Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. * Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author 77 Prejeto: 14. junij 2022; revidirano: 14. junij 2022; sprejeto: 22. junij 2022. / Received: 14th June 2022; revised: 14th June 2022; accepted: 22nd June 2022. DOI: 10.37886/ruo.2022.006 Gender differences in employee-turnover predictors in organisations facing a crisis Rok Pipan * Faculty of Organisation Studies Novo mesto, Ulica talcev 3, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia rok_pipan@t-2.net Milan Ambrož Faculty of Organisation Studies Novo mesto, Ulica talcev 3, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia milan.ambroz@fos-unm.si Abstract: Research Question (RQ): Are there any gender difference in motivation to leave an organisation facing a crisis? Purpose: The article seeks to establish gender differences in employee-turnover predictors during a crisis in an organisation. Method: A retrospective study based on 469 participants in Slovenia who had voluntarily left an organisation facing a crisis. Confirmatory factor analysis is used to assess the instrument’s factor structure. Binary regression analysis is relied on to determine gender differences in the employee turnover predictors of job satisfaction, employee inclusion in the organisation’s crisis-solving process, and employee turnover intentions. Results: Significant gender differences are shown in the turnover predictors of job satisfaction and employee inclusion in the organisation’s crisis-solving process. Employees with lower job satisfaction and greater inclusion in the organisation’s crisis-solving process who exit the organisation during a crisis are more likely to be female than male. Organisation: Organisations can successfully deal with crises by planning and taking gender- specific activities to keep employee turnover low. Society: Retaining employees in the organisation when in a crisis and harnessing their knowledge and competencies regardless of their gender can help with successful crisis resolution. Society must provide conditions for all citizens (including employees) that allow them to participate in all activities that lead to the success of both society and organisations. Originality: This research adds to understanding of gender differences in employee-turnover predictors in organisations encountering a crisis. Limitations/further research: Only three predictors of employee turnover are investigated: job satisfaction, employee inclusion in the organisation’s crisis-solving process, and turnover intentions of employees. The non-random sampling and small sample of employees limit the generalisability of the results. Future research could compare gender differences in predictors of employee turnover before, during and after a crisis facing an organisation. Keywords: gender, employee turnover, turnover intentions, job satisfaction, employee inclusion, organisational crisis. Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 78 1 Introduction Over the last 20 years, a range of crises has confronted organisations and their survival. The complexity of these crises and possible unclear consequences have disrupted many organisations (Collings, Nyberg, Wright, & McMackin, 2021, p. 1). Recent major global crises include the 2007 financial one that triggered a global economic recession (Mattick, 2013, pp. 11-17), the COVID-19 pandemic that turned into a global crisis causing the worst economic downturn since the Great Depression (Gopinath, 2020, p. 1) along with the war in Ukraine that began in 2022 and has already impacted the world economy with higher energy and food prices. Organisations may also be affected by local, sectoral or specific organisational crises that arise from the environment or the organisation itself. Organisations cannot simply avoid crises and the changes occurring in the organisational environment just like they cannot stop employees leaving the organisation during a crisis. Crises can be a considerable challenge even for organisations holding contingency plans for such a situation. Sufficient resilience to crises is essential if organisations are to survive the difficult times of a crisis. Organisational resilience is based on and strongly linked to the employees’ motivation to participate in overcoming the crisis and accomplishing the organisational goals. Ensuring low employee turnover during a crisis requires a deep understanding of specific employee groups’ turnover behaviour, including any gender differences. Still, employee turnover studies have often neglected or paid insufficient attention to the importance of gender differences concerning employee turnover (Weisberg & Kirschenbaum, 1993, p. 988; Lee, Chua, Miska, & Stahl, 2017, p. 289). Weisberg and Kirschenbaum (1993, p. 1002) conclude that gender holds a significant impact on employee turnover. Bardoel et al. (2020, p. 7) add that turnover intention and employee turnover are higher among male employees working part-time than their female counterparts. Literature is studied regarding gender differences in job satisfaction, employee inclusion in the organisation’s crisis-solving process, and turnover intentions. We examine gender differences in the perception of employee-turnover predictors that shape the decision to leave an organisation facing a crisis. Finding such differences would then add to the call for gender- specific organisational actions to keep employee turnover low in an organisation during a crisis. 2 Theoretical framework Modern organisations operate in a highly unpredictable environment (Adim & Emumena, 2020, p. 102), with crises occurring frequently on the global, local, regional and organisational levels. Crises challenge organisations’ resilience and put their reputation at risk (Adim & Emumena, 2020, p. 104). Organisations should develop resilient behaviour based on constant anticipation of all kinds of crises as part of mentally and physically preparing their employees to control them (Ozturk, 2021, p. 37). Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 79 Locke (1969, p. 316) believed job satisfaction is the perceived relationship between what an employee expects from their job and what they believe their job provides. Monte, 2019 (p. 688) add that the evaluation of job satisfaction concerns how employees feel at work and the extent to which they perceive their own values are being realised. Azim, Haque and Chowdhury (2013, p. 489) argue that dissatisfaction occurs when an employee receives less than they expect from their job. As regards the job satisfaction–employee turnover relationship, Artz (2021, p. 14) state that employees tend to quit dissatisfying jobs. Spector (1996, p. 234) concluded that dissatisfaction is the factor that makes employees leave the organisation. The influence of gender on job satisfaction is unclear. Azim et al. (2013, p. 495) and Snow Andrade, Westover and Peterson (2019, p. 34) did not find any significant influence of gender on turnover intentions. Markovits, Boer and Van Dick (2014, p. 419) and Sabharwal and Corley (2009, p. 552) found that female employees were less satisfied than male employees. Iqbal and Akhtar (2006, p. 61) determined that female employees were more satisfied than their male colleagues. Song, Wang, Li, Yang and Li (2020, p. 8) obtained similar results during the COVID-19 crisis; namely, that female employees were more satisfied than male counterparts with their job. During a crisis, organisations cannot afford to exclude any employee from the crises-solving efforts. Yet, as Mor Barak (2015, p. 85) notes, exclusion is one of the most pressing problems facing today’s diverse workforce. Mor Barak, Cherin and Berkman (1998, p. 97) stated that female members of racial and ethnic minorities are included less than other groups of employees. Mor Barak (2003, 249) concluded that the exclusion of women and members of racial and ethnic minorities increases employee turnover. Bae, Sabharwal, Smith and Berman (2017, p. 4) show that gender dissimilarity is negatively associated with perceptions of inclusion and the negative relationship is more acute for males than for females. Nishii (2019, p. 1766) found that when the climate allows considerable inclusion the negative relationship between relationship conflict and unit-level satisfaction fades, which is important given that unit-level satisfaction is negatively associated with employee turnover. However, Mousa (2021, p. 119) did not find a significant relationship between gender diversity and organisational inclusion. Turnover intentions are built on the desire of an employee to change their job or leave the organisation by quitting or moving to another organisation (Kuswara & Sukandi, 2020, p. 2805). Similarly, Aydogdu and Asikgil (2011, p. 43) define turnover intentions as an employee’s attitude to withdrawing from the organisation. Turnover intentions are often studied in the employee-turnover context since organisations want to identify and respond to employees’ turnover intentions prior to them leaving the organisation. Russell and Van Sell (2012, p. 125) and Steel and Ovalle (1984, p. 673) emphasise that turnover intentions is the most important predictor of employee turnover. Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 80 Several empirical studies did not establish that gender has a significant influence on turnover intentions (Xu, 2008, p. 607; Lee et al., 2017, p. 301; Naidoo, 2017, p. 12; Urs K & Rao, 2019, p. 3630; Coudounaris, Akuffo, & Nkulenu, 2020, p. 2020). Yet, other studies found gender was a significant predictor of turnover intentions (Iverson & Deery, 1997, p. 75; Emiroğlu, Akova, & Tanrıverdi, 2015, p. 393). A few studies that included the effect of gender on turnover intentions were conducted during crises. While some of those studies show that gender negatively predicted turnover intentions (Mirzaei, Rezakhani Moghaddam, & Habibi Soola, 2021, p. 4; Cole et al., 2021, p. 1789), others did not find a significant influence of gender on turnover intentions (Nashwan, Abujaber, Villar, Nazarene, & Al-Jabry, 2021, p. 5; Yáñez, Jahanshahi, Alvarez-Risco, Li, & Zhang, 2020, p. 1615). Whiel comparing female and male turnover intentions during the COVID-19 crisis, Mirzaei et al. (2021, p. 5) established that males had stronger turnover intentions than females. Still, Wong et al. (2021, p. 6) and Al-Mansour (2021, p. 5) came to the opposite conclusion, showing that during the COVID-19 crisis females had stronger turnover intentions than males. Wynen and Op de Beeck (2014, p. 579) compared turnover intentions before and during the financial and economic crisis and revealed that, while gender had an effect between 2006 and 2008, it had no effect between 2008 and 2010. They concluded that the gender difference was eliminated by the financial and economic crisis. We propose three hypotheses to provide clearer evidence of gender differences in the employee-turnover predictors of job satisfaction, employee inclusion in the organisation’s crisis-solving process, and turnover intentions: H1: An employee with lower job satisfaction who leaves the organisation is more likely to be female than male. H2: An employee who is strongly included in the organisation’s crisis-solving process and leaves the organisation is more likely to be female than male. H3: An employee with lower turnover intentions who leaves the organisation is more likely to be female than male. 3 Method This retrospective study was based on employees in Slovenia who had voluntarily left their organisation during a crisis. The snowball sampling method was used as the population of employees who had voluntarily left their organisation was unknown and due to limited resources. Data for the research were gathered using online survey. The final sample for this study consisted of 469 female and male employees who had voluntarily left different Slovenian organisations. Figure 1 shows the research model according to which we researched gender differences in the employee-turnover predictors of job satisfaction, employee inclusion in the organisation's crisis- solving process, and turnover intentions, and tested the hypotheses. Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 81 Job satisfaction H1 Gender Employee inclusion Turnover intentions H2 H3 Figure 1. Research model of gender differences in employee-turnover predictors with hypotheses We used a questionnaire that included items regarding demographic data, job satisfaction, exclusion of employee from the organisation’s crisis-solving process (reverse items and factor for measuring employee inclusion in the organisation’s crisis-solving process), and turnover intentions (Table 1). Nominal and ordinal scales were used for the demographic items while for the other items a 5-point, Likert-type interval scale was used. The questionnaire was constructed by Pipan and Ambrož (2021, p. 233). Table 1. Questionnaire items and factors with the factors’ Cronbach’s α Factor Item Text Cronbach’s α JS Job satisfaction .82 JS1 I was satisfied with the opportunities for advancement in the organisation. JS2 I was satisfied with my relationships with co-workers. JS3 I was satisfied with the opportunities for professional development. JS4 I was satisfied with the freedom the organisation offered me. JS5 Our manager understood that fair work is followed by fair pay. JS6 In the organisation I left, we employees were able to work independently in our work area. JS7 In the organisation I left, they appreciated the commitment and effort I put into achieving my work goals. EX Exclusion of employee .76 EX1 During the crisis, the management of the organisation developed new projects and encouraged innovative work from all members of the organisation, but I was not invited to participate, so I decided to leave the organisation. EX2 I did not have the opportunity to constantly communicate with the management and other employees of the organisation in solving the crisis, so I decided to leave the organisation. EX3 Other members of the organisation and management did not want me to be involved in solving crisis problems, so I decided to leave the organisation. TI Turnover intentions .81 TI1 Long before I left the organisation due to the crisis, I was actively looking for a new job. TI2 I tried hard to find a new job so I could leave the organisation due to the crisis. TI3 My desire to leave the organisation intensified with the crisis in the organisation. TI4 I talked to other people several times about leaving the organisation because of the crisis. Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 82 Note. Adopted from Turnover Intentions of Employees in Some Slovenian Organisations Experiencing Crisis, by Pipan and Ambrož, 2021, Izzivi Prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, 4, pp. 229-230, (https://doi.org/10.37886/ip.2021.028). Statistical analyses were performed with IBM SPSS, except for Cronbach’s alpha reliability test conducted and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in R 4.1.3 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria) using the lavaan (Rosseel, 2012) and semPlot packages (Epskamp, 2022). Descriptive statistics were used to describe the demographic data of the sample. Continuous variables of the sample were presented by gender as the mean and standard deviation and categorical variables as the number and percentage. Continuous variables of female and male employees’ groups were compared with a t-test for independent groups while categorical variables of female and male employees’ groups were compared with the chi-square test. The instrument’s factor structure was assessed using CFA. CFA is method for testing how well measured variables represent a smaller number of factors (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006, p. 773). Since all items were on a Likert scale, the robust estimator of diagonal weighted least squares (DWLS) was used. The DWLS estimator is based on a polychoric correlation matrix, taking the non-normal nature of the data into account. To assess the model fit, the following indicators and recommended criteria were considered (Kline, 2016): chi-square (χ 2 /df; between 2 and 3), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA ≤ 0.06), comparative fit index (CFI ≥ 0.95), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI ≥ 0.95) and standardised root mean square residual (SRMR ≤ 0.08). We then ran binary logistic regression analysis to test our hypotheses within the structural model. The research model’s prediction power with respect to gender differences in leaving the organisation during a crisis was tested using binary logistic regression analysis. We tested the extent of the model’s overall correct prediction. The Hosmer and Lemeshow test (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 2000) was performed to measure the overall model fit used in the binary logistic regression analysis. Binary logistic regression analysis with the entry method was conducted to determine the predictors that female employees are more likely to leave organisations faced with a crisis than male employees. Hair et al. (2006, p. 275) state that logistic regression is a method for the prediction and explanation of a model with binary categorical variables. The contribution of the predictors was assessed with the Wald statistic (Field, 2009, p. 269) while odds ratios were used while interpreting the binary logistic regression results (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2014, p. 507). The instrument’s reliability was tested with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (Cronbach, 1951). Cronbach’s alpha showed an appropriate reliability of the instrument for all factors (Hair et al., 2006, p. 773) (Table 1). We also verified the three-factor structure of the instrument using confirmatory factor analysis. As described by Žnidaršič and Selak (2018, p. 59), the validity of a research model (construct) can be assessed using a variety of multivariate analyses, including confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, we validated the consistency of our research objectives, research model, and instrument with the study’s results. Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 83 4 Results 4.1 Demographic data The participants’ structure by gender is as follows: 49.5% male (N = 232) and 50.5% female (N = 237). Table 2 shows the demographics of the sample and a comparison by gender. Results of the comparison between female and male employee groups with the t-test for independent groups show that gender is significantly correlated with age (p = 0.002) and not significantly correlated with the duration of employment at the organisation which employees last left (p = 0.460). The Chi-square test results reveal that gender is significantly related to managerial position (p < 0.001) and to the type of organisation the participants in the sample last left (p < 0.001). Only 29.5% of female employees held a managerial position compared to 44.8% of their male counterparts, while 38.4% of the female employees in the sample were then working the public sector compared with 18.5% of male employees. The relationships of gender to education level (p = 0.151) and to the structure of the organisations in the sample by size (p = 0.939) are not statistically significant. Table 2. Demographic data of the sample Variables Male Female M (SD) M (SD) p-value of t-test Age (years) 45.9 (± 8.3) 43.4 (± 9.0) 0.002 Length of service in organisation last left (years) 7.19 (± 6.0) 7.62 (± 6.5) 0.460 N (%) N (%) p-value of chi- square test Gender 232 (49.5) 237 (50.5) Education level 0.151 Primary school or less, secondary school (SQF* levels 1,2,3,4,5) 28 (12.1) 24 (10.1) Higher post-secondary vocational education (SQF level 6) 9 (3.9) 10 (4.2) Bachelor’s degree (SQF level 7) 27 (11.6) 43 (18.1) Master’s degree (SQF level 8) 104 (44.8) 115 (48.5) Master of science (SQF level 9) 44 (19.0) 33 (13.9) Doctoral degree (SQF level 10) 20 (8.6) 12 (5.1) Managerial position < 0.001 Managerial position 104 (44.8) 70 (29.5) No status 128 (55.2) 167 (70.5) Sector of organisation participants last left < 0.001 Public sector 43 (18.5) 91 (38.4) Private sector 189 (81.5) 146 (61.6) Structure of organisations in the sample by size (%) 0.939 Micro/small (0-49 employees) 73 (31.5) 78 (32.9) Medium (50-249 employees) 76 (32.8) 75 (31.6) Large (250 or more employees) 83 (35.8) 84 (35.4) Significant at the 0.05 level * Slovenian Qualifications Framework (SQF) 4.2 Confirmatory factor analysis The three-factor structure of the instrument was tested using CFA. The results show an acceptable fit with the following indices: chi-square (χ2/df=4.21), RMSEA (0.083, 90% CI 0.073-0.092), CFI (0.979), TLI (0.974) and SRMR (0.058). The standardised factor loadings Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 84 were statistically significant (p < .001) and estimates ranged from 0.53 to 0.88 (Figure 2), which according to Hair et al. (2006, p. 777) are suitable since all of the standardised factor loadings’ estimates exceeded 0.5. A total of 14 items constituted the three factors. Job satisfaction (JS) was made up of seven items with standardised factor loadings ranging from 0.53 to 0.79, exclusion of employee from the organisation’s crisis-solving process (EX) represents three items with standardised factor loadings from 0.61 to 0.83, and turnover intentions (TI) made up of four items with standardised factor loadings ranging from 0.73 to 0.88. The relationship between the factors showed that job satisfaction was negatively correlated with turnover intentions (-0.44) and with exclusion of employee from the organisation’s crisis-solving process (-0.31) while exclusion of employee from the organisation’s crisis-solving process was positively correlated with turnover intentions (0.52). The CFA results indicate the three-factor structure of the instrument is appropriate and strong enough and can be used in the binary logistic regression. Figure 2. CFA for the three-factor structure: TI-Turnover intentions, EX-Exclusion of employee, JS-Job satisfaction, p < 0.01 4.3 Binary logistic regression Binary logistic regression was used to test the model with three independent and one dependent variable using the following equation: Log(odds) = α + × job satisfaction + × exclusion of employee + × turnover intentions Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 85 The results are presented in Table 3. We tested the model’s overall prediction power, including the predictors: job satisfaction, employee exclusion from the organisation’s crisis- solving process, and turnover intentions. The model’s overall prediction power is 59.1 % (cut values was 0.500). The Hosmer and Lemeshow test showed a non-significant chi-square value (chi-square = 11.371, df = 8, p = 0.182), indicating the model fit is acceptable (Hair et al., 2006, 372). Wald statistic results for the predictors “Job satisfaction” (8.657, p = 0.003) and “Exclusion of employee” (3.143, p = 0.001) show the coefficients are significantly different from zero, which make them significant (p < 0.05) contributors to the power of predicting the outcome (Field, 2009, p. 287). The predictor “Turnover intentions” (0.406, p = 0.524) was not significant and did not significantly contribute to the model. According to the results, we constructed the model equation: Log(odds) = 1.912 - 0.372 × Job satisfaction - 0.229 × Exclusion of employee Hair et al. (2006, p. 365) stated that odds ratios with values below 1.0 indicate a negative relationship whereas values above 1.0 show a positive relationship. The odds ratio of job satisfaction (OR = 0.689, 95%, CI = 0.538 - 0.883) showed that the likelihood a female employee leaves the organisation is 0.689 times greater than for a male employee. When job satisfaction increases, the odds that a female employee leaves the organisation decrease. The odds ratio of the exclusion of employee (OR = 0.795, 95 %, CI = 0.634 - 0.997) shows the likelihood that a female employee leaves the organisation is 0.795 times higher than for a male employee. When the exclusion of employee increases, the odds that a female employee leaves the organisation go down. The interpretation of all odds ratios was reliable as the confidence intervals (CI) did not exceed 1 (Field, 2009, p. 290). Table 3. Results of the binary logistic regression Coefficient (ß) SE Wald test p-value OR (95% CI) Job satisfaction -0.372 0.127 8.657 0.003 0.689 (0.538 - 0.883) Exclusion of employees -0.229 0.115 3.927 0.048 0.795 (0.634 - 0.997) Turnover intentions -0.072 0.113 0.406 0.524 0.930 (0.745 - 1.162) Constant 1.912 0.613 9.734 0.002 6.768 Hosmer and Lemeshow test p = 0.182 % of correct prediction value 59.1 Figure 3 displayed the predicted probability of gender differences for job satisfaction and exclusion of employee. The results show that when the exclusion of employee increases, the probability that this employee is female decreases and the probability that the employee is male increases. When job satisfaction increases, the probability that this employee is female decreases and the probability the employee is male rises. As may be seen from the prediction plots, there is a greater gender difference in the case of job satisfaction compared to the Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 86 exclusion of employee. The grey areas in the prediction plots represent confidence intervals (CI) with a 95 % predicted probability. Figure 3. Predicted probability of the gender differences for job satisfaction and exclusion of employee 5 Discussion The aim of our study is to highlight the importance of gender differences in employee- turnover predictors. The results show that gender differences exist in employee turnover predictors and must be considered while planning actions to lower employee turnover in organisations facing a crisis. The research findings support hypothesis H1: “An employee with lower job satisfaction who leaves the organisation is more likely to be female than male” and thus we can accept it. Specifically, our results reveal that female employees are more likely to leave the organisation dissatisfied with their opportunities for promotion, professional development, recognition of their work, freedom and independence at work, fair pay for fair work, and relationships with colleagues at work than male employees. The findings of our study are consistent with the Snow Andrade, Miller and Westover (2021, p. 17) empirical study findings on a global gender comparison of job satisfaction in the hospitality industry, which showed that female employees’ overall job satisfaction is lower than the job satisfaction of their male colleagues. Further, Chiu’s (1998, p. 532) findings Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 87 support the study results presented here, which denote that the relationship between gender differences and job satisfaction is significant. However, Chiu argues that the job satisfaction gap is not the result of gender differences but is due to the lack of personal influence and promotional opportunity. The results of Ward and Sloane (2000, p. 296) partly support the findings of the present study, arguing that female employees are less satisfied with their promotion prospects and their job security than male employees. Further, the research findings confirm hypothesis H2: “An employee who is strongly included in the organisation’s crisis-solving process and leaves the organisation is more likely to be female than male”. The study results confirm that female employees are more likely to leave the organisation when they are more included in solving crisis problems, participate in new projects, are encouraged by innovative work, and have more opportunities to constantly communicate with the management and other employees in the processes for solving the crisis problems compared to male employees. The results also reveal that female employees are more included in solving crisis problems and make an important contribution to successful resolution of the crisis. Finally, the research findings do not support for hypothesis H3: “An employee with lower turnover intentions who leaves the organisation is more likely to be female than male”; namely, we reject it. Turnover intentions in the present study are not gender-specific. Studies by Coomber and Barriball (2007, p. 308), Griepentrog, Harold, Holtz, Klimoski and Marsh ( 2012, p. 741) and Dechawatanapaisal (2018, p. 1386) confirm the findings of the study, arguing that their research did not find a significant relationship between gender differences and turnover intentions. Job satisfaction and employee inclusion in the organisation’s crisis-solving process are gender differentiated. Awareness of the importance of gender differences in employee turnover predictors can contribute to activities that prevent or lower female and male employees’ turnover during a crisis, thereby reducing brain drain from the organization. Moreover, the study shows that gender can also play an important role in employees’ decision-making process to leave the organisation. Self-perceived job satisfaction and inclusion in the organisation’s problem-solving processes can significantly change female employees’ attitudes to their loyalty to their organisation. 6 Conclusion In this study, gender differences were found in the employee-turnover predictors of job satisfaction and employee inclusion in the organisation’s crisis-solving process. The greater inclusion of female employees in the organisation’s crisis-solving process can cause an overload of crisis resolution efforts and personal stress compared to male employees. Being overloaded by the crisis resolution coupled with greater job dissatisfaction leads female employees to leave the organisation. At the same time, female employees expect appropriate opportunities for promotion, professional development, recognition of their work, freedom Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 88 and independence at work, fair pay for fair work, and better relationships with their work colleagues when they assume greater burdens for resolving the crisis facing the organisation, yet they do not get them. Therefore, female employees are also more dissatisfied than their male counterparts, in turn influencing females’ decision to leave the organisation. The present study adds to theoretical understanding of gender differences in employee- turnover predictors in an organisation during a crisis. The study also emphasises the importance of gender differences while forming the decision to leave an organisation during a crisis, which is a scarcely researched topic. The findings of the study support Weisberg and Kirschenbaum’s (1993, p. 1002) claim that gender differences must be considered while researching employee turnover. The originality of this study lies in revealing gender differences in the inclusion of employee in the organisation’s crisis-solving process as a predictor of employee turnover. The findings also show that an employee who perceives they are more strongly included in the organisation’s crisis-solving process and leaves their organisation is more likely to be female than male. Female employees who perceive greater inclusion in resolving the crisis facing the organisation by participating in associated problem-solving take on new crisis-related projects, encourage innovative work, and participate in ongoing crisis-related communications, which can lead to excess person stress and overload. Nevertheless, gender differences are not commonly considered in employee-turnover studies. The use of gender differences as the dependent variable in predicting leaving the organisation undergoing a crisis is a novel contribution made to the investigation of employee turnover in an organisation during a crisis. Practical implications of our study for organisations include the awareness that females and males hold different perceptions regarding the validation of job satisfaction and employee inclusion in the organisation’s crisis-solving process. The organisation must take these differences into account while planning and implementing crisis problem-solving activities and maintaining the organisation’s resilience during a crisis. The study has some limitations. The research model included three independent variables for predicating employee turnover through gender differences. The findings imply that certain personal, organisational and cultural factors can be included in a future research model. 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Javno Zdravje, 2(2), 55–62. Revija za univerzalno odličnost / Journal of Universal Excellence, Članek / Article Junij /June 2022, leto / year 11, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 77-92. 92 Povzetek: Razlike med spoloma pri dejavnikih prostovoljnega odhoda iz organizacij, ki se soočajo s krizo Raziskovalno vprašanje (RV): Ali obstajajo razlike med spoloma pri motivih za prostovoljni odhod iz organizacije, ki se sooča s krizo? Namen: Namen te raziskave je, ugotoviti razlike med spoloma pri dejavnikih, ki napovedujejo odhod zaposlenih iz organizacije v kriznem obdobju. Metoda: Retrospektivna raziskava je bila izvedena v Sloveniji in je vključevala 469 udeležencev, ki so prostovoljno zapustili organizacijo. Za oceno faktorske strukture instrumenta je bila uporabljena konfirmativna faktorska analiza. Z binarno regresijsko analizo smo ugotavljali razlike med spoloma pri dejavnikih prostovoljnega odhoda iz organizacije: zadovoljstvo z delom, vključenost zaposlenih v proces reševanja krize v organizaciji in namere za prostovoljni odhod iz organizacije. Rezultati: Rezultati so pokazali pomembne razlike med spoloma pri zadovoljstvu z delom in vključenosti zaposlenih v proces reševanja krize. Ženske pogosteje kot moški prostovoljno zapustijo organizacijo v krizi zaradi manjšega zadovoljstva pri delu in večje vključenosti v proces reševanja krize v organizaciji. Organizacija: Organizacije se lahko uspešno spoprijemajo s krizami z načrtovanjem in izvajanjem specifičnih aktivnosti glede na spol zaposlenih, in tako ohranjajo nizko stopnjo prostovoljnih odhodov ter ohranjajo njeno odpornost. Družba: Zadrževanje zaposlenih v organizaciji ter uporaba njihovega znanja in kompetenc, ne glede na spol, prispeva k uspešnemu reševanju krize. Družba mora zagotoviti enake pogoje vsem državljanom in zaposlenim tako, da jim omogoči sodelovanje v vseh dejavnostih, ki vodijo k uspehu družbe in organizacij. Originalnost: Ta raziskava prispeva k razumevanju razlik med spoloma pri dejavnikih odhoda iz organizacije v krizi. Omejitve/nadaljnje raziskovanje: Raziskovali smo le tri dejavnike prostovoljnega odhoda iz organizacije: zadovoljstvo pri delu, vključenost v proces reševanja krize in namero za prostovoljni odhod. Uporaba nenaključne tehnike vzorčenja in majhen vzorec omejujeta posploševanje naših rezultatov na celotno populacijo. Nadaljnje raziskave se lahko osredotočijo na raziskovanje razlik med spoloma pri prostovoljnih odhodih iz organizacije pred, med in po krizi. Ključne besede: spol, prostovoljni odhod iz organizacije, namera za prostovoljni odhod iz organizacije, zadovoljstvo pri delu, vključenost zaposlenih, organizacijska kriza. *** Rok Pipan is a doctoral student of Quality Management at the Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto. He has worked for over 20 years with various local and international organisations in the areas of human resources, information technology, and digitalisation of HR processes. *** Milan Ambrož is a Professor Emeritus at the Faculty of Organization Studies in Novo mesto. His research interests are human resource management, organizational culture, leadership, and time management. He has published several scientific, professional articles and books. He has received awards as a landscape and abstract photographer. *** Copyright (c) Rok PIPAN, Milan AMBROŽ Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International Licence.