343
Documenta Praehistorica XLIII (2016)
Marine shell hoard from the Late Neolithic site
of :epin-Ov;ara (Slavonia, Croatia)
Boban Tripković1, Vesna Dimitrijević2 and Dragana Rajković 3
1 Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, RS
btripkov@f.bg.ac.rs
2 Laboratory for Bioarchaeology, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, RS
vdimitri@f.bg.ac.rs
3 Museum of Slavonia in Osijek, HR
dragana.rajkovic@mso.hr
Introduction
Objects made of marine animal shell discovered at
sites on the European mainland are important not
only because of their basic and symbolic function;
they are also evidence of contacts and exchange with
communities that lived by the sea. The importance
of these objects is reinforced through their exotic
origin, their often highly meticulous manufacture, as
well as their deposition in graves and hoards (Chap-
man 2000; Müller 1997). However, the distribution
and ubiquity of such ornaments across the European
continent have been considered primarily for objects
made of Spondylus shell. In contrast, there are no
sufficient data on areas and periods in which orna-
ments made from shell of other marine animals
occur.
The distribution map of spondylus items (as shown
in Müller 1997; Dimitrijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ 2006; Todo-
rova 1995; Willms 1985; Windler 2013) shows that
the territory of eastern Slavonia (the Republic of Cro-
atia), bordered by the rivers Sava, Drava, and Da-
nube, lies in the centre of an area in which the orna-
ments have been sporadically documented since the
beginning of the 20th century (Brun∏mid 1902; Di-
mitrijevi≤ 1968). The number of sites investigated
in the region has significantly increased in the last
decades, thanks primarily to rescue excavations that
preceded the construction of major roads (see Balen,
Hr∏ak and πo∏i≤-Klind∫i≤ 2014). Ornaments made
from Spondylus and other marine species were found
in graves and settlements from different phases of
ABSTRACT – The focus of this paper is the ornament hoard from the Sopot culture site of ∞epin-Ov-
≠ara in eastern Slavonia (the Republic of Croatia). The hoard contained pendants and beads made
of shells of marine clam Spondylus gaederopus and scaphopod Antalis vulgaris. The paper analyses
the context and use wear of the objects in the hoard. The results form a basis for: the reconstruction
of the role of some of the items and the ways in which they were worn; the premise that the dynam-
ics and mechanisms of acquisition of ornaments made of the two Mediterranean mollusc species
could have differed; and the identification of a cross-cultural pattern of deposition of ornament hoards.
IZVLE∞EK – V ≠lanku se osredoto≠amo na zakladno najdbo z nakitom iz ≠asa sopotske kulture na
najdi∏≠u ∞epin-Ov≠ara v vzhodni Slavoniji (Republika Hrva∏ka). Depo vsebuje obeske in jagode, iz-
delane iz lupin morskih ∏koljk vrste Spondylus gaederopus in pol∫kov vrste Antalis vulgaris. V ≠lanku
analiziramo kontekste in sledove uporabe teh izdelkov. Rezultati nam nudijo osnovo za: rekonstruk-
cijo vloge nekaterih izdelkov in na≠inov no∏enja nakita; premiso o razli≠nih dinamikah in mehaniz-
mih pridobivanja okrasov iz dveh sredozemskih vrst mehku∫cev; in za prepoznavanje medkulturnih
vzorcev odlaganja zakladnih najdb z nakitom.
KEY WORDS – Late Neolithic; Sopot culture; marine shell hoard; Spondylus; Antalis
DOI> 10.4312\dp.43.17 
Boban Tripković, Vesna Dimitrijević and Dragana Rajković
344
the Neolithic. However, a single ornament hoard
was discovered, at the Late Neolithic ∞epin-Ov≠ara
site, and this is the focus of this paper.
Method and terminology
For the taxonomic identification of shells in the ∞e-
pin hoard, preserved shell morphology was used
according to the criteria provided in Walter Fischer
et alii (1987) and Raymond Moore (1969) as well as
the online source Seashells collections (Caro 1997–
2011). The taxonomic nomenclature follows CLEMAM
– Check List of European Marine Mollusca (Le Re-
nard 1994).
Besides the scientific names of species, and also of
higher-ranking taxa from which the shells used for
the ornament manufacture derived (Spondylus gae-
deropus, Spondylus, Antalis vulgaris, Scaphopoda),
common names are also used here. These are the
names most often used by archaeologists to denote
these kinds of objects, regardless of whether a tax-
onomic identification has been carried out or not:
‘spondylus’, for objects made of shell of Spondylus
gaederopus and/or other species, and ‘dentalium’,
for objects made of scaphopoda shells. The scientif-
ic names are given in italics, as is customary, and
hence differentiated from the common names.
The morphological characteristics of the shells were
observed with the naked eye, whereas the structure
of the shell visible in cross-section was examined
under a binocular magnifier with x45 magnification.
The criteria (stated in Dimitrijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ 2006)
were applied in order to exclude the possible use of
fossil shells in the manufacture of the ornaments.
The dimensions of the objects were taken with a cal-
liper to 1mm precision. The weight was measured
on digital scales to 0.1g precision.
The reconstruction of the function, i.e. the way in
which shell items were worn, was performed through
a macroscopic analysis of the incisions created by
the strings on which individual pieces of ornament
were originally placed. Traces of accidental damage
on the objects resulting from their use were also ob-
served microscopically by x45 binocular magnifier.
The ∞epin-Ov≠ara site
∞epin is a village settlement located in a micro-re-
gion within the Drava-Danube lowlands of the east-
ern Croatian plain, 12km from the town of Osijek.
The Ov≠ara archaeological site is situated on the out-
skirts of ∞epin, immediately adjacent to the road to
Djakovo, on a prominent hillock extending in the
northwest-southeast direction (Fig. 1). The immedi-
ate surroundings of ∞epin are in the area of an allu-
vial plain comprised of different landforms – the
Drava river terrace and the Vuka river valley. This
is swampy land interspersed with loess ridges (local-
ly known as ‘praporne grede’), in the form of elon-
gated areas of high ground that remain dry even in
seasons of maximum water table. This land is now
used for intensive agricultural production, and the
region is characterised by long-lasting continuous
habitation (Rogli≤ 2006.134).
From 1997 to 2006, systematic archaeological inves-
tigations of a 300m2 area were carried out by Jasna
πimi≤. A late medieval building (from the 13th to the
14th century), an early medieval cemetery of the Bje-
lo Brdo culture, and a Neolithic settlement of the So-
pot culture were discovered (πimi≤ 2006a.10; 2007b.
41; Rajkovi≤ 2014). The presence of a medieval
building furnished with an apse affected the plan-
ning of the fieldwork, as the walls of the building
determined the shapes of the excavation trenches.
Thus each room of the building had a separate
excavation trench. The remains of
the Neolithic settlement include an
array of diverse habitation elements,
such as semi-subterranean structu-
res, traces of above-ground architec-
ture, postholes, pits and wells. Due
to the disturbed stratigraphy and
numerous burial pits, the relation-
ships between individual stratigra-
phic units could not be clearly de-
fined, and the excavation layers in
different trenches could not be inter-
connected; this makes the entire in-
terpretation of the sites’ stratigraphy
very difficult.Fig. 1. The site of ∞epin-Ov≠ara (photo Museum of Slavonia).
Marine shell hoard from the Late Neolithic site of :epin-Ov;ara (Slavonia, Croatia)
345
Based on observations made so far,
the Neolithic settlement comprises
several building horizons (πimi≤
2006a; 2006b; Rajkovi≤ 2014). In
the earliest horizon of Neolithic oc-
cupation, variously shaped pits made
for different purposes were unco-
vered, as well as part of a large, ir-
regularly shaped dug-out structure
with traces of thick posts, which has
been interpreted as a pit-house (πi-
mi≤ 2006a; 2006b). These features
were dug into the virgin soil. The
earliest settlement phase was over-
lain with a layer consisting of the re-
mains of rectangular above-ground
buildings oriented northwest-south-
east (Fig. 2). A total of 18 floors were
detected, generally constructed from
baked soil placed on top of a wooden construction
sitting on a layer of hard-packed clay. In some
trenches, more floor levels were noticed, probably
pertaining to different building phases (πimi≤ 2006b.
41). Due to the small size of the areas excavated
within the walls of the Late Medieval building, no
single above-ground Late Neolithic structure could
be investigated in its entirety, which constrains a
wider interpretation of the excavated features.
A large quantity of diverse
materials was recovered from
the site. In addition to the
usual products of pottery ma-
nufacture, one should men-
tion a high number of animal
bones, clay balls, spindle
whirls made of potsherds,
chipped stone, obsidian, and
an anthropomorphic clay fig-
urine (πimi≤ 2007b.13). The
vessel types include pots of
different outline decorated
with modelled bands filled
with fingerprints, biconical
and conical bowls, cups with
a foot, miniature vessels, and
ceramic strainers. The cera-
mic ware is mostly grey and
black, while some of the frag-
ments are decorated with red
paint. The typological charac-
teristics of the pottery, stone
and chipped stone from the
Late Neolithic layer indicate
the middle and later phases of the Sopot culture, i.e.
phases II and III according to Dimitrijevi≤ (Dimitri-
jevi≤ 1968.41, 48–49).
Four radiometric dates were obtained for the Neoli-
thic occupation of the site (Tab. 1). The date Z–3750
on charcoal places the earliest investigated cultural
layer of the site in the period from 5054 to 4730 cal
BC (at 95.4% probability). This horizon would cor-
Fig.2. ∞epin-Ov≠ara, sector 4: building SJ–75 (photo Museum of
Slavonia).
Laboratory Sample Radiocarbon Calibrated date
code age (BP)
Z–3750 charcoal< 6010 ± 60 68.2% probability
cultural layer (Sj 62) 4986 (68.2%) 4836 cal BC
between houses 95.4% probability
Sj 47 and Sj 60 5054 (93.7%) 4765 cal BC
4758 (1.7%) 4730 cal BC
Z–3751 charcoal< 5940 ± 70 68.2% probability
layer Sj 69 4902 (14.2%) 4863 cal BC
(ashy layer with 4856 (54%) 4725 cal BC
some charcoal) 95.4% probability
5006 (94.6%) 4679 cal BC
4636 (0.8%) 4619 cal BC
Z–3264 charcoal< 5900 ± 90 68.2% probability
semi-subterranean 4908 (67.2%) 4684 cal BC
structure Sj 28\29 4630 (1.0%) 4624 cal BC
95.4% probability
4996 (95.4)% 4547 cal BC
Z–3263 charcoal< 5500 ± 90 68.2% probability
floor of the house 4452 (54.3%) 4314 cal BC
Sj 16\17 4301 (13.9%) 4261 cal BC
95.4% probability
4537 (87.5%) 4223 cal BC
4207 (4.0%) 4159–4070 cal BC
4018 (0.1%) 3998 cal BC
Tab. 1. Radiocarbon dates from ∞epin-Ov≠ara. Dates were calibrated using
OxCalv4.2.4 Bronk Ramsey (2013); r5; IntCal 13 atmospheric curve (Rei-
mer et al. 2013).
Boban Tripković, Vesna Dimitrijević and Dragana Rajković
346
respond with the earlier part of the classi-
cal period of Sopot culture (between 5000
and 4500/4400 cal BC, according to Balen,
∞ataj 2014; phases IB–III after Dimitrije-
vi≤ 1968). Somewhat later, but still during
the classical period of Sopot culture, are the
dates Z–3751 and Z–3264, which range be-
tween 5006 and 4619 cal BC and between
4996 and 4547 cal BC, respectively (at
95.4% probability). The latest date (Z–3263)
for the settlement, obtained from charcoal
recovered from the floor of an above-ground
structure, indicates the period from 4537
to 4070 cal BC (at 95.4% probability). This
range falls mostly within the Eneolithic se-
quence of Sopot culture (Balen, ∞ataj 2014)
which so far has not been reported for the
site. It is thus clear that the radiometric
dates point to the continuity of the Neolithic
settlement through several phases of deve-
lopment, but a stronger correlation between
absolute and relative chronology is yet to
be established.
The marine shell hoard
The hoard of objects made of sea shells was
discovered in 2006 on the south side of a
burnt house (sector P4, SJ–75), covered by
its remains (Fig. 3ab). The remains of the
structure derive from the final occupation
horizon of the Late Neolithic settlement.
The floor of the structure was not fully ex-
cavated, and one part of it extends into the
north profile of the trench. The dimensions
of the area of the exposed portion of the
floor are 2.80 x 0.70m. The floor consisted
of 10–15cm thick burnt soil, under which
was a layer of charred wood comprising the remains
of a substructure assembled from planks placed on
top of a layer of compact clay. The overall thickness
of the floor was 30cm (πimi≤ 2007a.66–68; 2007b.
13). On the basis of the burnt remains, it can be as-
sumed that this building was destroyed by fire, as
was the case with other buildings at the site. The ar-
chaeological material found in the floor includes a
fragment of a stone quern and another complete
quern, a worked antler and a microlith; pottery was
not recorded.
The hoard comprised 15 oval and trapezoidal pen-
dants, one elongated pendant, 58 beads made of
spondylus, and 386 tubular dentalium beads (Figs.
4–5). The total weight of the objects is 166g. The
pendants and beads were deposited in the largest
of the pendants, created from a whole valve of the
clam (πimi≤ 2007b.13). The objects in the hoard
probably formed three composite ornaments. The
spondylus pendants each have two stringing holes,
and it is assumed that they were parts of a single
piece of adornment – a belt – while the spondylus
beads were probably strung on a thread for one
necklace, and the dentalium beads for another. In
the text that follows, these composite decorative
objects are described separately.
The belt
Fifteen objects made of spondylus shell, each fitted
with two holes for stringing, can be interpreted as
pendants or, as we prefer for this particular set, as
Fig. 3. ∞epin-Ov≠ara, marine shell hoard: a broader context,
b detail (photo Museum of Slavonia).
a
b
Marine shell hoard from the Late Neolithic site of :epin-Ov;ara (Slavonia, Croatia)
347
segments of a single belt. The largest piece was cre-
ated from a left valve, whereas the remaining 14 re-
present circular, oval and polygonal cut-outs from
the shell. The morphological elements of the valve
indicating the type of shell from which the pendants
were made are preserved only on the largest of the
segments, on the inner surface of the valve; the
outer surface of the valve and the hinge line have
been worked and significantly modified. The origi-
nal natural ornamentation of the valve is not pre-
served. The valve margins were trimmed and round-
ed, and the hinge area smoothened and flattened so
that there are no traces of the ligamental grooves
or the hinge teeth. Based on the shape and size of
the valve, as well as the appearance of the hinge me-
chanism and the position of the ligament, it can be
concluded that the largest segment was from the left
valve of a shell of the genus Spondylus; its dimen-
sions suggest that it is Spondylus gaederopus. The
valve is oval, and appears elongated in vertical cross-
section. On the inside of the valve, the scar of a large
adductor muscle and the pallial line are clearly visi-
ble. The preserved height of the valve is 85mm, and
its preserved thickness, measured in the centre of
the valve, is 6mm. Among the species of the genus
Spondylus that occur in European seas (Clemam
2014), only Spondylus gaederopus attains these
dimensions. On the outer and inner surfaces of the
valve the interior structure is visible in places, and
is particularly clear in the area of the hinge. It is
characterised by alternating transparent and opaque
white laminae, i.e. growth lines whose frequency
and curvature varies depending on the angle at which
the valve is cut. The lines extend in the form of a
wave of variable amplitude. The growth lines were
also sporadically noticed in other segments (for
example, segments No. 1 in Table 2, Fig. 8.c, and No.
14, Fig 8b), along with a rare trace of the valve’s
morphology. For instance, in the central part of one
item (Fig. 4.15, No. 15 in Table 2) there is a shallow
depression remaining from the scar of the adductor
muscle that was flattened out through polishing. In
another one (Fig. 4.5, No. 8 in Table 2), in the area
above the stringing holes there is a dimple, which is
either from the scar of the adductor muscle or is an
irregularity on the inner surface of the valve.
The largest pendant or belt segment is ovoid in out-
line, and has one smooth convex surface which can
be defined as the outer face, which was created by
shaping the outer surface of the valve (Figs. 4.1; 6).
Fig. 4. ∞epin-Ov≠ara hoard: spondylus pendants
(drawings by D. Radman).
Fig. 5. ∞epin-Ov≠ara hoard: a spondylus beads ar-
ranged in a string, b few loose dentalium beads, c
dentalium beads arranged in a string (drawings
by D. Radman).
Boban Tripković, Vesna Dimitrijević and Dragana Rajković
348
There are two holes near the upper margin set
20mm apart. The impressions of the string are vis-
ible in the area between the holes. The opposite,
inner face of the object, which is the inner surface
of the valve, was most probably turned towards the
body. The hinge was flattened through polishing;
its upper parts, initially rectangular, were trimmed
to obtain the rounded, ovate outline of the whole
object. The remainder of the inner face consists of
the concave inner surface of the valve whose cen-
tral part was not worked, and thus it preserves the
scar of the adductor muscle and the pallial line.
The flattened hinge and the trimmed, flattened and
rounded edges of the valve are all in the same plane,
i.e. they lean almost perfectly against the back-
ground. It is very probable that when the pendant
was worn, its inner side faced the body and the con-
vex side was visible, because if the pendant had
been turned the other way, it would have been un-
comfortable to wear it, given its large size, and would
also result in deep incisions made by the string. On
the inner surface of the pendant, the holes for string-
ing are located immediately below the hinge. The
impressions of the string extend horizontally from
the holes towards the lateral sides of the object, and
are tilted slightly upwards. It is thus clear that this
is not a pendant or an amulet worn around the neck,
since if it were, then the use wear on the inner sur-
face would extend vertically from each of the holes
and upwards, rather than horizontally sideways.
For the remaining 14 pendants, i.e. belt segments,
it can also be assumed which side was turned toward
the body and which side was readily seen. These
pendants are shaped as small plates with an oval,
trapezoid or rhomboid outline (Fig. 4.2–13, 15–16).
In most of them, one side is slightly convex while
the other is flat. Usually, the slightly convex surface
looks glossier, i.e. it appears more polished than
the flat side. Also, in most pendants, this better pol-
ished surface is covered with fine scratches oriented
in various directions, probably due to wear when
the pendants were used. There are fewer of these
marks on the other, flat side.
The imprints of the string in the area between the
holes are in all pieces located on the convex, better
polished surface; the string marks that extend from
the holes towards the lateral sides of the objects are
visible on their flat surface. Similar to the largest of
the pendants, here it can also be assumed that the
slightly convex, smooth surface was the front side,
while the less carefully worked surface was the back
and was turned towards the body. The pendants
were all strung in the same way, and hung on a
string tied around the body and sitting approxima-
tely horizontally. This leads to the assumption that
the objects served as segments of a belt.
However, we cannot be entirely sure. For the majo-
rity of decorative objects, the way in which they
were worn can only be ascertained when they are
discovered on the body of a burial, or if they are ex-
plicitly shown in depictions. However, this, should
not impede the examination of the characteristics
that the 15 objects share or recognising the strong
possibility that they were parts of a whole, or at-
tempts to reconstruct the way they were worn. The
pendants were probably not attached to a piece of
textile or some other kind of material. If they had
been, the impressions of the string would have re-
mained in the area between the holes and the edges
on the flat side of the pendants, because the string
would have been run through the fabric immediate-
ly under the holes. The string imprints are deeper
and more pronounced on the flat back side than on
the front. This is probably because on the front side
the string was firmly fixed between the two holes,
whereas it was relatively loose between the seg-
ments and could move. There are no traces along
the edges to indicate that two neighbouring seg-
ments rubbed against each other, so it can be sup-
posed that there was some space between the seg-
ments.
The largest of the pendants, made from left valve
of the shell, is at least 2.5 times higher than any
other pendant in this group, and its weight is 6.5
times greater (Tab. 2). Hence it can be safely as-
sumed that it was placed in the centre, because its
weight would pull the belt downwards. There are 14
other segments, of which seven were probably placed
on each side of the central piece (Fig. 7). They were
probably arranged in descending order of size, from
the largest piece placed next to the central pendant,
Fig. 6. The largest pendant made of left Spondylus
gaederopus valve, ∞epin-Ov≠ara hoard (Museum of
Slavonia, inventory no. 155438).
Marine shell hoard from the Late Neolithic site of :epin-Ov;ara (Slavonia, Croatia)
349
down to the smallest, i.e. of the
smallest height, placed at the end
of the row. The traces left by string
in the area between the holes and
the lateral sides can, to some extent,
help infer whether an individual
piece was placed to the left or right
of the central pendant. In most seg-
ments, the string imprints on either
the left or the right extend some-
what obliquely upwards. This could
be due to the central pendant pulling
the string of the belt downwards
with its weight, which means that
the other belt segments were slant-
ed, and the intensity and angle at
which the string made marks on the
surface to the left and to the right
of the holes were variable. Clearly,
the arrangement of the individual
segments could have been different,
and almost certainly changed during
use, given the traces of modifications and repair on
some of the pieces.
As well the two usual holes, one of the segments
(Figs. 4.9; 8.b; No. 14 in Tab. 2) has another com-
plete hole and a portion of a hole positioned on
the lateral side. Initially, a larger object was creat-
ed with a pair of holes. It seems that the object was
used for a short time before it was fractured across
one of the holes. After it got broken, a pendant of
different orientation was made, two new holes dril-
led, and the lower edge of the primary trapezoid was
cut so as to again obtain a trapezoid, but this time
one of smaller dimensions. The two new holes bear
the usual string marks, only now the incisions are
somewhat shallower compared to those in the other
pendants in the collection.
Pendant No. 11 (Figs. 4.8; 8.a) is trapezoidal, but
unlike all the other examples, its height is less than
its width. Moreover, the lower edge is curved and
damaged. The damage is the most likely reason for
‘shortening’ the originally regularly shaped trape-
zoid of which the height is greater than the width.
There are traces of two holes – the drilling of which
had started but was soon abandoned – under the
#
Museum height\lenght width thickness diameter weight
inventory (cm) (cm) (cm) of holes (cm) (gr)
1 155423 3.2 2.9 0.4 0.3 11
2 155424 2.7 2.4 0.4 0.3 7
3 155425 2.7 2.8 0.4 0.3 7
4 155426 3.2 3 0.5 0.4 9
5 155427 3.2 2.8 0.5 0.3 7
6 155428 2.2 1.7 0.3 0.2 2
7 155429 2.4 1.6 0.3 0.3 3
8 155430 2.7 2.3 0.3 0.4 4
9 155431 2.5 2.3 0.4 0.3 4
10 155432 2 1.7 0.3 0.3 2
11 155433 1.8 2.5 0.4 0.3 4
12 155434 2 1.8 0.3 0.3 3
13 155435 2.2 1.4 0.3 0.3 2
14 155436 2.3 1.9 0.3 0.2 3
15 155437 3.9 1 0.4 0.3 3
16 155438 8.5 7.3 0.5 0.4 71
Tab. 2. List of spondylus pendants from the ∞epin-Ov≠ara hoard.
Fig. 7. Reconstruction of the belt made of spondylus pendants: a outer surface, turned away from the
body, b inner surface, facing the body.
Boban Tripković, Vesna Dimitrijević and Dragana Rajković
350
perforations on the flat back side of pen-
dant No. 1 (Figs. 4.7; 8.c). This initial dril-
ling was probably attempted prior to open-
ing the holes that were actually in use, but
was abandoned because the position of the
drilling was too far from the upper edge.
In all the segments, drilling into the convex
front side alternated with drilling of the
same hole on the back, flat side. Drilling
into the back would expose three quarters
of the height of the hole, and the hole would
then be completed by drilling into the front.
This order of drilling procedure is also do-
cumented on pendant No. 1 (Fig. 8.c) where
two unfinished holes are preserved.
Finally, it should not go unnoticed that the
beauty of this exclusive composite ornament lies in
the similarity between the segments in the propor-
tions and the location of the holes, but that despite
this, each segment is unique. This beauty in the con-
trast between similarities and differences between
the pieces is greatly enhanced by the material from
which the pieces were created. The material gives
them all a translucency and pretty, bright, ivory
colour, but it also renders them unique, since the
different irregularities of the shell surface and the
different exposed sections of the internal shell struc-
ture renders each pendant distinct. Above all, and
certainly not of least importance for the aesthetic,
but also symbolic perception of the individual pen-
dants, is their remotly anthropomorphic character,
achieved by placing the string holes in such a way
that they remind one of human eyes.
The pendant shaped as an elongated oval (No. 15 in
table 2; Figs. 4.14; 8.d) could have been an element
of the belt and served as a kind of a safety pin; or it
could have had a similar purpose, but as an element
of one of the necklaces; but it could have also been
worn on its own. The holes are located at the edges,
and no string marks are visible on either the outer
or inner surface. However, the areas around the holes
appear polished, and it is possible that the string
was pulled through both of the holes. The string
could have been tied into a not on the convex outer
side of the pendant, and sown onto a textile or some
other kind of material.
The string of spondylus shell beads
The string consists of 58 discoid beads of various
dimensions, diameters and heights (Figs. 5.a; 9). The
majority of beads (79.3%) are up to 4mm, and as
many as 91.3% are 6mm long (Fig. 10). They are
made of the same material used for the pendants of
the belt. Alternating wavy growth lines characteris-
tic of the different sections through the spondylus
shell valves are also visible on the beads. The dia-
meter of the stringing holes is 0.3cm and is uniform
in all the beads. The standardised diameter of the
stringing holes indicates that the beads belong to
the same necklace. When they are string together,
the length of the string is 19cm.
Fig. 8. Examples of spondylus pendants, ∞epin-Ov≠ara
hoard (specimens No. 11, 14, 1 and 15 in Table 2).
Fig. 9. Spondylus beads arranged in a string. ∞e-
pin-Ov≠ara hoard.
Marine shell hoard from the Late Neolithic site of :epin-Ov;ara (Slavonia, Croatia)
351
The string of dentalium shell beads
The cylinder-shaped beads made of significantly
thinner shell than that of spondylus were probably
also strung as a single item (Figs. 5.b–c; 11). There
are 386 of them, and when strung, the length of the
string is 128cm. Scaphopods shells1 were used for
making these beads. These animals are characterised
by a cylindrical shell open at both ends, which can
thus be used as a pendant or a bead without modi-
fication. Large amounts of these shells have been
found at archaeological sites dated from the Palaeo-
lithic onwards (Zilhão 2006; Bar-Yosef Mayer, Gü-
müs 2010; Ivanova 2012) and a number of their
possible uses have been recorded in traditional com-
munities (Sprague 2004; Barton 1994). In the archa-
eological literature, these shells or, rather, orna-
ments made from them, are commonly referred to
as dentalium, after the best-known genus Dentalium.
The beads from ∞epin are 1.5–14.2mm long (their
average length is 6.3mm), whereby 69% of the beads
are 4–8mm long (Fig. 12). The thickness of the shell
is about 0.2mm; it is smooth, ivory in colour and
translucent (Fig. 13). This shows that the shells are
modern, not fossilised2. None of the shells is com-
plete; instead, all the beads were produced from
transversely broken shells. On the beads made from
the back, tapered end of the shell, one can observe
fine longitudinal lines that gradually become faint
towards the very end and blend into the smooth
surface. This type of shell surface pattern is charac-
teristic of Antalis vulgaris3. No traces of cutting
were detected. The rounded edges of the beads sug-
gest that, instead of complete shells and subsequent
transverse cutting to obtain beads of the desired
length being used, already broken shells were col-
lected and used. However, this hypothesis should be
tested by observing the shells under greater magni-
fication than the one used for this study. In the vast
majority of beads, the edges were routinely rounded,
i.e. smoothed and rounded naturally. A number of
beads have spout-like protrusions around the edge,
which indicates that they were broken along the
growth lines4. They were probably collected on
beaches where the waves leave shells of decomposed
organisms; as waves roll ashore, they crush the shells
and sand smooth their edges. The presence of tiny
dimples on the surface of some shells confirms this
impression; these occur as a result of the activity of
so-called drilling organisms5. Given that scaphopods
live buried in mud, these organisms inhabit the shell
only if it is empty.
The ∞epin hoard in a regional context
In Europe, Spondylus shell ornaments were in use
between the 7th and 4th millennium BC, whilst their
distribution was widest – from the Aegean Sea to
the Paris Basin – between the mid-6th and mid-5th
millennium BC (Müller 1997; Seferiades 1995;
Windler 2013). Over the three millennia, the orna-
ments were manufactured exclusively from contem-
porary shells. The results of previous (Shackleton,
Renfrew 1970; Schakleton, Elderfield 1990) and
new stable isotope analysis (Bajnóczi et al. 2013)
suggest that the shells were sourced in the eastern
Mediterranean, i.e. from the Aegean and/or the Adri-
atic Sea. Based on the archaeological data from the
coastal zone, researchers agree that the Aegan region
was an important shell source throughout this peri-
od, and that both jewellery and shells were trans-
ported from here to the mainland of the Balkan Pen-
insula, and later all the way to the west coast of the
1 Scaphopoda means ‘shovelfoot’ (scapho = shovel, poda = foot) and the term refers to the organ located at the wider end of the
shell and which serves for burrowing in sand or moving through sea sand and mud. They are also commonly known as ‘tusk shells’
because their shells are conical and curved, making them look like miniature tusks (Dimitrijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ and Jovanovi≤ 2010).
2 See the description of differences between fossilised and modern shells in Dimitrijevi≤ and Tripkovi≤ (2006). The paper describes
decorative objects made of modern shells (i.e. coeval with the archaeological finds) Spondylus and Glycymeris and of Miocene
dentalium shell.
3 Antalis vulgaris Da Costa, 1178, formerly determined as Dentalium vulgare.
4 Naturally broken and rounded fossil dentalium shells used as beads at the site of Vin≠a – Belo Brdo had a similar shape (Dimi-
trijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ and Jovanovi≤ 2010). Also, based on the similar taphonomical characteristics of shells, Bar-Yosef Mayer (2008)
concluded that in the prehistory of the Levant, primarily in the Natufian, shells collected on beaches were used as beads. 
5 Primarily Bryozoa (moss animals).
Fig. 10. Distribution of lenghts of spondylus beads.
∞epin-Ov≠ara hoard.
Boban Tripković, Vesna Dimitrijević and Dragana Rajković
352
Black Sea. From the mid-6th century, items made of
spondylus were frequent at sites along the Danube
and its tributaries; this led to the conclusion that the
Danube corridor was the main route for transporting
and exchanging goods in the central part of the
European continent (Chapman 1981). The inter-
fluves of the Sava, Drava, and Danube formed an in-
tegral part of the continental route, which may ex-
plain the origin of the ornaments in the Sopot cul-
ture settlement.
Still, there are different opinions on the origin of the
ornaments found in continental Europe. For in-
stance, spondylus items discovered in Central Europe
and the Carpathian Basin have characteristics doc-
umented region-wide; however, the frequently found
large belt buckles are absent from the Aegean and
the eastern Balkans. This led to the assumption that
ornaments from central Europe was manufactured
from shells obtained from a different source, i.e.
from the Adriatic (Müller 1997). As has recently be-
come increasingly evident, the Neolithic communi-
ties of the eastern Adriatic undoubtedly used and
created spondylus ornaments (Batovi≤ 1979; Ku-
ko≠ 2012). They probably established and main-
tained communication with communities in the hin-
terland (Batovi≤ 1979). The best evidence for these
contacts derives from the settlements in central Bo-
snia, Obre I from the Early Neolithic (Benac 1973)
and Obre II from the Late Neolithic (Benac 1971),
where the material culture bears numerous charac-
teristic of the Adriatic cultural circle, and where
spondylus items were also documented (Fig. 14.a).
This indicates that the inhabitants of the central Bos-
nian settlements possibly mediated the northward
distribution of valuable objects from the Adriatic.
The closest areas in the neighbourhood, and located
on this route, are the interfluves of the Sava, Drava,
and Danube.
Unlike spondylus, for the manufacture of dentalium
beads, both fossil and contemporary shells were
used. The regional distribution and ubiquity of ob-
jects made of dentalium are still not well understood.
According to the available data, in the middle Da-
nube area and the Carpathian Basin, the beads occur
most frequently during later prehistory; these are
chiefly examples of the use of fossil shells (Todoro-
va 1995; Dimitrijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ and Jovanovi≤
2010; Giri≤ 1971; Sümegi 2009; Sztancs, Beldiman
2010). They are relatively common at the Lengyel
sites in south-eastern Transdanubia (Siklósi 2013)
and at the Vin≠a-Belo Brdo site in Serbia (Dimitrije-
vi≤ 2014). As regards the Vin≠a site, it was estab-
lished that the shells were procured from a Miocene
outcrops in the vicinity of the settlement (Dimitrije-
vi≤ 2014; Dimitrijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ and Jovanovi≤
2010).
Beads made from contemporary shells, such as those
in the ∞epin-Ov≠ara hoards, have not been docu-
mented at other sites in the Slavonian and Srem re-
gions, and are also very rare in the wider area (Di-
mitrijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ and Jovanovi≤ 2010). How-
ever, they are frequently found in the Aegean (Kara-
li 1999; Nikolaidou 2003) and along the Black Sea
coast, while they are especially abundant at the ne-
cropolises at Durankulak and Varna (Todorova 2002;
Avramova 2002). Given that scaphopods do not live
in the Black Sea, it is assumed that people in this
region acquired them through sea trade, probably
with the Aegean, and that the subsequent exchange
was confined to the local coastal areas (Ivanova
2012). The scaphopod shells that are the focus of
this paper could have originated from the Adriatic,
which is 300km away as the crow flies from the ∞e-
pin site. However, they could as well have originat-
ed from other parts of the Mediterranean Basin
such as the Aegean.
Fig. 11. ∞epin-Ov≠ara hoard. Antalis vulgaris beads
arranged in a string.
Marine shell hoard from the Late Neolithic site of :epin-Ov;ara (Slavonia, Croatia)
353
Considering the variations between Neolithic sites in
the distribution and ubiquity of adornments made
of spondylus and dentalium, it is possible that they
were acquired in different ways. Spondylus items
exchange was a matter of cultural routine in the
Neolithic, and a number of people were involved in
its production, procurement, use, and re-working.
This is supported by the long use-period of the ob-
jects in the ∞epin hoard. The lack of evidence in the
wider region of the use of contemporary scaphopod
shells might suggests that the bead necklace from
the hoard was not obtained via the same communi-
cation route used for obtaining objects made of spon-
dylus. Furthermore, very few intermediaries or, ra-
ther, acquisition directly from the source of the raw
material, perhaps better explain the mechanism by
which the beads were obtained.
Distribution and use of the ornaments
During later prehistory, objects made of shells of
marine organisms were commonly used as orna-
ments. Those made from a complete valve of Spon-
dylus shell are particularly ubiquitous in the Carpa-
thian Basin and central Europe (Müller 1997; Ka-
licz, Szénászky 2001). They are frequently found in
graves; based on their find location near the abdo-
men of the deceased, and/or the traces of use, it was
determined that they were used as belt buckles (Nie-
szery, Breinl 1993). This type of ornament, more
than any other, demonstrates that regions and cul-
tures had specific requirements in terms of the manu-
facture, appearance and use of the objects. Thus the
clasps with V-shaped opening were made exclusive-
ly from the right valve of the shell, and the opening
served as part of the buckling mechanism. These are
typical of the Linearbandkeramik culture of central
and western Europe and were usually found only in
male graves (Müller 1997; John 2009). They very
rarely occur in other regions; in the southern Balkan
Peninsula they are known only from the sites at Dis-
pilio (Ifantidis 2009) and Alepotrypa Cave (Papa-
thanasopoulos 1996) in Greece. In contrast, pieces
with two perforations, identical to the example from
the ∞epin hoard, were manufactured from the left
valve of the shell. These are particularly common in
female graves in the Carpathian Basin during the
period of Alföld Linear Pottery and the early Tisza
culture (Kalicz, Szénászky 2001; Siklósi 2004;
2013). The reconstruction of their use suggests that
they represented the central part of a belt (Nieszery,
Breinl 1993). A specimen of spondylus valve, that
is most probably belt buckle with multiple perfora-
tions, was recently discovered in a grave 476 (un-
sexed adult, aged 18–20 years) at the Sopot culture
site Alsónyék-Bátaszék (Oross et al. 2016). Date OxA-
28246 obtained on human rib places the grave in
the period from 5135 to 4995 cal BC (at 93% proba-
bility). Besides in ∞epin hoard, no other finds of
spondylus valves have been found at the Sopot cul-
ture sites in the Sava-Drava-Danube interfluves. Some
40 km to the east of the site, however, a similar ob-
ject was discovered at Mostonga near Od∫aci (Serbia)
in a grave dating from the early Vin≠a culture (Kar-
manski 1977.Pl. 7).
In the Sava-Drava-Danube interfluves (Fig. 14.b),
other objects made of marine shells are encountered
throughout the Neolithic. Yet, their number increases
through time and particularly towards the final Neo-
lithic. From the Early Neolithic (Star≠evo culture), a
small pendant with two perforations made of spon-
dylus was discovered in the settlement at Tr∫nica-
Vinkovci, in the grave of a child placed in a flexed
position (Dimitrijevi≤ 1979.241; Buri≤ 2009.Fig.
24). At Zlatara near Ruma, three spondylus beads
were recovered from the grave of a woman of 40–45
years of age (Lekovi≤ 1985).
The largest number of objects made of marine shells
from the Sopot culture, is from the ∞epin-Ov≠ara site.
Besides the finds in the hoard, three more pendants
Fig. 12. The distribution of lengths of Antalis vul-
garis beads. ∞epin-Ov≠ara hoard.
Fig. 13. Examples of Antalis vulgaris shell beads.
∞epin-Ov≠ara hoard.
Boban Tripković, Vesna Dimitrijević and Dragana Rajković
354
and nine fragments of spondylus
bracelets were discovered elsewhere
in the settlement6. Pendants and
fragmented bracelets found in the
settlement at Gradac-Bapska (Buri≤
2009.22, 47, Fig. 5, 46, 66; 2011;
2014.9), two pendants with perfora-
tions from Sopot-Vinkovci (Dimitri-
jevi≤ 1968.47, Pl. XVI/1, Pl. XX/7;
1979.267, 292; Balen 2006.28–29),
and ornaments from πtrbinci near
Djakovo (Dimitrijevi≤ 1979.292) de-
rive from the same period. Also, at
least 19 spondylus items were un-
earthed at Filipovica/Hermanov vi-
nograd near Osijek, including mainly
rectangular and oval pendants with
two perforations, fragments of bra-
celets and a bead (πimi≤ 2006.40;
2008.34–35).
The regional assemblage of marine
shell ornaments is completed by the
objects from, probably, graves found
by chance at Ωeljezni≠ka stanica (a
bracelet and beads) and Lijeva Bara
(three bracelets) in Vukovar, dated to
the Neolithic/Eneolithic (Brun∏mid
1902.63–64, Fig. 20; Kuko≠ 2012;
Chapman, Gaydarska and Balen
2012). Furthermore, three cylindri-
cal beads of various sizes and un-
known provenance are today kept
at the Museum of Slavonia in Osijek
(Inventory no. 896). Lastly, a pen-
dant and an elongated cylindrical
spondylus bead were discovered
within an early post-Vin≠a culture ho-
rizon at Gomolava in eastern Srem
(Serbia), in a layer that yielded a
combination of material associated
with the Sopot and Tiszapolgar cul-
tures (Brukner 1981.24–25).
It appears that the inhabitants of Late Neolithic set-
tlements in the interfluves of the Sava, Drava, and
Danube generally used smallish oval and rectangular
pendants with two perforations, like the ones predo-
minant in the ∞epin hoard. Pendants of similar de-
sign and dimensions were documented at the nearby
Late Neolithic sites of Sopot (Dimitrijevi≤ 1968),
Hermanov vinograd (πimi≤ 2006; 2008) and Bapska
(Balen 2006; Buri≤ 2011), as well as at the ∞epin-
Ov≠ara settlement itself (unpublished, Museum of
Slavonia, Osijek). The traces of use of these pendants
have not been described, and the published photo-
graphs and drawings are usually insufficient to con-
clude how the objects were worn. In the photo-
graphs and drawings of the pendants from Bapska
and Sopot that show only one side, usually the front,
of the objects, imprints of string are visible between
the two holes (Fig. 15).
6 The objects have not been published and are kept in the Museum of Slavonia in Osijek.
Fig. 14. Neolithic sites with finds of marine shell items mentioned
in the text: a in the Carpathian Basin and South-East Europe, b in
the area defined by the rivers Sava, Drava and Danube (area mark-
ed by a square in Fig 14.a). Adapted Google Earth picture.
Marine shell hoard from the Late Neolithic site of :epin-Ov;ara (Slavonia, Croatia)
355
However, at least one of the pieces from the site at
Hermanov vinograd (unpublished; inventory no. AP-
1454, Museum of Slavonia in Osijek), and another
from Sopot (Buri≤ 2011.112, Fig. 36), also have ho-
rizontal incisions that extend from the perforations
towards the edge of the objects, suggesting that they
were attached and worn in the same manner as the
pendants from the hoard described here. A detailed
analysis of use wear on the other pendants from the
Sopot culture sites and the wider region is necessary
for any further assumptions about the ways in which
they were worn. That they could have been strung
in different ways is indicated by the example from
Vin≠a, which has two pairs of perforations, one op-
posite the other, and without visible traces of string
impressions (Dimitrijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ 2006.Fig. 7).
If our reconstruction, based on the finds’ context
and use wear, is correct – that the pendants from
the ∞epin hoard are parts of a composite belt – the
design of the belt can be compared with, and is, in
fact, similar to, the depictions of belts on anthropo-
morphic figurines from the coeval Vin≠a culture. For
instance, some of the figurines from Vin≠a, Ωarkovo,
Pavlovac (Fig. 16) and Stragari (Stankovi≤ 1988.98)
bear representations of a belt in the form of one or
more circular applications that reminiscent the orna-
ments made of spondylus shell. The belts depicted
on the figurines from Vin≠a (not shown in Fig. 15,
but see Vasi≤ 1932.Pl. 19.95; 1936.Pl. 32. 158) and
Pavlovac (Fig. 16.d) bear the closest resemblance to
our reconstruction of the belt from ∞epin-Ov≠ara.
The remaining objects from the hoard, such as the
crescent-shaped pendant with perforations at both
ends, and the discoid spondylus beads, do not dis-
play any specific cultural or regional characteristics.
They could have been created from the previously
unworked shells or, through reduction and re-work-
ing, from fragmented bracelets and other objects,
which contributed to their wide distribution, diversi-
ty and abundance (see Todorova, Vaisov 2001.Fig.
2). Both types of ornament have been documented
at different sites in the immediate vicinity of ∞epin,
although only the lunular pendant from the settle-
ment at Bapska, with holes at both ends, securely
dates to the period of Sopot culture (Balen 2006).
For the two bead necklaces, one most probably from
a grave at Ωeljezni≠ka stanica in Vukovar and the
other from an unknown location near Vinkovci, the
context of the finds and the period from which they
derive have not been confirmed. The Vukovar neck-
lace is broadly placed in the period from the Late
Neolithic to the Bronze Age, although the general
opinion is that it is Late Neolithic/Early Eneolithic
(Chapman, Gaydarska and Balen 2012). The neck-
lace is composed of at least 81 discoid beads, 88%
of which is up to 6mm thick, which makes them
similar to most of the spondylus beads from the ∞e-
pin hoard. However, the beads from Vinkovci are
different; the necklace consists of 11 large cylindri-
cal beads that, based on the dimensions, probably
originate from an earlier period.
There are no useful data from the Sopot sites in the
Sava-Drava-Danube interfluves on the ways in which
the necklaces were worn. In other regions, spondy-
lus as well as dentalium beads are more abundant
in graves characterised by rich offerings for the de-
ceased, and in hoards (Chapman 2000). They were
worn in diverse ways. They were usually attached to
clothing or strung and worn around the wrist or
neck, or as an ornamental headdress (diadem) or
decorative belt, and this can be deduced from their
various locations in the graves with inhumations (Av-
ramova 2002; Ivanov, Avramova 2000; Nieszery,
Breinl 1993). An illustrative example, and the one
closest to the ∞epin-Ov≠ara site, comes from the Al-
sónyék-Bátaszék site in south-eastern Transdanubia
in Hungary, where 2359 Late Neolithic graves were
detected, and some 100 contain rich offerings ac-
companying the deceased (Osztas, Zalai-Gaal and
Fig. 15. Spondylus pendants: a ∞epin-Ov≠ara (Raj-
kovi≤ 2014); b ∞epin-Ov≠ara (Museum of Slavonia
in Osijek, inventory no. 166960); c Hermanov vi-
nograd (Museum of Slavonia in Osijek, inventory
no. AP–1454).
Boban Tripković, Vesna Dimitrijević and Dragana Rajković
356
Banffy 2012; Banffy et al. 2014).
In one of the graves characterised
by a complex funeral ritual, a wo-
man was buried with her body and
clothes decorated with numerous or-
nament pieces. There were bracelets
made of spondylus beads on her left
and right arms, and spondylus, den-
talium and copper/malachite beads
on her chest, while particularly im-
pressive is a belt made of spondylus
beads wrapped 12 times around the
body (Banffy et al. 2014.361, Figs.
14–15).
Given its frequent presence in the
graves, seashell adornment must
have had a significant role in the
construction and reinforcing indivi-
dual identities. The objects from the
∞epin hoard, as elements of a perso-
nal set of accessories, had the same
purpose, but we cannot determine
whether they belonged to one or
more persons. The belt clasp with
two perforations for stringing was probably part of
a woman’s dress, as in the Carpathian Basin (Sikló-
si 2013); based on this, we can assume that at least
some of the objects in the ∞epin hoard was worn by
a female. We cannot, however, be entirely sure about
this. The cultural affinities involved in the collection
and wearing of ornaments made of sea shells could
have varied greatly, as evidenced in the settlement
at Vin≠a near Belgrade (Serbia), which is only 150km
from ∞epin. A number of bracelets made of the Me-
diterranean clam Glycymeris glycymeris were disco-
vered at this Late Neolithic site beside the Danube
(Dimitrijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ 2006), as well as beads made
of fossil dentalium shells (Dimitrijevi≤ 2014; Dimi-
trijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ and Jovanovi≤ 2010); both are
entirely absent at ∞epin and other sites in the inter-
fluves of the Sava, Drava and Danube. Besides the
previously described certain similarities, the inhabi-
tants of the settlements in the two neighbouring re-
gions were obviously guided by different value sys-
tems in the procurement and use of ornaments made
of marine shells. Thus investigations of the regional
and local specifics concerning the use of seashell
adornment remain an important research task.
Spondylus and dentalium in ornament hoards
Only about 20 hoards containing spondylus and
dentalium ornaments have been documented for the
Neolithic and Copper Age of southeast Europe and
the Carpathian Basin (Chapman 2000; Siklósi 2013).
The instance of spondylus valve with two perfora-
tions functioning as a container for storing other
pieces of jewellery is not known from other sites. A
ceramic vessel was usually used as a container; ob-
jects were placed inside, and then everything was
stored in the house or deposited within or even out-
side the settlement (Chapman 2000). The available
data reveal that, apart from ∞epin, dentalium beads
have so far been found only in the Early Neolithic
hoard from Galabnik (western Bulgaria) and in the
Late Neolithic hoard from Felsöóors (Hungary). In
both cases, the jewellery was placed in a ceramic
vessel. There were more than 10000 beads made of
dentalium, stone and bone in the Galabnik hoard,
along with the rings manufactured from spondylus
and nephrite (Chapman 2000). The Felsöóors hoard
contained 280 objects made of mollusc shells and
some stone beads; malacological analysis determined
the presence of a fossil species, Dentalium badense
(Regenye et al. 2009; cf. Sztancs, Beldiman 2010).
On the other hand, miscellaneous spondylus objects
commonly occur in hoards, and sometimes they are
the only pieces of adornment in them. Besides Ga-
labnik, the only other Early Neolithic hoard that in-
cluded spondylus items is the one from Lepenski Vir.
This hoard consisted of beads of spondylus and paly-
gorskite, possibly parts of the same bead strand, and
Fig. 16. Representation of belts on the figurines of the Vin≠a cul-
ture: a Vin≠a (Tasi≤ 2008); b Vin≠a (Ignjatovi≤ 2008); c Ωarkovo (Pe-
trovi≤, Kati≤ and Spasi≤ 2009); d Pavlovac (Vukovi≤, Peri≤ 2014).
Marine shell hoard from the Late Neolithic site of :epin-Ov;ara (Slavonia, Croatia)
357
deposited in a Star≠evo culture vessel (Srejovi≤
1969). Some other of the earliest examples of orna-
ment hoards comprised exclusively of spondylus ob-
jects and deriving from the second half of the 6th
millennium BC from the Carpathian Basin and cen-
tral Europe include: the Bernburg hoard (Germany)
consisting of two bracelets, 178 beads and two pen-
dants/belt pieces deposited in a Linearbandkeramik
vessel (Willms 1985.333, Fig. 1); Ecseg hoard (Hun-
gary), probably deriving from the same period, con-
tained a V-shaped belt clasp, bracelets and beads
(Siklósi 2013); a chance find (hoard?) from Szek-
szárd–Palánki-hegy (Hungary) included a valve with
two perforations, three massive bracelets and elon-
gated cylindrical beads (Siklósi 2004; 2013); final-
ly, the Alba Iulia hoard from the early Vin≠a culture
should also be mentioned – it comprised two belt
clasps and nine large beads (Comsa 1973.71). It is
important to emphasise that these hoards include
belt clasps, i.e. pendants that have the same purpose
and/or shape as the central belt piece from the ∞e-
pin hoard.
From the end of the 6th millennium BC, in the wider
Middle Danube area, a much greater number of
items, made from various materials, were deposited
in hoards; this was the beginning of a trend that
characterised the following millennium. Two hoards
were discovered in the early 20th century in the close
proximity of ∞epin-Ov≠ara at a settlement at ∞oka-
Kremenjak that combines elements of the early Vin-
≠a and the Tisza cultures. Some of the contents of
these hoards have been lost over time (Raczky
1994). The ∞oka 1 hoard contained items made from
marine shells, marble, malachite and animal teeth,
and also ochre lumps etc., all placed in a sizeable ce-
ramic pot with two horizontally attached handles.
The spondylus objects included 3231 beads, one bra-
celet and fragments of bracelets, as well as several
pendants (Raczky 1994). ∞oka 2 comprised similar
materials, with pendants manufactured from shell,
bone and animal teeth, and stored in a spherical ves-
sel (Raczky 1994). The contents of these hoards
clearly demonstrate the practices of collecting, keep-
ing and storing adornment made from various ma-
terials, many of which are white, directly signalling
the raw material being emulated. This is particularly
indicative in the case of two objects from the ∞oka
1 hoard (Raczky 1994.Pls. 1, 3.1–2), which are made
of marble and appear similar to the large belt buck-
les made of spondylus.
The trend of collecting and cache-depositing various
objects can be considered a hallmark of the 5th mil-
lennium BC in the broader region, best exemplified
by the hoards at Ariusd (Romania) and Karbuna
(Moldavia) in eastern Europe. In the hoard from
Ariusd (Ariusd culture, Cucuteni-Tripolye cultural
complex) more than 2233 objects were deposited
in two pots with lids found within a possible residen-
tial structure (Sztáncsuj 2005). The majority of items
were made of copper (1938 beads and six brace-
lets), while the rest of the hoard consisted of bone
pendants and plaques, animal teeth pendants, stone
beads, gold twisted wire and plaques made of fresh-
water shells, as well as over 40 objects made of spon-
dylus (Sztáncsuj 2005). Among these, fragmented
lunular pendants, often with preserved one or two
perforations, predominated; some of them showed
traces of repair (Sztáncsuj 2005.95). The shape of
these objects renders them very similar to the cres-
cent-shaped pendant from the ∞epin hoard. The
hoard from Karbuna (Tripolye A culture) contained
852 objects made of copper (beads, appliqués and
axes), stone (axes), beads made of red deer teeth,
and ornaments made of marine shells, all placed in
a ceramic container. The spondylus assemblage in-
cludes 254 beads, plaques and bracelets.
The Ariusd and Karbuna hoards consist of a large
number of spondylus ornaments, but they are not
the principal component. Instead, copper prevails,
as it was a raw material whose importance signifi-
cantly increased during the 5th millennium BC. The
expansion of choice of raw materials took place in
the Carpathian Basin and eastern Europe in paral-
lel to the process of disintegration of Neolithic social
and economic networks that had for centuries facili-
tated the exchange of spondylus objects. From the
mid-5th millennium BC onwards, spondylus hoards
were deposited only in the eastern Balkans (Chap-
man 2000). They mainly contain chipped stone
tools, fragmented bracelets and beads. During this
period, the circulation of items made of Mediterra-
nean seashells ceased on the European mainland,
and the traditional ornaments were replaced by or-
naments manufactured from other materials (Geor-
ghiou 2012). The best evidence of continuity of use
and the significance of ornaments over this period
comes in the form of a representative hoard from
Brad in east Romania dated to phase A3 of the Cu-
cuteni culture, i.e. the late 5th millennium BC (An-
thony 2010). In addition to the numerous pendants
made of deer teeth and various copper objects, the
hoard included five copper and gold discs which,
judging by their shape, size and probably also func-
tion, mimic the traditional spondylus pendants and
belt clasps from earlier periods.
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Although they derive from different periods, all of
the described hoards share a characteristic that can
help us better understand cross-cultural patterns in
the procurement and deposition of ornaments craft-
ed from exotic seashells. It is worth noting that the
locations at which the hoards were registered are
distributed along the edge of the area of exchange
across the continent of ornaments made from Medi-
terranean shells. During the first half of the 5th mil-
lennium, when the ∞epin hoard was deposited, the
amount of spondylus objects reaching western and
central Europe had already decreased, and the Car-
pathian Basin was the last major centre in continen-
tal Europe where the exchange and use of Mediter-
ranean items was intensive (see Windler 2013).
Thus, if the hoards indeed reflect inter-communal re-
lationships, as suggested by Chapman (2000), then
the reasons for hoarding of ornaments should also
be sought in the realm of the intensive social com-
petition that characterised the Late Neolithic of the
region. Just as the objects were acquired for social
display, we expect that they were deposited in hoards
in order to be secured and/or concealed.
Conclusions
The only hoard of marine shell ornaments to have
been discovered in the interfluves of the Sava, Drava,
and Danube was discovered in the Sopot culture set-
tlement at ∞epin-Ov≠ara. It was found next to a
house belonging to the latest settlement horizon of
the Sopot culture. The ornaments in the hoard in-
cluded two strands of strung beads made of shells of
Spondylus gaederopus and a scaphopod Antalis vul-
garis, and 15 pendants made of Spondylus gaedero-
pus that are, based on their use wear, here inter-
preted as segments of a belt. Pendants have distinct
traces from being worn and re-worked, which led to
the conclusion that they had been in use for a long
time before being placed in the hoard.
Across the Danubian region, similar objects were
widely used for decorating the body and clothing;
only in hoards and graves furnished with rich offe-
rings for the deceased have they been found in very
large quantities. Unlike these, the beads made of An-
talis vulgaris shell are unique examples in the region.
They have been known only from the Aegean and
eastern Balkans, which indicates that the dynamics
and mechanism of their exchange in inland areas
were different. Nonetheless, both types of ornaments
document that, during the Late Neolithic, body adorn-
ment and clothing accessories were important aspects
of social life in the Sava-Drava-Danube interfluves,
and that ornaments made of Mediterranean marine
shells played a particularly important part in it.
The authors are grateful to Jasna πimi≤, director of
the archaeological project at ∞epin-Ov≠ara, for her
kind support. We are also grateful to Jacqueline Ba-
len, Rajna πo∏i≤-Klind∫i≤ and Maja Andri≠ for their
valuable comments on this paper. Agathe Reingruber
provided some useful references. Research of B. T.
and V. D. was conducted within the project Bioar-
chaeology of Ancient Europe: Humans, Animals and
Plants in Prehistory of Serbia (project no. III 47001)
sponsored by Ministery of Education, Science and
Technological Development of Republic of Serbia.
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