Jelena Blaškoviæ
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Teacher Education, Department Petrinja
THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION ON SOME PRESCHOOL
EDUCATION STUDENTS’ MUSIC ACHIEVEMENTS
Abstract
Singing education is an important segment of educating students – future preschool
teachers at faculties of preschool teacher education. Singing is an elementary mode of
children’s music expression. The task of future preschool teachers is to gain knowledge
and awareness about the importance and influence of singing on children’s development.
Because children learn through imitation, there is a strong effect to be found in the
preschool teacher’s singing which entails intonational stability, steady rhythm and text
articulation. This research was founded on quasi-experimental method of pedagogic
research and it examined the way in which various modes of learning influence the
intonational and melodic abilities development and the voice range of the subjects. Female
students of Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb – Department of Petrinja (N=36)
participated in the research which lasted two academic years (2012/2013 and 2013/2014).
They were divided into two groups, experimental and control group. The research lasted
fifteen-weeks. According to Mann Whitney U test results, we found statistically
significant progress in intonational and melodic accuracy, and widening the voice range of
the experimental group, in comparison with the control group. The research yielded the
conclusion that singing activity through a certain time period, whether led by expert vocal
instructions, or intuitive singing, leads to progress in intonational and melodic accuracy
and widening the voice range.
Key words: intonational accuracy, learning modes, melodic accuracy, singing education,
students of preschool teacher education faculty, voice range, research
Izvleèek
Uèinki pevskega izobraevanja na nekatere glasbene doseke študentov predšolske
vzgoje
Pevsko izobraevanje je pomemben del izobraevanja študentov predšolske vzgoje –
bodoèih vzgojiteljev. Petje je osnovna oblika glasbenega izraanja otrok, zato morajo
bodoèi vzgojitelji pridobiti ustrezno znanje in se zavedati pomena in vpliva petja na
otrokov razvoj. Vzgojiteljevo petje, ki vkljuèuje intonanèno stabilnost in enakomerno
izvajanje ritma ter besedila moèno vpliva na otroka, saj se otroci uèijo s posnemanjem. Z
raziskavo, ki je temeljila na kvazi-eksperimentalni metodi pedagoškega raziskovanja, smo
preuèevali, kako razliène oblike uèenja vplivajo na razvoj intonanènih in melodiènih
sposobnosti ter obseg glasu udeleenk. V raziskavi, ki je potekala v dveh šolskih letih
(2012/2013 in 2013/2014) so sodelovale študentke Pedagoške fakultete v Zagrebu –
oddelek Petrinja (N=36). Razdeljene so bile v dve eksperimentalni in eno kontrolno
skupino. Raziskava je potekala v 15 tednov. Po rezultatih Mann Whitney U testa sta
eksperimentalni skupini pokazali statistièno pomembnejši napredek v intonanèni in
17
Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION...
melodièni toènosti ter širitvi glasovnega obsega od kontrolne skupine. Z raziskavo smo
ugotovili, da pevska dejavnost, bodisi vodena s strokovnimi vokalnimi navodili bodisi
intuitivno petje v doloèenem èasovnem obdobju prinese napredek v intonanèni in
melodièni toènosti in širitvi obsega glasu.
Kljuène besede: intonanèna toènost, melodièna toènost, oblike uèenja, obseg glasu,
študenti predšolske vzgoje, raziskava
Introduction
The basic goal of education is the autonomy in shaping an independent and responsible
individual who knows how to think. According to the Bela knjiga o vzgoji in
izobraevanju (White Book of Education; 2011), education in schools and kindergartens
should follow the principle of objectivity, plurality and criticism. Autonomy and
competences are important components of preschool teachers, teachers and other
professional staff. The autonomy of educational institutions in the system of education
prides itself in righteousness, solidarity and availability of knowledge for all. Linking the
basic goal of education, music education entails professional conduct and appropriate
training of the preschool teacher, the one who nourishes the positive attitude towards
music activities; music achievements and his/her own music abilities. The goal of music
education in universities is: to educate and widen their music abilities, skills and
possibilities; to build a positive attitude towards music and its implementation in working
with children; to comprehend the reach of music’s function in children’s development.
University’s task is to take care of the planned, humanly just and educated future of a
competent and self-confident preschool teacher for the performance of music activities,
especially singing. Children’s music education is the key to society’s development on all
levels of functioning. Careful and appropriate care in the preschool period is of essential
importance for individual children’s growth, which in turn contributes to society’s
betterment (Lee, 2009).
UNESCO’s Guidelines in Road Map for Arts Education (2006) advocates the
development of aesthetic sense, creativity and the ability of critical thinking. It also
upholds reflectiveness as an innate human ability, and all through artistic education as a
fundamental right of every child and young person. The awareness of music’s intrinsic
attributes carries within itself the responsibility of persons of authority for implementing
music and its positive attitude about the self-efficiency in teaching music into the
educational process, considering children’s backgrounds (Özgül, 2009; Bond, 2012).
Quality education of preschool teachers is of the utmost importance for future work in
preschool institutions (Nichols, Honig, 1995; Temmerman,1998; de L’Etoile, 2001;
Vannatta-Hall, 2010).Singing education is a part of students’- future preschool teachers’
music education, and an indispensable activity with children in kindergartens.
Forms of learning in singing education
Music education applies certain methods and forms of learning (Denac, 2010). Singing
education is one of the action methods of work. Such working method is designed for
18
GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek
achieving a specific goal (Pranjiæ, 2005), and it is singing. Learning through imitation or
learning by succession is a method which transfers singing knowledge from preschool
teachers to children (Denac, 2002). Preschool teachers demonstrate how to do something,
and children imitate and repeat what was demonstrated. This method has a goal of
acquiring skills and developing motor abilities such as singing. Imitation is inner
succession, i.e. inner performance of some activity (Pranjiæ, 2005). According to Terhart
(2001), it resembles the imitation method – when, during work, an expert demonstrates
and explains certain work operations or procedures which are to be mastered. He/she
simplifies (adjusted for the age in question) the performance of hard actions and checks
the practice process and the degree to which the learner has acquired the desired
procedures.
Singing is a psycho-motor component, working and practical part of the educational
aspect. It includes affective as the impression of what is heard, and cognitive process as
learning and analysing a song, learning about art in general. Certain learning strategies can
be closely linked to singing education. Singing is taught through teaching, discovery,
experiencing through methods of music reception, expression -interpretation, practicing
and creation. Due to mutual intertwining of various working methods, singing education is
very complex, but all in the purpose of achieving a goal and sensitising the individual
through psycho-motor, sensory (auditory), cognitive and affective segment.
The quality of music matter presentation to the learners depends on social forms of
learning. One of the simplest forms of work, due to its all-time efficiency and
information’s availability, according to Stevanoviæ (2001), is frontal way of working.
Such form of work has its drawbacks. Frontal teaching neglects individuality, interests
and needs of the individual. Group form of work is characterised by uniqueness of goal,
discipline, work division, system of communication, culture of dialogue, education for
cooperation and respecting the interlocutor, and equality in participation. Considering the
fact that it is a social-psychological process, its results are both individual and social
(Vukasoviæ, 1995; Bognar, Matijeviæ, 2002). Working in pair is marked by togetherness
and student’s independence. In it, characteristics of personality are noticed, such as
friendship, mutual trust, and communication’s development, realisation of self, one’s own
ambitions, interests and identity. Individual form of work encompasses individual activity
according to his/her intellectual capacities and psychological-emotional predispositions.
Because it relies on internally conditioned individual’s personality, individualisation is a
tool for teaching optimalisation (Bognar, Matijeviæ, 2002). Individual work is productive
by character because of the self-education taking place and making the acquired
knowledge more lasting (Stevanoviæ, 2001). Considering the diversity of the learning
forms, their advantages and disadvantages, Terhart (2010) considers they are best used in
combination, with the purpose of greater efficiency. The stated forms of work are not
always present in singing education. This greatly depends on the attitude of people who
constitute a group. In kindergartens, children sing in group more often, individually or in a
pair less often. Frontal way of working is present mostly when the preschool teacher
demonstrates a song.
19
Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION...
Forms of work are ways of organising the relationship of the teacher and learner (Pranjiæ,
2005). All social forms of work should be nourished and combined so that the learning
process becomes more versatile, richer and more productive. The simplest form of work
for the person who teaches is the frontal, while group work, work in pairs or individual
work requires more effort (Jelaviæ, 2008).
The research will show the effect of using individual and group work mode on the singing
abilities of students of faculties for preschool teachers. In the area of tertiary education, the
use of learning modes depends on their inclusion in the study programmes, considering
programme’s design of certain courses.
Methodology
Research problem, goal and hypothese
Research problem is based on the singing education inclusion into course programmes on
teacher education faculties, considering the differentiation of music and singing abilities
of students at faculties of preschool teacher education. The goal is to observe the effect of
shaping the voice of these students, with the use of individual and group modes of
learning, in relation to the control group. More specific goal is to examine how much
additional work, through singing education of the voice with basic techniques, contributes
to the betterment of intonation, accuracy in singing melodic patterns, and widening the
voice range in students of preschool teacher education faculties.
The hypothesis is set according to the research problem and goal:
H: We assume that, in the experimental groups, in which a certain singing treatment
will be applied, there will be progress in the intonational accuracy, accuracy of
performing melodic patterns and widening the voice range, in relation to the
control group.
The sample
The sample was deliberate and not random. 36 students of Faculty of Teacher Education in
Zagreb, Department of Petrinja, participated. Two generations of students were included
in the research, because Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb-Department of Petrinja
enrols 25 students in the Early and Preschool Education department every year. Students
in the academic years 2011/2012 and 2012/2013 participated.1 The method of research
groups equalization was realised according to relevant factors (Mesec, 1997), which are
the same population, considering the year of study, and subjects’ gender.
20
GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek
1 The students who participated in the research in 2011/2012 attended expert preschool education college at
the time. Students who participated in the research in the academic year 2012/2013 enrolled at the faculty
with university programme of early and preschool education. The difference between university and
expert studies is non existent in the number and the content of the courses. The difference lies in the time
frame of the courses. Instrumental accompaniement with singing I started in the third term for the
programme of expert preschool teacher studies, while it is being taught in the fourth term of university
programme.
Table 1: Structure of students in regards to the research group
Group Work mode Abbreviation N
Experimental 1 Individual E1-In 12
Experimental 2 Group E2-Gr 12
Control Cg 12
The research was conducted in the frame of Instrumental accompaniment with singing 1
which is a second year course of preschool education studies at the Faculty of Teacher
Education in Zagreb. Each group had 12 subjects (table 1). All 36 subjects of the sample
were of the female gender.
Research structure plan
This research is a quasi-experiment or not a real experiment (Mesec, 1997). It is an action
research consisting of one action step in which there were no deflections from the planned
design (15 weeks of singing treatment). The quasi-experimental research observed the
effect of a certain singing treatment on the singing development, based on the basics of
vocal technique and different learning modes. Two experimental and one control group
were included in the research concept. Experimental groups had a certain singing
treatment. One group worked individually, and the other as a group. Control group had no
particular singing treatment, but was included into the regular study programme of early
and preschool education. All three groups had the same initial and final testing.
Singing lessons work course
Singing lessons lasted 30 minutes and they were designed in three phases. The first phase
was singing warm-up. Second phase was applying vocal techniques in singing children
songs. Lastly, the third phase was vocal settling. The applied singing warm-up was based
on the interval method, and the interval is the static of each melody. The interval method is
known from the 18th century. Such concept was laid out by Nicola Vaccai (1790–1848),
Italian composer and opera composer. He designed short, clear and useful exercises,
which are enjoyable and medically justified from the physiological and anatomic aspect.
These exercises are based on the range which is pleasant to most voices, and it is from c1 to
f2 (for male voices it is an octave lower; Vaccai, 1878). The laid out principles of the
singing warm-up and interval exercises with various syllables (mi, po, pa, vi, li, ju, je,
ma…) were use in working with students who encountered the basics of singing
techniques for the first time. The use of consonants in the singing warm-up, according to
Špiler (2012), gives a vocal the character of a syllable, which is an integral part of a word.
Vowels and consonants carry within themselves the changes of the colour of the voice
sound, which creates a sense of divergence and contrast, alongside logical word
accentuation. The combination of vowels and consonants enables the vocal apparatus’
habituation to some particular activity, and certainly is a recommendation against holding
on to one vocal for too long, in order not to create a fixation of the vocal organ and
stiffening of the muscular mechanism of the whole instrument.
21
Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION...
Testing procedure
The testing of music abilities was done individually, and the subjects were distributed in
research groups. The testing, singing treatments with the individual group and the group,
was noted by dictaphone. The dictaphone wasn’t used with the control group, except in the
initial and final testing. The research was carried out in the venues of Faculty of Teacher
Education in Zagreb- Department of Petrinja.
Instrument
The research used a measuring instrument designed for it particularly, and in was in the
form of testing music elements. The testing was based on the hearing test principle,
because faculties for teacher education don’t include music abilities testing.2 It consists of
three elements. The first tested element is the intonation of individual notes in the middle
register of most subjects (ten notes from h to c2). The second element tested was the
accuracy of repeating the melodic patterns of five notes. Ten melodic patterns were
composed according to the interval principle and separated triads in ascent, descent or in
combinations (major and minor fifth chords and twists). The testing was done in a way that
the examiner sang a certain note with the neutral syllable »na«, with the piano, and the
subject had to repeat it without the piano. The third element of testing examined the voice
range. The initial tone was c1. The testing was done chromatically, in ascension and
descent, according to the scale principle. The reliability of music abilities testing was
measured by three elements for the initial and final testing. Reliability coefficient
Cronbach Alfa has shown satisfactory level in checking music elements (c=0.810).
Data analysis and the used statistical methods
The basic research method is descriptive and quasi-experimental method of pedagogic
research. For basic data analysis, descriptive statistics was used and expressed in
frequencies (f), percentages (%), arithmetic means (M), dominant values (mod), middle
values (Md), standard deviation (SD) and measures of normal distribution (skewness,
kurtosis). Because the prerequisite for normal distribution wasn’t fulfilled, we used
nonparametric Mann Whitney U Test and Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test (p=0.05) to test the
hypothese.
The assessment scale for testing music abilities of intonation, melodic patterns and
voice range
For the sake of simpler systematisation and easier processing of the gathered data, the
scale of test assessment has clearly defined degrees. Ten notes and ten melodic patterns
were categorised into a scale of six items (0-1-2-3-4-5) with corresponding meanings.
22
GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek
2 Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb started testing music, art and kinesthetic abilities in 2014 for the
academic year 2014/2015. The testing isn’t eliminatory in character, but is awarded with extra points.
Table 2: Assessment scale for intonational and melodic accuracy
Intonational accuracy Melodic accuracy
0 - nothing Not one note has been sung Not one melodic pattern has been sung
1 - very weak One or two tones repeated One or two melodic patterns repeated
2 - weak Three or four tones repeated Three of four melodic patterns repeated
3 - good Five or six notes repeated Five or six melodic patterns repeated
4 - very good Seven or eight notes repeated Seven or eight melodic patterns repeated
5 - excellent Nine or ten notes repeated Nine or ten melodic patterns repeated
The voice range is expressed in the number of notes sung by the subjects in their ambitus,
according to which four categories of the voice range were made.
Table 3: Voice range distributed according to the categories and number of notes
Category I (the range couldn't be measured because
not one note has been sung)
Category II (the range of one octave or less) up to 13 tones and the 13th tone
Category III (the range more than one octave and up
to the second octave, including the first note of the
second octave)
14 - 25 notes and the 25th note
Category IV (the range bigger than two octaves) from 26th tone further
Interpretation of the results
Subjects’ results, divided into three groups, are shown in the tables according to the initial
and final results. The results are presented according to each tested music element in
regards to the particular group of subjects, and between all subjects, regardless of the
research group. Tested music elements are intonation, melodic patterns and voice range.
Intonational accuracy of all subjects
The results in intonation were measured by the number of accurately repeated notes.
Subjects repeated the group of ten notes, which was categorised according to the
assessment scale (0-5).
In the initial testing (IT), from 36 subjects, the most (27.8%) have shown themselves
excellent in intonation (nine or ten notes repeated), while 8.3% of the subjects haven’t
sung any notes. In the final testing (FT) the greatest percentage (47.2%) have repeated
nine or ten notes. There aren’t any subjects who haven’t repeated even one note, while
22.2% of the subjects repeated the intonation in the weak or very weak degree.
Figure one presents the comparative results of the initial and final testing for intonational
accuracy according to the individual note.
23
Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION...
Figure 1: Comparison of the intonational accuracy in IT and FT with all subjects
By comparing the initial and final testing, we notice a progress in the intonational
accuracy. After a certain time, all of the subjects have shown progress, regardless of the
research group they belonged to. In the initial testing, three subjects haven’t sung even one
note, while there were no such subjects in the final testing. In the category with one or two
notes sung the number of subjects remained the same. In the weak category (three or four
notes repeated) there were eight subjects in the initial testing, while in the final testing that
number was reduced to four. The greatest difference in progress is visible in the category
of nine or ten notes repeated. In that category, the number of subjects in the initial testing
(27.8%) has risen to 47.2% in the final testing. The progress in the intonational accuracy of
all subjects is closely connected with continuous singing.
Accuracy of repeated melodic patterns of all subjects in the initial and final testing
According to the same principle as with the intonational accuracy of individual note,
subjects were tested in the accuracy of repeated melodic patterns. 19.4% out of 36 subjects
sang nine or ten melodic patterns in the initial testing. The least subjects, 11.1%, hasn’t
sung even one melodic pattern. The same percentage of the subjects is in the category with
seven or eight sung melodic patterns. Most subjects have accurately sung three or four
given melodic patterns (22.2%). In the final testing, 27.8% of the subjects did well in
repeating melodic patterns, while 25% of them did very well. The least number of the
subjects have repeated the melodic patterns weakly (5.6), while 13.9% of the subjects
haven’t repeated even one melodic pattern.
24
GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek
Figure 2: Accuracy of the repeated melodic patterns in IT and FT with all subjects
Certain progress is noticeable when the initial and final states are compared. There is
progress in most categories. In the category of not one sung note, final testing shows
progress (from 11.1% to 13.9%). In the category 1 (very weak), there were 16.7% of the
subjects in the initial testing, while in the final testing that number decreased to 8.3%.
Category weak (three or four melodic patterns repeated) decreased from 22.2% to 5.6%
accuracy in the final testing. The decrease of the number of subjects in weaker categories
has resulted in the increase of melodic samples repetition accuracy in higher categories. A
significant shift happened in the category well (five or six melodic patterns repeated).
19.4% of the subjects were successful in that category in the initial testing and 27.8% in
the final testing. In the category of seven or eight melodic patterns repeated, a jump from
11.1% to 25% of the subjects occurred in the final testing. No shifts have happened in the
last, highest, category (nine or ten tones repeated). The number of the subjects remained
the same in the final as in the initial testing, 19.4%.
Subjects’ range according to the number of sung notes
The range is shown in two ways. It is presented in the number of notes according to initial
and final note, with respect for semitone differences between the notes. At the same time,
the range is shown according to the intervals which are distributed by quantity, because of
the difference between the subjects, without stating the highest or lowest note.
25
Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION...
Table 4: Subjects’ voice range according to the number of notes sung IT
Number of notes sung Interval f %
0 - 1 2.8
4 m3 1 2.8
8 P5 2 5.6
13 p8 1 2,8
17 M10 1 2.8
18 P11 2 5.6
19 A11 1 2.8
20 P13 3 8.3
21 Octave + m6 2 5.6
22 Octave + M6 1 2.8
23 Octave + m7 1 2.8
25 Two octaves 3 8.3
26 Two octaves + m2 2 5.6
27 Two octaves + M2 2 5.6
28 Two octaves + m3 6 16.7
29 Two octaves + M3 1 2.8
30 Two octaves + P4 2 5.6
31 Two octaves + A4 1 2.8
32 Two octaves + P5 3 8.3
Total 36 100
According to the number of notes, the range between all subjects is from 0 to 32 notes at
most. The most subjects (16.7%) have sung 28 tones (two octaves and minor third). One
subject (2.8%) has sung 0, 4, 13, 17, 19, 22, 23, 29, 31 notes within her range. Three
subjects have sung 25 notes (two octaves), and the same number 32 notes (two octaves and
perfect fifth).
26
GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek
Table 5: Subjects’ voice range according to the number of sang notes –FT
Number of notes sung Interval f %
4 m3 1 2.8
13 P8 1 2.8
15 M9 1 2.8
18 P11 1 2.8
19 A11 1 2.8
21 Octave + m6 1 2.8
22 Octave+ M6 4 11.1
23 Octave + m7 1 2.8
24 Octave + M7 3 8.3
25 Two octaves 2 5.6
26 Two octaves + m2 3 8.3
27 Two octaves + M2 4 11.1
28 Two octaves + m3 4 11.1
29 Two octaves + M3 3 8.3
30 Two octaves + P4 1 2.8
31 Two octaves + A4 1 2.8
32 Two octaves + P5 2 5.6
33 Two octaves + m6 2 5.6
Total 36 100
In the final testing, the lower number of notes sung by one subject (2.8%) is 4 notes (minor
third). The most notes, 33 notes (two octaves and minor sixth), was sung by 5.6% of the
subjects.
The difference in the voice range can be applied in the initial and final testing. The
progress in widening the range is present. There were no subjects who weren’t able to sing
even one note in the final testing. The maximum number of notes increased from 32 (two
octaves and perfect fifth) in the initial testing to 33 (two octaves and minor sixth) notes in
the final testing. The number of the subjects who sang 22 notes (octave and major sixth)
has risen from 2.8% to 11.1%. The same percentage of the subjects have sung 27 (two
octaves and major second), i.e. 28 notes (two octaves minor third).
Figure 3 shows the notes sung by the subjects.
27
Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION...
Figure 3: Voice range in IT and FT to the octaves and the whole range of subjects
Voice range has deepened from C in the initial testing to B1 in the final testing, while it
remained the same in pitch. The highest sung tone was c3. Most frequently, the range of the
subjects was between a and c2 in the initial testing, and in the final testing from G sharp to
e2 in the final testing. This note range covers most subjects, while measured notes on the
extremes were represented the least. Only one subject has displayed great range, which
reached the depth of B1, and it was an example of a student with very low alto. The highest
note c3 was sung by two subjects.
Subjects’ voice range according to the determined categories
Measured subjects’ voice range was distributed in four categories. The first is the one in
which the range couldn’t be measured, i.e. in which the subjects haven’t sung any notes
rendering the range impossible to measure. The subjects with the range less than an octave
and with an octave (to 13 notes and the 13th note) comprised the second category. The third
category includes the subjects with the voice range larger than one octave, and reaching to
two octaves, including the upper note of the second octave (14-15 notes, and 25th note).
The fourth category is made of the subjects whose voice range is greater than two octaves
(from 26th note), but doesn’t cross into the third octave.
28
GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek
Table 6: Subjects’ voice range according to the categories IT
Voice range category f %
I (not measured) 1 2.8
II (octave) 4 11.1
III (two octaves) 14 38.9
IV (over two octaves) 17 47.2
Total 36 100
All four categories are present in the initial testing of the range. One subject’s range
couldn’t be measured (2.8%). Most subjects (47.2%) have the voice range greater than
two octaves.
Table 7: Subjects’ voice range according to the categories FT
Voice range category f %
I (not measured) 0 0.0
II (octave) 2 5.6
III (two octaves) 14 38.9
IV (over two octaves) 20 55.6
Total 36 100
Final testing has shown the increase in the subjects’ voice range in comparison to the
initial testing (Table 7). After the singing treatment, the subject whose voice range
couldn’t be measured managed to sing the notes in her range. So, the first category isn’t
present in the final testing. The second category, which was 11.1% in the initial testing,
has dropped to 5.6% in the final testing. The third category has remained the same (38.9
%). The greatest progress is visible in the fourth category. Subjects’ voice range has risen
from 47.2% to 55.6% in the final testing.
Tested music elements according to the groups
Table 8 shows the descriptive statistics results of all the elements initially and finally
tested in groups. In the continuation of the presented results, the range of the measured
elements according to the number of tones won’t be displayed. The stated results are for
voice range according to the categories because such presentation is musically simpler
and clearer.
29
Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION...
Table 8: Music elements of all groups
Group N Min Max Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis
E1 –In
Intonation IT 12 0 5 3.17 1.749 -0.426 0.637 -1.101 1.232
Intonation FT 12 1 5 4.00 1.477 -1.219 0.637 -0.061 1.232
Melodic pattern T 12 0 5 2.75 1.712 0.073 0.637 -1.169 1.232
Melodic pattern FT 12 0 5 3.25 1.603 -0.805 0.637 -0.002 1.232
Range (categories)
IT 12 1 3 2.00 0.739 0.000 0.637 -0.856 1.232
Range(categories)
FT 12 2 3 2.67 0.492 -0.812 0.637 -1.650 1.232
E2– Gr
Intonation IT 12 0 5 2.08 1.505 0.408 0.637 -0.111 1.232
Intonation FT 12 1 5 3.42 1.564 -0.499 0.637 -1.355 1.232
Melodic pattern IT 12 0 5 1.67 1.435 0.926 0.637 1.542 1.232
Melodic pattern FT 12 0 5 2.42 1.621 -0.205 0.637 -0.981 1.232
Range (categories)
IT 12 0 3 2.08 0.900 -1.082 0.637 1.492 1.232
Range(categories)
FT 12 1 3 2.08 0.669 -0.086 0.637 -0.190 1.232
C
Intonation IT 12 1 5 3.92 1.311 -1.270 0.637 0.946 1.232
Intonation FT 12 1 5 4.08 1.240 -1.558 0.637 2.454 1.232
Melodic pattern IT 12 1 5 3.42 1.379 -0.666 0.637 -0.218 1.232
Melodic pattern FT 12 0 5 3.33 1.723 -1.260 0.637 0.807 1.232
Range (categories)
IT 12 2 3 2.83 0.389 -2.055 0.637 2.640 1.232
Range(categories)
FT 12 2 3 2.75 0.452 -1.327 0.637 -0.326 1.232
The range of items on the scale for intonation element is maximal (0-5) for the group of
individuals and the group, while the range of items for the control group is 1-5 in the initial
testing. The range of the items for all three groups is in range of 1-5 scale in the final
testing. According to the arithmetic mean, intonation in E1-In is 3.17 in the initial testing,
and after the individual singing treatment it has risen to 4.00. The rise is also visible in
E2-Gr. The average intonation is 2.08 in the initial testing, and it has risen to 3.24 in the
final testing. C group had the greatest arithmetic value in the intonational accuracy
between all groups in the initial testing, and it was 3.92%. Intonational accuracy has risen
to 4.08% in the final testing.
The dispersion of items on the scale for melodic pattern element is maximal (0-5) in the
experimental groups, besides the control group (1-5). The items dispersion is maximal
30
GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek
(0-5) in all groups in the final testing. Arithmetic mean of the E1-In of 2.75 in the initial
testing has risen to 3.25 in the final testing. For E2-Gr it rose from 1.67 to 2.42 in the final
testing. For C group the difference in the initial and final testing goes in the opposite
direction. It has slightly decreased from 3.42 in the initial testing to 3.33 in the final
testing.
There is a noticeable difference between the initial and final testing in the range. Group
E1-In has increased the average range of up to two octaves in the initial testing to the range
of more than two octaves in the final testing. In the group E2-Gr there hasn’t been any shift
between the initial and final testing, but it remained within the same range – to two
octaves. In C group the average in range categories was greater than two octaves in the
initial and final testing.
These results show that a certain time of singing practice leads to hearing stabilisation
improvement, intonational accuracy betterment and voice range increase. A very small,
almost insignificant, drop is noticeable in melodic patterns in C group almost in the final
testing. Subjects’ vocal range hasn’t increased in comparison with the initial testing, but
has slightly dropped in the final testing.
It is visible that singing treatment increases vocal abilities in all measured areas
(intonation, melodic patterns and range). Intonation has improved in both groups,
experimental and control group as well. Vocal technical practice, whose role is to widen
the range and stabilise the intonational accuracy in persons with unstable singing abilities,
has progressed the singing betterment in all the tested segments. Phases in the singing
process are of utmost importance. Each singing treatment should be initialised with
singing warm-up. According to the American research (Gish et al., 2012), more than half
(54%) of the Masters of Music, Doctors of Music and singing teachers (N=117) exercise
the singing warm-up for 5-10 minutes before singing, and only 22% uses vocal settling
after singing. Singing warm-up is a type of warm-up for the vocal apparatus which
includes technical vocal drill. That research hasn’t shown that education’s degree
influences the effect of singing warm-up. Singing warm-up exercises have an important
effect on raising awareness of the vocal apparatus and the way it functions, on the hearing
stabilisation and widening of the range. According to Harvey (1997), singing warm-up is
the key to maintaining vocal motor skills and health, but it also has a preventive character
in vocal chords injuries. The research done by Barnes-Burroughs and Rodriguez (2012)
has shown that singing warm-up is a very useful practice before the lecture, and not
exclusively before singing.
Experimental group (individual and group singing treatment) in comparison with
the control group
Considering the problem question about the difference in the singing between
experimental groups and the control group over a certain period of time, the following
hypothesis was set:
31
Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION...
H: It is assumed that in the experimental groups, in which a certain singing treatment
will be used, there will be progress in intonational accuracy, accuracy of performing
melodic patterns, and widening the voice range, in relation to the control group.
To test the hypothesis, Mann Whitney U Test was used first in order to test the existence of
the difference between the control and experimental group in certain items, where the
measure of statistical significance is p 0.05 (table 9). Music element range is only
presented according to the categories because it is musically more significant and clearer
than presentation according to the number of tones.
Table 9: Mann Whitney U test
Intonation
IT
Intonation
FT
Melodic
pattern IT
Melodic
pattern FT
Range
(categories)
IT
Range
(categories)
FT
Mann-Whitney
U 82.000 129.000 81.500 114.500 61.000 99.000
p 0.016 0.296 0.016 0.156 0.001 0.043
According to Mann-Whitney U Test and the ranks, the difference between experimental
groups and the control group in all tested items is visible (table 10). These items show the
initial results in intonational accuracy of individual tones, melodic patterns and voice
range. It is noticeable that the control group had significantly better results in the initial
testing from both experimental groups in all tested areas. The results show a positive
growth for the experimental group in the final testing, while this can’t be said for the
control group according to the areas of testing.
Table 10: Differences between experimental groups and the control group in the
measured item
Skupina N Mrank
Intonation IT
E1- In
E2 – Gr 24 15.92
C 12 23.67
Melodic pattern IT
E1- In
E2 – Gr 24 15.90
C 12 23.71
Range (categories) IT
E1- InO
E2 – Gr 24 15.04
C 12 25.42
Range
(categories) FT
E1- In
E2 – Gr
24 16.63
C 12 22.25
Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test was used with the goal of determining whether the changes
in certain items occurred between the initial and final state (in the experimental and
32
GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek
control group). Table 11 shows the results of the nonparametric test for related samples –
Wilcoxon test (p 0.05).
Table 11: Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
Group Mrank
E1-In
E2-Gr
Intonation FT – IT
Negative Ranks 4.50
Positive Ranks 9.28
Melodic pattern FT - IT
Negative Ranks 6.00
Positive Ranks 7.62
Range (categories) FT – IT
Negative Ranks 5.50
Positive Ranks 5.50
C group
Intonation FT – IT
Negative Ranks 0.00
Positive Ranks 1.50
Melodic pattern FT – IT
Negative Ranks 3.00
Positive Ranks 3.00
Range (categories) FT – IT
Negative Ranks 2.00
Positive Ranks 2.00
Table 12: Differences in the initial and final testing in the experimental groups and
the control group
Group Intonation FT -Intonation IT
Melodic pattern FT –
Melodic pattern IT
Range (categories)
FT – Range
(categories) IT
E1- In
E2 – Gr
Z -3.478a -3.095a -2.530a
p 0.001 0.001 0.006
C group
-1.414a -0.447b -0.577b
0.079 0.328 0.282
As Table 12 shows, the statistically significant difference between the initial and final
state has been confirmed in the experimental groups, i.e. there has been a change in all
items in the final testing (intonation, melodic patterns and widening the voice range) in
relation to the control group. That confirms the hypothesis which assumed that in the
experimental groups, in which a certain singing treatment will be used, there will be
progress in the intonational accuracy, accuracy of performing melodic patterns and
widening the voice range in relation to the control group.
The results of the research done by Siupsinskieneova, Lyckeova (2011) also confirm the
findings of this research. According to the mentioned authors, vocal training has positive
quantification effects on voice abilities. Trained singers show an increase in vocal abilities
in range for the pitch, because practise hardens muscles of the larynx, which can then in
turn endure greater vocal demands. Vocal practice has great influence on the respiratory
capacity and mobility of the larynx. It is confirmed that singers, in relation to non-singers,
show a difference in the singing profile. For adults and for kids as well, training has
33
Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION...
influence on the voice range and intensity. Vocal profiles show clinically and statistically
significant difference between singers and non-singers. Vocal training has positive
influence on singing, but also on vocal abilities.
Scientific and exact approach to singing educates students for controlled singing,
self-control and differentiating quality singing features. Latukefu (2010) points out that
knowing the anatomy, physiology and the functioning of the vocal apparatus, leads to
understanding one’s own singing. Such knowledge contributes to singing competence of
preschool education students – future preschool teachers
Conclusion
The research with preschool education students at the Faculty of Teacher Education in
Zagreb – Department of Petrinja shows that singing treatment gives results over a certain
period of time. It’s been shown that no expert guidance is necessary for intonational
accuracy’s betterment. Intonation can be improved by intuitive singing over a longer time
period. It would be expected that intonational accuracy’s betterment is also linked with the
accuracy in singing melodic patterns, but this research hasn’t shown so in the control
group. For the voice range category, the improvement in the control group wasn’t
expected because no appropriate singing method, which would lead to widening the
range, was applied.
Singing is a developmental skill dependent on the vocal and mental capacity of the learner,
time interval and the individual’s engagement. That fact is confirmed by a research done
by Aaron (1993) in Pennsylvania. This research showed that vocal progress was made as a
result of directed singing exercises in classes for 40 minutes a week. With the expert
guidance, the insecure singers have bettered their quality of singing. Singers who worked
individually and in a group also displayed progress in achieving intonational stability and
widening the voice range.
This action research, according to its features, can be set as a trial theory which is
contextually linked to the singing treatment with the non-random group of preschool
education students at the Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb – Department of
Petrinja. From this reason, it can’t be a general theory because the results should be
substantiated with additional research by dividing and defining additional research
problems, questions and goals, and a bigger sample. The research results have shaped the
trial background theory of a narrower range which can be applied in certain areas or under
certain conditions (Valenèiè Zuljan et al., 2007).
Time interval of active singing engagement influences the development of music and
singing skills. Special singing treatment, with individual and group approach, influences
the development of singing skills in the short period. Progress in singing skills
development is possible through intuitive singing, because continuous singing without
expert instruction also yields betterment in intonational accuracy and widening the voice
range. The finest progress is achieved with individual singing, then through group
approach, and finally by intuitive singing. Singing treatment enables stability in singing
34
GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek
intervals and leads to widening the voice range. Singing can be a taught skill, and the
speed of singer’s perception and progress depends on the predispositions of the singer
himself/herself.
Much research has affirmed that singing can be taught and improved over time, and that
the invested time and regular technical drill influence the quality of performance and
intonational stability (Atterburry, Sicox, 1993; Persellin et al., 2002; Richards, Durrant,
2003; Rutkowski, Snell Miller, 2003; Hornbach,Taggart, 2005; Lešnik, 2009; Mitchell et
al., 2010).
Singing is a developmental skill which depends on the vocal and mental capacity of the
learner, time interval and the individual engagement (Richards, Durrant, 2003;
Rutkowski, Snell Miller, 2003). As a developmental skill, singing requires time, work
continuity and maturity. As such, it is an indispensable part of music education on
faculties of teacher education.
References
Aaron, J. (1993). Using Vocal Coordination Instruction to Help the Innacurate Singer.
In: Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 11 (2), pp. 8–13.
Atterbury, B. W. and Sicox, L., (1993). The Effect of Piano Accompaniment of
Kindergarteners` Developmental Singing Ability. In: Journal of Research in Music
Education, 41 (1), pp. 40–47.
Barnes-Burroughs, K. and Rodriguez, M. C. (2012). The Teaching Performer: A
Survey of Assets Versus Choices in Voice Use. In: Journal of Voice, 26 (5), pp.
642–655.
Bela knjiga o vzgoji in izobraevanju. (2011) (White Book of Education). Ljubljana:
MŠŠ. Available: http://www.belaknjiga2011.si/pdf/bela_knjiga_2011.pdf (22. 10.
2013).
Bognar, L. and Matijeviæ, M. (2002). Didaktika. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
Bond, V. L., (2012). Music’s Representation in Early Childhood Education Journals :
A Literature Review. In: Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 31 (1),
pp. 34–43.
de L’Etoile, S. K. (2001). An inservice training program in music for child-care
personnel working with infants and toddlers. In: Journal of Research in Music
Education, 49 (1), pp. 6–20.
Denac, O. (2002). Glasba pri celostnem razvoju otrokove osebnosti. Ljubljana: Zavod
Republike Slovenije za šolstvo.
Denac, O. (2010). Teoretièna izhodišèa naèrtovanja glasbene vzgoje v vrtcu.
Ljubljana: Debora.
Gish, A., Kunduk, M., Sims, L., McWhorter, A. J. (2012). Vocal Warm-Up Practices
and Perceptions in Vocalists: A Pilot Survey. In: Journal of Voice, 26 (1), pp. 1–10.
35
Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION...
Harvey, P. L. (1997). The Three Ages of Voice: The Young Adult Patient. In: Journal
of Voice, 11 (2), pp. 144–152.
Hornbach, Ch.M. and Taggart, C.C. (2005). The Relationship between Developmental
Tonal Aptitude and Singing Achievement among Kindergarten, First-, Second-, and
Third-Grade Students. In: Journal of Research in Music Education, 53 (4), pp.
322–331.
Jelaviæ, F. (2008). Didaktika. Zagreb: Naklada Slap.
Latukefu, L. (2010). Peer assessment in tertiary level singing: Changing and shaping
culture through social interaction. In: Research Studies in Music Education, 32 (2), pp.
61–73.
Lee, Y. (2009). Music practices and teachers’ needs for teaching music in public
preschools of South Korea. In: International Journal of Music Education, 27 (4), pp.
356–371.
Lešnik, I. (2009). Vokalna tehnika uèiteljev in kakovost petja uèencev v prvem triletju
osnovne šole. Doctoral dissertation. Univerza v Ljubljani: Pedagoška fakulteta,
Ljubljana.
Mesec, B. (1997). Metodologija raziskovanja v socialnem delu. Univerza v Ljubljani.
Visoka šola za socialno delo. Available: https://sites.google.com/site/
kvalitativnametodologija/ metodologija-ii/skripta-ii [1.9.2014.]
Mitchell, H. F., Kenny D. T., Ryan, M. (2010). Percieved improvment in vocal
performance following tertiary – level classical vocal training: do listeners hear
systematic progress? In: Musicae Scientiae 14 (1), pp. 73–93.
Nichols, B. L., Honig, A. S. (1995). The influence of an inservice music education
program on young children’s responses to music. In: Early Child Development and
Care, 113, pp. 19–29.
Özgül. I. (2009). An analysis of the elementary school music teaching course in
Turkey. In: International Journal of Music Education 27 (2), pp. 116–127.
Persellin, D. C., Smith, L., Klein, M., & Taguiam E. (2002). An Investigation of the
Effects of Vocal Modeling on the Development of Singing Ability in Kindergarten
Children. In: Texas Music Education Research. Available: www.tmea.org/080_
College/Research/ Per2002.pdf (26. 2. 2013).
Pranjiæ, M. (2005). Didaktika. Zagreb: Golden marketing – Tehnièka knjiga.
Richards, H., Durrant, C. (2003). To Sing or Not to Sing: A study on the development
of `non-singers’ in choral activity. In: Research Studies in Music Education 20 (1), pp.
78–89.
Rutkowski, J. and Snell Miller, M. (2003). A Longitudinal Study of Elementary
Children`s Acquisition of Their Singing Voices. In: Update: Applications of Research
in Music Education 22 (1), pp. 5–14.
36
GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek
Siupsinskiene, N. and Lycke, H., (2011). Effects of Vocal Training on Singing and
Speaking Voice Characteristics in Vocally Healthy Adults and Children Based on
Choral and Nonchoral Data. In: Journal of Voice, 25 (4), pp. 177–189.
Stevanoviæ, M. (2001). Didaktika. Rijeka: Express digitalni tisak.
Špiler, B. (2012). Umjetnost solo pjevanja. Reprint izdanje iz 1972. Novi Herceg:
NVO »BRUNA«.
Temmerman, N. (1998). A survey of childhood music education programs in Australia.
In: Early Childhood Education Journal, 26 (1), pp. 29–34.
Terhart, E. (2001). Metode pouèavanja i uèenja. Zagreb: Educa.
UNESCO (2006). Road Map for Arts Education World Conference on Arts Education:
University Press.
Vaccai, N. (1878). Practical Method of Italian Singing (tran. Badger, H.). Boston:
G.D.Russels & Co. Available: https://ia600808.us.archive.org/28/items/imslp-
pratico-de-canto-vaccai-nicola/PMLP85474-Vaccai--Practical_Method_of_Italian_Sin
ging_text.pdf (15. 3. 2014).
Valenèiè Zuljan, M., Vogrinc, J., Bizjak, C., Krištof, Z., Kalin, J. (2007). Izzivi
mentorstva. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani. Pedagoška fakulteta.
Vannatta-Hall, J. E. (2010). Music education in early childhood teacher education: The
impact of a music methods course on pre-service teachers’ perceived confidence and
competence to teach music. Doktorska disertacija. Urbana, Illinois. Available:
https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/16854/1_VannattaHall_Jennifer.
pdf?sequence=4 (15. 6. 2013).
Vukasoviæ, A. (1995). Pedagogija. Zagreb: Alfa d.d., Hrvatski katolièki zbor „MI“.
37