od postavk, ki so označevale uporabnost, izbrana posamezna učna oblika. Izračunali smo srednje vrednosti uporabnosti za vsako od učnih oblik (preglednica 3). Tabela 3: Opisna statistika ocen ekonomičnosti in uporabnosti posamezne učne oblike po presoji učiteljev._ Ekonomičnost Uporabnost Učne oblike n Min Max x SD n Min Max x SD Frontalna 422 4 20 12,51 3,02 422 0 6 1,00 0,94 Individualna 422 4 19 10,10 2,88 422 0 7 2,30 1,32 Delo v paru 422 4 17 8,99 2,46 422 0 5 1,32 1,06 Skupinska 422 4 17 7,26 2,70 422 0 7 2,14 1,34 Preglednica 4 prikazuje, da so učitelji kot najbolj ekonomično učno obliko ocenili frontalno učno obliko (x = 12,51), sledi ji individualna učna oblika (x = 10,10). Delo v paru (x = 8,99) se zdi učiteljem bolj ekonomično od skupinske učne oblike (x = 7,26). Ugotovili smo, da učitelji kot najuporabnejši ocenjujejo individualno učno obliko (x = 2,30) in skupinsko učno obliko (x = 2,14). Precej manj uporabni se jim zdita delo v paru (x = 1,32) in frontalna učna oblika (x = 1,00). Zanimivo je, da tako po ekonomičnosti kot tudi po uporabnosti izstopa individualna učna oblika. Želeli smo ugotoviti, kako učinkovita se zdi učiteljem posamezna učna oblika. Za merilo učinkovitosti smo uvedli sumacijsko spremenljivko, sestavljeno iz spremenljivk ekonomičnost in uporabnost,, pri čemer smo obe spremenljivki utežili z ustreznim faktorjem, da smo zagotovili enakomeren vpliv na končni rezultat. Tako smo dobili novo sumacijsko spremenljivko učinkovitost posamezne učne oblike (tabela 4). Ko smo izračunali vrednosti nove spremenljivke, in sicer učinkovitost učnih oblik,, smo ugotovili, da so učitelji z najvišjo povprečno oceno ocenili individualno učno obliko (x = R. Plešec Gasparič & M. Valenčič Zuljan: Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 281 2,42). Sledita ji frontalna učna oblika (x = 2,35) in skupinska učna oblika (x - 2,02). Delo v paru je ocenjeno z najnižjo povprečno oceno (x - 2,00). Učna oblika n Min Max x SD Frontalna 422 1,00 3,73 2,35 0,43 Individualna 422 1,00 4,02 2,42 0,52 Delo v paru 422 1,00 3,27 2,00 0,43 Skupinska 422 1,00 3,50 2,02 0,51 Razlogov za to, da so učitelji najvišjo povprečno oceno namenili individualni učni obliki, je veliko: učencem omogoča učenje z odkrivanjem in reševanjem problemov, spodbuja njihovo samostojnost in prevzemanje odgovornosti za lastno učenje, primerna je za pridobivanje spretnosti skozi etapo vadenja in urjenja. Individualna učna oblika podpira individualizacijo, učitelj pa se lahko bolj posveti posameznemu učencu kot pri drugih učnih oblikah (Blažič idr., 2003; Harmer, 2001; Pletenac, 1991). Frontalna učna oblika pa je tista, ki se tesno povezuje z načeli reda, strukture in jasnosti, še posebno pri usvajanju osnovnih spretnosti, kar po mnenju Veenmana idr. (2003) ter Muijsa in Reynoldsa (2018) prispeva k zagotavljanju učinkovitosti pouka. Poleg meril ekonomičnosti in uporabnosti učnih oblik je treba v kontekstu njihove učinkovitosti gledati širše in ugotoviti, kaj še tvori ta kompleksni koncept. Učitelje smo zato prosili, naj za vsako od učnih oblik navedejo njene prednosti in omejitve, pri čemer smo ugotovili, da se njihovi odgovori dobro ujemajo s tistimi prednostmi in ovirami oziroma pomanjkljivostmi, ki jih izpostavljajo tudi različni avtorji (Bognar in Matijevič, 1993; Cullingford, 1995; Gudjons, 2007; Halliday, 1996; Harmer, 2001; Johnson in Johnson, 1999; Kutnick idr., 2005; Lioe idr., 2005; McDonald, 1996; Morgan, 2000; Muijs in Reynolds, 2018; Pletenac, 1991; Strmčnik, 2001; Storch, 2002; Tomič, 2003; Veenman idr., 2003). Učitelji se v tradicionalnem učnem procesu, ki predpisuje dinamiko izmenjevanja učnih etap in določa njihove nosilce, pogosto znajdejo v strokovni dilemi, kako ob različnih omejujočih dejavnikih, kot so prostorska ureditev učilnice, opremljenost šole, število učencev v oddelku, pojmovanja učencev o pouku in drugo izbirati ter dopolnjevati učne oblike, da bi čim bolj upoštevali didaktično načelo aktivnosti in da bi bil vsak učenec optimalno miselno aktiven. Zato nas je zanimalo, ali učitelji analizirajo izpeljane učne oblike in kakšne razlike se med njimi pojavljajo v pogostosti izbire posamezne učne oblike. 282 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Učitelje smo vprašali, v kolikšni meri drži, da redno analizirajo učne oblike, svoje odgovore pa so izrazili na petstopenjski lestvici. Na vprašanje, v kolikšni meri zanje drži, da redno evalvirajo izvedbo učnih oblik, je skoraj polovica učiteljev (49,2 %) odgovorila, da to zanje delno drži, 35,4 % pa jih je odgovorilo, da drži. Da trditev popolnoma drži, meni le 5,9 % učiteljev, majhen pa je tudi delež tistih, ki analize ne opravljajo redno ali pa je ne opravijo nikoli (skupaj 9,5 %). Glede izbire posamezne učne oblike smo primerjali učitelje, za katere (popolnoma) drži, da sproti analizirajo učne oblike (41,3 %), z učitelji, za katere to delno drži (49,2 %), in učitelji, za katere (nikakor) ne drži, da analizirajo izpeljane učne oblike (9,5 %). Izpeljali smo neparametrični Kruskal-Wallisov preizkus. Statistično pomembne razlike so se pokazale pri izbiri frontalne učne oblike (H = 6,061; g = 2; p = 0,048). Jonckheere-Terpstrov preizkus je pokazal statistično pomemben trend (J = 22965,500; p = 0,034; r = -0,103): frontalno učno obliko najpogosteje izberejo učitelji, za katere (nikakor) ne drži, da analizirajo učne oblike (Me = 0,39), sledijo tisti, pri katerih to delno drži (Me = 0,39), najmanj pogosto jo izberejo tisti, za katere popolnoma) drži, da učne oblike sproti analizirajo (Me = 0,35). Pri izbiri individualne učne oblike se med primerjanimi skupinami učiteljev niso pokazale statistično pomembne razlike. V vzorcu se je pokazalo, da individualno učno obliko pogosteje izberejo učitelji, ki pravijo, da zanje (nikakor) ne drži, da redno analizirajo učne oblike (Me = 0,27), manj pogosto pa učitelji, ki so odgovorili delno drži (Me = 0,10), in tisti, ki pravijo, da zanje popolnoma) drži, da učne oblike redno analizirajo (Me = 0,07). Statistično pomembne razlike so se pokazale tudi pri delu v paru (H = 9,245; g = 2; p = 0,010). Delo v paru najpogosteje izberejo tisti učitelji, za katere delno drži, da analizirajo učne oblike (Me = 0,14), sledijo tisti, pri katerih to popolnoma) drži (Me = 0,13), najmanj pogosto pa tisti, za katere sprotno analiziranje (nikakor) ne drži (Me = 0,10). Jonckheere-Terpstrov preizkus ni pokazal statistično pomembnega trenda. Statistično pomembne razlike so se pokazale pri skupinski učni obliki (H = 8,884; g = 2; p = 0,012). Skupinsko učno obliko najpogosteje izberejo učitelji, za katere (popolnoma) drži, da analizirajo učne oblike (Me = 0,14); manj pogosto pa tisti, pri katerih to (nikakor) ne drži ali delno drži (pri obeh skupinah: Me = 0,10). Vrednosti povprečnega ranga pri učiteljih, za katere delno drži, in tiste, za katere (nikakor) ne drži, sta med seboj zelo podobni, torej sklepamo, da se razlike pojavljajo med učitelji, za katere popolnoma) drži, da učne oblike redno analizirajo, in vsemi drugimi R. Plešec Gasparič & M. Valenčič Zuljan: Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 283 učitelji. Jonckheere-Terpstrov preizkus kaže na statistično pomembnost trenda (J -29132,500;p - 0,006; r - 0,133). Ugotovitev, da učitelji, ki sproti evalvirajo učne oblike, najpogosteje izvajajo delo v paru in skupinsko učno obliko, tisti učitelji, za katere to drži v manjši meri, pa najpogosteje uporabljajo neposredno oziroma frontalno poučevanje, lahko povežemo z utemeljitvami različnih avtorjev, ki izpostavljajo pomen učiteljeve evalvacije in refleksije pouka za kakovosten vzgojno-izobraževalni proces. Na pouk vpliva mnogo dejavnikov (kot so učna vsebina, učni cilji, udeleženci, situacije, sredstva in pripomočki ter antropogeno-sociokulturne značilnosti učne skupine), zaradi česar je pouk treba nujno diferencirati ter učne oblike ves čas evalvirati, da ne bi prihajalo do neželenih učinkov (Pranjic, 2005). Valenčič Zuljan (2001) je zapisala, da profesionalna rast učiteljev poteka hkrati na dveh ravneh — na ravni učiteljevih pojmovanj in na ravni njegovih ravnanj. Obe ravni sta med seboj povezani, saj učiteljeva pojmovanja usmerjajo njegovo ravnanje in mu ga pomagajo interpretirati; učiteljevo ravnanje pa hkrati predstavlja temelj za njegovo analizo in refleksijo lastne prakse, ki ga vodi k ozaveščanju pojmovanj za izboljšanje poučevanja. Učitelji z višjimi pojmovanji pouka več premisleka pri načrtovanju namenjajo spodbujanju miselne aktivnosti učencev pri pouku in se pogosteje odločajo za posredne učne oblike ter za kompleksnejše kombiniranje učnih oblik. Pri učiteljih z nižjimi pojmovanji pa je refleksija lastne prakse manj prisotna, zato pogosteje uporabljajo frontalno učno obliko kot preizkušeno možnost, ki so je že vajeni in jim ne povzroča večjega napora (Valenčič Zuljan, 2012), to pa se ujema tudi z izsledki naše raziskave. Hattie in Zierer (2018) ne zagovarjata omejevanja na le posamezno učno metodo ali obliko oziroma na le nekaj njih, ampak da mora učitelj preizkušati čim več učnih metod in oblik, in sicer pod pogojem, da ob koncu s preverjanjem doseženih učnih ciljev evalvira njihovo učinkovitost v dani učni situaciji. Pomen analize in spoznavanja lastnega učinka učitelja preko sistematične analize poudarja tudi Hattie (2018). Valenčič Zuljan (2012) je pojasnila, da so učiteljeva višja pojmovanja pouka povezana s spodbujanjem učenčeve aktivnosti v vseh etapah učnega procesa (Fox, 1983, v Valenčič Zuljan, 2012; Scardamalia in Bereiter, 1989, v Valenčič Zuljan, 2012; Kember, 1997, v Valenčič Zuljan, 2012). Poleg tega sta za višja pojmovanja pouka značilni tudi »[...] povečana odgovornost in pestrost oblik poučevanja, pri katerih imajo učenci veliko priložnosti za prevzemanje pobud in odgovornosti za svoj proces učenja in razvoja« (Valenčič Zuljan, 2012, str. 78). Scardamalia in Bereiter (1989, v Valenčič Zuljan, 2012) profesionalni razvoj učitelja vidita kot 284 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ponotranjenje višjih pojmovanj pouka, po katerih se učiteljeva vloga iz 'posrednika znanja vse bolj spreminja v usmerjevalca in spodbujevalca učenja'. Želeli smo izvedeti, če učitelji učne oblike zgolj analizirajo ali nato svoje ugotovitve tudi upoštevajo pri nadaljnji izbiri učnih oblik. Učitelji so s pomočjo štiristopenjske lestvice odgovorili, v kolikšni meri zanje drži, da prilagajajo učne oblike na podlagi predhodne evalvacije učnih oblik. Skoraj polovica (49,0 %) učiteljev meni, da zanje popolnoma drži, da v prihodnje učne oblike prilagodijo svojim ugotovitvam na podlagi evalvacije. Še 44,3 % učiteljev pa je podalo oceno, da zanje to drži. Le majhen delež je takšnih učiteljev, ki ne spreminjajo svoje prakse na podlagi ugotovitev evalvacije ali pa jo spreminjajo le delno — odgovora ne drži in delno drži skupaj znašata 6,7 %. Kramar (2009) poudarja, da mora učitelj s sprotno analizo preverjati pravilnost svoje odločitve za določeno učno obliko, njeno izvedbo in dosežke učencev, hkrati pa priporoča, da si učitelj svoje ugotovitve zapiše in jih upošteva pri svojem nadaljnjem delu. Pomemben vidik predstavljata prožnost in tudi prilagodljivost učitelja, pri čemer je pri učitelju začetniku pomembno, da čim hitreje usvoji rutinske postopke pri izvajanju pouka in razrednem vodenju. To mu omogoča, da svojo pozornost in kognitivni potencial usmeri v reševanje problemov, ki se pojavljajo, in v spremembe, ki so potrebne za izboljševanje pouka. Pri tem so učitelji eksperti bolj sistematični in poglobljeni, medtem ko učitelji začetniki probleme zaznavajo bolj površinsko in se nanje odzovejo impulzivno (Bereiter in Scardamaila, 1993, v Berliner, 2001; Swanson, O'Conner in Cooney, 1990, v Berliner, 2001). Ob tem se zastavlja vprašanje, kako bi učiteljem omogočili, da bi na podlagi evalvacije svojega poučevanja lahko v pouk vnašali pozitivne spremembe tudi v smislu učinkovitejšega izvajanja učnih oblik in njihovega medsebojnega kombiniranja. Na podlagi značilnosti didaktične inovacije obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje ocenjujemo, da ponuja ustrezne odgovore, saj zmanjšuje obseg frontalne učne oblike pri pouku v živo in omogoča več časa za druge učne oblike. Zaključek Z raziskavo smo želeli ugotoviti, kako pri učiteljih poteka načrtovanje učnih oblik — kakšen pomen pripisujejo razmisleku o učnih oblikah in na kakšen način se pripravijo na njihovo izvajanje. Ugotavljamo, da se učitelji zavedajo izobraževalnega in vzgojnega prispevka različnih učnih oblik h kakovosti pouka, saj jih večina meni, R. Plešec Gasparič & M. Valenčič Zuljan: Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 285 da je razmislek o učnih oblikah (zelo) pomemben. Ugotovili smo tudi, da večina učiteljev učne oblike zapiše v učno pripravo, med poukom pa jih prilagaja potrebam učencev. V nadaljevanju nas je zanimalo, kako poteka izvajanje učnih oblik. Ugotovili smo, da največji delež učiteljev kot najpogosteje izvajano učno obliko prepoznava frontalno učno obliko, sledita pa ji individualna učna oblika in delo v paru. Najmanjši delež učiteljev navaja skupinsko učno obliko kot najpogosteje izvajano. Ugotovili smo, da učitelji z delovno dobo 0—3 let v celotnem obsegu pouka v primerjavi z drugimi pogosteje izbirajo frontalno učno obliko. Učitelji so z najvišjo povprečno oceno ocenili učinkovitost individualne učne oblike. Sledita ji frontalna učna oblika in skupinska učna oblika, z najnižjo povprečno oceno pa je bilo ocenjeno delo v paru. Ugotovili smo, da učitelji, ki sproti evalvirajo učne oblike, najpogosteje izvajajo delo v paru in skupinsko učno obliko, tisti učitelji, za katere to drži v manjši meri, pa najpogosteje uporabljajo neposredno oziroma frontalno poučevanje V prispevku smo naredili pregled načrtovanja, izvajanja in evalvacije učnih oblik z vidika njihovega vpliva na učinkovit pouk. Učne oblike, ki so danes tradicionalen, stalen in stabilen didaktični koncept, smo povezali z didaktično inovacijo obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje, ki učitelju omogoča, da učne oblike izpelje na nekonvencionalen način in s tem prispeva k učenčevi samoregulaciji učenja, miselni aktivnosti, višjim učnim dosežkom, ustrezni časovni obremenitvi ter višjim pojmovanjem pouka. Summary There are many factors associated with effective instruction that should be taken into account by school policy, the school as an institution and each individual teacher (Hallinger and Heck, 2011; Marzano, 2003; Slavin, 1996a). The teacher's role is of utmost importance when it comes to factors influencing the didactic design of instruction, among which we focus on within-class pupil grouping. We highlight the quality of within-class student grouping as well as combinations of grouping forms (Kutnick et al., 2005; Strmčnik, 2001; Štefanc, 2011). We define didactic innovation as any novel practice that brings change and improvement to educational practice on different levels: a) the level of teachers' didactic skills and his/her conceptions and attitudes; school atmosphere; and the teacher's broader understanding of his/her own profession and professional 286 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION development (Valencic Zuljan & Kalin, 2007). We introduce the didactic innovation called flipped learning and teaching, which has been designed from the bottom up—meaning that it originated from the teachers and instructional practice (Bergmann and Sams, 2012, 2014). Flipped learning and teaching is defined as a combination of learning approaches consisting of two major parts: certain learning activities before and/or after the lesson in the classroom (e.g. watching a video of the teacher's explanation), and learning activities in class that demand cognitive activity and social interaction (Abeysekera and Dawson, 2015; Bergmann and Sams, 2012, 2014; Bishop and Verleger, 2013). Bergmann and Sams (2012) draw attention to the fact that the flipped learning model or the flipped classroom, as it was first called, has changed in quality over time. In the paper, we present this evolution of concepts and terms, and propose that flipped learning and teaching or flipped instruction are even more appropriate terms, since they includes students' as well as teacher's activity within instruction (Plut-Pregelj, 2015). The aim of the research was to study the attitudes and experiences of Slovenian primary school teachers. We used a questionnaire asking teachers how they plan, implement and evaluate within-class grouping. The sample comprises 422 primary school teachers from all regional departments of the National Education Institute of Slovenia. Our results are presented in three sections. In the first, we analyse and interpret results connected with teacher's planning of within-class grouping. We found that teachers are aware that appropriate within-class grouping contributes to the quality of instruction. A large majority of teachers believe that careful consideration of within-class grouping of pupils is (very) important. We also found that most teachers write down the planned forms of within-class pupil grouping in their lesson plan and adjust these to their pupils' needs during instruction. Results show statistically significant differences in the way teachers with varied years of service plan within-class pupil grouping. The second section is about the way teachers implement within-class grouping. We paid special attention to the frequency of each form of grouping. The main findings show that teachers self-report whole-class instruction as the most frequently used form of grouping. Whole-class instruction is closely followed by individualised learning. Pairwork was reported less frequently by teachers, and group work was reported the least. However, we must add that the differences in frequency between forms of grouping are relatively small, which does R. Plešec Gasparič & M. Valenčič Zuljan: Učne oblike v osnovni šoli in obrnjeno učenje in poučevanje 287 not agree with previous research findings telling of the prevalence of whole-class instruction. Results show statistically significant differences in how frequently teachers with various years of service use each form of grouping. In the third section, we introduce how often teachers evaluate forms of grouping and to what extent they adjust future planning and implementation to their findings. A large majority of teachers answered that it is true or at least partly true that they regularly analyse implemented forms of grouping and adapt grouping forms in future instruction according to these findings. We also analysed teachers' judgment of each form of grouping. The results of teacher's assessment of the effectiveness of each form of grouping show that teachers give the highest rating to individualised learning, closely followed by whole-class teaching. 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Avtorici Dr. Romina Plešec Gasparič, PhD Docentka, Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija, e-pošta: romina.plesecgasparic@pef.uni-lj.si Assistants Professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, e-mail: romina.plesecgasparic@pef.uni-lj.si Dr. Milena Valenčič Zuljan, PhD Redna profesorica, Pedagoška fakulteta, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija, e-pošta: milena.valencic-zuljan@guest.arnes .si Full Professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, e-mail: milena.valencic-zuljan@guest.arnes.si REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMNTARY EDUCATION Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 267-290 September 2019 FEI Teacher's Competences for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Model Potrjeno/Accepted 31. 7. 2019 Objavljeno /Published 17. 9. 2019 Keywords: competences of elementary education teachers, reception of youth literary texts, psychonarratology, recreational literary-didactic method of visual response, characterization, ethical judgment, modality. Ključne besede: kompetence učiteljev razrednega pouka, recepcija mladinskega literarnega besedila, psihonaratologija, poustvarjalna književno-didaktična metoda vizualnega odziva, karakterizacija, etična sodba, modalnost UDK/UDC 37.091.3:82 Kristina Šrot University of Maribor Library, Slovenia Corresponding author/ Korespondenčni avtor tina. srot@um. si Abstract/Povzetek In the article we present the method of visual response to literary texts, using the example of a folk tale from a foreign civilization circle titled "The Story of Caiman". In considering the perceptions of pupils in the 5th grade of elementary school, our goal is to examine teacher competences for developing the pupils' ability to perceive, understand and evaluate literary texts and on this basis, to assess the justification of content integration (JCI) in the curriculum of university teacher education. This problem was observed within the framework of the interdisciplinary connection between literature and fine arts, since it is only possible to achieve optimal use of aesthetically designed text as a didactic tool for the externalization of the learner's dialogue with literary proverbs, thus checking to what extent teachers are trained in these methods (Visual Response Method) in the communication model of literary education. Učiteljeve kompetence za uporabo Metode vizualnega odziva v komunikacijskem modelu književne vzgoje V članku predstavimo metodo vizualnega odziva (MVO) na literarno besedilo na primeru pravljice tujega civilizacijskega kroga z naslovom Zgodba o kajmanu. V kontekstu opravljanja recepcijske vloge učencev 5. razreda osnovne šole je naš cilj proučiti učiteljevo kompetenco za razvijanje učenčeve zmožnosti zaznavanja, razumevanja in vrednotenja literarnih besedil ter na podlagi tega z omenjeno metodo presoditi o upravičenosti vključevanja vsebine v kurikulum univerzitetnega izobraževanja učiteljev. Zastavljeni problem smo opazovali v okviru medpredmetne povezave književnosti in likovne umetnosti, saj je mogoče le na ta način doseči optimalno izrabo estetsko oblikovanih govoric kot didaktične poti (metode) za eksternalizacijo učenčevega dialoga z literarnim besedilom in tako preveriti, do katere mere so učitelji usposobljeni za uporabo omenjene metode (MVO) v komunikacijskem modelu književne vzgoje. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.12.3.291-312.2019 Besedilo / Text © 2019 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). IIhIH University of Maribor Press 292 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction Thesis: The teacher's understanding of the importance of children's artistic language in the communication model of literary education is based on theoretical starting points from psychoanalytical studies, knowledge of the guidelines for children's perception development, didactics of youth literature, art theory and didactics of fine arts. From the theoretical starting points, we infer that pupils need a much wider vocabulary than they have in order to yield a literary-aesthetic experience, given the level of abstract thinking. The method that enables the pupils to develop the capacity for logical thinking with their own activity, the ability to engage in creative dialogue with the literary text and the ability to express literary-historical experience, comes from visual communication and related teacher competences and knowledge of the rules of multicultural texts (Starc, 2011, Haramija and Batic, 2013). We therefore question the extent to which teachers in the communication model of literary education (Kordigel Abersek, 1994) have the competence to use non-linguistic semiotic functions that require knowledge of various disciplines and their rules. We respond to this in the article by observing the teacher's competences in using visual response methods at the stage of deepening the experience, when pupils express an understanding and evaluation of literary characters, or the ethical message of a folk tale and estimate the modality of the literary text. We are interested in what one of these teachers perceives and how to use this in subsequent reading of the literary text. Words in the reception process of literary texts What processes encourage the author's text signals, and how do readers compose their own individual textual meaning? We will find the answer in a relatively new vein of psychoanalytical study with the help of findings from empirical research carried out by Bortolussi and Dixon (2003). Their extensive experimental work yields answers to the question of how readers use their previous knowledge, expectations and beliefs in interacting with the textual characteristics of characterization, how they attach various motives to literary characters, how they form narrative concepts, narrative perspective and a spatial perception of narrative venues. The authors reject the erstwhile assumption of narratology, that the author's message is unequivocally encoded in the text and that the reader's task is to decode this message. Furthermore, they emphasize the importance of learning about the principles of perception, learning and thinking as active processes through which a person learns and goes beyond their environment. Psychonarratology is associated with the findings of cognitive psychology, embedded in the broader framework of cognitive science and neuroscience, which forms the basis of multidisciplinary K Srot: Teacher's Competences ^ for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Mode/ 293 insight into cognitive processes. Given that the mind cannot be directly observed but can be apprehended with a certain degree of abstraction, Bortolussi and Dix (2003) conceived and investigated the statistical reader and explained the difference between analysis that begins with words of discourse and analysis that begins with events in the fictional world. A typical discourse approach involves the development of the grammatical structure of the story: formal analysis of the narrative text, by which we recognize the components of the story and the relations between them. In an approach that highlights the fictional world, it is assumed that the ratios of events in the fictional world are comparable to those of events in the real world, and readers should process both in a similar way. The main problem of such an approach is that events often remain undescribed in the text but must be deduced. In addition, the problem arises that, if we align the arrangement of events in relation with events in the fictional world, we neglect the influence of discourse. Therefore, Bortolussi and Dixon (2003) and Nenadic (2014) suggest that the arrangement of events be directed to the reader rather than into the text or the fictional world. They also suggest that we distinguish between textual attributes that provide us with information about events and constructs created by readers to present these events. The narrators play an important role in this process, since they give precise hints about which events or relationships are relevant and important. Bortolussi and Dixon (2003) write about the circumstances of event outcomes as an important source of information about the fictional world, and in their epistemic and index features, they provide information about the narrator's evaluation of these events. According to this information, readers should construct performances, story threads and plans of literary characters. Word signals in the characterisation function of literary characters Characterization is also called labelling in Slovene (Kos, et al. 2001; Zupan Sosic, 2017). It is defined by procedures such as character imaging, speech stylization, description of event space, etc. The person's labelling (characterization) determines the depiction of the physical, emotional and moral characteristics of the person (main, secondary, positive, negative, tragic or comic) in the literary section. Another aspect of characterization is motivation. It involves a cascade of causes and motives that guide literary events and thus also the literary character (Zupan Sosic, 2017). Compiling and analysing the nature of a literary character is extremely time-consuming and hard work for the individual; it thus plays a central role in all elementary school lessons in literature (Saksida, 2008). The writer can show the personality of a character indirectly by enumerating their thoughts, feelings and desires, or directly, by rendering characteristic actions, so it becomes difficult to distinguish what is in the story and what in the character's code. On the one hand, we look at the character as the actor and, on the other, consider the action as 294 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION illuminating a character's personality. By analysing literary characters, the teacher prepares pupils for thorough reading, in-depth study of literary texts and learning about their own personality (Žagar, 2011) How do readers construct the nature of a literary character? Narratology follows from the assumption that we can describe the personality of other people by listing their characteristics (e.g., kindness, agreeableness, disgruntlement, domineering manner, etc.) and that readers expect such characteristics to be related to how people behave in different contexts. The processes that take place in identifying causal links between a personality trait and a particular action are complex and dependent on the interaction of experience, recall from memory and the inference processes. In general, the relation between personality traits and actions can be interpreted as the probability that readers have certain knowledge and possess mental processes that enable them to judge literary characters and actions in a fictitious world on the basis of probability (Bortolussi and Dixon, 2003). Although there is a consensus on how personality traits are related to actions, it must be emphasized that the details of this link vary from person to person, depending on knowledge and personal experience. Despite the emphasis on the continuity between the implicit personal theory that people use in the real world and the personality theory they use to understand narrative text, we must assume that there are significant differences between these two theories and that these differences also depend on the narrative genre. For example, when we read a detective novel, the likelihood that somebody will commit murder will be much greater than in the real world; in love novels, the likelihood of dramatic love is much greater than in real life. Literary characters and acts in narration are therefore generally unusual. Readers have their own expectations of how the probability of certain characteristics and actions in narrative deviates from these properties and actions in real life. Despite these differences, it can be argued that conceptual analysis of the relation between properties and actions is the same in the fictitious and real worlds (Bortolussi and Dixon, 2003; Nenadic, 2014). Illustration in the reception process of literary texts The reception of literary texts is related to the teacher's competences for dealing with multi-coded texts, since these represent the ability to read critically, which helps to develop receptiveness to a youth literary text and thus to information literacy among young readers (Starc, 2011a). That is why teacher's competence to recognise external judgments by pupils is checked by means of observation, analysis and interpretation of the image, through a personal test from the artistic pedagogical point of view. K Srot: Teacher's Competences ^ for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Mode/ 295 The characterization and modality of a literary text and ethical judgment about it can be demonstrated through illustrations, depending on the verbal or artistic code of the message. The illustrator has universal and individual symbols, colours, shapes and visual associations to articulate expressive words, or to extend and upgrade this meaning. Thus, in the survey, we check characterization, modality and ethical judgment through the visual elements of colours, shapes and lines that we accept, emotionally evaluate and express to ourselves. By using colour, we prefer, reject and learn about a personality (Tušak, 2001; Eiseman, 2018). As part of our psychological development, we associate colours with emotions as well as with intellect. Each colour has a meaning that is marked consciously or intuitively. This enables us to recognize their messages and meanings (Trstenjak, 1996). Much of our associative response to colour is related to natural phenomena, cultural, historical and traditional aspects, etc. We must also consider the unconscious response to colour (physiological response), which is influenced by our personal experience associated with this colour. The symbolism of colour develops on the basis of its expressive characteristics. The expressive value of the colour is derived from the tone of the colour, from its lightness or warmth, its dynamism or reticence. For example, yellow is the colour of enlightenment and reason, while red is the colour of emotion and action; blue embodies spirituality and transcendence (Rački, 2014; Kovačev, 1997; Tušak, 2001). In the remaining sections of the study, we observe the visual elements of form in the visual context of permanent geometric structures (square, circle and triangle) and their semiotic significance. Given that we commonly designate shapes as hard, sharp or soft, each art form shows something: the circle is soft and the triangle is sharp (Muhovič, 2015). Finally, the analysis of the character and modality of a literary text and ethical judgment about it is checked through the artistic elements of the lines, since the line is the basis of artistic outlining, a means of delimiting, limiting and dividing forms and spaces (Muhovič, 2015). Art theory says that lines are an artistic expression that can stimulate the viewer to a variety of feelings, since line has multiple symbolism and a psychological effect in relation to direction: the horizontal line functions calmly and passively. It refers to rest, the plane and the horizon. The vertical line functions actively, firmly and with dignity; it also represents alertness, control of the situation, life and growth, since humans are upright beings. The vertical line is detected closer than the horizontal, so in some cases we see these in front and the horizontal ones in the rear. The sloping line works dynamically and means movement. The uniform wavy line is calm, creating a soft, smooth movement, a feeling of tenderness and elegance (Šuštaršič, Butina, Zornik, de Gleria and Skubin, 2011; Muhovič, 2015). Each curve determines its angle. The one-off curve depends on the direction it takes in relation to the vertical or horizontal plane. The curves are supple and give rise to a sense of continuity, smoothness and various tensions. There is less effort in them than in 296 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION square shapes consisting of vertical and horizontal lines and angles. They can therefore express softness, grace, sweetness and femininity (Butina, 2000). Teacher's competence for evaluating artistic designTeachers acquire the competences for evaluating fine arts and recognising quality interpretation during their undergraduate education, or while upgrading with various professional seminars and training. In this regard, the teacher's self-initiative and motivation for connecting aesthetically-designed speeches with subjects from different fields of expertise is of utmost importance (Duh and Korošec, 2009). To test the reception of the folk tale, The Story of Caiman is used by the teacher specifically for this research, a method of visual response to literary text that combines two interpretative codes. The first part comprises a linguistic code that enables the teacher to perceive and understand the externally made judgments of pupils at the linguistic level of communication. In the second part, the pupils engage with characterization, modality and ethical judgment of The Story of Caiman, using the artistic code of colour, shape and line. Semiotic analysis of literary illustrations allows the teacher to perceive and understand the artistic code by which pupils communicate how they understand the literary text. The teacher's ability to read multi-coded texts includes development, verification and evaluation of the pupil's artistic and apprenticeship capabilities. Therefore, in the framework of the artistic code, we check the teacher's competence for evaluating pupils' artistic and appreciation abilities (Duh, 2004; Duh and Zupančič, 2011; Duh, Zupančič and Čagran, 2014). In the perception, understanding and evaluation of illustration quality, we use the artistic and content criteria developed by Zupančič (2012), the criteria for pupil success in the field of art (the solution of the artistic problem and the ability to describe artistic concepts, the implementation of visual arts); we use a scheme available on several websites of elementary schools entitled Criteria for Evaluating and Writing Pupil Achievements (Assessment) in Art Education based on the development of pupils' artistic abilities (Duh, 2004; Herzog, Duh and Batič, 2009; Duh and Zupančič, 2013). Aims and hypotheses In the empirical part of the research, we seek to identify and study the competence of elementary education teachers to use the visual response method to the literary text of a folk tale from a foreign civilization titled The Story of Caiman (Afriške pripovedke, 1976), in order to ascertain whether teachers can abandon their adult positions and predict how a literary text will be understood and interpreted by pupils in the 5th grade of elementary school. K Srot: Teacher's Competences ^ for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Mode/ 297 The folk tale reception and the hypothetical reception of teachers are examined on the linguistic and visual level of interpretation from three perspectives: - characterization, - modality and - moral dilemmas (ethical judgments). At the linguistic level, we will examine how the pupils assessed the character of literary characters (caiman, human, wild animals and jackal) is terms of whether they were good or bad, stuck to the agreement, did not adhere to the agreement, or were interfering. In the psychology of creation, literary identification indicates the engagement with the world of a literary work, from complete submersion to critical distancing (Zupan Sosic, 2017). The ability of the reader to live in literary events and literary characters, is a characteristic feature of literary characters both positive and negative, and identification with the literary character is important for the reception of a literary work. In this study, we check the identification with the literary character by asking the pupils which of the book's characters they resemble and why, and negative identification with the question, if staging The Story of Caiman in class, which of the book's characters they would not want to play. Characterization of the artistic code is checked by means of the colour, shape and line that are attributed to the literary characters by pupils, and by recognizing the semiotic significance of colour, shape and line in the book illustration of these characters. Teachers check whether they will be able to descend from their adult positions and predict how the character of the tale's literary characters will be assessed by pupils using artistic elements. The ability to perceive and understand literary time is checked through the concept of modality. Pupils in the 5th grade of elementary school have gained experience during years of schooling with the temporal schemes of fairy-tales. When they hear the words once upon a time, they prepare, in their current horizon, a set of expectations from their experiences with fairy-tales, telling them that the events will follow a subjective thinking scheme. On the other hand, the word today means that the text should be understood and evaluated in the context of real experience and objective thinking (Kordigel Abersek, 2008). The subjective and objective mental scheme is illustrated in the concept of modality (Nikolajeva, 2002). We check the perception of literary time at the linguistic level by asking pupils this question: Does The Story of Caiman happen today or once upon a time? The perception of literary time at the visual level is checked through a semiotic analysis of the artistic code in the 298 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION illustrations from The Story of Caiman. Based on the pupil's perception of literary time, we also examine the teacher's hypothetical perception of the modality of the literary text as received by the pupils. To highlight the moral dilemma, pupils are asked to pronounce on the behaviour of literary characters, about what is right and what is not; they describe these judgments on the linguistic level, but on the visual level, they express judgment through artistic elements (colour, shape and line) and their symbolic significance. We were interested in whether teachers would be able to descend from their adult positions and predict the moral dilemma expressed by pupils. We integrated the results into the answers to our research questions. In the study, we set hypotheses in the form of research questions, in which we were interested in whether the teachers were trained to use aesthetically designed proverbs as a didactic tool for recognizing outsourced pupil judgments. - RQ 1: Does the hypothetical assessment of future elementary education teachers about how pupils evaluate the character of literary characters in the The Story of Caiman differ from pupils' assessment? - RQ 2: Will the teachers perceive that the pupils have missed the ethical message of the folk tale entitled The Story of Caiman, when they discuss interpretation, identification and negative identification of literary characters on the language level? - RQ 3: Will most pupils evaluate literary texts as fantasy and whether teachers' perception of the modality of the literary text will also be perceived? - RQ 4: Did the teachers assume a pupil's choice of colour type for literary characters -- caiman, human, wild animals, jackal--and their symbolic significance? - RQ 5: Did the teachers assume a pupil's choice of form for literary characters -- caiman, human, wild animal and jackal-- thereby demonstrating competence for recognizing the symbolic significance of the expressive forms that pupils choose? - RQ 6: Will the teachers assume the pupil's choice of line and predict their choice of meaning for literary characters (caiman, human, wild animals and jackal) from The Story of Caiman? K Srot: Teacher's Competences ^ for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Mode/ 299 Methodology Research method The research is based on the descriptive and causal-non-experimental methods of empirical pedagogical research (Sagadin, 1993), in which we combined the quantitative and qualitative methods of pedagogical research: a semi-structured interview with pupils, a questionnaire for teachers and semiotic analysis of the artistic code. In the qualitative semiotic case analysis (Vogrinc, 2008; Bryman, 2016), we collected data by means of a teacher's interpretation of pupils' picture messages (illustrations of literary characters). The emphasis is on describing the situations and the efforts to understand the context in which these situations take place. This method of collecting data requires observation with participation and thus the inclusion of a researcher in the research environment (Abersek and Kordigel Abersek, 2019). Sample The research is based on a random sample of pupils from three urban (Maribor) elementary schools who were in 5th grade at the time of the research (10 years old). The research sample included 106 (100%) pupils. There were also 40 future teachers (100%) from the 4th year of Elementary Education, who in the summer semester (February, 2019) attended the course Pedagogical Research in the field of social sciences and humanities. Research instrument and method We obtained data for analysing the linguistic and artistic code of pupils and future teachers with a specially designed instrumental survey, a semi-structured interview (open questionnaire, supplemented, if needed) for pupils and based on the questionnaire for teachers. Questionnaire for pupils The semi-structured questionnaire for pupils includes ten questions. It is divided into two parts. The first part of the questionnaire examines the comprehension of the literary text on the linguistic level, while the other part is the reception of literary texts using visual elements (colour, shape and line) when pupils illustrate literary characters. At the end of each part of the questionnaire, we connect with a synthesis of the linguistic and artistic code of the message and check the interdependence of the interpretations of the two codes. 300 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Questionnaire for teachers To the future class teachers, we asked ten questions of an open type in the questionnaire, in which we included four illustrations of literary characters from The Story of Caiman (Afriške pripovedke, 1976, p. 56-60). We reminded the future teachers that they should read the instructions carefully, consider and correctly complete the questionnaire. Images are interpreted by their feelings about and understanding of the text read. Interpretation was done by identifying the linguistic and artistic code, so that future teachers entered the inferred responses of 5th grade pupils in the questionnaire, which allowed us to test whether they were able to predict hypothetically how pupils would tackle the literary text. We provided enough time for pupils and teachers to complete the questionnaire. The measurement characteristics of both questionnaires were checked by experimental surveys, and reliability by comparing pupils' responses with illustrations of literary characters, and common interpretation results, with theoretical starting points: psychoanalytics, the legitimacy of the child's receptive development, didactics of youth literature, art theory and didactics of fine arts. Data processing Data were processed with the statistical data processing program SPSS (Bratina, 2006), at the level of frequency distribution of data (f, f %). Data is presented in tabular form or the descriptions of interpretations are given. Descriptive data on literary characters and imputed properties (good, bad, disagreement, etc.) were entered in the table, and then for each literary character they verified which were positive and how many, and which were negative and how many in terms of pupil attributions to individual literary characters. In the same way, we obtained information on colour, shape and line for literary characters and the characteristics attributed to these literary characters by pupils, and the selection as also hypothetically foreseen by teachers. Semiotic analysis of artistic codes was given by interpretation of outline and outline artistic elements: colour, shape and line and their symbolic meaning. Results and discussion In the survey, we were interested in whether the hypothetical assessment by future teachers of elementary education about how pupils would assess the personality of literary characters in The Story of Caiman would differ from the actual assessment by pupils. Results are presented in Table 1. K Srot: Teacher's Competences ^ for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Mode/ 301 Table 1: Positive and negative attributes with which pupils evaluate literary characters and teachers' prediction of pupils' choices._ Literary character Assessment of pupils Positive Negative attributes attributes Predictions of teachers Positive Negative attributes attributes Caiman 31.2% 68.8% 73.3% 26.7% Human 57.0% 43.0% 21.4% 78.6% Wild animals 23.6% 76.4% 84.6% 15.4% Jackal 69.9% 30.1% 86.4% 13.6% The results show (Table 1) that the hypothetical assessment by future teachers of elementary education about how pupils will assess the nature of literary characters in The Story of Caiman differs for all four literary characters. The discrepancies between the pupils 'assessment and that of the teachers' estimates are highest for the literary characters wild animals, since 84.6% of the teachers estimate the wild animals as positive literary characters, while these are identified as positive by only 23.6% of pupils. Among teachers, 15.4% believe that pupils will evaluate the wild animals as negative characters, but 76.4% of the pupils do this. Based on these results, we conclude that most teachers did not descend from their adult positions and read the text as read by pupils of the 5th grade of elementary school. Therefore, we find that future teachers did not demonstrate competence in the use of genre transfer. In the psychology of creation, literary identification means the engagement with the world of the literary work, from complete submersion to critical distancing (Zupan Sosic, 2017). That's why our next question in the study is whether teachers will perceive that pupils have missed the ethical message of the folk tale The Story of Caiman, when they discuss identification and negative identification of literary characters on the linguistic level of interpretation (RQ2). The results are as follows: most pupils identify with the jackal (40.6%) and the human character (38.7%). In the context of negative identification, most pupils would not want to play the caiman (37.7%) or the wild animals (28.3%), which they recognize as the worst characters. These results show that pupils at the linguistic level have missed the ethical message of the folk tale because they recognize the human as good, and the wild animals as bad. Given that literary identification is more engaged with emotion than with reason, pupils usually identify with the familiar. In our case, this literary character is a human being. The wild animals tell the truth about the human character, so the children recognize these as the worst characters, who deserve punishment. Future teachers assumed that the pupils would identify with the human character, since they themselves are human, an assumption which the study confirmed. Given the dual nature of human beings, who can be both good and bad, K Srot: Teacher's Competences ^ for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Mode/ 302 teachers estimated that, in the context of negative identification, pupils would point to the human character (48.7%) as the person whom the pupils would not want to play. This is contrary to the pupil's actual assessment. Future teachers did not perceive that the pupils would miss the folk tale's ethical message; therefore, we conclude that they have only a limited degree of competence in detecting genre transfer, in which they should have been able to guess the identification and negative identification of pupils with literary figures in The Story of Caiman. With this conclusion, we answered RQ 2. In the third research question, we asked whether most pupils would evaluate the literary text as fantastic, and whether the pupil's assessment of the modality of the literary text would also be perceived by teachers. The capacity for perceiving and understanding literary time was checked by an evaluation of the concept of modality. The following conclusions were reached: Most pupils (94.3%) rated the literary text as fantastic. This answer was also foreseen by 97.4% of teachers. Based on the results of the study, we find that most pupils evaluated the literary text as fantastic, which was assumed by most teachers. How can we explain that most pupils perceived literary time? Pupils in the 5th grade of elementary school gain experience with literary time by reading fairy-tales during schooling. When they hear the words once upon a time, they prepare in their current horizon a set of expectations from their experiences with fairy-tales, telling them that the events will follow a subjective thinking scheme (Kordigel, 2004; Kordigel Abersek, 2008). These future teachers have demonstrated competence for assessing the modality of literary texts, and that they can abandon their adult positions and anticipate the pupil's reception of literary time. With these arguments, we answered RQ 3. In the context of the artistic colour code, we were interested in whether teachers could guess the pupil's choice of colour type for each literary character--caiman, human, wild animal or jackal-- and their symbolic significance (RQ4). The results of the study for the human and the wild animals are presented in Tables 2 and 3; for the caiman and jackal, these are presented descriptively. For ease of interpretation, the colours were combined into three colour types: warm colours (yellow, orange, red and brown), cool colours (blue, green and purple) and achromatic colours (white, grey and black). We found that most pupils (48.1%) chose cool colours for the Caiman, and 97.4% of teachers assumed that pupils would choose warm colours for the same character. K Srot: Teacher's Competences ^ for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Mode/ 303 Table 2: Pupil assessment and teachers' predictions of colour type selection for the human character The type of colour for the literary character human Pupil Teacher Total Warm colours % pupil/ teacher 50 47.2% 5 12.8% 55 37.9% Cool colours % pupil/ teacher 38 35.8% 34 87.2% 72 49.7% Achromatic colours % pupil/ teacher 18 17.0% 0 0.0% 18 12.4% Total 106 39 145 % pupil/ teacher 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% We can see (Table 2) that most pupils (47.2%) see the human character as being a warm colour, while most teachers (87.2%) assume that pupils would choose cold colours for the human character. Table 3: Assessment of pupils and teachers' foresight regarding the choice of colour for the wild animal character. Type of colour for the wild animal character Pupil Teacher Total Warm colours % pupil/ teacher 52 49.1% 5 12.8% 57 39.3% Cool colours % pupil/ teacher 38 35.8% 33 84.6% 71 49.0% Achromatic colours % pupil/ teacher 16 15.1% 1 2.6% 17 11.7% Total % pupil/ teacher 106 100.0% 39 100.0% 145 100.0% We find (Table 3) that most pupils (49.1%) chose warm colours for the wild animals, while most teachers (84.6%) assumed that pupils would choose cold colours for the same literary character. In the colour choice for the jackal, the results are dispersed into two categories: 44.3% of pupils picked warm colours and 38.7% cool colours. Most teachers (89.7.4%) assumed that pupils would choose cool colours for the jackal. Based on the results (Tables 2 and 3 and the description of interpretation for the caiman and jackal), we find that the choice of colour type among pupils and teachers' predictions varies in the case of three literary characters (caiman, humans and wild animals) and partly in the case of the jackal. For the reception of The Story of Caiman, it is crucial for pupils to recognize the wild animals as good literary characters, and that in this case the human is bad. The choice of warm colours for 304 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION the wild animals can indicate that the pupils recognize these as good literary characters. Based on semiotic analysis of the illustrations of the wild animals, this claim can be confirmed (see Figure 1: artistic interpretation by the pupil, coded F 10 BI). Future teachers do not perceive the choice of colour types; therefore, we conclude that they need additional knowledge about the symbolic meaning of colours and their psychological effect in communication (Trstenjak, 1996; Tušak, 2001; Kovačev, 1997; Eiseman, 2018). With this argument, we answered RQ 4. In order to facilitate the interpretation of the outsider judgments of pupils, we included in the analysis the semiotic value of shape and line with which pupils interpret the character of literary characters in The Story of Caiman. RQ 5: Did the teachers correctly project a pupil's choice of form for the caiman, human, wild animals and jackal, thereby demonstrating competence for recognizing the symbolic significance of the forms that pupils choose? The results of the study show that most pupils (34.9%) choose the square for the wild animals, which was projected by more than half the teachers surveyed (56.4%). For the jackal, most pupils (47.2%) choose the circle, which was guessed by almost three-quarters of the teachers (71.8%). In the case of the other two (caiman and human), the pupil's assessment and the teachers' guesses vary. According to the results of the research and the fact that the teachers could guess the choice of form for the wild animals (who bear the story's ethical message), we believe that these future teachers display some of the competences concerning the symbolic meaning of the forms. We thus answered the research question RQ 5. In the final research question, we checked whether teachers could infer the pupil's choice of line and predict their choice of meaning for the characters (caiman, human, wild animals and jackal) in the story. The results are presented for each literary character in Tables 2 to 5. Table 4: Caiman, attributed form of lines and their significance- Literary Pupil's The meaning that Teacher evaluation character: choice of pupils attribute to the of the choice of shape: chosen line format form: Teacher's interpretation of the symbolic meaning of the line shape Caiman Vertical + oblique vertical: kindness, determination, trust, sincerity, willingness to help, perseverance, as well: disagreement, arbitrariness, contemptibility;_ wavy + vertical Wavy: kindness and justice, as well as danger and contrition; Vertical: honesty, openness, and disagreement. K Srot: Teacher's Competences ^ for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Mode/ 305 Oblique: meddling, quarrelling, does not stick to the agreement, and to a lesser extent: honesty, tolerance and trust. The results of Table 4 show that teachers did project the pupil's choice of a vertical line for the caiman and predicted both the positive (sincerity, honesty) and the negative meaning: these do not agree. The theory (Sustarsic et al., 2011; Muhovic, 2015) teaches us that vertical lines function actively, as hard and dignified, and represent alertness, control of the situation, life and growth. By selecting the line and its meaning, the teachers demonstrated competence in recognizing the character codes of the pupil's interpretation of the caiman. We conclude that it is easier for teachers to step down from their adult positions if we allow them to evaluate pupils' externalized judgment with the help of visual elements (e.g. lines). Table 5: The human character, attributed forms of lines and their significance. The meaning that pupils T. _ ... . . r attribute to the chosen Literary Pupil s choice of .. r line format character: shape: Teacher evaluation of the choice of form: Teacher's interpretation of the symbolic meaning of the line shape human vertical + oblique Vertical: kindness, determination, trust, honesty, willingness to help, perseverance as well as: no agreement, arbitrariness, squabble + oblique: meddling, quarrelling, does not stick to the agreement, and to a lesser extent: honesty, tolerance and trust. Corrugated + vertical + horizontal. wavy: does not stick to the deal, danger; vertical: does not agree, arbitrariness: Horizontal: interference. The results show (Table 5) that teachers assumed pupils would choose a vertical line for the human character and predicted its negative meaning: arbitrariness and disagreement. This line selection and attribution of traits may indicate that the pupils understood that in The Story of Caiman, the bad character was the human being, which the teachers also assumed. Given the results from teachers, compared with art theory saying the vertical line is active, hard, and dignified, and also represents control of the situation (Sustarsic et al., 2011), we can conclude that future teachers demonstrate partial competence in identifying the pupil's artistic codes for interpreting the human character, if we enable them to make the choice by means of the semiotic meaning of the artistic elements (lines). 306 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The results show (Table 6) that teachers did not predict the pupil's choice of line shape for the wild animals but overlooked the overall positive characteristic (kindness) and the negative properties (interference and contrition). Table 6: The wild animal characters, attributed line shapes and their meaning. Pupil's The meaning Art theory Teacher Teacher's Literary character choice that pupils (according to evaluation prediction of of attribute to the Sustarsic et al., of the the meaning of shape: chosen line format 2011). choice of form: the form Inclined: oblique the line vertical: kindness, works interference, determination, dynamically contrition, trust, sincerity, and represents negative willingness to movement; character, as help, Even a wavy well as: fairness perseverance, line is subdued, and confusion: as well: creating a soft Horizontal: disagreement, and fluid kindness. Wild oblique arbitrariness, movement, vertical + animals + wavy contemptibility; wavy: willingness to help, fairness, but also: disagreement, arbitrariness, interference, vigilance, vicious circle. instilling a sense of tenderness and elegance. horizontal The pupil's indirect selection of traits for the wild animals (i.e. by selecting a line for the character and then attributing the trait of the character to that line) clearly indicates that the pupils understood that the wild animals were good characters, which the teachers also assumed (kindness). The results of Table 7 show that teachers did project the pupil's choice of a horizontal line for the jackal and anticipated both their positive (kindness) and negative (disagreement) meanings and thus the dual nature of the literary character. Fine art theory (Sustarsic et al., 2011; Muhovic, 2015) teaches us that horizontal lines are calm and passive, which can be linked to a positive assessment of the jackal, K Srot: Teacher's Competences ^ for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Mode/ 307 which the pupils say is "a kind (calm) lawyer who will solve the problem". By choosing the horizontal line and its meaning (fairness, honesty), teachers have demonstrated competence for identifying the artistic codes of the pupil's interpretation of the jackal. Table 7: The jackal character, the attributes of the lines and their significance. Literary Pupil's The meaning that Art theory Teacher Teacher's character choice of pupils attribute to (according to evaluation prediction of the shape: the chosen line Sustarsic et al., of the meaning of the format 2011). choice of form form: Horizontal: The horizontal Horizontal: kindness, honesty, line functions as fairness, friendship, calm, serene, kindness, perseverance, as and passive. + honesty, well: it does not Vertical the line anticipation of agree, it interferes; works actively, events; Jackal horizontal vertical: kindness, as hard, horizontal wavy: + vertical determination, trust, sincerity, willingness to help, perseverance, as dignified, but also represents alertness, control, life and + wavy Arrogance and danger, as well as justice. well: disagreement, growth. arbitrariness, _arrogance._ Based on the results of the research, we conclude that teachers and pupils can more easily determine the nature of literary characters if we allow them to express this indirectly (by selecting the colour, shape and line for the character, which are then attributed to it. The limitations expressed in the partial interpretation and recognition of the literary characters indicate that, in order to identify the semiotic code of colour, shape and line, teachers would need a broader range of competences than they have. On this basis, it would be sensible to assess the incorporation of the visual response method (MRL) into the curriculum of university teacher education. Perception of character, modality and ethicaljudgment in a folk tale of a foreign ávili%ation árcle from the perspective of multimodality We suggest including reader-centred semiotics in the context of character perception, modality and ethical judgment of The Story of Caiman (Culler, 1975; Eco, 1979), as the science of sign systems (Zupan Sosic, 2017, p. 28), which argues that 308 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION the potential for interaction between text and picture is infinite, as they encourage readers to activate knowledge, experience and expectations (Nikolajeva, 2003; Pantaleo, 2005, Nikolajeva and Scott, 2006). A semiotic approach to literary works therefore emphasizes the construction of literary meaning using common codes (linguistic and artistic), which implies the need for integrating multimodal texts into the educational process. Therefore, we present an example of the analysis of language and visual arts, by examining the productive literary-didactic method of visual response of pupils to literary texts, especially for this research; we will examine how pupils in the 5th grade of elementary school interpreted the The Story of Caiman. The method of visual response is presented using the example of interpretation of the wild animal character, because these are the bearers of the ethical message in The Story of Caiman. At the linguistic level, pupils gave 23.6% positive and 76.4% negative characteristics to the wild animals. Among the positive characteristics, they point out that the animals are good and friendly. Among the negative features, they say the animals are unfriendly and bad, do not adhere to agreements, are rude, interfering and evil. Below are some of the pupils' statements: - "They think only of themselves". - "They stick to their own kind.." - 'Fake friendly, wild and savage." - "Decisive, cheering only for theirfriends". - "They speak when they are not asked." - 'They are interfering." These facts show that the pupils learned that the wild animals were the worst literary characters, and thus at the level of linguistic communication completely miss the ethical message of the folk tale from the foreign civilization. Next, we will present how the pupils understood the folk tale when we allowed them to use illustration for their interpretation. K Srot: Teacher's Competences ^ for Using Visual Response Methods in the Literary Education Communication Mode/ 309 Figure 1: By the water: wild animals, human and jackal (Pupil code F 10 BI). The assumption on interpreting the artistic code of the illustration reveals that a pupil who has expressed verbally that wild animals are bad characters ("Unfriendly: giraffe, monkey and lion.") clearly shows that he has understood the folk tale's ethical message at an abstract level of thought when the teacher allowed him to use animals in the illustration (picture) to offer his interpretation. We can claim this because the wild animals--giraffe, monkey and lion--are painted yellow, orange and brown. The colour brown indicates simplicity, practicality and is an expression of strength. It is the most typical earth colour and symbolizes stability, as well as modesty and humility (Muhovic, 2015; Eiseman, 2018). To improve communication skills, the colour orange will be helpful to the wild animals (Tusak, 2001). This is confirmed by the vivid expressions of the animals, which are cheerful and friendly. According to the relationships in the picture book, highlighted by Nikolajeva (2003), Pantaleo (2005) and Haramija and Batic (2013) in the study of multi-code texts, we find that interdependence or complementarity between the linguistic code and the artistic code provides the teacher with deeper insight into the pupil's perception of the literary text and thus an understanding of the ethical message of this folk tale. Conclusion The teacher, as an expert, should be familiar with the path that enables pupils to develop through their own activity the capacity for logical thinking, the meaning-creating ability and the ability to engage in creative dialogue with the literary text. To achieve this goal, the teacher needs a tool; we have therefore developed a productive, literary-didactic method of pupil visual response to literary texts, as a didactic method for guiding the teacher through the stages of recognizing elements of the linguistic and artistic code through which pupils communicate how they understand literary texts. Analysis of both codes reveals to the teacher which elements the pupils have detected, and which elements might have been overlooked if the teacher had not given a cue. Literature data are acquired by pupils from the 310 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION text, their own experiences and the fictional world (Bortolussi and Dixon, 2003; Grosman, 2011), by constantly updating, developing or completely replacing the concept of the nature of literary characters with a more appropriate one. This way of creating a mental scheme about the character of literary characters and their moral behaviour enables pupils to formulate an ethical judgment of The Story of Caiman so that they understand that wild animals are good literary characters and that, in this case, a human is a bad literary character. We conclude, therefore, that the reader observes a certain act and determines the nature of a literary character on the basis of information about characteristics that appear in the actions of that character and derives from previous evidence about this trait (based on the past conduct of this literary character) (Bortolussi and Dixon, 2003). With the help of this procedure, teachers enable the pupil to create mental and emotional operations more typical of an adult reader (Kordigel Aberšek, 2008). According to analysis of results from our study of teachers' understanding of the importance of children's art in the communication model of literary education, teachers should use a much wider range of competences to understand and use the Visual Response Method as a didactic tool for externalising the learner's dialogue with literary texts. In modern media society, the treatment of multicultural texts in formal education is indispensable and is therefore already part of the curriculum, which enables the achievement of information literacy goals in both subject areas (Kordigel Aberšek, 1999/2000; Program osnovna šola. Slovenščina, 2011; Likovna vzgoja, 2011; Batič, Herzog in Duh, 2009). These are implemented by teachers who have the competence to read multi-code texts. Based on the answers to all six questions in the survey and their results, we find that future teachers are only partly qualified to use the Visual Response Method, although the results show that the artistic code makes it easier to descend from their adult position and thus perceive the genre transfer of the literary texts. There is an opportunity to improve the situation in our teaching practice by including productive literary-didactic methods in the curriculum of permanent continuing teacher education. Sources and References Afriške pripovedke (1976) [written, selected and translated by Vlado Jagodic]. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. Aberšek, B. & Kordigel Aberšek, M. (2019). Znanstveno pisanje: znanstveno pisanje > razmišljanje v besedah. Maribor: Univerzitetna založba Univerze. Bortolussi, M. in Dixon, P. (2003). Psychonarratology: Foundations for the Empirical Study of Literary Response. West Nyack, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. Acquired 2010 from eBrary UKM. 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Zmožnost dekodiranja večkodnih besedil kot sestavna besedilne pismenosti. V M. Cotič, V. Medved Urovič in S. Starc (Ed.), Razvijanje različnihpismenosti (pp. 28-36). Koper: Univerza na Primorskem, Znanstveno-raziskovalno središče, Univerzitetna založba Anales. Šuštaršič, N., Butina, M., Zornik, K., de Gleria, B. & Skubin, I. (2011). Likovna teorija: učbenik za likovno teorijo v vzgojno-izobraževalnem programu umetniška gimnazija — likovna smer. Ljubljana: Debora: Karantanija. Trstenjak, A. (1996). Psihologija barv. Ljubljana: Inštitut Antona Trstenjaka za psihologijo, logoterapijo in antropohigieno. Tušak, M. (2001). Psihologija barve. V S. Jeler in M. Kumar (Ed.), Interdisciplinarnost barve (pp. 87-118). Maribor: DKS. Učni načrt. Program osnovna šola. Slovenščina (2011). [E-book]. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za šolstvo in šport: Zavod RS za šolstvo. Retrieved from from http://www.mss.gov.si/fileadmin/mss.go-v.si/pageuploads/podrocje/os/devetletka/predmeti_obvezni/Slovenscina_obvezni.pdf (May 8th 2017) Učni načrt. Program osnovna šola. Likovna vzgoja (2011). [E-book]. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za šolstvo in šport: Zavod RS za šolstvo. Retrieved from from http^/www.mizs.govsi/fileadm-in/mizs.gov.si/pageuploads/podrocje/os/prenovljeni_UN/UN_likovna_vzgoja.pdf (May 8th 2017) Vogrinc, J. (2008). Kvalitativno raziskovanje na pedagoškem področju. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta. Zupan Sosič, A. (2017). Teorija pripovedi. Maribor: Litera. Zupančič, T. (2012). Kakovostna knjižna ilustracija za otroke. Otrok in knjiga, 39 (85), 5-16. Žagar, D. (2011). Didaktika psihologije v srednjem izobraževanju. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. Author Kristina Srot, prof. Librarian, University of Maribor, University of Maribor Library, Gospejna ulica 10, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia, e-mail: tina.srot@um.si Bibliotekarka informatorka - pedagoginja, Univerza v Mariboru, Univerzitetna knjižnica, Gospejna ulica 10, 2000 Maribor, Slovenija, e-pošta: tina.srot@um.si REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMNTARY EDUCATION Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 313-323, September 2019 FEI „Gender-Aspekte revisited" - Schulbücher für den Fremdsprachenunterricht neu lesen Renate Seebauer Potrjeno/Accepted 28. 7. 2019 Pädagogische Hochschule Wien, Österreich Objavljeno /Published 17. 9. 2019 Corresponding author/Korespondenčni avtor a07471536@unet.univie.ac.at Schlüselbegriffe: Mädchen/Burschen, Frauen/Männer als Handlungsträger. Gleichbehandlung, Rollenbilder Abstract/Povzetek Im folgenden Beitrag wird Bild- und Textmaterial von Schulbüchern aus regional weit entfernten Ländern analysiert an Hand dessen explizit oder implizit Aussagen über Geschlechterverhältnisse getroffen werden. So unterschiedlich wie die Länder aus denen die Analysen stammen, so unterschiedlich präsentieren sich die Ergebnisse. Der vorliegende Text wendet sich an Lehramtsstudentinnen und -Studenten, Lehrerinnen und Lehrer sowie Schülerinnen und Schüler, deren Kritikpotenzial im Umgang mit Schulbüchern und den darin transportierten Rollenbildern geweckt werden soll. Ključne besede: deklice/dečki, ženske/moški kot igralci, enaka obravnava, modeli vlog „Nov razmislek o vidiku spola" — Vnovično branje učbenikov za poučevanje tujih jezikov V članku bomo besedila in ilustracije v učbenikih iz regionalno oddaljenih držav analizirali z vidika eksplicitnih ali implicitnih izjav o odnosih med spoli, ki jih najdemo v njih. Rezultati se izkažejo za enako različne, kot so države, v katerih so besedila nastala. Besedilo je namenjeno učiteljem pripravnikom, učiteljem in učencem, pri katerih je treba vzbuditi potencial za kritiko glede modelov vlog — kot so predstavljeni v učbenikih. UDK/UDC 305:37.091.3 DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.12.3.313-323. 2019 Besedilo / Text © 2019 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). EM University of Maribor Press 314 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Zum Hintergrund der Studie Schulbücher sind ein wichtiges Medium schulischer Sozialisation; sie vermitteln nicht nur fachliches Wissen, sondern stellen ganz bestimmte Realitätsbereiche dar (oder verschweigen sie) und konstruieren somit Wirklichkeit. Massive Veränderungen der Schüler- und Schülerinnenpopulation — gemeint sind die zahlreichen Kinder aus anderen Kulturkreisen, vor allem in großstädtischen Bereichen — erfordern es, Schulbücher unter dem Gender-Aspekt erneut unter die Lupe zu nehmen. Zumal Schulbüchern Autorität und Zuverlässigkeit zugeschrieben wird, können die darin verborgenen Botschaften — speziell von Schülerinnen und Schülern deren Muttersprache eine andere ist als die Unterrichtssprache — als selbstverständlich betrachtet werden, und wie Kalmus (2004) es fasst: „[...] a considerable part of the socializing message in textbooks is a hidden or unplanned curriculum [...], which may escape the attention ofpupils' critical consciousness as it passes through the route ofperipheral cognitive processing [...]" (Kalmus 2004, 471). Schulbuchanalysen aus den 1970er- und 1980er-Jahren fokussierten häufig auf Rollenbilder und Rollenzuschreibungen in Geschichtslehrbüchern. Fremdsprachenlehrbücher boten ein bislang weniger beachtetes Terrain für die Analyse, als dies bei Geschichte-Lehrbüchern der Fall war. In einer Fremdsprache fällt die Übernahme neuer, zunächst ungewohnter kommunikativer Verhaltensweisen oft leichter als in der Muttersprache; die Sprecher und Sprecherinnen bewegen sich durch die fremdsprachliche Distanz gleichsam in einer Rolle und können Neues, Ungewohntes ausprobieren. So erscheint es beispielsweise problematisch, wenn Sprachmuster wie „He's very strong." „He is very successful." vs. „She is small. She is beautiful" unreflektiert eingeübt und in das Sprachrepertoire der Schülerinnen und Schüler übernommen werden. Zum Forschungsstand - Einige aktuelle Studien Moser/Hannover (2014) analysierten kürzlich in Deutschland veröffentlichte Schulbücher für Deutsch und Mathematik, wobei u.a. der Anteil weiblicher und männlicher Personen in Bildern und Texten untersucht wurde. Die Autorinnen fassen ihre Ergebnisse folgendermaßen zusammen: "Our results show that schoolbooks for German contained almost balanced depictions of girls and boys, whereas women were less frequently shown than men. In mathematics books, males outnumbered females in general. Across both types R. Seebauer: „Gender-Aspekte revisited" — Schulbücher ^ für den Fremdsprachenunterricht neu lesen 315 of books, female and male persons were engaged in many different activities, not only gendertyped ones; however, male persons were more often described via their profession than females. Use of gender-fair language has found its way into schoolbooks but is not used consistently. Books for German were more gender fair in terms of linguistic forms than books for mathematics" (Moser/Hannover 2014, 387). Elsen (2018) referiert hinsichtlich der Analyse von DaF-Lehrwerken aus den Jahren 1992-1994 folgendes Ergebnis: „Männer dominieren zahlenmäßig in Bild und Text. Frauen sind im Wesentlichen passiv und agieren im häuslichen Umfeld. Interessant ist die Adjektivverwendung. Männer werden mit 73, Frauen mit 50 verschiedenen Adjektiven beschrieben, wobei die für Frauen der Beschreibung von Körper und Charakter dienen, während sie für Männer inhaltlich wesentlich breiter gestreut sind. [...]" (Elsen 2018, 178f.). Elsen (2018), die zwei aktuelle DaF-Lehrwerke (Motive von Krenn/Puchta, 2016 und Pluspunkt Deutsch von Jin/Scholte 2016) untersuchte, fand etwas günstigere Ergebnisse. Dies ist erfreulich, zumal Migrantinnen und Migranten mit Hilfe solcher Lehrbücher auf das Leben in deutschsprachigen Ländern vorbereitet werden. Abschließend konstatiert sie: Die Rollenbilder in den DaF-Lehrwerken scheinen „tatsächlich etwas fortgeschrittener und realitätsnäher zu sein als noch vor zwanzig, dreißig Jahren. Aber eine durchgehende Gleichbehandlung ist noch immer nicht ganz umgesetzt" (Elsen 2018, 185). Zur Analyse einiger in Europa verwendeter Lehrbücher für den Fremdsprachenunterricht Zu Grunde liegende Fragestellungen Im Rahmen des von der Europäischen Union geförderten Projekts EDGE: EDucation & Gender (518097-LLP-1-2011-BE-C0MENIUS-CMP) wurden folgende Fragestellungen aufgearbeitet: — In welchem zahlenmäßigen Verhältnis erscheinen Männer und Frauen/Burschen und Mädchen auf dem im Lehrbuch präsentierten Bildmaterial? — In welche Kontexte sind Bilder eingebettet, die ein Vorherrschen männlicher bzw. weiblicher Handlungsträger aufweisen? 316 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION — Enthält das Lehrwerk ein Kapitel zum Themenbereich „Berufe"/"Arbeitswelt"? — und wenn ja, in welchen Berufen werden Männer und Frauen dargestellt? In einem zweiten Analysedurchgang werden ausgewählte Texte dahingehend analysiert, welches Verb (z.T. Adjektiv) einem männlichen bzw. weiblichen Handlungsträger folgt. Beschreibung der Ergebnisse Kurz gefasst: Ein Schulbuch aus Österreich: Männer in Schlachten, im Sport und im Gerichtssaal, wie sie über Frauen richten — „Superheroes"! Die Autorin analysierte das im Helbling Verlag Innsbruck erschienene Lehrbuch „MORE Student's Book 4 — Enriched Course" des Autorenteams Puchta, H., Gerngross, G. und Holzmann, Ch., unterstützt durch Jeff Stranks und Peter LewisJones (1. Auflage 2010). Das Lehrbuch ist für die 8. Schulstufe (Hauptschulen und allgemeinbildende höhere Schulen) approbiert (Bescheid vom Jänner 2010). Das analysierte Lehrbuch gliedert sich in 14 Units, dazu kommen mehrere „Progress Checks", eine „Extra Unit: Benjamin Zephaniah 'Talking Turkeys'", vier Beiträge zum „Content and LLanguage Integrated Learning" sowie das für Fremdsprachen-Lehrwerke unerlässliche Vokabular, eine Liste unregelmäßiger Zeitwörter etc. „MORE Student's Book 4 - Enriched Course" ist durchgehend vierfärbig mit zahlreichen Bildern und Illustrationen. Die meisten dieser Abbildungen zeigen Menschen (in unterschiedlichen Situationen), wodurch das Lehrwerk große Lebendigkeit erhält. Zum zahlenmäßigen Verhältnis von Männern und Frauen/Burschen und Mädchen auf dem im Lehrbuch präsentierten Bildmaterial: Die Fundstellen des betreffenden Bildmaterials (insge-samt 104 Abbildungen mit Menschdarstellungen) befinden sich zwischen den Seiten 7 und 127. Es wurden insgesamt ca. 485 Personen gezählt: 283 Männer stehen 136 Frauen gegenüber; 37 Burschen stehen 39 Mädchen gegenüber. Zu den Kontexten: Ein absolutes Vorherrschen von abgebildeten Männern findet sich in folgenden Kapiteln: R. Seebauer: „Gender-Aspekte revisited" — Schulbücher ^ für den Fremdsprachenunterricht neu lesen 317 Tabelle 1: Männliche/weibliche Personen in Abbildungen. Unit Kontext Anzahl der abgebildeten männlichen : weiblichen Personen Fundstelle Unit 1: The Battle of the 9 : 0 S. 7 oben Welcome to Ireland Boyne 1690 Unit 2: The Murdoch Towers (a murder mystery) Uber die neun Szenen The Curious Case of the Locked Room (Murdoch Towers) verteilt: 13 : 2 S. 14-17 Unit 4: Boston's 23 : 0 S. 32 Beautiful Boston Sports Teams Unit 4: Beautiful Boston The Boston Tea Party 42 : 0 S. 33 Unit 5: A Working Life ... how you should behave in interviews 7: 1 S. 42 Unit 7: Superheroes Free flow 5 : 2 S. 52 Unit 10: Don Vincente, 13 : 0 S. 77 Crazy Collectors a monk Unit 14: A festival in 10 : 1 S. 109 A School Mag southern India Die identifizierte Überzahl männlicher Akteure ergibt sich zwangsläufig, wenn das Geschehen historischer Schlachten mit Bildmaterial illustriert wird. — Beispielsweise die Schlacht am Boyne (11. Juli 1690), in der König Wilhelm III von England über den ehemaligen englischen König James II siegte. Dieser Sieg wird noch heute am 12. Juli von den protestantischen Traditionsverbänden in Nordirland gefeiert, was stets auch zu Unruhen zwischen protestantischen und katholischen Gruppen führt, im Lehrbuch jedoch nicht thematisiert wird. Auch die „Boston Tea Party" — eigentlich ein Steuer- und Zollstreit, Höhepunkt eines lange schwelenden Streits zwischen den 13 nordamerikanischen Kolonien und dem Mutterland Großbritannien — wurde von männlichen Akteuren geführt. Wird ein Abschnitt über sportliche Aktivitäten im Kontext von „Boston's Sports Teams" aufbereitet, ergibt sich zwangsläufig ein Bezug zu den Boston Red Sox, Boston Celtics ... . Auch Kriminalgeschichten (S. 14 ff.) und Superhelden (S. 52ff.) weisen als Handlungsträger häufig männliche Personen auf. Präsentiert wird ferner - Edgar Allan Poe, the master of the American detective novel (S. 19); — ein Hexenprozess, in dem Männer über Frauen richten (S. 30); 318 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION - Jamie Oliver, ein weltberühmter englischer Küchenchef (S. 46), - Mr Sandman, a sand collector (S. 76), - Neil Armstrong, der erste Mensch auf dem Mond (S. 98f.); - Benjamin Zephaniah, Schriftsteller und Dub Poet (S. 116ff.) sowie - die „Pilgrims" (S. 120f). Glücklicherweise wird von der Bezeichnung „Pilgrim Fathers" Abstand genommen — es soll ja schließlich auch „Pilgrim Mothers" gegeben haben. - Frauen/Mädchen, die eine Buchseite von MORE 4 dominieren — oft bildhaft — finden sich in Gestalt - der 16-jährigen Joanne, die im Schuljahr zuvor von ihren Schulkolleg/inn/en gemobbt worden war, nun aber an einer anderen Schule gut integriert ist (S. 40); - einer Event Managerin (S. 40ff.); - einer jungen Farbigen mit Kind (beide völlig abgemagert), im Kontext des Themas „World Hunger"; - von Shannon, die ihre Essstörungen besiegt hat, bzw. gelernt hat, mit leichtem Übergewicht umzugehen; - von Lawrence, die sich als goth („Grufti") gegen eine etablierte Hochzeitsgesellschaft auflehnt; - der (wegen der Kaffeepreise) besorgten Juanita Carlos, im Gegensatz zu Ramon Machado, der nicht besorgt zu sein braucht, da die Organisation Fair Trade, der er angehört, gesicherte Kaffeepreise zahlt ... (S. 82f.); - eines grippekranken Mädchens — als Illustration zu historischen Grippeepidemien ... (S. 124f.) Zum Themenbereich „Berufe"/„Arbeitswelt": Unit 5 (S. 38ff.) ist dem Thema Berufe und Arbeitswelt gewidmet und beginnt mit 20 aufgelisteten Berufsbezeichnungen, die 20 Bildern zuzuordnen sind (S. 38, 39). Bei den Fotos findet sich hier ein Gleichgewicht von 11 männlichen und 12 weiblichen Personen. Bei den medizinischen Berufen ist die Ärztin (Allgemeinmedizinerin) weiblich, der Zahnarzt männlich, die Krankenpflegerin weiblich. Der Koch ist männlich, die Arbeiterin in der Konservenfabrik ist weiblich; der Rechnungsprüfer männlich, die Sekretärin weiblich: er prüft, sie strahlt, weil sie ein Diktat entgegen nehmen darf ... — beide sitzen jedoch am Schreibtisch vor einem PC. Frauen in naturwissenschaftlich-technischen Berufen scheinen nicht auf; der erste im Bild ist ein Soldat (S. 38). R. Seebauer: „Gender-Aspekte revisited" — Schulbücher ^ für den Fremdsprachenunterricht neu lesen 319 Ein Dialog mit „Mehmet" — von sich selbst eingenommen („... all the tips youget — if you are as charming as me", S. 39) konfrontiert die „Learner" mit weiteren tradierten Rollenbildern. In der folgenden Übung (S. 40) wird das Berufsbild „Event Manager" an Hand einer Handlungsträger/« mit Vor- und Nachteilen thematisiert. Ein achtstündiger Arbeitstag gehört hier zu den „cons" des Berufs. Es stellt sich die Frage, welche Vorstellungen von Berufstätigkeit hier grundgelegt werden sollen; die Frau im Halbtagsjob? s folgt eine Checkliste zu diversen Situationen eines Bewerbungsgesprächs; mit drei weiteren Übungen wird die Thematik „Bewerbungsgespräch" weitergeführt. Zur Analyse von Verben, die männlichen bzw. weiblichen Handlungsträgern folgen: Da die meisten Units und Übungen nach einem starken Bezug zum „Learner" trachten, und die Schüler/-innen dazu animieren, über sich selbst Auskunft zu geben, über ihre Vorlieben zu sprechen ... , Begründungen zu ihren Aussagen zu formulieren ... — also in der 1. Person Singular stehen, wird die Analyse von „Person und nachfolgendem Verb" auf einige wenige Abschnitte bezogen: Tabelle 2: Person und nachfolgendes Verb. Person Verb im Kontext Fundstelle Jamie Oliver is a world-famous English chef. S. 46 ... who [he] owns and runs his own restaurant. S. 46 He also does cookery programmes on television. S. 46 he did a TV programme. S. 46 Jamie Oliver found that a lot of school dinner are ... S. 46 Jamie has been working to improve ... S. 46 She told the P.E. teacher about her problem. S. 49 She is happy that she can talk about her problems to others. S. 49 Superman has superpowers. S. 52 He is very strong. S. 52 He is very fast. S. 52 He can see through things. S. 52 He has a super memory. S. 52 He hears perfectly. S. 52 Morgan works in a sleeping lab. S. 54 He is working on a dream machine ... S. 54 Morgan sells the machine . S. 54 He uses an image of Superkid for his experiment. S. 54 He takes them all to the planet Krypton. S. 54 He has destroyed the machine ... S. 54 Superkid and Janet are happy that the bad times are over. S. 54 He also knows how to win her back. S. 55 He thinks he will find the girl ... S. 55 320 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The boy He He says he always knows what she is thinking. imagines that he is Superman. knows that the girl doesn't love her new boyfriend. S. 55 S. 55 S. 55 Facit: Starke, erfolgreiche Männer (Sieger in Schlachten, Supermänner, Chefköche ...) und schwache, ängstliche Frauen, die allerdings z.T. ihre Probleme bewältigen können. Was fehlt, ist ein Angebot von Identifikationsmöglichkeiten für Mädchen und Burschen hinsichtlich eines veränderten Rollenbildes sowie das Aufzeigen der Leistungen von Frauen entsprechend der historischen Tatsachen und/oder gegenwärtigen Verhältnissen sowie von erfolgreichen Jugendlichen aus anderen Kulturkreisen. Was Johanna Dohnal, die erste Frauenstaatssekretärin in Österreich, bereits im Jahr 1984 mit der Aktion „Töchter können mehr — Berufsplanung ist Lebensplanung" (Problem der Teilzeitarbeit, Frauen im Bundesdienst, „doppelte Arbeit, halber Verdienst" ...) gestartet hat, sollte noch immer „Thema" sein — nicht nur was die Gestaltung von Unterrichtswerken betrifft! Ein Blick über den Tellerrand — Ergebnisse aus Norwegen, Polen und der Türkei Denselben Fragestellungen (s. oben) folgten Schulbuchanalysen aus Norwegen, aus Polen und der Türkei, die ebenfalls im Jahr 2014 im Rahmen des Projekts EDGE durchgeführt wurden; sie lieferten z.T. divergierende — allerdings höchst interessante — Ergebnisse. Das norwegische Englisch-Lehrbuch „Search 8" zeigt — bezogen auf die geschlechterbezogenen Darstellungen bzw. Akzentuierungen — eine Ausgewogenheit, „die fast schon wieder etwas allzu geschlechterneutral wirkt, oder — will man es auf den Punkt bringen: „gleichmacherisch-konturlos." Nach Zoglowek (2014) „spiegelt sich hierin konsequent die norwegische Tradition und das heute vorwiegende norwegische Verständnis wider: bei geschichtlichen Themen sind die Mädchen/Frauen unterrepräsentiert, bei aktuellen Themen dagegen sind die Geschlechter gleichgestellt. In den meisten Inhalten der einzelnen Kapitel konnten die Jungen gegen die Mädchen und umgekehrt ausgetauscht werden, ohne dass dies zu wesentlichen inhaltlichen Veränderungen führen wurde. Damit sind allerdings auch kaum spezielle R. Seebauer: „Gender-Aspekte revisited" — Schulbücher ^ für den Fremdsprachenunterricht neu lesen 321 geschlechtsspezifische Identifikationsmöglichkeiten aufgezeigt oder angeboten [...]" (http://www.education-and-gender.eu/edge/Curr_text/mod_de/M1_T3_de.pdf; [27/02/2019]). Das von Zyluk analysierte polnische Lehrwerk „der, die, das NEU" kurs kontynuayjny" (Fortsetzungskurs) schlägt in dieselbe Kerbe und zeigt hinsichtlich der Analyse von Bildern und Fotos/Zeichnungen „dass beide Geschlechter in relativ gleichem Ausmaß gezeigt werden. Die meisten Texte und Dialoge handeln von Schülern im Allgemeinen und benennen nicht Mädchen und Jungen oder Schüler und Schülerinnen im Speziellen. Dies könnte den Eindruck erwecken, dass polnische Lehrbücher nur für ,unbestimmte Individuen' verfasst werden". (http://www.education-and gender.eu/edge/Curr_text/mod_de/M1_T— 3_de.pdf; [27/02/2019]). Das von Oruc (Türkei) analysierte Lehrbuch "Spot on" (8. Schulstufe) (2011) wurde von einem türkischen Team von Autorinnen verfasst. Im Hinblick auf die Sichtbarmachung der Geschlechter konnte Oruc im oben bezeichneten Lehrbuch „keine Unausgewogenheit" feststellen: „Weibliche Charaktere werden sogar häufiger sichtbar [...] und es schien als würden sie im Buch ebenso aktive Rollen spielen wie ihre männlichen Partner. Allerdings wurde in diesem Lehrbuch eine Anzahl von Geschlechtsstereotypen entdeckt. Es schien, dass diese Stereotypen themenbezogen auftraten. Weibliche Charaktere finden sich vorwiegend im Zusammenhang mit Tätigkeiten im Haushalt, wohingegen männliche Charaktere als Beispiele für Erfolgsstories verwendet werden" (http://www.education-and gender.eu/edge/Curr_text/mod_de/M1_T— 3_de.pdf [27/02/2019]). Oruc fügt ihrer Analyse eine beachtenswerte Bemerkung hinzu: „Das Buch wurde von sechs Frauen verfasst und von einer weiteren Frau redigiert. Das ist dahingehend von Bedeutung als — mit Ausnahme der Unit "Cooperation in the Family" — Frauen in diesem Buch im Allgemeinen „aktiv" und nicht als „häusliche" Charaktere repräsentiert sind. Das könnte ein Ergebnis des „Autorinnen-Teams" und einer weiblichen Redakteurin sein" 322 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (http://www.education-andgender.eu/edge/Curr_text/mod_de/M1_T-3_de.pdf; 27/02/2019). Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse, abschließende Bemerkungen - Eine zumindest relative Ausgewogenheit der bildhaften Darstellungen von Frauen/ Mädchen und Männern/Burschen konnte im analysierten Lehrbuch aus Österreich nicht festgestellt werden. Insgesamt wurde das Fehlen eines Angebots von Identifikationsmöglichkeiten für Mädchen und Burschen hinsichtlich eines veränderten Rollenbildes konstatiert. Etwaige Identifikationsmöglichkeiten für Mädchen aus anderen Kulturkreisen bzw. Beispiele geglückter Integration in das Aufnahmeland fehlen zur Gänze. Wünschenswert wäre das Aufzeigen der Leistungen von Frauen entsprechend der historischen Tatsachen und/oder gegenwärtigen Verhältnisse (z. B. im Sport). Was den Themenbereich „Berufe''/„Arbeitsmlt" betrifft, werden eher tradierte Berufsrollenbilder gezeigt, als dass den Schüler/-inn/-en neue Wege in ihrer Berufswahl aufgezeigt würden (z.B. Mädchen in naturwissenschaftlichtechnischen Bereichen). - Sowohl das norwegische als auch das polnische Lehrbuch erwiesen sich z.T. als „gleichmacherisch-konturlos" (Zoglowek) oder so als wären sich für „unbestimmte Individuen" (Zyluk) verfasst worden (Details auf der Projektwebsite: http://www.education-andgender.eu/edge/Curr_text/mod— _de/M1_T3_de.pdf [27/02/2019]). - Einen neuen — höchst interessanten Aspekt — brachte Oruc mit einem ausschließlich von Frauen verfassten Lehrbuch ein. Für weitere Analysen stellt sich daher die Frage, ob Autorinnen bei der Abfassung von Lehrbüchern gegenüber Autoren unterschiedliche Zugänge zur Darstellung von Mädchen und Burschen bzw. Frauen und Männern finden würden. Dies betrifft sowohl Kontexte ihrer Darstellung als auch zugehörige Sprachmuster ... Doch es gibt ja noch die Lehrerinnen und Lehrer, die bemüht sein sollten, kritisch mit Schul-buchinhalten umzugehen und die einzelnen Lektionen (allenfalls gemeinsam mit ihren Schülerinnen und Schülern) zu analysieren und zu hinterfragen! Der Beitrag soll mit Brechts „Fragen eines lesenden Arbeiters" (1953) abgeschlossen werden. — Vielleicht eine Anregung zur Analyse von GeschichteLehrbüchern und/oder Fremdsprachen-Lehrbüchern, welche die Geschichte des Landes der Zielsprache behandeln: R. Seebauer: „Gender-Aspekte revisited" — Schulbücher ^ für den Fremdsprachenunterricht neu lesen 323 „Wer baute das siebentorige Theben? In den Büchern stehen die Namen von Königen. Haben die Könige die Felsbrocken herbeigeschleppt? Und das mehrmals zerstörte Babylon, Wer baute es so viele Male auf? In welchen Häusern des goldstrahlenden Lima wohnten die Bauleute? Wohin gingen an dem Abend, wo die chinesische Mauer fertig war, die Maurer? Das große Rom ist voll von Triumphbögen. Über wen triumphierten die Cäsaren? Hatte das vielbesungene Byzanz nur Paläste für seine Bewohner? Selbst in dem sagenhaften Atlantis brüllten doch in der Nacht, wo das Meer es verschlang, die Ersaufenden nach ihren Sklaven. Der junge Alexander eroberte Indien. Er allein? Cäsar schlug die Gallier. Hatte er nicht wenigstens einen Koch bei sich? Philipp von Spanien weinte, als seine Flotte untergegangen war. Weinte sonst niemand? Friedrich der Zweite siegte im Siebenjährigen Krieg. Wer siegte außer ihm? Jede Seite ein Sieg. Wer kochte den Siegesschmaus? Alle zehn Jahre ein großer Mann. Wer bezahlte die Spesen? So viele Berichte, so viele Fragen" (Brecht 1953, 84). Literaturangaben Brecht, B. (1953). Kalendergeschichten. Ausgabe aus 1953. Verfügbar unter: http://ciml.250x.com/archive/literature/german/brec—ht_kalendergeschichten.pdf Zugriff am: 27. 02. 2019 Elsen, H. (2018). Gender in Lehrwerken. Feministische Studien 1/18, 178—187. Kalmus, V. (2004). What do pupils and textbooks do with each other? Methodological problems of research on socialization through educational media. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36(4), pp. 469—485. Moser, F. & Hannover, B. (2014). How gender fair are German schoolbooks in the twenty-first century? An analysis of language and illustrations in schoolbooks for mathematics and German. European Journal of Psychology of Education (EJPE) 29, 387—407. EU-gefördertes Projekt Education & Gender: http://www.education-and-gender.eu/edge/index.php/de/ (dort Details zu den Untersuchungen aus 2014 und weitere Informationen zu den analysierten Lehrbüchern). Der Autor Dr. Renate Seebauer, em. Prof. Emeritus, Pädagogische Hochschule Wien, Grenzackerstraße 18, 1100 Wien, Österreich, e-mail: a07471536@unet.univie.ac.at Zaslužna profesorica, Visoka šola za izobraževanje Dunaj, Grenzackerstraße 18, 1100 Dunaj, Avstrija, e-pošta: a07471536@unet.univie.ac.at 324_REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMNTARY EDUCATION Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 325-350, September 2019 FEI Potrjeno/Accepted 28. 7. 2019 Objavljeno /Published 17. 9. 2019 Key words: lesson plan, prospective teachers, professional development Ključne besede: učna priprava, bodoči učitelji, profesionalni razvoj UDK/UDC 37.091.3:378 UČNE PRIPRAVE NA NASTOPE BODOČIH UČITELJEV Zlatan Magajna1 & Maja Umek1 Tedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija Korespondenčni avtor/Corresponding author zlatan.magajna@pef.uni-lj. si Povzetek/Abstract Učni nastopi so v Sloveniji ena od uveljavljenih oblik praktičnega pedagoškega usposabljanja bodočih vzgojiteljev, učiteljev pa tudi nekaterih svetovalnih delavcev za vse ravni in vrste šol. V študijskem letu 2016/17 smo na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani izvedli empirično raziskavo med učitelji specialnih didaktik o pisnih učnih pripravah na nastope bodočih učiteljev. V raziskavi smo zasledili vrsto dobrih praks, ki so jih razvili posamezni specialni didaktiki, jih primerjali s sodobnimi mednarodni trendi in ugotovili šibka področja. Vse to je osnova za kakovostnejšo uporabo pisnih učnih priprav v profesionalnem razvoju študentov. Prospective teachers' lesson plans Prospective teachers and pedagogical educators at all levels and in all types types of schools in Slovenia occasionally prepare lessons under the supervision of university staff and execute them in educational institutions. In the academic year 2016/17, we conducted an empirical study among the university teachers of special didactics at the Faculty of Education at the University of Ljubljana about student lesson plans in such an activity. We considered good practices developed within special didactics and compared these with current international trends. The research serves as a basis for improving the quality use of lesson plans in the professional development of prospective teachers. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.12.3.325-350.2019 Besedilo / Text © 2019 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). mm University of Maribor Press 326 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Uvod Učni nastopi so v Sloveniji, tako kot v nekaterih drugih državah (Kovač Cerovic idr., 2015), ena od uveljavljenih oblik praktičnega pedagoškega usposabljanja bodočih vzgojiteljev, učiteljev pa tudi nekaterih svetovalnih delavcev za vse ravni in vrste šol. Praviloma so učni nastopi vključeni v specialne didaktike posameznih predmetnih področij in pogosto pomenijo prvo izkušnjo študentov z njihovo bodočo poklicno vlogo. Na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani (v nadaljevanju: PEF UL) se bodoči učitelji usposabljajo za poučevanje vsaj dveh učnih predmetov, nekateri, npr. razredni učitelji ter specialni in rehabilitacijski pedagogi, pa za sedem ali več predmetov. Specialni didaktiki v strokovnem razvoju predmetnih področij prihajajo do različnih strokovnih rešitev, ki se odražajo tudi v zahtevah pri nastopih študentov. Na PEF UL si pod okriljem Komisije za praktično usposabljanje prizadevamo raziskovati, evalvirati in strokovno razvijati vse oblike praktičnega usposabljanja študentov. V študijskem letu 2016/17 smo izvedli empirično raziskavo med učitelji specialnih didaktik na PEF UL o pisnih učnih pripravah na nastope bodočih učiteljev. Cilji raziskave so bili ugotoviti podobnosti in razlike v načinu izdelovanja ter v obliki učnih priprav na nastope študentov v okviru specialno-didaktičnih predmetov na fakulteti, izpostaviti primere dobrih praks ter predstaviti možnosti razvoja na področju pisanja priprav študentov na nastope. V članku predstavljamo del te raziskave. Učne priprave v slovenski didaktični tradiciji Že iz definicije pouka kot »[...] v%gojno-i%obraževalnega procesa, ki poteka načrtno, sistematično, k vnaprej postavljenim ciljem« (Terminološki slovar vzgoje in izobraževanja, 2008) izhaja potreba po načrtovanju, kar je izpostavljeno tudi v delih splošne didaktike v Sloveniji (npr. Tomic, 2000, str. 151). Načrtovanje pouka je stalna, nenehna dejavnost, ker je vsak vzgojno-izobraževalni proces, »[...] čeprav temelji na istih znanstvenih osnovah, dinamično, preminjajoče se, vedno drugačno dogajanje, ki se po svojih konkretnih, zlasti psihosocialnih značilnostih razlikuje od prejšnjega« (Blažič idr., 2003, str. 401). Tomic (2000, str. 152) poudari, da se »[...] načrtovanje pouka izvaja hkrati z učnim delom inje njegov sestavni del«, učitelj pa se začne pripravljati takoj, ko vstopi v ta poklic, in to traja, dokler v tem poklicu dela. Vstop v poklic se prične z začetkom pedagoškega študija, na pedagoških fakultetah je to že v začetnih letnikih, kjer se bodoči učitelj začne usposabljati med drugim tudi za načrtovanje pouka. Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 327 Načrtovanje pouka je v slovenski didaktični literaturi razdeljeno na tri nivoje (Blažič idr., 2003; Kramar, 2009; Kubale, 2016; Tomic, 2000): 1. globalno ali makronačrtovanje, poimenovano tudi dolgoročno ali letno načrtovanje; 2. etapno načrtovanje, izraženo v etapni pripravi, poimenovani tudi tematska priprava oziroma priprava didaktičnega sklopa; 3. mikronačrtovanje, upredmeteno v neposredni sprotni pripravi, poimenovani tudi urna priprava, priprava za učno/didaktično enoto, dnevna priprava. Učna priprava je tisti del načrtovanja, ki je usmerjen v konkretizacijo in pripravo neposrednega izvajanja praviloma ene učne enote, ki najpogosteje sovpada z eno šolsko uro. Učne enote so »[...] didaktično utemeljene in artikulirane problemsko, vsebinsko in časovno zaokrožene celote v%gojno-i%obraževalnegaprocesa, v katerih se uresničujejo operativni v%gojno-i%obraževalni cilji« (Kramar, 2009, str. 100). Priprava izobraževalnega procesa izhaja iz didaktične analize. Ta obsega »[...] analizo teoretičnih osnov in usmeritev (didaktični koncept), analizo sestavin (cilji, vsebina, didaktična sredstva) in subjektov (učenci, učitelji, sodelavci) ter analizo širših okoliščin (širše in lokalne družbene razmere) in didaktičnega okolja (prostor, čas, razmere)« (Blažič idr., 2003, str. 404). Kramar (2009) posebej poudari analizo neposrednega predhodnega stanja v pouku. Svetuje, da učitelj podrobno preuči: — namen pouka, razmerja med predhodnimi, sedanjimi in prihodnjimi, nadaljnjimi cilji, povezavo didaktične enote s predhodno in nadaljnjo enoto (integracija in povezanost enot); — didaktično analizo vsebine; — psihične pogoje učencev — interese, potrebe, pričakovanja, znanje, uspeh, motive, sposobnosti, metodične načine dela, pripravljenost na sodelovanje, možne težave učencev, vzdušje, odnose in podobno; — svoje kompetence — poznavanje ciljev in vsebine, metodične kompetence, interes, težave in podobno; 328 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION - objektivne pogoje — čas, prostor in didaktična sredstva (Kramar, 2009, str. 245). Že iz zgornjega je razvidno, da je za učitelja izdelava učnih priprav kompleksna in zahtevna naloga, toliko zahtevnejša pa je za bodočega učitelja, ki šele pridobiva potrebno znanje o pouku in načrtovanju pouka. Pri načrtovanju in samem zapisu priprave so učiteljem v pomoč različne sheme s predvidenimi sestavinami priprave. Teh je veliko in so običajno razdeljene v dve skupini. V prvi so sestavine, zapisane v uvodnem delu oziroma v »glavi« učne priprave, ki učno enoto opišejo z administrativnimi podatki (to so datum, predmet, izvajalec, razred ipd.), jo povežejo z letno učno pripravo (kot so zaporedna številka ure, učna tema, učna enota) in povzamejo pomembne didaktične značilnosti učne enote (to so učni cilji, vsebine, učne oblike, učne metode ipd.). Drugo skupino pa tvorijo sestavine osrednjega dela učne priprave, kot so didaktična struktura izvedbe in razčlenitev etap poučevanja. Preglednica 1 prikazuje vključenost posameznih sestavin v sheme učnih priprav v slovenski splošni didaktični literaturi. Tabela 1: Poimenovanje in obravnava elementov učnih priprav v slovenski splošni didaktični literaturi po avtorjih (Znak x pomeni, da je element prisoten in ni dodatno razčlenjen.) A.Tomic, 2000 Kramar, 2009 Kubale, 2016 Blažič idr. 2003 Administrativni podatki (šola, predmet, zaporedna št. učne ure, izvajalec, razred, skupina, datum) x x x x Učna tema x x Učna enota x x x x Obravnavanje nove snovi Tip učne ure Uvajalna, obravnava nove snovi, vadenje, ponavljanje, preverjanje in ocenjevanje, kombinirana (uvajalna, obravnava nove snovi); delo z obravnavano snovjo (urjenje, ponavljanje, sistemiziranje, preverjanje), kombinirana Učni cilji Lahko isti cilj na več nivojih zahtevnosti Celoviti: znanje, sposobnosti, spretnosti, vrednote, Operativni vzgojno izobraževalni cilji Kratki, jasni, jedrnati zapisi operativno Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 329 osebnostne lastnosti, kompetence. oblikovanih ciljev Vsebina Kratek stvarni naslov vsebine Kratek stvarni zapis vsebine Učne oblike Frontalna, skupinska, tandem, samostojno delo Frontalna skupinska, dvojice, individualna Frontalna skupinska, dvojice, individualna x Učne metode Verbalno-tekstualne, ilustrativno- demonstracijske, laboratorijsko- eksperimentalne, metode izkušenjskega učenja (igra vlog, simulacija, strukturirane vaje...) Prevladujoče, nosilne metode: razlaga, predavanje, razgovor, metode vezane na uporabo besedila, prikazovanja, problemska, metoda primera Metode: razgovor, razlaga, prikazovanje, demonstracija, metoda praktičnih del, metoda grafičnih del, delo s tekstom, metoda pisnih del, eksperiment ... x Učna/ didaktična sredstva Učna sredstva, učila, pripomočki Didaktična sredstva Učna sredstva, učila, pripomočki Didaktična sredstva Literatura Literatura in korelacije Didaktična struktura Didaktična struktura in čas v minutah Uvodni del, osrednji del, sklepni del Uvodni del, osrednji del, sklepni del Razčlenitev etap Dejavnosti učitelja, dejavnosti učencev, oblika, metoda, viri Delni cilji, vsebina, načini aktivnosti učiteljev in učencev, uporaba didaktičnih sredstev, čas trajanja, ... Artikulacija (potek) učne ure Opombe Zapisi sprememb o poteku procesa, dopolnitve, ugotovitve analize x x Sestavine pisne priprave se med slovenskimi avtorji skoraj ne razlikujejo, vidni pa sta terminološka raznolikost in odsotnost elementov, ki jih danes posebej poudarjamo. Ne vključujejo pa, recimo, rubrik o prilagoditvah za učence s posebnimi potrebami, medpredmetnem povezovanju, kroskurikularnih ciljih. 330 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Pomen učnih priprav za profesionalni razvoj Pomemben element priprave je analiza učne ure, ki naj obsega analizo izvedenih dejavnosti z refleksijo o učinkovitosti in uspešnosti posameznih učnih korakov, refleksijo o povezanih vzrokih ter odločitve o nadaljnjem delu. V tem pogledu lahko interpretiramo učne priprave kot materializacijo procesov Kolbovega kroga izkustvenega učenja (Marentič Požarnik, 2000, str. 124). Vsi obravnavani avtorji zato poudarjajo, da učne priprave niso namenjene le pripravi in izvedbi učne ure, temveč so pomembne tudi za učiteljev strokovni razvoj. Zato je izdelava podrobnih učnih priprav pomembna dejavnost v izobraževanju bodočih učiteljev. Kramar (2009) meni, naj bi bodoči učitelj med študijem izdelal podrobne učne priprave, ki bi vsebovale tudi utemeljitve konkretnih odločitev. Tako bi teoretično znanje pretvarjal v praktično dogajanje, ga z izvajanjem pouka uresničeval in z didaktično analizo pouka kritično osvetljeval ter ustvarjalno dopolnjeval z izkušnjami in novim znanjem. Posebnost tovrstnih podrobnih učnih priprav je tudi vključenost drugih oseb v njihovo izdelavo: poleg študentov, ki izvajajo nastop, pri izdelavi priprav lahko sodelujejo še njihovi študijski kolegi, učitelji študentov ter mentorji v zavodih. Pomemben vidik izdelave učnih priprav je tudi uporaba virov. Odnos med pisno pripravo na učno uro, učnim načrtom in didaktičnimi gradivi (učbeniki, delovni zvezki, priročniki za učitelje, primeri učnih priprav ipd.) je vse prej kot enostaven, zlasti ko gre za študentove učne priprave. Na osnovno dilemo na tem področju sta opozorili že Ball in Feiman-Nemser (1988). Ugotavljata, da je pogosto del skritega kurikula v izobraževalnih programih za bodoče učitelje predpostavka, da dobri učitelji ustvarjajo 'svoje ure' in se pri oblikovanju te ne naslanjajo na učbenike - ne nazadnje tudi zaradi možnih pomanjkljivosti slednjih. Avtorici menita, da zaradi neizkušenosti študentje nasploh ne morejo izdelati 'svoje učne ure'. Zato zgolj odsvetovanje naslanjanja na učbenik ni primerno, pač pa je pomembno pri študentih razvijati spretnosti, kako oblikovati učno uro s pomočjo različnih didaktičnih gradiv. Tudi učitelji ne oblikujejo učne ure neposredno po učbeniku, kot je morda videti na prvi pogled. Omenimo naj starejšo raziskavo Freemana in Porterja (1989), da celo učitelji, ki uporabljajo (enak) predpisani učbenik, obravnavajo tematike zelo različno (z različnimi poudarki, opuščanjem ali dodajanjem vsebinskih elementov), glede na to, kar jim narekujejo lastne izkušnje in lastno razumevanje pouka. Podobno ugotavlja tudi Tarr s sodelavci (Tarr idr., 2006), ki je raziskal, kako učitelji uporabljajo dva bistveno različna učbenika matematike. Izbira učbenika v določeni meri vpliva na izbor in obseg obravnave vsebin, v zelo majhni meri pa izbira učbenika vpliva na sam način obravnave - Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 331 mnogi učitelji se bolj kot na sam učbenik opirajo na lastne izkušnje in lastno razumevanje pouka. Podobna ugotovitev velja tudi za kurikularna gradiva (učni načrti s spremljajočimi pojasnili, dopolnili, primeri ...). Collopy (2003) je ugotavila, da celo pri izkušenih učiteljih študij in redna uporaba kurikularnih gradiv nemalokrat ne vodi k želenim rezultatom, saj gradiva in pomen informacij v njih interpretirajo skozi globoko ukoreninjene in v posameznikovi praksi utrjene subjektivne teorije. Sherin in Drake (2009) sta ugotovili, da je sicer pomembno, da se učitelji poglobljeno seznanijo s kurikularnimi gradivi in po njihovih smernicah pripravijo, izvedejo ter analizirajo učne ure, pravi učinek pa sledi šele po dolgoročnejšem preurejanju izvajanja pouka, torej opuščanju, spreminjanju oziroma dodajanju vsebin ter načinov dela, spreminjanju poudarjanja posameznih elementov učnega načrta, morda celo uvajanju inovativnih prijemov v učnem procesu. Opisane značilnosti učiteljev glede uporabe učbenikov in učnih načrtov veljajo v določeni meri tudi za študente. Tudi študentje so 'opremljeni' s subjektivnimi teorijami učenja in poučevanja, v nasprotju z učitelji pa so njihove izkušnje pri oblikovanju učnih ur skromne. Študentje, ki se pri načrtovanju učne ure naslanjajo predvsem na učbenike, bodo - tako kot učitelji — uporabili subjektivne teorije pri interpretiranju prebranega in to vnesli v učno pripravo. Zato je zelo pomembno, da pri izdelavi priprav uporabljajo učne načrte, didaktična in študijska gradiva. To potrjuje tudi raziskava, ki sta jo izvedli Spielman in Lloyd (2004). Študentje, ki so v polletni pedagoški praksi pri izdelavi priprav sistematično uporabljali tudi kurikularna gradiva, so v primerjavi s študenti, ki so pri izdelavi priprav uporabljali predvsem učbenike, v pomembno večji meri pri pouku realizirali smernice kurikularnih gradiv (v smislu manj poudarjenega tradicionalnega pristopa), pri svojem delu so bolj sodelovali z drugimi študenti in so se manj zanašali na pomoč ter nasvete svojih mentorjev. Kot v svoji raziskavi ugotavlja Sahin-Taskin (2017), tudi učitelji mentorji na razredni stopnji poučevanja pričakujejo od študentov praktikantov, da pri izdelavi učnih priprav izhajajo iz didaktičnih gradiv. Ob tem pa avtor opozarja na previdnost, saj študentje zaradi pomanjkljivega znanja in neizkušenosti tudi tovrstna gradiva hitro razumejo v luči lastnih subjektivnih teorij. Uporabo različnih didaktičnih gradiv pri izdelavi učnih priprav med praktičnim usposabljanjem študentov je na vzorcu šol v Saudski Arabiji preučil Alanzi (2019). Čeprav je velika večina študentov menila, da je za uspešno učno uro najbolje izdelati učno pripravo po (povsem) lastni zamisli, so praktično vsi študentje izhajali iz že izdelanih vzorcev ur oziroma priprav, pridobljenih na spletu. Dobra polovica (56 %) študentov je bila sposobna v izhodiščne vzorce vnesti lastne ideje in ustrezno 332 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (pre)oblikovati učno pripravo. Četrtina študentov (26 %) je vsaj v kakem delu predelala izhodiščno pripravo, za nezanemarljiv del študentov (18 %) pa je bilo vsebinsko preurejanje priprav prevelik zalogaj in so uporabljali le minimalno spremenjene izhodiščne priprave. Med težavami pri izdelavi učnih priprav so študentje najpogosteje navajali časovno stisko med potekom praktičnega usposabljanja. Pri učenju oblikovanja učnih ur in pisanja priprav se je treba soočiti tudi z odsotnostjo poučevalnih izkušenj. Posebej zanimivo raziskavo o tem je izvedel Woong s sodelavci (Woong idr., 2018). Skupina 127-ih bodočih učiteljev matematike je izdelovala učne priprave po enem od treh modelov po lastnem izboru. Prvi model je temeljil na sintezi treh krajših učnih priprav, ki jih je bilo treba razdelati v enovito učno pripravo za 90-minutno obravnavo. Drugi model je temeljil na ustvarjalnosti študentov, saj so morali povsem samostojno oblikovati potrebne dejavnosti za vseh 90 minut učne enote. Študentje, ki so uporabljali tretji model, pa so morali predhodno izdelano študentsko pripravo analizirati, jo predelati in opremiti z obširnimi, učitelju namenjenimi komentarji. Na osnovi izdelanih učnih priprav je skupina izvedencev po enotnem kriteriju ocenila izkazane zmožnosti pisanja priprav vseh treh skupin študentov. Kot najbolj uspešni so se v povprečju izkazali študentje, ki so delali po tretjem modelu, najslabše pa študentje, ki so delali po drugem modelu. Enako sliko je nudila tudi samoocena študentov o učinkovitosti izdelave priprav in zadovoljstvu z izdelanimi pripravami. Analizirali so tudi specifične spretnosti za izdelavo priprav. Izvedenci so v povprečju najbolje ocenili zmožnosti študentov za dodelavo in uporabo obstoječih gradiv, pomembno slabše so v povprečju ocenili spretnosti študentov pri presojanju primernosti dejavnosti, kot najslabše pa so ocenili spretnosti študentov pri načrtovanju učne ure, izbiri in organizaciji dejavnosti. Vse kaže, da povsem samostojna izdelava kakovostnih učnih priprav presega dodiplomsko znanje bodočih učiteljev in da študentje pri načrtovanju učnih ur potrebujejo več opore, kot je videti na prvi pogled. O pomanjkanju izkušenj kot oviri pri pisanju priprav na učno uro sta poročali tudi Retelj in Kosevski Puljic (2016). Bodoči učitelji tujega jezika vidijo pomanjkanje izkušenj kot oviro pri pisanju učnih priprav, saj so med težavami, ki jih zaznavajo pri oblikovanju učne ure in izdelavi priprave, najbolj poudarili izbiro primernih nalog, predvidevanje časovnega poteka ter oblikovanje učnih ciljev. Kot pomoč študentom pri zanje zahtevnem samostojnem oblikovanju učne ure in izdelavi učne priprave sta Rusznyak in Walton (2011) zasnovala študentom Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 333 namenjene smernice za oblikovanje učne ure. Namen smernic ni poenostavljanje procesa načrtovanja učne ure, temveč sistematična obravnava vseh kompleksnosti, kijih vključuje oblikovanje uankovite učne ure. Smernice zahtevajo, da študent ob načrtovanju priprave izrazi tako razumevanje obravnavane vsebine kot pedagoško razmišljanje. Raziskav o učinkovitosti tovrstnih smernic nismo zasledili. Pri bodočih učiteljih je zato treba razvijati spretnost ne le oblikovanja učnih ur, temveč vsaj v enaki meri tudi spretnost analiziranja in izboljševanja lastnih in pridobljenih priprav ter tudi izvedbe učnih priprav. Nekateri avtorji (npr. Hiebert idr., 2003; Hiebert idr., 2007) predlagajo obravnavo izvedbe učnih ur kot eksperiment v smislu ponavljajočega, sistematičnega, organiziranega in reflektiranega preizkušanja različnih načinov poučevanja. V tem smislu naj bi bile priprave in izvedbe učnih ur načrtovan eksperiment z zastavljenimi cilji (povezanimi z učenjem poučevanja), zbiranjem podatkov in analizo zbranih podatkov. Morris (2006) ugotavlja, da so bodoči učitelji razmeroma spretni pri analizi vzrokov (ne)uspešnosti učne ure in dodelavi ter spreminjanju priprav le, kadar poznajo šibke točke priprave. Manj pa so spretni pri prepoznavanju šibkih točk v pripravi in pri zbiranju dokazov o ustreznosti posameznih delov učne ure. Predlaga, da na učne priprave in izvedbe učnih ur bodočih učiteljev udeleženci, vključno z bodočimi učitelji, gledajo bolj kot na sredstvo za učenje poučevanja in manj kot na preverjanje, ali bodoči učitelj že obvlada poučevalne spretnosti. To je v skladu s sklepom iz raziskave Retelsdorfa in C. Günther (2011), da mora biti učitelj pri načrtovanju učnih ur usmerjen ne le v učne cilje, ki naj bi jih dosegli učenci, temveč tudi v cilje, namenjene lastnemu strokovnemu razvoju. Menimo, da to velja tudi za bodoče učitelje. Učenje na osnovi dodelave učnih priprav se je izkristaliziralo v metodo, imenovano 'študij učnih ur' (angl. lesson study ali Japanese lesson study), ki je namenjena strokovnemu razvoju učiteljev. Metoda temelji na skupinski izdelavi učne priprave v obliki večkrat ponovljenega cikla, ki obsega (Hart idr., 2011): 1. opredelitev učnih ciljev; 2. izdelavo učne priprave; 3. opazovanje izvedene učne ure in zbiranje podatkov o učnih učinkih; 4. analiziranje zbranih podatkov, ki jo spremlja širša refleksija o poučevanju; 5. odločanje o potrebnih spremembah in dodelavah priprave za učno uro, ki bo izvedena na novi skupini učencev. 334 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Učitelji naj bi metodo razumeli kot skupinsko pripravo učne ure, kakršne posamezni učitelj ne bi mogel samostojno izdelati. Metodo so priredili tudi za delo z bodočimi učitelji pri običajnem poučevanju in 'mikropoučevanju' (npr. Carier, 2011; Fernandez, 2010; Sims in Walsh, 2009). Podobno kot pri izboljšavah običajnih priprav sta se kot ozko grlo te metode pokazala zbiranje podatkov o učinkovitosti izvedenih učnih ur in skupinska kritična analiza teh (Fernandez idr., 2003; Robinson in Leikin, 2012). Elipane (2018) pa izraža pomisleke do tovrstnega prirejanja metode študija učnih ur za skupine bodočih učiteljev. Poudarja, da je bistvena prvina študija učnih ur kolegialna izmenjava znanja med učitelji, ki so z izkušnjami pridobili poglobljeno razumevanje učnega procesa in razvili lastne pristope in načine dela. S tega vidika metoda ni primerna za skupine študentov, saj so ti skorajda brez poučevanih izkušenj. Elipane (2018) zato predlaga, da bodoči učitelji sodelujejo pri študiju učnih ur, vendar v okviru pedagoške prakse na šolah, kjer naj se vključijo v skupino izkušenih učiteljev, ki izvaja študij učnih ur. Namen in metodologija raziskave Na PEF UL študentje izdelujejo učne priprave v okviru številnih specialnih didaktik. Ker so programi in predmetna področja študija raznoliki, je razumljivo, da v okviru PEF UL ni dogovorjenega enotnega postopka izdelave ter formata učnih priprav na nastope študentov, prav tako so različni načini uporabe učnih priprav v študijskem procesu. Vendar ugotavljamo tudi, da terminologija osnovnih sestavin priprave ni usklajena. Razlike so za študente nemalokrat moteče, še posebej, če študent izdeluje priprave na nastope pri različnih predmetih in če razlike niso vsebinsko pogojene. Domnevamo, da se tudi spremembe v sodobnem pouku (inkluzija, medpredmetno povezovanje, kroskurikularni učni cilji, formativno preverjanje ipd.) odražajo v načrtovanju pouka in v učnih pripravah ter razlike med didaktičnimi področji še poglabljajo. Da bi ugotovili stanje na področju izdelovanja priprav na nastope študentov, je Komisija za praktično usposabljanje PEF UL izvedla manjšo raziskavo med visokošolskimi učitelji in sodelavci, ki izvajajo praktično usposabljanje, o praksah izdelave priprav na nastope študentov in uporabe teh priprav v študijskem procesu. V raziskavi smo se omejili na priprave, kijih študentje izdelujejo za nastope izven strnjene prakse. Pri tovrstnih nastopih študent izdela pripravo na šolsko uro, ki jo kasneje tudi izvede v razredu. V izdelavo priprave je vključenih, poleg študenta, ki izvede nastop, več oseb: mentor (tj. oseba v zavodu, kjer študent izvaja nastop), učitelji PEF Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 335 UL (visokošolski učitelji in asistenti) ter študentovi kolegi. Pot do končne priprave je razmeroma kompleksna in v njej nasploh prepoznamo naslednje korake: 1. dodelitev učne teme in razreda, kjer naj bi se izvedel nastop; 2. zbiranje in posredovanje informacij o okoliščinah izvedbe nastopa (predhodne obravnave, posebnosti razreda oziroma skupine ali posameznih učencev, posebnosti želene obravnave); 3. izdelava osnutka priprave; 4. predstavitev, analiza oziroma pregled osnutka priprave; 5. izdelava končne priprave; 6. dopolnitev priprave z analizo izvedene ure. Želeli smo odgovoriti na naslednja raziskovalna vprašanja o načinu izdelave in uporabe priprav na nastope študentov v študijskih programih PEF UL: 1. Kakšne so prakse izdelave študentskih priprav na nastope z vidika vloge udeležencev, uporabe virov ter sestavin zapisa priprav? 2. Kako so priprave študentov na nastope uporabljene v nadaljnjem študijskem procesu? 3. Kateri sodobni pristopi so prisotni pri izdelavi priprav in njihovi uporabi v študijskem procesu? Podatke smo zbrali z anketnim vprašalnikom. Na spletno anketo je odgovorilo 28 visokošolskih učiteljev in sodelavcev PEF UL, ki delajo na področju praktičnega usposabljanja. Na večino vprašanj je odgovorilo 25 anketirancev, na posamezna pa kakšen manj (preglednica 2). Priprav, ki jih študentje izdelujejo na enak način pri istih nosilcih študijskih predmetov v različnih letnikih istega programa, med seboj nismo razlikovali. V nadaljevanju predstavljeni rezultati torej ne odražajo niti zastopanosti priprav po študijskih predmetih niti številčnosti priprav glede na število študentov, temveč odražajo le raznolikost načinov pisanja priprav na PEF UL. V analizi podatkov bomo postopoma odgovorili na prvo in nato na drugo raziskovalno vprašanje, ob tem pa bomo vzporedno odgovorili še na tretje vprašanje. 336 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Tabela 2: Število obravnavanih vrst priprav na nastope študentov po študijskih programih. Program Število Dvopredmetni učitelj_7 Likovna pedagogika_2 Predšolska vzgoja_4 Razredni pouk_7 Socialna pedagogika_1 Specialna in rehabilitacijska pedagogika_4 Skupaj_25 Rezultati z analizo Vloge udeležencev in komunikacija med njimi. Med izdelavo priprave na nastop študent sodeluje z mentorjem v zavodu, kjer bo izvajal nastop, z učitelji PEF UL ter s kolegi študenti. Graf 1 prikazuje vključenost udeležencev v posameznih korakih izdelave študentove priprave (poleg samega študenta). Razvidno je, da mentorji sodelujejo predvsem v začetni fazi izdelave priprave (dodelitev teme in informiranje o specifikah razreda oziroma želenega načina obravnave) in v končni fazi (analiza izvedenega nastopa). V vmesnih korakih študent sodeluje predvsem z učitelji PEF UL; v približno dveh tretjinah primerov so to asistenti, v eni pa predavatelji. Študent se v tem okviru torej uči oblikovati učno uro in pisati pripravo predvsem od učiteljev, ne pa od mentorjev v zavodih, kar ni ravno v duhu partnerskega odnosa med PEF in zavodom kot partnersko inštitucijo. Res pa je, da je na strnjeni učni praksi študentov veliko možnosti, da mentorji prenašajo na študente svoje znanje in izkušnje pri pisanju priprav. Iz grafa 1 je nadalje razvidna majhna vključenost drugih študentov v proces nastajanja priprave. Kaže, da razumemo izdelavo priprave kot individualno študentovo dejavnost in ne kot priložnost za učenje ob soočenju mnenj kolegov. Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 337 Osebje PEF UL — — Mentor (na šoli, vrtcu...) —a— Kolegi (študenti) nastopa osnovna osnutka osnutka izdelava priprave navodila za priprave priprave priprave konkretno temo Graf 1: Sodelovanje udeležencev v posameznih korakih izdelave priprave na nastop študentov. Raziskali smo tudi načine komuniciranja med udeleženci v posameznih fazah izdelave priprave (graf 2). V celoti študentje pri izdelavi priprave v približno tretjini primerov komunicirajo z mentorjem oziroma učitelji PEF UL neposredno in individualno, v slabi tretjini neposredno v skupinskem pogovoru, v tretjini primerov pa individualno preko e-medijev. Slednja komunikacija poteka skoraj izključno preko e-pošte. Razumljivo so v posameznih korakih izdelave priprave razmerja med posameznimi načini komuniciranja različna. Pogovor po izvedbi ankete je pokazal, da se mnogi učitelji PEF UL zavedajo prednosti, ki jih pri intenzivni komunikaciji med več udeleženci omogočajo sodobni spletni pripomočki za skupinsko izdelavo dokumentov, a jih iz previdnosti ne priporočajo pri izdelavi priprav na nastope študentov. 27 10 14 13 28 1 Dodelitev Usmeritev, Izdelava Pregled teme osnovna osnutka osnutka nastopa navodila za priprave priprave konkretno temo Dokončna Odobritev Analiza izdelava priprave nastopa priprave 118 Skupaj Graf 2: Oblike sporočanja pri izdelavi priprav na nastope študentov. 338 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Odnos do uporabljenih virov. Študentje pred izdelavo priprave na nastop prejmejo navodila za pisanje priprave in/ali sheme za zapis priprave, v večini primerov tudi informacijo o načinu ocenjevanja priprave ali shemo za samoocenjevanje učne priprave (graf 3). Redkeje pa jim je ponujen zgled izdelane priprave ali drugi elementi, npr. zgled tematske priprave, shema za analizo lastnega učnega procesa. Shema ali oporne točke priprave Navodila in pojasnila za pisanje priprav Zgled(i) analize nastopa Navodilo ali shemo za (samo)oceno priprave Zgled(i) priprave Drugo Shema ali oporne točke analize nastopa m 28% □ 24% 20% □ 72% D 64% Graf 3: Elementi navodil študentom za izdelavo učne priprave. Zelo zanimive odgovore smo prejeli na vprašanje o zaželenosti virov, ki naj bi jih uporabljali študentje pri izdelavi priprav na nastop. V tem pogledu lahko prepoznavo tri skupine virov. V prvi skupini so viri, katerih uporaba je v skoraj vseh primerih zahtevana ali vsaj priporočena in jih nihče izmed anketirancev ne zavrača. V to skupino sodijo učni načrti (86,4 % zahtevano, 9,1 % priporočeno), informacije o značilnosti razreda in posameznih učencev (50,0 % zahtevano, 45,5 % priporočeno) ter mentorjeve informacije o predhodno obravnavanih vsebinah, želeni poudarkih pri obravnavi (45,5 % zahtevano, 45,5 % priporočeno). V drugo skupino sodijo viri, ki so v približno polovici primerov zahtevani ali priporočeni in jih le izjemoma kdo zavrača: učbenik, ki ga uporabljajo učenci razreda, kjer bo izvedena načrtovana ura (18,2 % zahtevano, 31,8 % priporočeno), drugi učbeniki (0,0 % zahtevano, 59,1 % priporočeno) ter različno spletno gradivo (0,0 % zahtevano, 45,5 % priporočeno). V tretjo skupino pa sodijo viri, ki v slabi polovici ali več niso zaželeni: osnutek priprave, kot jo predlaga mentor (9,1 % nepomembno, 27,3 % neželeno), samostojno pridobljene priprave s strani študentov (4,5 % nepomembno, 50,0 % nezaželeno) in priprave, ki bi jih študent le dodelal, dopolnil (18,2 % nepomembno, 81,8 % nezaželeno). Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 339 ■ Zahtevam ■ Priporočam ■ Dopuščam Se mi ne zdi pomembno ■ Ne želim 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Kurikularna gradiva (učni načrt ipd.) Informacije o učencih v razredu, kjer bo... Mentorjeve informacije o obravnavani in. Učbenik,ki ga uporabljajo učenci pri pouku Drugi učbeniki Razno spletno gradivo Osnutek priprave, ki jo študent prejme od. Priprave, ki jih študent pridobi samostojno Pripravo, ki jo mora študent le dopolniti,. Graf 4: Zaželenost uporabljenih virov pri izdelavi učne priprave študentov. To, da je v skoraj vseh primerih pri izdelavi priprav zahtevano upoštevanje učnega načrta, je pozitivno. Spielman in Lloyd (2004) sta ugotavili, da tako študentje bolje upoštevajo novosti v pristopih, ki jih želimo vpeljevati. Zanimiva je zadržanost do uporabe učbenikov kot vira za pripravo na nastop. Po eni strani nemara ta zadržanost izvira iz prepričanja, da dobra učna ura temelji na študentovih izvirnih pristopih, dejavnostih, razlagah, vajah (Ball in Feiman-Nemser, 1988). Po drugi strani podatek odseva zavedanje, da je učbenik namenjen učencem in ne učiteljem, pa tudi dejstvo, da v nekaterih programih (npr. predšolska vzgoja) ni učbenikov. Menimo, da na predpisane učbenike, ki naj bodo kakovostni, vse premalo gledamo kot na učno sredstvo, ki naj ga smiselno uporabimo pri pouku. Študentje morajo pridobiti znanja o tem, kako pri pouku učinkovito uporabljati učbenik. V tem smislu je učbenik pomemben vir pri izdelavi priprave, ne sme pa služiti kot model oblikovanja same učne ure. Zanimivo je tudi skoraj popolno zavračanje pridobljenih priprav za obravnavo učne vsebine. Woong s sodelavci (2018) ugotavlja, da je za mnoge študente samostojno oblikovanje učne ure zgolj na osnovi učnega načrta prezahtevno in privede do tega, da študentje ponavljajo neustrezne vzorce poučevanja na osnovi subjektivnih teorij. 340 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Menimo, da bi vsaj del študentov na začetku lažje pretrgal z ustaljenimi vzorci poučevanja, če bi izdelal pripravo kot dopolnitev osnutka priprave. Sestavine učne priprave. Omenili smo, da slovenski splošni didaktiki priporočajo v glavi učne priprave zapis podobnih formalnih podatkov o načrtovani učni uri (npr. šola, predmet, razred, izvajalec, mentor). V tem pogledu tudi ni bilo večjih razlik v odgovorih anketirancev. Skoraj vsi anketiranci (90,9 %) zahtevajo v glavi priprave zapis formalnih podatkov, vključno z oblikami in metodami dela ter učnimi cilji, le 22,7 % pa zapis osnovnega didaktičnega pristopa (sistema). V odgovorih anketirancev o možnih učnih oblikah in njihovih poimenovanjih ni bilo vsebinskih razlik. Precejšnje razlike pa smo ugotovili pri členitvi učnih ciljev in učnih metod. Med anketiranci jih 22,8 % ne pričakuje posebnih členitev ciljev, drugi pa so navajali zelo raznolike členitve. Nekaj primerov: globalni in specifični cilji; splošni in operativni cilji; operativni in procesni cilji; afektivni, psihomotorični in kognitivni cilji; jezikovni in nejezikovni cilji; predmetni, medpredmetni in kroskurilularni cilji; učni cilji in študentovi cilji lastnega razvoja. Iz primerov členitev prepoznamo različne ravni učnih ciljev (od globalnih, prek operativnih do operacionaliziranih za učno enoto) ter cilje glede na vrsto znanja, kot so afektivni, psihomotorični, kognitivni ali jezikovni in nejezikovni. Razlike v načinu zapisovanja učnih ciljev so do neke mere upravičene zaradi razlik med predmetnimi področji, menimo pa, da so ugotovljene razlike prevelike. Ne nazadnje je v učnih načrtih uporabljena enotna terminologija - splošni cilji in operativni cilji - nadaljnja členitev pa je prepuščena predmetnim didaktikam. Tudi med slovenskimi splošnimi didaktiki v členitvi učnih ciljev ni enotnosti (preglednica 1). Iz odgovorov anketirancev o uporabljenih členitvah in operacionalizaciji učnih ciljev lahko razberemo specifiko predmetnih področij, npr. jezikovni in nejezikovni cilji, in poudarjanje vidikov, za katere posamezni učitelj želi, da jih študenti ozavestijo in vključujejo v pouk (vzgoja in izobraževanje za trajnostni razvoj, cilji višjih kognitivni ravni po Bloomu). Omenimo naj dve vrsti ciljev, ki sta skupni vsem predmetnim področjem, a sta v pripravo le izjemoma eksplicitno vključeni. Prva vrsta so cilji, povezani z medpredmetnim povezovanjem. Ti so utemeljeni z učnimi načrti vseh osnovnošolskih predmetov, kjer je medpredmetno povezovanje ena od didaktičnih zahtev; v večini učnih načrtov je ta zahteva tudi operacionalizirana na ravni učnih ciljev in vsebin. Druga vrsta ciljev je povezana z lastnim strokovnim razvojem in vključuje razmislek in usmeritev študenta v lastni strokovni napredek, ki ga Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 341 omogoča pedagoški nastop. Slednje je v skladu s sklepom iz raziskav Retelsdorfa in Günther (2011), da mora biti učitelj pri načrtovanju učnih ur pozoren tudi na cilje, namenjene lastnemu strokovnemu razvoju. Čeprav je specifičnost struktur učnih ciljev v pripravah za posamezno predmetno področje utemeljena s posebnostmi samih predmetnih področij, pa je prevelika raznolikost v členitvi ciljev v pripravah kontraproduktivna, ker vnaša zmedo, negotovost, relativnost v znanje študentov, ki svoje pedagoško znanje šele gradijo. Študentje razrednega pouka se, recimo, učijo načrtovanja pouka ob osmih različnih strukturah učne priprave in z različno terminologijo, to pa ne more voditi k optimalnim rezultatom. Menimo, da je treba razumno uskladiti členitve učnih ciljev ter poenotiti terminologijo. Precejšnja neenotnost je tudi v klasifikacijah in poimenovanju učnih metod. Iz zapisov anketirancev je razvidno, da učne metode razumejo kot način dela, po katerem naj bi učenci usvajali znanje pri pouku. Te nekateri razčlenijo na raven učnih tehnik, npr. delo z zemljevidom, prikaz s telesnim vodenjem, večina (68,8 % odgovorov) pa izhaja iz splošnih didaktičnih klasifikacij (tabela 1), pri čemer zasledimo terminološke variacije (pogovor - razgovor, demonstracija -prikazovanje). Anketiranci so zapisali različno število metod (od dve do šest), večina je s tripičjem nakazala, da je metod še več, nekateri pa jih sploh niso navajali in zapisali le »odvisno od ure« ali »metod je res veliko« ali »metode so specifične za posamezno področje«. Na splošno imamo vtis, da odgovori na to anketno vprašanje kažejo manjšo skrbnost v natančnosti zapisa, da se morda anketirancem ta klasifikacija in poseben zapis na začetku učne priprave ne zdita vsebinsko zelo pomembna, ker se načini poučevanja vidijo iz osrednjega dela učne priprave. Zapisi učnih metod v glavi navadno ne vplivajo na načrtovanje pouka in jih študentje zapišejo na koncu izdelave priprave. Ta sestavina učne priprave je brezpredmetna, če je v pripravo vključena pregledna shema učne ure, ki vključuje tudi načine poučevanja in učenja v učni enoti. V glavo učne priprave anketiranci vključujejo tudi naslednje sestavine, to so: učni pripomočki (90,9 % anketirancev), literatura, viri (90,9 %), ključne besede (22,7 %), varnostni ukrepi (63,6 %). Slednji so zahtevani zlasti pri predmetih, kjer pouk poteka v telovadnici, laboratoriju, zunaj oziroma učenci uporabljajo potencialno nevarne pripomočke, naprave, snovi. Ob vsej raznolikosti sestavin v glavi učne priprave se sprašujemo po namenu teh zapisov. Formalni podatki (npr. predmet, razred, izvajalec, mentor) so potrebni 342 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION zaradi preglednega shranjevanja, razvrščanja priprave in iskanja podatkov za nadaljnjo obravnavo, npr. potrdilo mentorjem. Vsebinski podatki, kot so naslov teme, učne enote, učni cilji, učne oblike, učne metode, potrebni pripomočki, literatura, omogočajo hiter, okvirni vpogled v osnovne vsebinske in didaktične značilnosti učne enoto, npr. za priklic učne enote, iskanje ključnih podatkov, pripravo učnih pripomočkov. Če je obvezna sestavina učne priprave tudi pregledna shema učne enote, zlasti na začetku priprave, pa je vredno razmisliti, ali je podvajanje nekaterih sestavin potrebno. Osrednji del učne priprave. Slaba polovica učiteljev (48,0 %) priporoča študentom zapis poteka ure v obliki scenarija, drugi (52 %) pa v obliki dveh stolpcev (učitelj, učenec). Nekateri (16 %) dopuščajo tudi zapise v obliki miselnih vzorcev ali celo v poljubni obliki, ki jo izbere študent sam (8 %). Približno tretjina učiteljev zahteva oziroma pričakuje pregledno shemo učne ure bodisi v obliki tabele bodisi v obliki preglednega povzetka ob koncu priprave. O morebitni predpisani notranji strukturi osrednjega dela učne priprave nismo spraševali, domnevamo pa, da je osrednji del priprave obsežen, manj pregleden, zato priporočilo, da študent napiše tudi pregledno shemo učne ure. Obsežen del učnih priprav so različne priloge. ■ Eksplicitna vsebovanost v shemi priprave ■ Pričakovano v pripravi ■ Ni zahtevano 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Tabelska slika, prosojnice i-prikazi, e-prikazi, fotografije Učni listi Eksperimenti Dejavnosti za učno šibkejše Dejavnosti za učno zmožnejše Načrt prostorske priprave učilnice Graf 5: Vsebovanost raznih vrst prilog v učnih pripravah Med zahtevanimi ali vsaj pričakovanimi prilogami k učni pripravi so: tabelska slika in prosojnice (80,9 % ), i-prikazi, e-prikazi in fotografije (71,4 % ), učni listi (76,2 % Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 343 ), opisi eksperimentov (52,3 % ), dejavnosti za učno šibkejše (57,1 %), dejavnosti za učno zmožnejše (52,3 %), načrt prostorske priprave učilnice (42,9 %). Zasledimo tudi predviden učenčev zapis v zvezek. Čeprav vloga tabelske slike, razumljene širše, ostaja enaka, pa klasično tablo vse bolj nadomešča interaktivna tabla. Pojavlja se vprašanje, kako v študentovi učni pripravi dokumentirati i-prikaze, e-prikaze, programska orodja. Med odgovori anketirancev je bilo tudi opozorilo o pogosti nepremišljeni uporabi IKT pri nastopih študentov. Študente je treba opozarjati, da »[...] uporaba IKT v procesu učenja in poučevanja ni sama sebi namen, temveč je smiselna, kadar pripelje učenca do ciljev, zastavljenih s kurikulom, in prispeva k opolnomočenju učencev, dijakov, študentov za rabo kompetenc za 21. stoletje ter k zboljšanju učnih dosežkov«. (Strateške usmeritve nadaljnjega uvajanja IKT v slovenske VIZ do leta 2020, 2016, 4). Nekoliko zaskrbljujoč je podatek, da le polovica učiteljev zahteva od študentov razmislek o prilagoditvah pouka, ki so vidne tudi v pripravi. Glede na inkluzivno šolo in uvajanja formativnega spremljanja učencev, je učenje za individualizacijo in diferenciacijo pouka tudi pri nastopih študentov, ki so najbolj voden del praktičnega usposabljanja, zelo potrebno. Skribe-Dimec (2013) je ugotavila, da študentje s študijem splošne didaktike ne ponotranjijo notranje diferenciacije kot samoumevne komponente pouka, saj ob začetku študija specialne didaktike manj kot 10 % študentov samoiniciativno vključi v pripravo elemente notranje diferenciacije. Zato je smiselno, da v pripravah na nastop študentje eksplicitno obravnavajo upoštevanje diferenciacije v načrtovani učni uri. Zahteva vključenosti prostorske priprave »učilnice« v učne priprave odraža posebnosti predmetnih področij, saj jo najdemo predvsem v pripravah za šport in za delo s predšolskimi otroki. Razmislek, katere načine dela nam prostor omogoča in kako ga še bolje pripraviti za nemoteno delo, je tudi pri načrtovanju pouka v učilnici zelo pomemben. Prostor lahko pripravimo predhodno ali med poukom, hitre, sprotne rešitve pa niso vedno najboljše. Analiza izvedene učne ure kot del priprave. Sestavina pisne priprave je pri večini (72,3 %) anketiranih tudi analiza izvedene učne ure, ki jo študent napiše po opravljenem nastopu, navadno po vodeni analizi. Zaznali smo tri vrste analiz izvedene ure. — Analize v smislu rubrik o ustreznosti posameznih sestavin in vidikov načrtovane ter izvedene ure pouka. Primer: izbrana raven zahtevnosti, strokovno-didaktična izvedba, sistematičnost, skladnost učnih metod in oblik, uporaba učnih pripomočkov, doseženi 344 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION cilji učne ure, komunikacija in govor, sprotna povratna informacija, motivacijske podbude, dejavnost učencev, diferenciacija, delo z učenci s posebnimi potrebami, kaj je v uri uspelo, kje so bile priložnosti za izbojšave. — Analize v smislu Kolbovega cikla izkušenjskega učenja. Primer: kaj ste predvideli v pripravi in zakaj; kako se je vaše ravnanje obneslo pri uri; kako si razlagate potek dogodkov pri uri; kako bi po tej izkušnji in poročilu opazovalca premenili pripravo oziroma izvedbo ure. — Analize v smislu izražanja študentovega mnenja o lastni usposobljenosti, zadovoljstvu, odnosih. Primer: kaj mi je šlo najbolje; kje sem največ pridobil; kje se moram še izpopolniti. Prva dva vidika analize učnih priprav priporoča tudi Kramar (2009, str. 247 in 250— 256). Meni, da mora bodoči učitelj med študijem izdelati podrobne učne priprave z utemeljitvami konkretnih odločitev in tako teoretično znanje pretvarjati v praktično dogajanje, ga nato z izvajanjem pouka uresničevati in z didaktično analizo pouka kritično osvetljevati in ustvarjalno dopolnjevati z izkušnjami ter novim znanjem. Za lažjo didaktično analizo priprave pouka je pripravil liste opisnih kriterijev z ocenjevalno lestvico, in sicer za (samo)presojo učnih ciljev (10 kategorij), učne vsebine (10 kategorij), učnih metod in dejavnosti (15 kategorij), izbora in rabe didaktičnih sredstev (10 kategorij), artikulacije in oblike pouka (10 kategorij). Tretji zaznan vidik analize je po našem mnenju potreben, vendar nezadosten. Povezan naj bo s ciljem lastnega strokovnega razvoja, ki ga želi študent doseči pri nastopu. Uporaba priprav v nadajnjem študijskem procesu. V najožjem pomenu je učna priprava formaliziran zapis o načrtovani izvedbi učne enote in pripomoček za izvedbo te. Za študenta pa je proces izdelave priprave tudi učna situacija. V tem smislu lahko učno pripravo obravnavamo kot učno sredstvo, ki se pri formiranju bodočih učiteljev uporablja tudi ločeno od samega nastopa, npr. kot del študentovega listovnika. V anketi je 54,5 % anketirancev navedlo, da učne priprave uporabljajo v nadaljnjem študijskem procesu. V večini primerov predavatelji in asistenti učno relevantne elemente (dogodke, zapise, nerodnosti) tovrstnih priprav na nastop zabeležijo in jih uporabijo pri nadaljnjem delu, npr. kot zgled pri predavanjih ali vajah. Le v dveh primerih študentske priprave obravnavajo kot del zaporednih učnih priprav. V prvem primeru skupine študentov izvedejo v istem razredu zaključen tematski sklop Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 345 z vsemi didaktičnimi stopnjami pouka. Skupina torej izvede več zaporednih nastopov, pri čemer posamezni študent pripravi svoj nastop in hospitira pri nastopih drugih študentov v skupini. Priprave študentov morajo biti medsebojno koordinirane, poleg tega študentje opazujejo učinek svojega nastopa v nadaljnjih urah. V drugem primeru smo zaznali zanimivo obliko študija učnih ur (angl. lesson study). Za dano temo študent najprej izdela pripravo na nastop in izvede simulacijo nastopa pred študentskimi kolegi. Na osnovi te izkušnje nato izdela končno pripravo in izvede nastop v razredu. Slednja metoda je za mnoge programe posebej zanimiva, saj je iz objektivnih razlogov težko ali nemogoče izvajati ponovitve učnih ur v različnih razredih. Zanimala nas je tudi možnost vzporedne izdelave priprave na nastop, da torej dva študenta (ali več študentov) izdelata pripravo na nastop na isto temo, nato pa vsak študent izvede nastop v svojem oddelku. To se vsaj občasno dogaja pri 36,4 % vrstah priprav. Žal v vseh teh primerih posamezni študentje izdelajo priprave samostojno, čeprav je to priložnost za medsebojno sodelovanje in vzajemno učenje pri izdelavi priprav. Zaključek Z raziskavo pisnih učnih priprav na nastope študentov na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani (PEF UL) smo izpostavili vrsto dobrih praks, ki so jih razvili posamezni specialni didaktiki, proučili nekatere mednarodne trende, ugotovili šibka področja in premislili o možnih izboljšavah na tem področju. V zaključku želimo strniti najpomembnejše ugotovitve in predloge ter smernice razvoja. Pisne priprave za nastope študentov so bolj kot neposredni pripravi na enkraten nastop namenjene usposabljanju študentov. Na PEF UL že izvajamo različne načine vključevanja priprav v študijski proces (vzporedne priprave, zaporedni nastopi, zaporedni ponavljajoči se nastopi). Znani so tudi drugi, v svetu razširjeni modeli produktivnih načinov vključevanja priprav v študijski proces, ki pa jih nismo zasledili, npr. študij učne ure (Hart idr., 2011). Izdelavo priprave na nastop spremlja intenzivna komunikacija med udeleženci (študenti, osebjem PEF UL in mentorji v zavodih). Zlasti slednje je treba bolj vključiti v vse faze nastajanja priprave. Približno tretjina komunikacije poteka po e-medijih, predvsem e-pošti, ki pa ni najbolj učinkovito orodje za ta namen. 346 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Preizkusiti velja še različna e-orodja za spletno urejanje in pregledovanje dokumentov. V pripravah na nastop so študentje in tudi drugi udeleženci pozorni predvsem na cilje, ki naj bi jih dosegli učenci. Podpiramo prakso, da se v učne priprave vnesejo tudi študijski cilji, ki si jih študent zastavi za lastno strokovno napredovanje. S tem poudarimo zavedanje, da je eden od vidikov pouka tudi učiteljev strokovni razvoj. Ugotovljeno je bilo, da so v procesu izdelave priprav na nastope (vključno s pisno analizo nastopa) ponekod le skromno prisotni elementi formativnega spremljanja napredka študenta in tudi elementi refleksije. Pomanjkanje časa, namenjenega samim pripravam na nastop in analizi nastopa, je pri vključevanju elementov formativnega spremljanja in refleksije lahko težava, ne pa prepreka. Potrebno je ustrezno vrednotenje (normiranje) neposrednega in posrednega pedagoškega dela za vse udeležence. Ena izmed priporočenih (Kramar, 2009), a po naših ugotovitvah redkih praks, povezanih s pripravami na nastop, je zahteva, da študentje v pripravi učne cilje, metode in podobne odločitve ne le navedejo, temveč jih tudi utemeljijo. Tako bolje ozavestijo svoje odločitve in sistematično povezujejo prakso s teorijo. V vseh programih se pri oblikovanju učne ure od študentov zahteva in pričakuje uporaba učnih načrtov in študijskih gradiv, da torej učencem namenjeni učbenik ni obravnavan kot model ure. Po drugi strani pa se je treba zavedati, da je vsaj za nekatere študente, posebej v začetnih letnikih, oblikovanje učne ure zgolj ali predvsem na osnovi učnega načrta prezahtevno, zato se oprejo na neustrezne subjektivne teorije. Možna rešitev je, da študent oblikuje učno uro kot dodelavo neke ponujene zasnove, a zaenkrat skoraj vsi anketirani tega ne odobravajo. Pričakovana ugotovitev raziskave je neusklajenost pri uporabi klasifikacij in terminologije pri zapisu in členitvi osnovnih sestavin učnih priprav. To je za študente lahko moteče. Zato so potrebna nadaljnja prizadevanja za razumno usklajevanje pedagoške terminologije, povezane s pripravami, še posebej v zvezi s kategorizacijo učnih ciljev in učnih metod. Osrednji, vsebinski del učne priprave smo analizirali samo z vidika strukture zapisa. Tudi ta se precej razlikuje med posameznimi predmetnimi področji. Veliko več pa bi lahko ugotovili z vsebinsko analizo, to pa je preseglo cilje te raziskave. Z. Magajna & M. Umek: Učne priprave na nastope bodočih učiteljev 347 Summary Prospective teachers and pedagogical educators for all levels and types of schools in Slovenia as a part of practical training, among other, prepare lessons or other pedagogic activities under the supervision of university staff and execute them in the authentic environment of educational institutions. The presented study considered the way of conceiving and documenting students' lesson plans related to this activity in various special didactics at the Faculty of Education of the University of Ljubljana (PEF UL). Taking into account the international trends related to the use of lesson plans in the formation of prospective teachers, we spotted weak areas, identified good practices, and we indicated possible improvements. Several participants are involved in the preparation of a student's lesson plan: student's colleagues, academic staff, mentors from the institution in which the lesson takes place. About a third of the related communication occurs in one to one oral form, about a third in the form of group discussion, and the remaining third via e-media, especially e-mail, though more effective tools web editing and documenting are available. The aim of students' lesson plan transcends the mere preparation of a lesson. Students' lesson plans are, above all, an important means for professional development. Various courses with didactic orientation at PEF UL in one way or another incorporate students' lesson plans in the study process. For example, in some cases small groups of students prepare 'in parallel' lesson plans for the same topic. In another case groups of students prepare (and execute) a sequence of lessons, each student as a member of the group prepares a lesson plan in coordination with other members of the group. We believe that the professional development aspect of students' lesson plan should be more emphasized. We have not found cases of important models of learning from lesson plans, like the (japanese) lesson study. In general, students at PEF UL are required to specify in the learning plan with necessary care the learning objectives to be achieved by pupils, but only in one case students are encouraged to specify also the goals related to their professional development. After the lesson takes place students need to reflect on the lesson plan and its realization. Usually this is done in one to one or group discussion with academic staff or with mentors from the institution. In most cases students are also required to write their own reflection as an addendum to the lesson plan. We believe that 348 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION reflective practices should be encouraged also during the preparation of the lesson plan, for example by some sort of formative evaluation. Another good practice is the requirement that students in their lesson plans justify their decisions regarding the teaching objectives, working methods, teaching strategies. In this way they gain insight into their choices and integrate practice with theory. In all didactic courses students are encouraged, during the preparation of the lesson, to consult the textbook used by pupils, bearing in mind that textbooks should not be considered as a model for lesson plan. Thus lessons should be based on curricular documents and related materials as well as students' study materials. However, the academic staff should be aware that creating a lesson plan on such basis may be too demanding for students in their first experiences, so that at the end they rely on their subjective theories which may have little in common with curricular and study guidelines. A possible solution is to give to students at their first attempts to conceive lesson plans some orientations regarding the learning strategies or even activities, but the majority of academic staff does not approve this. The research also brought to light terminological inconsistencies and diversity of classifications used within academic staff in relation to elements of lesson plans. Since this can be disturbing for students, further efforts should be put in overcoming the unnecessary differences, especially regarding the categorization of learning objectives and learning methods. Literatura Alanazi, M. H. (2019). A Study of the Pre-Service Trainee Teachers Problems in Designing Lesson Plans. Arab World English Journal, 10 (1), 166-182. Ball, L. D., Feiman-Nemser, S. (1988). Using Textbooks and Teachers' Guides: A Dilemma for Beginning Teachers and Teacher Educators. Curriculum Inquiry, 18 (4), 401-423. Blažič, M., Ivanuš Grmek, M., Kramar, M., Strmčnik, F. (2003). 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School Science and Mathematics, 104 (1), 32-44. Strateške usmeritve nadaljnjega uvajanja IKT v slovenske VIZ do leta 2020 (2016). Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za izobraževanje, znanost in šport. Prevzeto s http://www.mizs.gov.si/filea— dmin/mizs.gov.si/pageuploads/StrateskeUsmeritveNadaljnjegaUvajanjaIKT1_2016.pdf Pridobljeno 4. 9. 2018). 350 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE/ JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Tarr, J. E., Chávez, Ó., Reys, R. E. in Reys, B. J. (2006). From the Written to the Enacted Curricula: The Intermediary Role of Middle School Mathematics Teachers in Shaping Students' Opportunity to Learn. School Science and Mathematics, 106 (4), 191-201. Terminološki slovar vzgoje in izobraževanja, 2008-2009. Agencija za raziskovanje RS https://www.termania.net/slovarji/terminoloski-slovar-vzgpje-in-izobrazevanja/3474456/pouk (dostopno september 2018). Tomič, A. (2000). Izbrana poglavja iz didaktike. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, Center za pedagoško izobraževanje. Woong, L., Ji-Won, S. in Dong-Joong, K. (2018). Understanding Preservice Teacher Skills to Construct Lesson Plans. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 16 (3), 519— 538. Avtorja Dr. Zlatan Magajna, PhD Docent, Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, e-pošta: zlatan.magajna@pef.uni-lj.si Assistant professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, e-mail: zlatan.magajna@pef.uni-lj.si Dr. Maja Umek, PhD Docentka, Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, e-pošta: maja.umek@pef.uni-lj.si Assistant professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, e-mail: maja.umek@pef.uni-lj.si NAVODILA AVTORJEM Osnovni namen revije je povezati širok spekter teoretičnih izhodišč in praktičnih rešitev v izobraževanju ter tako spodbujati različne metodološke in vsebinske razprave. Uredniški odbor združuje strokovnjake in raziskovalce iz več evropskih držav in s tem želi ustvariti možnosti za živahen dialog med raznovrstnimi disciplinami in različnimi evropskimi praksami, povezanimi z izobraževanjem. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje torej objavlja prispevke, ki obravnavajo pomembna, sodobna vprašanja na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja, uporabljajo primerno znanstveno metodologijo ter so slogovno in jezikovno ustrezni. Odražati morajo pomemben prispevek k znanosti oziroma spodbudo za raziskovanje na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja z vidika drugih povezanih ved, kot so kognitivna psihologija, razvoj otroka, uporabno jezikoslovje in druge discipline. Revija sprejema še neobjavljene članke, ki niso bili istočasno poslani v objavo drugim revijam. Prispevki so lahko v slovenskem, angleškem ali nemškem jeziku. Sprejemanje člankov v objavo Prejete prispevke najprej pregleda urednik/ založniški odbor in ugotovi, ali vsebinsko ustrezajo konceptu in kriterijem revije. 1. Če prispevek ustreza konceptu in kriterijem revije, ga uredniški odbor pošlje dvema anonimnima recenzentoma. Članek, ki je vsebinsko skladen s konceptom revije, vendar ne ustreza drugim kriterijem, lahko uredništvo vrne avtorju, da ga popravi. 2. O sprejemu ali zavrnitvi članka je avtor obveščen približno tri mesece po njegovem prejemu. 3. Avtor dobi recenzirani prispevek vključno z morebitnimi priporočili za izboljšave/popravke, v primeru zavrnitve pa z navedenimi razlogi zanjo. 4. Končno odločitev o objavi članka sprejme urednik na temelju priporočil recenzentov. Pri tem utemeljitve za svojo odločitev ni dolžan navesti. 5. Besedilo prispevka mora biti pripravljeno v skladu z Navodili avtorjem. 6. Avtor jamči, da so v prispevku predstavljeni podatki natančni, verodostojni in izvirni. Ko je članek sprejet v objavo, avtor podpiše Izjavo o etičnosti raziskovanja in Izjavo avtorja o izvirnosti prispevka. Vsi prispevki gredo skozi postopek za ugotavljanje plagiatorstva. Navodila za oblikovanje besedila Pri pripravi besedila prispevka upoštevajte naslednja navodila: 1. Tipkopis oddajte kot dokument v programu Microsoft Word. Nabor pisave je Times New Roman, velikost črk 12 za osnovno besedilo in 10 za povzetka v slovenskem in angleškem jeziku, literaturo in citate, če so daljši od 3 vrstic, razmik med vrsticami pa je 1,5. Vodilni naslovi naj bodo zapisani krepko, prvi podnaslovi ležeče, drugi podnaslovi pa navadno. Naslovov in strani ne številčite in ne uporabljajte velikih tiskanih črk. 2. Besedilo prispevka naj ne presega 8.000 besed, vključno s povzetki, literaturo in ključnimi besedami. 3. Naslov prispevka naj ne presega 15 besed in naj bo v slovenskem in angleškem jeziku. 4. Prispevek naj ima na začetku povzetek v slovenskem jeziku ter njegov prevod v angleškem jeziku (oziroma obratno) in naj ne presega 100 besed. Za povzetkom naj bo 5 ključnih besed. Poleg povzetkov naj prispevek na koncu prispevka, pred literaturo, vsebuje daljši povzetek (500-700 besed) v angleščini, če je članek napisan v slovenščini. 5. V prispevku ne uporabljajte ne sprotnih ne končnih opomb. 6. Vire navajajte v skladu s standardom APA (American Psychological Association) standardom. V literaturo vključite samo v tekočem besedilu navedene vire, ki jih uredite po abecednem vrstnem redu. 7. V posebnem dokumentu pošljite naslednje podatke: ime in priimek avtorja, akademski naziv, organizacijo, kjer je avtor zaposlen, elektronski naslov, naslov bivališča in naslov prispevka. Primeri: Knjige: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov, kraj, založba. Duh, M. (2004). Vrednotenje kot didaktični problem pri likovni vzgoji. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta. Članki v revijah: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov prispevka, ime revije, letnik, številka, strani. Planinšec, J. (2002). Športna vzgoja in medpredmetne povezave v osnovni šoli. Šport,, 50 (1), 11—15. Prispevki v zbornikih: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov prispevka, podatki o knjigi ali zborniku, strani, kraj, založba. Fošnarič, S. (2002). Obremenitve šolskega delovnega okolja in otrokova uspešnost. V M. Juričič (ur.), Šolska higiena: zbornik prispevkov (str. 27—34). Ljubljana: Sekcija za šolsko in visokošolsko medicino SZD. Vključevanje reference v tekst: če gre za dobesedno navedbo, napišemo v oklepaju priimek avtorja, leto izdaje in stran (Lipovec, 2005, str. 9), če pa gre za splošno navedbo, stran izpustimo (Lipovec, 2005). Prispevke lahko avtorji pošljejo po elektronski pošti na naslov rei.pef@um.si ali jih natisnjene in na zgoščenki pošljejo na naslov: UNIVERZA V MARIBORU PEDAGOŠKA FAKULTETA MARIBOR REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE Koroška cesta 160 2000 MARIBOR SLOVENIJA MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION GUIDELINES The basic purpose of the journal JEE is to cover a broad spectrum of education theory and its implications for teaching practice, seeking to bridge and integrate diverse methodological and substantive research. The Editorial Board brings together academics and researchers from different European countries, who seek to promote a vigorous dialogue between scholars in various fields both central and related to scientific enquiry in education. Articles accepted for publication in JEE should address an important, up to date issue in education, apply appropriate research methodology, and be written in a clear and coherent style. Accepted articles should make significant contributions to the field. In addition, JEE accepts articles which promote advances in education from closely related fields, such as cognitive psychology, child development, applied linguistics and others. JEE does not publish articles that have appeared elsewhere or have been concurrently submitted to or are already under consideration for publication in other journals. The languages accepted for the papers eligible for publication in JEE are Slovene and English. Paper Acceptance Procedure After a paper is submitted to JEE, the editor/publishing board first establishes if it is within the journal's domain of interests and meets the journal's requirements for style and quality. 1. If the paper meets the standard and the concept of the journal, it is sent to reviewers. JEE uses a double-blind review. Papers which are within the journal's domain but do not meet its requirements for style or quality, may be returned to the author for revision. 2. Authors will be notified of acceptance or rejection of the article about three months after submission of the manuscript. 3. The reviewed papers are returned to the authors with reviewers' feedback and suggestions for improvement or an indication of the reasons for a rejection. 4. The decision regarding publication is made by the editor after considering the reviewers' recommendations. The editorial board is under no obligation to provide justification for its decision. 5. The text of the paper should be edited in accordance with the Submission Guidelines. 6. Authors must certify that the data cited in the article are, to the best of their knowledge, accurate, reliable and authentic. When the article is accepted for publication, the author has to sign the Publishing Ethics Statement and the Statement of Authenticity. Manuscripts will also be submitted to plagiarism detection software. Preparation of Copy Follow these instructions for the preparation of the manuscript: 1. Submit your manuscript as a Word file. Use Times New Roman: 12 pt. for main text and 10 pt. for abstract in Slovene and English, and for references and quotations of three lines or more. All text must be 1.5 spaced and justified. Use boldface type for first level headings, italics for second level headings and regular type for all other headings. Do not number headings. Do not number headings or use uppercase. 2. The length of your paper should not exceed 8,000 words including the abstracts, bibliography, and key words. 3. The title of your article should not exceed 15 words. The title should be written in English and in Slovene. 4. At the beginning of the manuscript include an abstract (up to 100 words) in the language of the article, and its translation into the other language, followed by 5 key words. In addition to the abstracts also include a longer summary (about 500-700 words) at the end manuscript, before reference - in English if the article is in Slovene and in Slovene if the article is in English. 5. Do not use either footnotes or endnotes. 6. Quote references in accordance with the American Psychological Association (APA) style. Include only the sources cited in current text, arranged in alphabetical order. 7. Send a separate document with the following information: author's name and family name, address, full title of the article, academic title, affiliation and e-mail address. Example: Books: last name and name of the author, year of publication, title, location, press. Duh, M. (2004). Vrednotenje kot didaktični problem pri likovni vzgoji. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta. Articles from Magazines: last name and name of the author, year published, title of the article, name of the magazine, year, issue number, page(s). Planinšec, J. (2002). Športna vzgoja in medpredmetne povezave v osnovni šoli. Sport,, 50 (1), 11—15. Academic Journals: last name and name of the author, year published, title of the article, information about the journal, page(s). Fošnarič, S. (2002). Obremenitve šolskega delovnega okolja in otrokova uspešnost. V M. Juričič (ur.), Solska higiena: zbornik prispevkov (str. 27—34). Ljubljana: Sekcija za šolsko in visokošolsko medicino SZD. Citing sources in the body of the text: If a direct quotation is cited, write the last name of the author, year it was published and page number. Put this information in parenthesis (Lipovec, 2005, pg. 9). If the information is paraphrased, leave out the page number (Lipovec, 2005). Manuscripts may be sent electronically to rei.pef@um.si or in printed form, sent with a saved version on a disk to the following address: UNIVERZA V MARIBORU PEDAGOŠKA FAKULTETA MARIBOR REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE Koroška cesta 160 2000 MARIBOR SLOVENIJA