THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUPERVISED PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN SLOVENIA Edited by Anja Podlesek THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUPERVISED PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN SLOVENIA THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUPERVISED PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN SLOVENIA Edited by Anja Podlesek The Development of the Supervised Practi ce of Psychologists in Slovenia is supported by: Project partners: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts Slovenian Psychologists' Associati on Norwegian Psychological Associati on – Norsk Psykologforening University of Primorska, Andrej Marušič Insti tute Insti tute for Counseling and Educati onal Developmental Projects – ISA Insti tute The SUPER PSIHOLOG project benefi ted from a €299,927 grant from Iceland, Liech tenstein and Norway through the Norway Grants. The aim of the project was to improve mental health services. NORWEGIAN FINANCIAL MECHANISM – NORWAY GRANTS Through the Norway Grants and EEA Grants, Norway contributes to reducing social and economic dispariti es and to streng- thening bilateral relati ons with the benefi ciary countries in Europe. Norway cooperates closely with the EU through the Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA). For the period 2009–14, Norway’s contributi on is €1.7 billion. Grants are available for NGOs, research and academic insti tuti ons, and the public and private sectors in the 12 newest EU member states, Greece, Por¬tugal and Spain. There is broad cooperati on with Norwegian enti ti es, and acti viti es may be implemented unti l 2016. Key areas of support are environmental protecti on and climate change, research and scholarships, civil society, health and children, gender equality, justi ce and cultural heritage. The Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana holds the ulti mate responsibility for the content of this document which may or may not express the views of the Norway Grants programme operator. www.norwaygrants.si www.eeagrants.org Edited by Anja Podlesek This publicati on was supported by Norway Grants 2009–2014 and nati onal funds of the Republic of Slovenia. Razvojs_sistema_naslovka_FINAL.indd 1 16.6.2017 8:28:41 Edited by Anja Podlesek Ljubljana 2017 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia This publication was supported by Norway Grants 2009–2014 and national funds of the Republic of Slovenia. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUPERVISED PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN SLOVENIA Editor: Anja Podlesek Foreword: Sissel Reichelt, Carol Falender Reviewers: Robert Masten, Sonja Čotar Konrad Translator: Vesna Leme Abstract translation: Anja Podlesek Proofreading: Paul Steed Oblikovanje in prelom: Jure Preglau Technical Editors: Anja Podlesek and Jure Preglau The cover photograph: Stock photo © PeopleImages © University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, 2017. All rights reserved. Published by: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani/Ljubljana University Press, Faculty of Arts Issued by: Department of Psychology For the publisher: Branka Kalenić Ramšak, Dean of the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana Design and layout: Jure Preglau Ljubljana, 2017 First edition, electronic publication Avaliable at: http://superpsiholog.si This publication is free of charge. This publication was supported by Norway Grants 2009–2014, national funds of the Republic of Slovenia and funds provided by the project partners in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID=290677760 ISBN 978-961-237-940-7 (pdf) 3 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Kazalo Preface and Acknowledgements 9 Foreword 13 MENTORING AND SUPERVISION OF EARLY CAREER PSYCHOLOGISTS Vlasta Zabukovec Importance of the Mentoring and Supervision of Early Career Psychologists 19 Definition of Mentoring, its Characteristics and Models of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . 19 Factors Influencing the Mentoring Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Types of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Mentoring and Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Mentoring and Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Maša Žvelc Supervision: Definition and Functions of Supervision, Models of Supervision, and Supervisory Alliances 39 What is Supervision? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Purposes and Tasks of Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Supervision Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Supervisory Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Vlasta Zabukovec The Situation in the Field of Traineeship for Psychologists in Slovenia 51 Psychologists in the Field of Health Care. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Psychologists in the Field of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Psychologists in the Field of Social Welfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Anja Podlesek About the SUPER PSIHOLOG project 61 Project Starting Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Project Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Per A. Straumsheim, Eva Danielsen, Bjarte Kyte and Mona Duckert Transfer of the Experiences of the Norwegian Psychological Association to Slovenia 79 The Importance of Supervision for Early Career Psychologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Situation in the Field of Supervised Practice in Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Exchange of Positive Experiences with Supervised Practice: The Motives of the Norwegian Psychological Association to Participate in the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project. . . . 81 4 Anja Podlesek (ed.) THE TRAINING OF SUPERVISORS Anja Podlesek Importance of the Training of Supervisors and the Outline of the Training Programme in SUPER PSIHOLOG 85 Why do Supervisors Need to Be Properly Qualified? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 The Contents of the Training Programme for Supervisors/Mentors of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Module 1 of the Training of Supervisors: Basics of Mentoring and a Competence-Based Approach to Supervised Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Anja Podlesek Competence-based Approach to the Supervised Practice 95 The EuroPsy Competences Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Applicability of the Competence Model in Supervision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Vlasta Zabukovec Development of the Mentoring Relationship 103 Phases of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Mentoring and Transformational Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Mentoring in a Multicultural Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Mentoring in an Intergenerational Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Mentoring Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Bjarte Kyte and Mona Duckert Developing the Skills for Supervision 117 Development of a Supervisory Relationship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Methods of Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 The Role of the Supervisor and Areas of Focus in Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Dealing with Problems in Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Module 2 of the Training of Supervisors: Development of Supervision Competences . . . . . 122 Vita Poštuvan Psychology Ethics in Supervision 125 Ethical Dilemmas in Psychological Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Ethics in Supervision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Ethical Awareness and Resolution of Ethical Dilemmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Vita Poštuvan Supervision as Care for (Physical and) Mental Health 133 Paradox of Self-care in “Non-Vulnerable” Psychologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Supervision as a Method for Introducing Self-care in Early Career Psychologists . . . . . 134 Self-Care Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 The SUPER PSIHOLOG Project and Self-care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Module 3 of the Training of Supervisors: Self-care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUPERVISED PRACTICE SYSTEM Anja Podlesek and Katarina Kocbek Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists 147 The Supervised Practice System Development Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Importance of Information and Publicity with regard to the Supervised Practice . . . . . 151 The Administrator of the Supervised Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Forming of Supervisory Dyads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Supervision Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 The Instruments for Monitoring the Development of the Supervisory Relationship. . .160 Development of the Web Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Documentation of Supervision Sessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Support for Supervisory Dyads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Monitoring of the Implementation of Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Reporting by the Supervisory Dyad upon the Conclusion of the Supervised Practice. . . 166 Julija Pelc Development of the Supervision of Supervisors 169 Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 The Purpose of Supervision of Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Supervisory Groups of Supervisors-in-Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Contributions of the Supervision of Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 The Group of Supervisors of Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Core Tasks of the Supervisor of Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Process in Supervisory Group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Birth of Supervisory Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Learning in Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Methods and Techniques in Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Giving Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 6 Anja Podlesek (ed.) Using Reflection and Self-Reflection to Achieve Professional Independence, Sources of Power, and Points of Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Evaluation as a Method and Process in Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Mojca Poredoš Case of the Internship Experience in the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project 197 Nastja Salmič Tisovec, Tina Podlogar and Nuša Zadravec Šedivy Case of the Supervised Practice Experience in the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project 203 Julija Pelc Case of Supervision-of-Supervision Experience in the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project: Journey of One of the Supervisory Groups 211 THE EVALUATION OF THE DEVELOPED SYSTEM OF THE SUPERVISED PRACTICE AND THE SUPER PSIHOLOG PROJECT Tina Pirc, Anja Podlesek, Vita Poštuvan, Tina Podlogar, Katarina Kocbek and Martina Ulčar Evaluation of the Training Programme of Supervisors 225 Evaluation of Module 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Evaluation of Module 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Evaluation of Module 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Evaluation of the Entire Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Simona Painkret, Anja Podlesek and Vlasta Zabukovec Evaluation of the Internship 237 The Purpose of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Katarina Kocbek, Katja Ponikvar and Anja Podlesek Evaluation of the Supervised Practice I: Reports by Supervisors and Supervisees and Assessment of their Competences 257 Analysis of Supervisors’ Evaluation Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Analysis of Supervisees’ Evaluation Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Assessment of Supervisees’ Competences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Self-Assessment by Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 7 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Anja Podlesek, Sonja Bučar, Tea Skrbinšek and Katarina Kocbek Evaluation of the Supervised Practice II: Comparison between the Efficacy of the Supervised Practice and Other Modalities of Training of Novice Psychologists 277 The Purpose of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Mateja Štirn, Blanka Tacer, Andreja Rihter, Anita Kovačik, Julija Pelc, Vita Poštuvan and Sabina Čepon Evaluation of Supervision of Supervisors 297 Summary of Reflections by Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Summary of the Reflections by Supervisors of Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Julija Škarabot Plesničar The Evaluation of the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project 303 Introduction and Background Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Outcomes and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 HOW TO PROCEED? Anja Podlesek, Julija Pelc, Katarina Kocbek, Vlasta Zabukovec, Mateja Štirn, Vita Poštuvan, Tina Pirc, Per A. Straumsheim, Eva Danielsen, Mona Duckert, Bjarte Kyte, Sonja Bučar, Katja Ponikvar Guidelines for the Implementation of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists 313 The Supervised Practice and Inclusion of a Novice Psychologist in the Supervisory Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Supervision of Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Web Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Financing of the Supervised Practice System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Promotion of Supervised Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Summary 351 Subject index 357 References 361 9 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Preface and Acknowledgements In the period from 2015 to 2016, within the framework of the Norwegian financial mechanism 2009-2014, we obtained an opportunity with the project “Supervised Practice of Psychologists: Development of a Training Programme of Mentors and a Model of the Supervised Practice – SUPER PSIHOLOG” to establish conditions for young psychologists to start their professional careers by participating in supervised practice. Along these lines, an opportunity to develop a sustainable culture of inclu- sion among Slovenian psychologists in supervision has emerged. This book, which we created within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, is intended for and dedicated to all psy- chologists, in particular novice psychologists, supervisors, and supervisors-of-super- visors. It clarifies why mentoring and supervision are important, and demonstrates how to implement supervised practice, with the creators of the supervised practice system in Slovenia sharing the experiences acquired during the implementation of the project. The aim of the book is thus to present the development of supervised practice in Slovenia, and it will enhance understanding of why we developed such a system and how this may be helpful to professionals working in related fields, or fellow psychologists in other countries, in their attempts to develop a similar system in their profession or environment. As this project was quite comprehensive, we hope that our colleagues will feel free to use whatever parts of our experiences and solutions that may be relevant, feasible and possible in their national contexts with the resources that are available. Psychologists who have concluded their studies and started practicing psychology cannot be left to themselves, but should have the opportunity of participating in supervised practice to help them provide high quality services. Due to their respon- sibilities to their clients, society, the profession, and themselves, they are obliged to do this, and society is obliged to provide them with the opportunity to receive such supervision. Since psychologists in Slovenia practice in many different areas of psychology, we wanted to design a supervision model which would be useful in all these areas, and would provide suitable support to all novice psychologists. We thus decided to combine the approaches of mentoring and supervision, and within su- pervision to include the elements of clinical supervision, a developmental-educative model of supervision, and other models. The first part of the book deals with the importance of mentoring and supervision early in psychologists’ careers, and presents the theoretical background of mentor- ing and supervision, as well as the starting points of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. The definitions, functions, and models of both mentoring and supervision are pre- sented, and the mentoring and supervision relationships are described. The book gives details of the current situation in the area of supervised practice in Slovenia, and explains the course of the traineeship in the three areas of psychological practice in Slovenia where this is regulated (in the fields of health care, education, and social 10 Edited by Anja Podlesek welfare). The aim of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project was to offer all novice psycholo- gists, regardless of their specific field, the opportunity to participate in supervised training in the first year of their practice. The chapter dealing with the starting points of the project and its related activities is followed by an outline of the situation re- garding supervision in Norway, which is rather different to that in Slovenia. With the help of our Norwegian colleagues, we wanted to transfer elements of the systemic arrangement of supervised practice in Norway to Slovenia, as an example of good practice. The Norwegian Psychological Association also wanted to transfer the new experiences gained in the project, and thus develop supervised practice in Norway. Of course, qualified supervisors are needed for the system of supervised practice to function. The second part of the book thus communicates why it is important for supervisors to be properly trained and qualified to implement mentoring and supervision, and which contents should be included in the training programme for supervisors. The training programme developed within the framework of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project is presented, along with the curricula of its modules. The first module gives a competence-based approach to supervised practice and the super- visory relationship. The second module deals with the development of the super- visory relationship, the role of the supervisor, supervision methods, and skills of supervision. The third module emphasizes young psychologists’ self-care practices, and the care of professionals for their own mental health. The third part of the book includes an in-depth description of how the supervised practice system has been developed, from planning to pilot implementation. We also describe how we simultaneously implemented the supervision of supervisors, which is considered an obligatory part of supervisor training and subsequent super- vision. Cases of the internship (study practice), supervised practice and supervision of supervisors are introduced to show how the supervised practice was experienced by various participants in the project, what they thought were the positive aspects of their inclusion, and what obstacles they encountered. Evaluations produced by individual project participants are supplemented in the fourth part of the book by a general evaluation of project activities: the training programme for supervisors, the supervised practice system that was developed, and the supervision of supervisors. An evaluation of the project as a whole is also given. By means of survey research and the analysis of the reports submitted by supervi- sors and supervisees, we tried to evaluate the outcomes of various project activities and assess the efficacy of particular interventions. The evaluation results helped us design the guidelines for establishing the supervised practice system and its imple- mentation, and these are presented in the last part of the book. We hope that the guidelines for implementing supervised practice, together with the developed SUPER PSIHOLOG web platform, will make a difference and support supervisors and psychologists receiving supervision as part of their professional 11 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia development. We hope that every example of supervised practice will bring valua- ble insights, enable the greatest advances in professional competences, strengthen the professional identities of the participants, and become a memorable experience for all those involved. In the end, we would like to thank all the participants in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project for their invaluable contributions: the supervisors, novice psyhologists, su- pervisors of supervisors, other participants of project workshops and conferences, and collaborators from project partner institutions. Our institutions are greatly acknowledged for their constant financial, technical and moral support of the pro- ject. We thank Urša Mars Bitenc, Črt Bitenc and Vesna Mlinarič Lešnik for their help in preparing the application for the Norway Grants call. Thanks to Polona Matjan Štuhec, Brigita Rupar, Tomaž Vec, Sonja Žorga, and Maša Žvelc for their ide - as on possible further development of supervisor training. We warmly thank Rob - ert Masten and Sonja Čotar Konrad for their review of the book and Sissel Reichelt and Carol A. Falender for writing the foreword. We also acknowledge Jure Preglau and Matevž Rudolf from Ljubljana University Press, Faculty of Arts, for their help in designing and publishing this book. The SUPER PSIHOLOG Project Team 13 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Foreword My own background includes a life-long interest in and practice of the supervision of Norwegian psychology students and candidates for a specialty in clinical psychology. I was one of the founders of the program for supervisors of supervisors developed by the Norwegian Psychological Association, and have taught and trained supervi- sors of supervisors since its beginning in 1996. Supervision has also been one of my main research areas. In this foreword, I want to point out some of the issues that I found most striking in this comprehensive and impressive piece of work. One main issue is the cooperation of two European countries in developing a super- vision model and a model for supervision of supervisors, although their points of departure were rather different. In Slovenia, interest was focused on beginners in their professional fields (clinical psychology, education, social welfare, etc.), and the use of a mentor model and competency model (developed in accordance with the EuroPsy standards). In Norway, much more attention has been given to the devel- opment of individual therapists on their way to acquiring mastery of a specialty, and to methods suited to the furthering of their methodical, conceptual and personal development. Slovenia wanted input from Norway in developing a model for the su- pervision of supervisors, and this was implemented through working together in the practice of supervising supervisors, as well as talking about how it should be done. These differences in thinking naturally emerged during this work, and appeared to influence both parties in a constructive way. This book is almost exclusively written by Slovenian psychologists, and gives a rich picture of how they progressed in their work with the establishment of super- vision, in spite of limited resources. They have mostly drawn on supervision re - search in other countries, and it is interesting to note how they have used Europe - an literature to a higher degree than Norway has. Ethical, cultural and contextual variables are also given much attention, and this is an important contribution of the Slovenian side of this project. In the last part of the book (parts three and four) the Slovenia-Norway project is evaluated, and this evaluation contributes considerably to the value of the publi- cation as a whole. This evaluation is carried out using a great variety of exploration methods, and the results clearly indicate that the project was a very satisfactory experience for the participants. An important part of the evaluation was to explore possibilities for the further improvement of the program, as a basis for planning new programs after the project was completed. Another significant aspect of the evaluation is that the text gives concrete details of how the program was devel - oped, specifies the instruments that were used (and thus the content of the sig - nificant competencies that were a focus of the program), and how the self-reports from different parties were organised. I found it particularly interesting to read the personal stories about the teaching process from a supervisee, a group of 14 Edited by Anja Podlesek supervisors, and a supervisor of supervisors, which gave a “flavour” of the project, as well as a qualitative assessment. In addition to the evaluation of the project, the whole program was assessed in vari- ous different ways, considering its impact on both students in internships and novice therapists. This is pioneering research, and one that has been prioritised by several European universities. Moreover, in the integrationist spirit that currently prevails at many such institutions, we must rethink (and research) how we help students to become therapists, thus benefiting these new professionals as well as their clients. As its title indicates, the last chapter presents a set of Guidelines for the Implemen- tation of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists, as developed by the project team. These guidelines are clear recommendations for the implementation of supervised practice, providing details of the key organizational, financial and professional as- pects of such projects. It was a pleasure to read this conclusion, and this section in particular means that the current book will be of great value to professionals, uni- versities, and psychological associations dedicated to improving the psychological services that are provided to clients. Sissel Reichelt, Ph. D., Professor Emerita Institute of Psychology, University of Oslo This book is a wonderful compendium regarding the highly innovative training pro- gram for supervision in Slovenia. It is very professional, integrated and both com- pelling and persuasive regarding implementation of the competence model. It is comprehensive, thorough and thoughtful, providing a prototype for future imple- mentations of similar projects. There are a number of features that make this volume unique. It is impressionis- tic—powerful impressions are conveyed by individual supervisors and supervisees, providing depth and breadth to our understanding of the supervision process. The format of an edited collection also lends itself to the elucidation of multiple view- points and perspectives. Through a clear articulation of real-world dilemmas, the various authors provide details of different situations and how to deal with them. One highlight is the in- teresting discussion on the complexity of boundaries, relationships in supervision, and what happens after the supervisory relationship has ended. The discussion of reflection in particular is exemplary, indicative of its critical nature in supervision (as well as the rarity of its use). 15 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia That supervisees would like to be trained in supervision also supports the interna- tional data which shows that more supervision training is essential to creating a spirit of life-long learning. Further evidence of the need for supervision training is that the supervisees themselves desire to have longer training periods! This is most likely a testament to the quality, focus, and complexity of the project as a whole, and thus it should be taken as a model for similar efforts. Absent a control group I would urge a degree of tentativeness about the conclu- sions, but it should also be noted that the findings are extremely interesting in their support for training in the competence model. Moreover, going beyond what could be done in this formal training project, I remind readers that transforming super- vision into an ongoing process, continued post-licensure, already occurs in several countries, including New Zealand and Australia. This study presents a set of data affirming the efficacy of using a competence model for training. The self-assessment data, gathered at the completion of the project, is an important and innovative aspect of this work—although it is noted, and of con- cern, that the participants did not necessarily grasp all the aspects of the model, as evidenced by their self-assessments on reflection and the enabling competencies. Despite this, the supervision agreement was clearly important, the training received was strong, and the supervisors appreciated it. My only concern is about the seeming blending of mentoring and supervision. It is very important to distinguish the two: supervision has a power differential and evaluative component, whereas mentoring does not. Would it be so important to differentiate this model from others if there were not a gatekeeping component? Johnson and colleagues have one approach, but they may minimize the power dif- ferential (and gatekeeping role) which is so critical for informed consent. Without clarity and definition, the relationship can become strained or ruptured—especially if the supervisee does NOT meet the related competence requirements. Moreover, it would have been interesting to ask the supervisees about whether they perceived the relationship to be mentoring or supervision, and how they felt about each. Finally, it was highly gratifying to read of the wonderful, unexpected benefits of the program, which are spelled out so carefully in this book. Congratulations to all in- volved on the development and implementation of this project, and the excellent manuscript that emerged from it. Carol A. Falender, Ph. D. Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles Mentoring and Supervision of Early Career Psychologists Vlasta Zabukovec Importance of the Mentoring and Supervision of Early Career Psychologists Definition of Mentoring, its Characteristics and Models of Mentoring Despite their desire to define mentoring as uniformly as possible, Allen and Eby (2007) realized that there are many definitions and that each emphasizes particular characteristics of the process. They thus distinguished the following characteristics of mentoring: in the workplace the mentee cooperates with the mentor; the men- toring relationship is continual and is in constant development; the mentoring rela- tionship is mutual, asymmetric, detailed, and harmonious. Mentoring is defined as a relationship between two employees, a more experienced and less experienced one, where the former introduces the latter to the work and colleagues, acquaints him/her with the organization and helps to resolve the social and personal challenges which can occur in the workplace (Allen, Finkelstein, & Po- teet, 2009). There are strong tendencies towards the introduction of formal men- toring in organizations, because this enables a more attentive attitude towards the employees’ careers, the development of their skills, and the retention of talented individuals, while also presenting a fundamental method for the establishment of corporate management in work settings. Most definitions of mentoring emphasize two roles, namely, a more experienced employee and a less experienced employee. The definitions differ in whether they describe the development of the mentoring relationship, are oriented towards the 20 Edited by Anja Podlesek personal traits of the mentor and mentee, or focus on the relationship, roles, and goals from a theoretical point of view. Lazowski and Shimoni (2007) studied the perception of the real mentor’s role and expectations in relation to the ideal mentor’s role. The research included 158 men- tor counsellors (hereafter: mentors) and 171 mentor counselling interns (hereafter: interns). Both groups expressed their opinions on professional and personal traits, the mentoring relationship and the mentor’s attitude towards his/her role. They emphasized the importance of a highly effective, experienced and recognized men- tor in the training of mentors. It can be said that this emphasis on personal traits is compatible with the image of a counsellor who has to exhibit certain personal characteristics in order to perform well in their work. Both groups – mentors and in- terns – emphasised the importance of positive attitudes towards mentoring, which were expressed as openness, encouragement, care, and availability. The research results showed that for mentees the quality of the mentoring relationship is of the highest importance. In the mentoring relationship where the mentee is progressing from dependence to independence, and is developing professional trust and com- petence, his/her tendencies towards equality, respect, proactivity and support are legitimate and important. Moreover, the researchers asked the interns which one of the four roles they found the most important: mentor as teacher, mentor as coun- sellor, mentor as consultant, or mentor as sponsor. The interns identified the role of the mentor as teacher as the most important, because it fosters professional devel- opment through the application of suitable approaches and contents. There were differences between the mentors and interns with regard to their perceived roles, with the mentors generally evaluating themselves as having better performance than the interns did. Such differences were significant in the assessment of the fol- lowing characteristics: education about short- and long-term goal specification in mentoring performance; information regarding structured and detailed guidelines for counselling interventions; and the fostering of self-understanding in practice. Kram (1983) studied the role of mentors from a developmental relationship point of view, and acknowledged two functions, career-oriented and psychosocial. The for- mer relates to the mentor enhancing the professional development of the mentee, and the latter is linked to the quality of the relationship between the two individuals. Her views provided a solid foundation for numerous studies and the formation of different mentoring models. Later in this chapter her views are quoted in relation to the achievements and benefits of mentoring. The career function is implemented through sponsorship, professional presentations and recognition, coaching, and the creation of a challenging workplace. The mentor nominates the mentee by recom- mending him/her for different tasks, projects, grants or awards. In the workplace, it is important that the mentor introduces the mentee and contributes to his/her recog- nition, i.e., that the mentor encourages professional bonding with experienced col- leagues. In mentoring by means of coaching, the mentor leads the mentee through 21 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia various methods of work performance and at the same time offers protection in the workplace. Furthermore, the mentor is expected to create several opportunities or challenges which will enable the advancement of the mentee’s knowledge and skills, and enhancement of his/her professional growth. The psychosocial function is implemented through role modelling, acceptance, counselling, and friendship. Role modelling intensifies the mentee’s imitation of the mentor’s conduct, attitudes and values. The mentor’s acceptance includes supporting and encouraging the mentee, and creating a rich and safe workplace which stimulates safe exploration of the work environment. Counselling sets up an environment in which the mentee can safely examine the work environment, while friendship is based on and encouraged by positive communication following initial mutual attractiveness. Research from the 1990s shows that mentoring has objective and subjective ben- efits for mentees, such as faster promotion, higher income levels, and greater ca- reer satisfaction (Chao, 1997). Burke and McKeen (1997) confirmed that mentoring also provides benefits to mentors, such as career revitalization, personal satisfaction and organizational power. The leadership structures of many organizations thus find the mentoring process important, and support its use (Singh, Bains, & Vinnicombe, 2002). Systematic meta-analytical studies (Allen, Eby, Pottet, Lentz, & Lima, 2004) have also emphasized the importance of fostering positive relationships between mentors and mentees, with the latter coming to value the counselling and advice given by their more experienced colleagues. Ramaswami and Dreher (2007) argued that while theory-based models of mentor- ing are efficient in presenting the mentoring process and its results, the current lack of longitudinal research intended for verification and confirmation of the related cause-and-effect relationships contributes to an unclear perception of mentoring. Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to present two mentoring models which are the- oretical and only partially empirically confirmed (Ramaswami and Dreher, 2007), but which can still enhance the process of empirical verification. One model is ment- ee-oriented, while the other is mentor-oriented. Both include specific causal mech- anisms which connect mentoring with career, personal, or organizational outcomes, while emphasizing the cognitive, affective and behavioural responses of the mentee that have an indirect impact on these outcomes. Mentee Model The mentee model includes the following mechanisms through which the cognitive, affective and behavioural responses of the mentee affect individual and organiza- tional outcomes: (i) human capital; (ii) movement capital; (iii) socio-political capital; (iv) clarity of goal specification and goal attainment; and (v) a clear value system. The relationships among the elements of the mentee model are shown schematically in Figure 1, and explained in more detail below. 22 Edited by Anja Podlesek Figure 1. Scheme of the mentee model. Human (mentee) capital relates to the acquisition of knowledge and skills, and the development of capacities which significantly improve the mentee’s performance. The mentor is supposed to create a work environment that will increase the mentee’s potential, by means of creating new challenges, coaching, and role modelling. The mentor can create challenging tasks to enhance new work and training experiences for the mentee. Such efforts should be followed up by constant feedback that enhances the development of specific competences and activates a feeling of being successful in the professional context. The mentor’s application of coaching in mentoring helps di- rect the mentee’s acquisition of knowledge and broader understanding of the related processes, and so builds up professionalism. Mentoring thus enables the acquisition of expertise and information which would not be possible otherwise. Schulz (1995) found that early career employees obtain more information from their mentors than those who learn solely from their co-workers. Additionally, the mentor is a role model for the appropriate values, attitudes and conduct in the workplace. All the tasks per - formed by the mentor enable the mentee to develop strategies and obtain the infor - mation needed for successful performance at work. Mentees will then follow their own expectations and strive to improve their work performance. Wanberg, Welsh and Hezlett (2003) empirically confirmed the connections among capabilities, con- scientiousness, motivation, and performance effectiveness, while Tharenou (1997) confirmed the connections among capabilities, motivation, and objective indicators of career success. Day and Allen (2004) found that career motivation and self-effica - cy have a significant impact on the relation between mentoring and self-evaluation. Mentor's roles Mentee's cognitive and affective responses Mentee's behavioural responses Mentee's outcomes Organizational outcomes 23 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Ramaswami and Dreher (2007) found that the opportunities for professional growth that mentoring can provide have a significant influence on increased income levels, desire for promotion, and career satisfaction. The organization itself benefits from all these activities, as the pool of talented and competent professionals it can draw from is developed, and thus greater productivity and achievements can be obtained. Over - all, the three roles of the mentor (establishing a challenging environment, coaching, and role modelling) have been shown to have positive impacts on the mentee’s cogni- tive, affective and behavioural responses. Movement capital relates to the mentee’s visibility, exposure and recognition, both within and outside the organization. The key tasks of the mentor in charge of move- ment capital are the creation of opportunities for the mentee’s work demonstra- tion and recognition, and coaching. The mentor’s role is to create opportunities for meetings and conversations with key decision makers and experienced managers, i.e., with the key individuals who evaluate the mentee’s potential and decide about his/her promotion, either in the organization or outside the current workplace. The mentor is the person who cares for the mentee’s socialization, visibility and recog- nition in the workplace. After the opportunities that exist both within and outside the current organization have been well defined, the mentor directs the mentee to- wards the related employment possibilities. The mentee, as argued by Rouse (2001), then weighs the expected benefits of new employment against the costs of leaving the current job. A change in employment, as a rule, enhances the career satisfaction of the mentee, especially when his/her needs have been satisfied and expectations met. However, such changes may cause certain costs in an organization, especially when it has invested a great deal in its existing talent pool. Socio-political capital encompasses the social and political processes which are relat- ed to mentoring, and these accompany the mentee’s goals of assuring legitimacy and recognition in the workplace. The mentor’s tasks within this scope are sponsoring, introducing and making recognized, protecting, and coaching. Sponsoring includes providing support to the mentee during meetings and conversations with experienced managers, colleagues, coordinators, or those who can significantly influence his/her promotion in the organization. By introducing the mentee and increasing his/her visi- bility and recognition, the mentor creates opportunities for the mentee to meet those people in the organization who can influence his/her career progress. In this way, the mentee’s feeling of power and trust is increased. Protecting the mentee includes acti- vating successful socialization in the workplace, so that he/she can wisely judge when, where, and with who to communicate within and outside the organization, and thus establish good communication networks. By means of coaching the mentor helps the mentee build up appropriate work relationships, which can support his/her career de- velopment and lead to good career results and/or a higher income. Clarity of goal specification and goal attainment includes the mentor’s introduc- tion of the mentee’s career goals and efforts to enhance the mentee’s motivation 24 Edited by Anja Podlesek and effectiveness. The mentor’s role here is that of a role model, he/she offers ac- ceptance and acknowledgment, advice and friendship. The mentor, knowingly or not, affects the mentee and the formation of his/her value system, attitudes and behaviour. At the same time, the mentor is modelling the appropriate conduct in group work, and showing how to communicate with experienced employees. The mentor is thus a role model for balancing work and private responsibilities, and for accepting new responsibilities when needed. When accepted and acknowledged by the mentor, the mentee feels safe enough to explore new behaviours in the work- place, and learns how to face and deal with the risks involved in the decision-making process. The mentor gives advice and empowers the mentee to express the worries, insecurities and fears which can arise during work-related conflicts or in everyday assignments. While friendship may be a surprising dimension of the mentoring rela- tionship, in this context it presents a broader inclusion of interactions, from simple ones to mutual connections in the workplace, and partially outside the organiza- tion. Wanberg et al. (2003) claimed that the conversations between the mentor and mentee about topics such as improving the perception of their roles in the organ- ization, methods of goal attainment, and strategies for maintaining a work-family balance, can significantly affect the employment, career and life satisfaction of the mentee. The various roles of a mentor are reflected in the increased self-efficacy of the mentee in relation to his/her attainment of career goals. The mentee perceives increased expectations in relation to his/her achievements, and thus it is essential that the mentor encourages the mentee to be persistent in order to achieve his/ her goals and improve work performance. Clarity with regard to setting and accom- plishing goals can be motivational if the mentor directs, encourages and rewards the mentee for his/her effectiveness, and in this way encourages greater engagement and persistence in the performance of daily tasks. If this can be achieved, then the organization will become more successful and more productive. Values clarity is a process of clarifying the mentee’s status in a particular work- place, as well as the suitability of his/her chosen career and related decisions, and this arises in relation to the evaluation of the mentee’s fulfilment of his/her needs, achievements, and expectations. The mentor’s role here includes various functions which contribute to the mentee’s personal development rather than to his/her pro- fessionalism, but are nevertheless important. Besides the professionalism that is essential for their work, mentees can deepen their understanding and validation of their own professional identities, further develop these, and acquire a better sense of the roles they will have in the workplace. Clarification of values is carried out by the mentor’s application of role modelling, acceptance and acknowledgment, coun- selling and friendship. This can then benefit the mentee’s career and life satisfaction, as the mentor empowers the mentee to be performance focused and concentrate on building their personal and professional values. The mentee should then evaluate the fit between the workplace and his/her values and career goals, and it is possible that a mentee who perceives disharmony, dissatisfaction or the meaninglessness of 25 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia his/her work will choose to leave the organization. Better career and life planning can assist the mentee in his/her career changes, provided that this process leads to- wards greater satisfaction at work and home. Moreover, career and life planning can help the mentee become more aware of the scope of his/her professional identity. However, it should be noted that such changes may be unpleasant for the organiza- tion, because they may cause expenses due to changes in the mentee’s employment. Mentor Model Noe, Greenberger and Wang (2002), and Wanberg et al. (2003) noted that there is a gap in existing studies on mentoring with regard to its effects on or consequences for the mentor. While it is generally assumed that the contributions of mentoring are most felt in the psychosocial field, it would be useful to study its impacts on the mentor’s career, his/her achievements and the effects these have on the organization. Ramaswami and Dreher (2007) stated that although the mentor model is similar to the mentee model, it is difficult to empirically confirm all the assumed connections among the variables, due to the fact that mentoring and its effects have been, from both theoretical and empirical points of view, studied more in relation to the mentee than the mentor. The mentor model includes the following functions: human (mentor) capital, movement capital, optimal utilization of resources, socio-political capital, identity validation and relational gains (Ramaswami & Dreher, 2007). Figure 2 shows the relationships among the elements in the mentor model, and these will be discussed in more detail below. Figure 2. Scheme of the mentor model. Mentor's role Mentor's cognitive and affective responses Mentor's behavioural responses Mentor's outcomes Organizational outcomes 26 Edited by Anja Podlesek The mentor can develop their own capital in the mentoring relationship. To achieve this, however, it is important that the mentor is aware of the intergenerational dif- ferences that exist with regard to the mentee, and that he/she is willing to acquire the new knowledge offered by the latter. While the mentor is offering various chal- lenges to the mentee in the workplace, he/she can also pay attention to and follow new trends, and so create a climate for mutual learning, thus enriching the mentor’s experience. A greater diversity of mentees also enables the mentor to develop his/ her multicultural competences, and adapt mentoring to a varied group of individ- uals. The mentor can thus improve his/her performance, increase his/her career achievements, and so make promotion and a higher income more likely. On the or- ganizational level this leads to further development of the mentor pool, thus helping to enhance organizational productivity and achievement. In movement capital it is important to establish positive relationships between the mentor and mentees, because these can then continue after the latter have left the work organization. The mentor’s activities, such as sponsoring, introducing and making recognized, as well as the time and energy invested in the mentoring rela- tionship, can trigger a sense of obligation within the mentee, and thus he/she will inform the mentor about the labour market outside the organization. The mentor can therefore also seek new opportunities, consider a change in employment, and perhaps establish a new career path. However, while this can improve the mentor’s career, income, and overall satisfaction, the organization would suffer the additional costs incurred by any such changes in employment. Overall, the mentoring relationship has a positive impact on the mentor, as it en- ables him/her to delegate assignments and challenges to the mentee, and in this way use the available resources in a more optimal manner. While the mentee is offered new opportunities for experience in a safe climate, the mentor is partially disburdened and can devote more time to their professional and personal goals. The mentor’s performance in different tasks and his/her delegation of assignments to the mentee can increase the likelihood of success for the mentor’s work, and so increase the chances of promotion and a higher income. Moreover, the organization benefits when its employees are successful and satisfied, as its productivity and out- comes are improved. It is important for the mentor to be aware of the political and organizational climate in relation to mentoring. The mentors who monitor their own work, and seek in- formation regarding their performance from the mentees, can use this information to enhance their effectiveness. Some mentors accept several new mentees at the same time, while others create a mentor network, but in both cases such efforts can contribute to the formation of a larger pool of talent for the organization to draw from. Moreover, the mentee’s success contributes to the power of their mentors, in terms of visibility, credibility and recognition. A successful mentor will gradually become more recognized and gain more support from the organization’s leadership 27 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia with regard to mentoring projects. For example, when the mentor is recognized as competent and successful, he/she will be assigned more mentees by managers, so enabling further improvements to their achievements, as well as a higher income and greater career satisfaction. At the same time, the organization obtains a broader pool of high-potential employees, pointing the way to greater productivity and success. Mentoring thus contributes to professional and personal growth, as the mentor can gain more insights into and a better awareness of his/her competences and validation of his/her identity. This leads to personal and professional satisfaction, enhances motivation and refreshes interest in work (Schulz, 1995). Role model- ling, acceptance, acknowledgment and friendship, which are the basis of the men - tor’s tasks, enable the mentor to satisfy his/her need for development, maintain his/her career purpose, experience fulfilment at work and evaluate his/her own performance and effectiveness. The mentor thus becomes more aware of his/her profile, and strengthens his/her professional identity. This stronger identity and in- creased desire to assist the mentees in their development empowers the mentor’s career obligations, and desire to participate in developmental activities, as reflect- ed in greater career and life satisfaction, as well as more career achievements. As noted above, however, while the organization can widen and deepen its talent pool with the use of mentoring, it may also face additional costs due to changes in employment and retirement. The mentor experiences both professional and relational benefits for helping the mentee. When the mentor creates opportunities for the mentee to feel accepted and acknowledged, engages in counselling and friendship, he/she emotionally con- nects with the mentee and this can contribute to their emotional health and general well-being. In this state the mentor seeks more such activities and new mentees in order to maintain better relationships, to the benefit of all concerned. The mentor becomes more satisfied with his/her career and life, while the organization benefits from having more effective employees. Factors Influencing the Mentoring Relationship The factors influencing the mentoring relationship are: the mentor’s knowledge, training, skill development, motivation, and search for opportunities (Ramaswami & Dreher, 2007). Key knowledge here is that about the organization and related career paths. Poorly informed mentors, and those who are not present in the networks of important decision makers, will experience difficulties in providing key information to the mentee regarding the organization and the possibilities for career develop- ment. The mentor thus has to exhibit good skills in encouraging the mentee’s de- velopment, directing the training, and providing guidance by means of coaching. Effective communication, listening skills and knowledge of the learning process that exists in the organization provide the foundations which will enable adequate 28 Edited by Anja Podlesek development of the mentee. Good mentors will have the energy and willingness to seek opportunities to spend quality time with mentees, and will work to develop agreements on how often they will meet, for how long and in what manner or form. More information regarding such mentoring relationships is presented in another chapter of this book, Development of the Mentoring Relationship. Types of Mentoring Scandura and Pelegrini (2007) distinguish several types of mentoring, among which three forms are considered as new and will be discussed in this chapter: multiple mentoring, team mentoring and e-mentoring. These forms of mentoring can also be traced in Slovenian practice, and are a result of altered requirements and op- portunities in organizations. Major changes have been happening in the area of employment in recent years. Due to increased pressure and the search for solu- tions in a competitive environment, organizations have been forced to change their employment agreements. There are thus almost no safe, permanent employment positions any more, and both work organizations and job seekers have had to adjust to the new circumstances, with one consequence being a greater diversity of types of employment. A significant contribution to these changes has been advances in information and communications technology. Individuals with specific skills in the domain of such technology have become more important, causing changes to or- ganizational structures, and the need for new methods of professional support to be offered in the workplace. Organizations have thus become multi-level and mul- ti-national workplaces, with an outward orientation. Collaboration has increased, as well as the offering of specific services (i.e. in the form of joint ventures, outsourc- ing, licensing, and so on). In this way, organizations have become very diverse with regard to gender, nationality, and culture, and this has had a significant influence on their needs and available resources. This has also led to the encouragement of diverse professional relations which provide opportunities for the development of individuals. Higgins and Kram (2001) explain the differences between traditional and modern mentoring. The modern perspective on mentoring refers to mentoring as a developmental network. In contrast, the traditional perspective saw mentoring as an organizational, hierarchical, dyadic relationship, one focused on mentee learning and that occurs via a sequence of relationships throughout a person’s career. The developmental network perspective, on the other hand, sees mentoring relation- ships as intra- and extra-organizational, multilevel and multiple dyadic/networked relationships, characterised by mutuality and reciprocity, and being provided simul- taneously by multiple relationships at any given time in a person’s career. Tradition- ally, mentoring had an organizational or job-related function, whereas current ap- proaches see this function as career- or person-related. Only dyads were analysed under the traditional mentoring perspective, whereas the developmental network perspective analyses mentoring both at the network and dyad levels. 29 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia The understanding of the concept of multiple mentoring has changed as mentoring theory has developed. In the beginning it was mentee-oriented – the mentee could develop several mentoring relationships during his/her career, and this is to be un- derstood in a traditional mentoring context. Higgins and Kram (2001) define multiple mentoring as the mentee’s network of mentoring relationships which can compete with each other and contribute to the mentee’s better achievements. Scandura and Pelegrini (2007) assume that multiple mentoring can increase the loyalty of the mentee towards his/her organization, enhance job satisfaction, change career expectations and increase the perception of alternative opportunities for employ- ment, while at the same time reducing doubts with regard to the mentee’s current employment situation. In team mentoring the leader operates as a mentor and trains the team by means of coaching, psychosocial support and role modelling (Williams, 2000, as cited in Scandura & Pelegrini, 2007), and thus serves as a professional available to a greater number of mentees (Ambrose, 2003). Ambrose (2003) emphasizes several bene- fits of team mentoring, such as reciprocal development of the mentees’ skills and competences, expansion of professional knowledge among the team members, and team building. Williams (2000, as cited in Scandura & Pelegrini, 2007) confirms that each member of the team in team mentoring is accountable, and that such men- toring encourages peer learning. Team mentoring is both dyadic and team-related; the mentor relates to each member of the team, and each member of the team relates to other members. Knouse (2001) affirms that team mentoring is very suit- able for giving corrective feedback, forming expectations and achieving effective comprehension. E-mentoring is different from traditional face-to-face mentoring, in that it includes the use of electronic media, e-mail, chat rooms and internet. Ensher, Huen, and Blanchard (2003) support the idea that e-mentoring offers professional support by means of coaching, friendship, and support for the learning process. However, elec- tronic media can cause difficulties in communication, more time is needed for rela- tionship development, and there is a possibility of technical issues, although it can be effective in improving technical and writing skills. Still, overall the disadvantages of e-mentoring are outweighed by its benefits: wider access to mentors, lower costs, status equality, interaction recording, and minimization of the effects of demograph- ic characteristics. Mentoring and Coaching In the chapters of the current work covering mentoring relationships, mentoring models and mentor functions, coaching is presented as an important function performed by the mentor, one that is essential in learning about the social and organizational environment and the mentee’s movement capital. At this point it 30 Edited by Anja Podlesek is therefore sensible to explain the differences between mentoring and coaching, as although they have a lot in common, there are several differences between the two (Allen et al., 2009). Coaching is applied in the development of specific skills for a more effective work performance, is based on specific knowledge and usually performed by an external professional who is skilled in a particular domain, elicits professional trust and is more objective when it comes to introducing changes. A good diagnosis of the situation is needed when introducing interventions into the work organization, where methods such as conversations, monitoring and evalu- ation of performance skills are applied. Mentoring, as has already been noted, is a broader and more complex process which encompasses work tasks and assign - ments, meeting new co-workers and learning about the organization. Mentoring includes career planning and professional development. Modern teaching meth- ods are used in the mentoring process, including training for the acquisition of specific skills, and it is in this activity that mentoring and coaching are interwoven. In my opinion, coaching can be applied by the mentor in the mentoring process as it develops very specific skills which are closely related to mentoring. Men - toring relates to specific contexts in the workplace, such as networking in work settings, and assistance in learning about organizational policy and promoting the mentee’s activities, and can therefore be performed explicitly by an experienced person in the organization. The distinctions between mentoring and coaching are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Distinctions between mentoring and coaching Coaching Mentoring • Oriented towards specific assignments and specific skills • Broader orientation towards career and professional development • Diagnostics relates to specific needs of a coachee • Modern adult teaching methods prevail • Performed by a professional from a particular domain (usually external specialists) • Performed by experienced employees in the work organization (mentors) Mentoring and Supervision Another concept which relates to mentoring and needs to be clarified is supervi- sion. Two explanations of supervision are presented: (i) Johnson’s (2014) model of mentoring relationship and (ii) the explanation of supervision in a sense of profes- sional and personal development. This chapter then concludes with introduction of the supervisor competences which have been defined in a European project named ECVision. Supervision & Coaching in Europe: Concepts & Competences. 31 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Mentoring Relationship Model Johnson (2014) points to an interesting relation between mentoring and supervision (Mentoring Relationship Continuum – MRC). He does not conceptualize mentoring as a specific activity of assigning tasks, but as a specific relation within the frame- work of supervision and counselling. In this chapter, a relationship continuum of su- pervision and mentoring is presented. Johnson, Skinner and Kaslow (2014) believe that supervision with a mentoring dimension is transformational with regard to the supervisory relationship, which means that it offers more benefits in both profes- sional and personal domains. Johnson (2014) presents the relation between mentoring and supervision on a re- lationship continuum, in which mentoring is defined more from the perspective of the quality of the relationship than from the perspective of delegating tasks to the mentee. Similar to other functions (e.g. counselling, teaching), supervision is placed on a continuum and defined by the level of inclusion, reciprocal relationship, emo- tional connection and genuine collaboration. With the development of supervision, the relationship becomes more inclusive (Johnson, 2007). Basically, the supervisory relationship is transactional, which means that it is structured and formalized so as to establish and maintain a hierarchy. Clear structure and a formal framework are essential for the development of a safe relationship, and are desired in early phases of this process. Supervisees then gradually outgrow this strict hierarchical relationship, become more competent, more trusting and wish to collaborate more and strive for collegiality. If the supervisor remains at the level of strict formality, he/ she is perceived by supervisees as rigid and distant. If the relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee starts evolving towards mentoring, then it becomes transformational. A transformational relationship is characterized by self-efficacy, self-trust and a favourable climate saturated with positive emotions. In the context of supervision this means that (Johnson, 2007): i. The supervisor is a partner who safely guides the supervisee through the train- ing process and helps overcome any obstacles which can appear; ii. The supervisor understands supervision as helping the professional and broad- er development of an individual; iii. Transformational supervisors need to be competent and mature professionals in order to effectively play their roles (support, evaluation, advocacy); iv. Supervisors exhibit a high level of collegiality and reciprocity in the supervisory relationship. It can be concluded that the use of a supervisory relationship with a mentoring di- mension is gaining in popularity. On the mentor’s side of the continuum the su- pervisor offers a high level of support, empowerment, authenticity and reciprocity, so that the supervision process becomes more equal, reciprocal and collaborative, and the line between teaching and learning has been erased (Schlosser, Lyons, Tall- eyrand, Kim, & Johnson, 2011). 32 Edited by Anja Podlesek As noted above, Johnson (2014) presents the mentoring relationship by means of a continuum, which describes the level of mentoring that occurs using the dimensions of transactional-transformational relation, low or high level of social support, and low or high level of emotional support. The model was primarily set in the context of clinical supervision, but can also be applied in the research or study domains. In- deed, it can be applied in all professional relationships with developmental features as it explains career- and competence-based development, support in evaluation and monitoring of training programme requirements, and various methods of en- couragement. Johnson explains that advising and supervision can develop in the direction of a more active and reciprocal relation when the supervisor or advisor offers the full spectrum of career, emotional or psychosocial support, and when the supervisor or advisor strengthens professional development and success in a more goal-oriented manner. The relationship becomes more mentoring-oriented and thus obtains the following qualities: (i) reciprocity, collegiality, authenticity and mutuali- ty; (ii) career-related and psychosocial functions; (iii) intentional role-modelling; (iv) a safe environment for self-exploration; (v) the transformation of professional iden- tity; and (vi) a relationship which exceeds the described functions and is maintained in other contexts as well. While advising and supervision are transactional relation- ships with a tendency for clear structure and formality, where the advisor and super- visor offer services of advising, knowledge transfer, giving feedback, or evaluation, and are adequately paid for these, developmental relations are closer to mentoring, and become progressively transformational. The transformational mentor enhances the mentees’ evolution by demonstrating a sincere relationship, timely guidance, encouragement and clear vision. Such a mentor cares for the mentee’s professional and personal growth, and in this context it is important that short- and long-term goals are being followed (Johnson, 2014). Developmental relationships, which exhibit a strong mentoring dimension, are emotionally supportive and recognize the value of individuals, and thus include giv- ing feedback and appreciating the achievements of the participants. The mentor offers information and is available for consulting or advising, and provides caring support based on the available time and resources. The emotional dimensions of the relationship are reflected in a stronger connection, warmth, and desire for the well-being of the other parties. This final point is defined by Johnson (2014) as high emotional commitment, or “companionate love,” which includes a sense of both intimacy and alliance, and causes an ongoing bonding friendship. There is another element within the mentoring relationship continuum model that needs to be clarified, namely relational mentoring, which is a highly-developed mentoring relationship. When an evolving relationship reaches such a level, it ex- hibits several important characteristics: reciprocity, flexibility in transition from one role to another, and, at the same time, increasing vulnerability, expansion of the spectrum of achievements and the use of a holistic approach. The relationship thus 33 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia encompasses reciprocal influence, development and learning. The mentor and the mentee are capable of transitioning from role to role and allowing complementa- rity of knowledge, skills and attitudes. In such an intense relationship both weak and strong features emerge, and this requires the mentor to be highly sensitive and warm. It is of paramount importance that the relationship remains conscious, ap- preciative and supportive, as this encourages a strong sense of professional identity, is competence-development oriented, and enhances the establishment of the men- tee’s equilibrium and vitality. Although the mentoring process is skill- and profes- sionalism-oriented, the mentor should not disregard the holistic notion of develop- ment, which is socio-motivational-emotional. Therefore, the mentor needs to build up his/her self-efficacy, emotional intelligence and balance between work and other activities (Johnson, 2014). Johnson’s mentoring relationship continuum model is interesting, because it regards mentoring as the highest level of a relationship which starts with advising and contin - ues with supervision. Two aspects of this need to be emphasized, the transactional and transformational ones which present two types of relationship in the mentoring continuum; the former is indicative of advising and supervision, the latter is a distinc - tive feature of mentoring. None of the relationship levels can be evaluated as worse or better, they can only be viewed as developmental levels with characteristics, objec - tives and the vision of further development. The model re-conceptualizes considera- tions such as “What is mentoring?” and “What is supervision?” and deftly connects the two treatments. The purpose of supervision and mentoring is to be found by each individual, who can frame them in accordance with their own experiences. Supervision as a Method of Professional Development Next, we will take a look at supervision as a method of professional development. Žorga (2002a) claims that supervision is a process of specific learning and devel- opment, as well as a method of providing support in professional reflectivity that enables professionals to obtain professional and personal insights into their own experience. Supervision helps the professional integrate practice and theoretical knowledge, and thus successfully deal with work performance challenges. Supervi- sion helps in stress management and in professional identity building, by supporting professional and personal education and development. Ajduković and Cajvert (2004) further expand the definition, and argue that supervi- sion is the process of developing the professional as a practitioner who reflects on his/her performance and learns from the experience. The supervisor finds out about the supervisee’s situation and resources, follows his/her own thoughts, emotions and resources, and simultaneously monitors the relationship from different per- spectives. By integrating all of these features and processes, the supervisor creates opportunities for ever more competent professional performance to occur. 34 Edited by Anja Podlesek Professional supervision has evolved into the provision of mentoring and directive assistance, and in its first phase of development included supervisory tasks. Over the years, the focus has shifted towards professional development. In the 1970s such efforts addressed individual employee’s professional growth, but today it en- compasses the entire process of institutional development, its components, teams and innovative projects. Not only is this method applied in the helping professions, but it is also used in the monitoring of top management teams in many large and successful enterprises (Kobolt & Žorga, 2006a). Workplaces change very fast, and individuals have to be flexible and motivated to learn in order to accept these chang- es as challenges, as the development and quality of the organization depend to a large degree on the education and development of its employees. Kobolt and Žor- ga (2006a) support the empirical findings by Singh and Shifflette that professional development requires a flexible approach, highly active learning, and persistence. In this, problem-solving and self-reflection are supposed to be carried out in collab- oration with colleagues. Such an approach can lead to personal changes when the employees are supported with trust and encouragement. Clear and timely feedback regarding performance, and support for improvements, enable employees to devel- op a feeling of being in charge of their own professional development. Supervision is thus a method that creates the conditions for encouragement and the realization of career and personal development. Professionals can advance in their work if they can self-reflect in a safe environment with the group of colleagues and a supportive supervisor. Mutual problem-solving, reflectivity and discussions of practical expe- riences, as supported by evidence-based professional findings, can offer valuable feedback regarding employee performance (Kobolt & Žorga, 2006a), and can un- derlie the continuing process of professional development that is essential in many careers and organizations. Supervision Goals Kobolt and Žorga (2006b) point to the diversification of aims of supervision. They note that the supervisee is in a constant process of learning, and that by reflecting on his/her professional performance, the supervisee can better understand what and how he/she performs at work, and what are needed. Another goal of supervi- sion is the construction of a new reality, an awareness of one’s own perceptions, and of the reality of one’s career. Another aim of the supervision process is global. Indi- viduals always operate in a particular work context, which is both an independent system and connected with others. During the supervision process the professional is expected to recognize and improve the operation of individual systems, his/her determination and ability to change his/her performance, as well as the operation of individual sub-systems. In relation to supervision it is important to understand the circular causality of phenomena, as there is no linearity among the participants’ rela- tionships, but instead a circular multi-fold system of co-dependence. It is important 35 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia to realize the significance of feedback, internalized norms and rules in this context, as these significantly determine people’s behaviour. The creative resolution of ca- reer challenges is also important in supervision. This means that the supervisee, by means of reflection, gains insights into his/her professional conduct and seeks new paths and solutions, thus moving away from their old forms of behaviour. Finally, the supervisee has to examine his/her part in the overall operations of the organization, follow the activities their work is related to, and consider when and in which situa- tions it is reasonable to change his/her performance. The supervisee must thus have critical view of the challenges and changes that will arise as this occurs. Functions of Supervision Kobolt and Žorga (2006b) emphasize that professionals hold different views of su- pervision and perform it differently. The supervisor’s qualifications and orientation are key points when making decisions on how to implement supervision and what to focus on. Supervisors play an important role in the organization, but role conflicts are also likely to occur, and this can make the performance of supervision difficult or impossible. In general, three roles of supervision can be distinguished, educative, supportive and managerial, as explained below. The educative or formative function of supervision encompasses the development of skills, understanding of and insight into the professional practice of the supervisee. This includes regular self-reflection on performance, development of understanding one’s career procedures, and acquisition of new skills, self-recognition and aware- ness of one’s own weaknesses and strengths, harmonization of work team, and es- tablishment of a communication style. Knowledge of the system, circular, and inter- active views of professional space is also incorporated. It can be concluded that the educative function of supervision is an ongoing form of professional development. The supportive function of supervision encompasses an awareness of emotional experience at work. When individuals do not recognize emotions and emotional states, they cannot respond adequately, which can trigger emotional burnout. To be able to become more aware of and reflect on one’s emotional states, the feeling of a safe climate has to be developed and maintained in the supervisory relationship. The managerial or control function of supervision ensures the monitoring of the quality of people-related work. Kobolt and Žorga (2006b) claim that this function is needed because individuals do not have enough knowledge and experience, and because they have blind spots, vulnerable areas, or prejudices which can signifi- cantly affect their behaviour and conduct. In order to manage these weaknesses a process of monitoring, directing and evaluating performance is needed. Within any organization the various roles of employees are defined, their responsibilities are assigned and any related agreements have to be carried out. This is the domain of the managerial function of supervision. 36 Edited by Anja Podlesek The three functions of supervision, as set out above, have been presented so that they can be recognized and followed. However, it should be noted that the edu- cative, supportive and managerial functions of supervision are usually interlinked, and which one is dominant in any particular instance depends on the supervision context and the issue of concern. Supervisor Competences Supervision is a method which can enhance the individual’s professional conduct and contribute to his/her personal growth. The details of what can be offered to a professional by supervision may be found in the goals of the second-cycle study programme “Supervision, personal and organizational counselling” (Supervision, personal and organizational counselling, n. d.; presented on the website https:// www.pef.uni-lj.si/173.html), a programme for educating supervisors. The objectives of this are for students to develop (i) an understanding of and research into the or- ganizational structure, dynamics and culture of various workplaces, and inclusion of supervision, personal and career counselling, into a wider organizational framework with the purpose of assuring higher quality of professional performance, encourag- ing career and personal development of professionals, and enabling the advance- ment and change of the organization; (ii) the ability to organize, perform, moni- tor, and analyse different forms of supervision process, personal and organizational counselling (individual, group, team supervision/coaching, supervision/coaching in the organizational setting, change management etc.), and to introduce it into new fields of practice in the organization, and to participate in the creation of new theo- retical and practical models; (iii) the ability to find alternative solutions which enable all participants to develop new perspectives and improve their lives, relationships and organizational climate, and to direct new conduct strategies; (iv) the ability to perform and reflect on counselling processes in different organizational and profes- sional contexts, confront attitudes, stereotypes and prejudices, and recognize and understand processes of inclusion/exclusion at the levels of culture, policies and practices in organizations. From a European perspective, issues related to supervisor competences can be explored through the findings of the project ECVision. Supervision & Coaching in Europe: Concepts & Competences (Ajdukovic et al., 2015). The aim of this project, which covered the domains of supervision and coaching, was to present different models of supervision and prepare a competence model for supervisors. The work group formulated two groups of competences, as follows: i. Professional identity, where the supervisor integrates his/her personal traits and professional requirements into his/her professional identity. The devel- opment of professional identity is the aim of training programmes for super- visors, and this can aid their ongoing professional development and personal growth; 37 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia ii. Professional conduct, for which the supervisors need a rich repertoire of feasi- ble interventions and broad professionalism and skills. Continual evaluation of one’s own activities and processes is essential here. These competences are shown in Table 2, and detailed explanations can be found on the ANSE (Association for National Organizations for Supervision in Europe) website (http://www.anse.eu/ecvision/start.html). Table 2. Competences of supervisors and coaches (see also: http://www.anse.eu/ ecvision/start.html) Professional identity Professional conduct Professional attitude • Reflectivity • Integration of theory in practice • Tolerance of ambiguity Building a professional relationship • Contracting • Structuring the process • Evaluation Ethics • Ethical conduct Facilitation of outcomes • Facilitation of professional development • Facilitation of change • Facilitation of learning Quality development • Continuing professional development • Continuous personal development • Contributing to professional standards and development Advanced communication • Professional use of one’s own communication style • Managing the communication process • Managing tension and conflicts Perspective on person, work, and organization • Recognition of different personal, professional and organizational values and cultures • Recognition of status, function and roles within the organization • Focus on leadership-related contents Handling diversity • Awareness of diversity • Managing power, hierarchy and discrimination Mastering methods and techniques • Performing in different settings • Application of methods and techniques Maša Žvelc Supervision: Definition and Functions of Supervision, Models of Supervision, and Supervisory Alliances 1 What is Supervision? The field of supervision is rather complex, and this is reflected by the diversity of definitions that appear in the literature. A frequent definition used in textbooks is that of clinical supervision, as summarised by Bernard and Goodyear (2013): Supervision is an intervention provided by a more senior member of a pro- fession to a more junior colleague or colleagues who typically (but not always) are members of that same profession. This relationship: • is evaluative and hierarchical, • extends over time, and • has the simultaneous purposes of enhancing the professional func- tioning of the more junior person(s); monitoring the quality of pro- fessional services offered to the clients that she, he, or they see; and serving as a gatekeeper for the particular profession the supervisee seeks to enter. (p. 9) This definition points to the fact that supervision is unique and differs from other relat- ed interventions, such as teaching, counselling, psychotherapy, and consulting (Ber- nard & Goodyear, 2013). While these interventions can be included in supervision, 1  In this chapter the author summarizes the parts of her doctoral dissertation titled “Development of a Model of Facilitating and Hindering Factors in Psychotherapy Supervision” (in preparation). 40 Edited by Anja Podlesek the latter still has certain distinctions. For example, supervision is an educational pro- cess and teaching is a central intervention. The supervisor, similar to a school teacher, evaluates his/her ‘students’. However, a distinction between supervision and classic education is that the latter is usually based on a clearly defined curriculum, while the former adapts each session to the needs of a supervisee, and at the same time respects the general specifications of the goals that have been set. Moreover, super- vision includes elements of consulting and psychotherapy, although the distinction between them has to be clear (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013). Sometimes the supervi- sor applies therapeutic interventions to help the supervisee explore his/her behav- iour, thoughts and emotions, in relation to his/her performance. However, this only happens when, according to the supervisor’s opinion, such interventions can help in- crease the effectiveness of the supervisee’s work with the client. Finally, a difference between supervision and consulting is that the latter is primarily a one-meeting event that is voluntarily sought, and the relationship is not hierarchical. Supervision is performed by a more experienced professional working with a less ex- perienced person in the profession, and its main purpose is to elicit the supervisee’s professional growth and protect the client. The supervisor’s task and responsibility is to monitor and evaluate the supervisee’s performance and progress. His/her eval- uative function arms the supervisor with power and a higher hierarchical position. In their definition, Bernard and Goodyear (2013) emphasize that an important element of supervision is that it continues over time, and this distinguishes the practice from educational workshops and consulting events, which can be attended once. This also enables the supervisory relationships to grow and develop. The supervisory relationship is an important component of supervision (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013; Hawkins & Shohet, 2012; Watkins, 1997; Wheeler & Cushway, 2004), as it is carried out in relational context involving at least two people: the su- pervisor and the supervisee. The nature and quality of the supervisory relationship is linked to the quality and effectiveness of the supervision that occurs (Carter et al., 2009; Henderson, Cawyer, & Watkins, 1999; Jacobsen & Taggaard, 2009; Mar- tin, Goodyear, & Newton, 1987; Rabinowitz, Heppner, & Roehlke, 1986; Worthen & McNeill, 1996; Worthington & Roehlke, 1979). In this context, Hawkins and Shohet (2012) transfer the ‘good-enough-mother’ concept, as developed by the paediatri- cian and psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott (1986/1960), into the field of supervision. For instance, when the child of a ‘good-enough-mother’ spits out food, she does not take it personally, does not give in to feelings of guilt and inadequacy, but instead tries to understand the child’s inner experience and the reason for such behaviour. She is able to do this provided she has the support of her partner or another sup- porting adult. Such a ‘nourishing/caring triad’ makes the child feel accepted even when he/she expresses hatred and rage. By analogy, the ‘good-enough-psycholo- gist’ can withstand and survive attacks from clients if he/she is ‘held’ and supported by the supervisory relationship. 41 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Purposes and Tasks of Supervision The main purposes of supervision are as follows (Aasheim, 2012; Bernard & Good- year, 2013; Hawkins & Shohet, 2012): (i) professional development of the super- visee, and (ii) the assurance of quality and ethical services, and protection of the client’s well-being. Hawkins and Shohet (2012) outline three main functions of su- pervision, which are interlinked: developmental, supportive, and qualitative. The developmental-educational process that exists during the ongoing reciprocal supervisory relationship enables clients to reflect on the content and process of their performance (Gilbert & Evans, 2000). They can thus better understand their clients, become more aware of their reactions, and improve comprehension of their relationship with the client. They can reflect on their interventions and the con- sequences of these, and explore additional methods of working with their clients (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012). In this way they learn how to transfer theory into prac- tice, conceptualize cases and recognize different processes of supervision, e.g. the parallel process (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013). Within the supportive function of supervision supervisees receive both personal and professional support. Supervision is a ‘safe base’ for the supervisee and ensures that he/she will not experience his/her development and performance alone (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012). Supervision helps supervisees face and reduce self-doubt, fear and anxiety (Stoltenberg & McNeill, 1997, 2010), and share and let go of unpleasant ex- periences relating to their performance. This function of supervision is essential for beginners, while effective supporting is important for maintaining the supervisee’s equilibrium and preventing burnout (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012). An important function of psychotherapy supervision, which is related to resourcing, while still significantly different, is the function of affect regulation (Rožič, 2012; Žvelc, 2015), which is the process of managing and modulating affect intensity and duration (Fonagy, Gergely, Jurist, & Target, 2004; Schore, 2003). Research on psycho- therapy supervision (Žvelc, 2015) shows that supervisees often experience difficult emotions about themselves (e.g. self-doubt, doubt in their performance) or in rela- tion to their clients and interactions with them (anxiety, anger, apathy etc.). How- ever, an empathetic and well-adjusted supervisor can make the supervisee feel safe enough to disclose and explore his/her emotional experience and reactions. During the process of supervision, the supervisee’s intense performance-related emotional states are processed and regulated with the help of the supervisor’s interventions. The intensity of the emotional states that are felt is thus reduced. Supervisees calm down, their subjective feeling is that a burden has been lifted off their shoulders, and they become more aware of the background of their emotional experience. Strong and intense emotions, mostly anger and hopelessness, are replaced by feelings such as compassion, affection and hope. In cases when the supervisee is apathetic and does not feel anything despite the emotionally charged contexts, affect regulation 42 Edited by Anja Podlesek enables him/her to get in touch with what he/she is experiencing and to start feeling contextually appropriate emotions. The affective states which occur due to hypo- or hyper-arousal of the autonomic nervous system are regulated during an effective supervision session, so that supervisees can re-establish the so-called window of tolerance, a state of equilibrium, in which they are able to process information and engage in socially appropriate communication (Ogden, Minton, & Pain, 2006). Affect regulation elicits, among other changes, an alteration on the supervisee’s physiolog- ical-emotional level, which is why the supervisee returns changed to the following psychotherapy session with his/her client. Supervision has another function which is essential for evaluating the quality of super - visee-client performance, i.e. a qualitative function (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012; Watkins, 1997). The supervisor is accountable for monitoring the quality of the supervisee’s per - formance and directing the supervisee to achieve the following aims (Watkins, 1997): (i) adequate care for the client; (ii) prevention of causing harm; (iii) adequately developed skills so that the therapist can perform therapy; and (iv) ensuring that those individu - als who do not meet the related standards cannot proceed with their studies or work without undertaking adequate measures to change their performance. One of the su - pervisor’s most important and yet most difficult tasks is to evaluate the supervisee’s development and performance and to decide whether or not the candidate is ready for professional practice. The supervisor thus plays the role of gatekeeper (Bernard & Good - year, 2013) at the entrance into the supervisee’s desired profession, and cannot open the door to those who, according to his/her evaluation, are not suitable for practice. Another important aim of supervision, towards which its various components lead, is the capacity for reflection (Aasheim, 2012; Allstetter Neufeldt, Karno, & Nelson, 1996; Hawkins & Shohet, 2012). Reflection is a fundamental tool in the development of critical thinking, self-evaluation, insight and autonomy at work (Aasheim, 2012). The supervisee has to become a ‘reflective professional’ (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012), not only in supervision but also in his/her own performance. This means that the supervisee reflects on what takes place prior to and after, as well as during, the sessions. Gradually he/she progresses towards a greater capacity to participate in a ‘live’ relationship and at the same time step back to reflect on events related to the client, himself/herself and their relationship. Safran and Muran (2000) refer to this capacity as mindfulness in action, and emphasize that it is one of the most impor- tant capacities of a psychotherapist. Along with the ability to reflect, the supervisee develops so-called internal supervision (Casement, 1985, 1990, 2002). This refers to the internal dialogue through which the psychologist observes what is going on during a session, in the client and in himself/herself. He/she observes and evaluates different emerging options of response and their possible consequences. A further important function of supervision is the development of the supervisee’s professional identity, his/her professional values and beliefs (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012; Lerner, 2008). Professional identity is expressed through the supervisee’s attitude 43 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia towards his/her clients and performance. Supervision helps the supervisee find his/ her own therapeutic style and voice (Lerner, 2008). Another important function of supervision is that the supervisee adequately evaluates his/her own effectiveness and competence in counselling (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013; Steward, Breland, & Neil, 2001). Hawkins and Shohet (2012) add that supervision produces benefits not only for the supervisee and the client, but also for the organization where the supervisee works, and for the entire profession, its development and maintenance of reputation. Supervision Models Supervision models offer a conceptual frame for supervisors. As expressed in the well-known Indian fable in which six blind men ‘are examining’ and describing an elephant, with each focusing on only one the animal’s body parts, each model that aims to understand supervision only does so by examining certain aspects of it. There are thus many models of supervision and different overviews of them (e.g., Beinart, 2012; Bernard & Goodyear, 2013; Hess, 2008; Watkins, 1997), although in general we can divide the models in four major categories: (i) psychotherapeutic theory-based models, (ii) developmental models, (iii) process models, and (iv) the second generation models (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013). The models founded on a certain psychotherapeutic theory base their views and choice of modality on the same theory. For instance, psychoanalytic supervision will emphasize unconscious processes, Gestalt supervision will focus on events that hap- pen ‘here and now’, and integrative supervision will focus on relationships. Develop- mental models assume that supervision is constantly changing, that supervisees go through different stages of professional development and so have different needs and reactions. Developmental models emphasize that supervisees need different teach- ing approaches to be used by their supervisors, based on their characteristics of their development. Some of the best-known and most-cited developmental models of su- pervision are the Integrated Developmental Model (Stoltenberg & McNeill, 2010) and Life-span Supervision Model (Rønnestad & Skovholt, 1993). Process models focus on the supervision process, i.e. on what is done during supervision. They are interested in what kind of interventions the supervisor applies, his/her orientation, critical events in supervision, factors affecting the quality of the supervisory relationship, how this relationship is developing, and so on. Process models of supervision include the Dis- crimination Model (Bernard, 1997), the Seven Eyed Model of Supervision (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012), the Events Based Model of Supervision (Ladany, Friedlander & Nelson, 2005) and the Systems Approach to Supervision (SAS) (Holloway, 1995). Seven-eyed Model A very useful process model is the seven-eyed model, developed by Hawkins and Shohet (2012), which helps us systematically direct supervision interventions. The 44 Edited by Anja Podlesek model assumes that the supervisor can be oriented towards two supervision sys- tems, namely: client–supervisee or supervisee–supervisor. The authors distinguish between two main categories of supervision styles: • Supervision which is directly directed towards the client–supervisee matrix (e.g. through reports on the client, note taking, recordings). • Supervision which is directed towards the client–supervisee system in a manner that includes reflection on the events happening in the supervi - see–supervisor system. This type of supervision is interested in how the cli - ent–supervisee matrix is expressed in the ‘here and now’ experience of the supervision process. Figure 3 shows seven ‘eyes’ or windows for the supervisor to direct his/her focus to; three eyes/windows relate to the client–supervisee system, three eyes/windows relate to the supervisee–supervisor system, and the seventh eye/window presents a broader organizational and socio-cultural context. Figure 3. Outline of the Seven-eyed Model. Events-based model Ladany, Friedlander and Nelson (2005) explain critical events in supervision using the events-based model. These are events which encompass the most frequent SUPERVISORY STYLE Supervisor’s focus is on 1) Focus on getting to know and understand the client. 2) Focus on strategies and interventions applied by the supervisee. 3) Focus on the client–supervisee relationship. 4) Focus on the supervisee. 5) Focus on the supervisory rela- tionship. 6) Focus on the supervisor’s own process. Client–Supervisee System Supervisee–Supervisor System 7) Broader context 45 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia dilemmas in supervision, and which most often challenge the supervisor regard- less of his/her theoretical background and field of practice. Such events include: (i) negotiating role conflicts and role ambiguity; (ii) culture and gender related misun- derstandings; (iii) sexual attraction to clients; (iv) counter-transference and projec- tive identification; (v) supervisees’ inadequate skills; and (vi) problematic emotions, attitudes and behaviours. The model is transtheoretical, and its descriptions of relationships and process- es express an interpersonal or relational approach to supervision (Frawley-O’Dea & Sarnat, 2001; Herron, 2001; Kron, 2000). This is based on current analytical and humanistic works, and considers the supervisory relationship to be a fundamental driver of professional growth and development. The quality of this relationship is a reflection of and interaction between the work interpersonal models of the client, supervisee and supervisor. In supervision as well as in therapy, the cognition, emo- tions and behaviours of one partner affect those of the other. According to the au- thors (Ladany et al., 2005), the supervisory relationship is vital processing conflicts when they arise. This model was created as a critical response to others which define the goals of supervi - sion, but do not provide any answers for how to accomplish them. The model is based on the paradigm of events and the model of task analysis (Greenberg, 1986). Not only does it address the various discussions that can occur in supervision, but it is also interested in the types of sequential interpersonal behaviours which initiate change. Second-generation Models Parallel to the development of psychotherapy, which has had impact on the devel- opment of supervision, more recent models of supervision are becoming more in- tegrative and evidence-based. Bernard and Goodyear (2013) refer to the following three second-generation models: (i) combined models, (ii) target issue models, and (iii) common-factors models. Combined models integrate aspects of existing first generation models. Target issue models illuminate specific concepts of supervision, e.g. the competence of super- visors with regard to cultural diversity, or their attachment styles. Common-factors models search for and describe common aspects of various therapy/supervision models with the purpose of developing an integrative theory of change. Lampropou- los (2002) proposes the following common factors of supervision: • Supervisory relationship (divided into the real relationship, supervisory alliance, and transference and counter-transference processes). • Providing support and relief from tension, anxiety, and distress. • Instillation of hope and raising of expectations. • Self-exploration, awareness, and insight. • Theoretical framework (philosophy, theory and methodology of the model origin). 46 Edited by Anja Podlesek • Exposure and confrontation of problems. • Acquisition and testing of new learning. • Mastery of the new knowledge. A fundamental component of supervision, the supervisory relationship, is discussed in more detail below. Supervisory Relationship The supervisory relationship can be viewed as a two- or three-person system (Ber- nard & Goodyear, 2013). The models which consider the supervisory relationship as a two-person system study and explain the relation between the two participants in supervision, the supervisor and supervisee. In contrast models which examine a three-person system emphasize that there are three parties involved, the supervi- sor, the supervisee and the client. Supervisory Alliance Within the supervisory relationship as a two-person system, one of the most impor - tant notions is that of the supervisory alliance. The concept of a supervisory alliance (Bordin, 1983) emerged from that of a therapeutic working alliance (Bordin, 1979), and it refers to the quality of mutual collaboration needed in order to elicit change. In supervision, the supervisor and supervisee must collaborate with the purpose of elab- orating on the latter’s professional development and so ensuring high quality and eth - ical psychotherapeutic or clinical services are provided, and thus protecting the client’s well-being (Aasheim, 2012; Bernard & Goodyear, 2013; Hawkins & Shohet, 2012). A supervisory alliance relies on the following three aspects (Bordin, 1983): 1. Mutual agreement on supervision goals. 2. Mutual agreement on supervision tasks. 3. An effective bond between the supervisor and the supervisee(s). The supervisory alliance depends on an agreement between the supervisor and su- pervisee with regard to the goals of the supervision. Supervisors with different the- oretical backgrounds will give preferences to different goals. Similarly, supervisees will differ in their expectations in relation to supervision, and the specification of goals will be influenced by their level of professional development (Rabinowitz et al., 1986; Stoltenberg & McNeill, 1997, 2010; Worthington & Roehlke, 1979). It is important for the supervisor and supervisee to agree on the supervision goals so that conflicts and breaks in the working alliance can be avoided. Another important element of a supervisory alliance is the agreement between the supervisor and supervisee on the supervision tasks. The core tasks assigned to the supervisee are the preparation of written or oral reports about his/her performance, 47 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia or submission of audio or video recordings of his/her performance, and the formula- tion of supervisory questions. The supervisor’s tasks are linked to these supervisory questions and the goals they are related to. For instance, if a goal is the development of specific skills, the supervisor will give feedback to the supervisee stating what the supervisee did well, and what could be added and/or improved, or he/she will recom - mend other possibilities with the purpose of expanding the supervisee’s repertoire of interventions. If the supervisee has never recorded a session or brought a record - ing to the supervisor, then the supervisor has to discuss the need to do so with the supervisee. The bond refers to the quality of the relationship between the supervisee and su- pervisor, and includes experiences of care, support, trust, and affection. The issue of bonding occurs due to the key task of evaluation in supervision (either written or oral), as this can lead to unavoidable tension due to status distinctions between the supervisor and supervisee (Bordin, 1983), which relate also to the processes of power. Bordin emphasizes that supervisees need to be acknowledged as good practitioners, and for this reason always explicitly confirms what the supervisee has mastered before informing him/her about problematic parts of their work. All three aspects of supervisory alliance are interconnected and influence one an- other (Bordin, 1983). If there is no high quality bonding between the supervisor and supervisee (e.g., the relationship is marked by distrust and anxiety), then the super- visor’s various activities, such as an exploration of the supervisee’s perception of the client, or a suggestion as to which technique the supervisee should apply, will be met with resistance and distrust, and so will be less effective. The power of alliance also depends on the supervisee’s understanding of the connection between super- vision tasks and supervision goals, and thus whether the supervision performance corresponds to the desired outcome of the supervision. Additionally, the power of alliance is dependent on the supervisee’s evaluation of his/her ability to carry out a task. It can thus be concluded that the model of working alliance encompasses both personal and technical factors, and their interconnectedness. Bordin’s model offers a valuable and important conceptualization of the supervi- sory relationship (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013; Ladany, Walker, & Melincoff, 2001). The working alliance is a core concept here, and one that relates to many other supervision concepts. It has been empirically shown that a high quality working alliance, and in particular its component of bonding (relation), corresponds to the experience of good or effective supervision (Carter et al., 2009; Henderson et al., 1999; Jacobsen & Taggaard, 2009; Martin et al., 1987; Rabinowitz et al., 1986; Worthen & McNeill, 1996; Worthington & Roehlke, 1979) and supervisee satis- faction (Ladany, Ellis, & Friedlander, 1999), while a low quality working alliance correlates to more conflicts occurring during the supervision (Gray, Ladany, Walk- er, & Ancis, 2001; Nelson & Friedlander, 2001; Quarto, 2002; Shao-Ling & Shiou- Ling, 2006). Additionally, the supervisory alliance depends on the supervisee’s 48 Edited by Anja Podlesek self-disclosure (Gunn & Pistole, 2012), and on the supervisor’s self-exploration and his/her supervisory style (Ladany et al., 2001). Working Alliance, Supervisory Relationship and Attachment System The theory of attachment (Bowlby, 1969) can help us better understand the super- vision process and the supervisory working alliance. Watkins’ (1995) experiences reveal that most supervisees, regardless of their attachment style, are mature and ‘safe’ enough to, at least to some extent, constructively collaborate in supervision. However, he maintains that there are supervisees with pathological attachment styles which are disturbing for the supervision process and may even cause harm to clients. These are divided into the following groups: (i) supervisees who suffer from compulsive self-reliance; (ii) supervisees with anxious attachment; and (iii) supervi- sees who suffer from compulsive care giving. Gunn and Pistole (2012) establish, based on a sample of 480 doctoral students of clinical psychology and counselling, that a secure attachment between the supervi- sor and supervisee has positive and significant impacts on the working alliance, with regard to all three components (agreement on goals, assignments, and bonding). They emphasize a positive link between a secure attachment and the supervisee’s self-disclosure, mediated by the working alliance. Other research also reveals a pos- itive relation between the supervisor’s self-disclosure and the quality of the working alliance (Davidson, 2011; Knox, Edwards, Hess, & Hill, 2011; Ladany & Lehrman-Wa- terman, 1999). The more frequent the supervisor’s disclosure (according to the su- pervisees’ opinions), the better the working alliance, with stronger agreement on supervision goals and assignments, and a stronger emotional bond. White and Queener (2003) present the results of a study that included 67 su - pervisors and 67 supervisees, and show that the quality of the working alliance depends on the extent of the supervisor’s ability to establish healthy interper- sonal relationships. They report that a supervisor’s secure attachment style, as is reflected in his/her ability to trust and rely on others and feel comfortable in inti - macy, can predict the quality of the supervisory working alliance. The supervisors who were weak in establishing close relations reported having weaker working alliances with their supervisees. The same held true for the supervisees, as they evaluated the alliances with such supervisors to be weaker than those with the supervisors who exhibited a secure attachment style. Later research confirms the importance of the supervisor’s attachment style for the working alliance, regard- less of the supervisee’s attachment style (Dickson, Moberly, Mershall, & Reilly, 2011; Riggs & Bretz, 2006). Kim and Birk (1998) find that more securely attached supervisees were more sat- isfied with supervision, while those with an insecure hyper-regulating attachment style showed less satisfaction with supervision. 49 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Ruptures in the Alliance and Conflicts in the Supervisory Relationship Both the supervisee and supervisor occupy different roles in supervision. The su - pervisee operates towards the clients from a position of authority, while as a stu - dent-in-training, he/she is in a more subordinate position towards the supervisor (Nelson & Friedlander, 2001). The supervisor acts as teacher, consultant, therapist, and colleague (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013). Due to these inequalities of power, incon- gruent situations, unclear roles, and other factors, conflicting situations can occur in the supervision process (Gray et al., 2001; Nelson & Friedlander, 2001; Quarto, 2002). As reported by Quarto (2002), the participants in supervision may perceive a conflict in the supervisory relationship when one of them does not behave according to the other’s expectations. For instance, the supervisor recognizes a conflict if the supervi- see does not discuss the topics suggested by the supervisor. While both supervisees and supervisors admit (Quarto, 2002) that conflicts in supervision arise from time to time, they are not typical features of supervisory relationships. Moreover, differenc- es in the perception of conflicts exist among supervisors who hold different levels of experience, with less experienced supervisors noticing more conflicts, while both supervisees and supervisors agree that conflicts weaken a working alliance. Research and clinical findings affirm that not only is it important for the working alli- ance to be built, but it also needs to be constantly renewed and negotiated (Safran, 2003; Safran & Muran, 2000; Žvelc, 2008). Ruptures in a working alliance cannot always be avoided (Guistolise, 1996; Safran & Muran, 2000), and therefore it is im- portant to notice them and act in the direction of correcting them, or in that of con- flict resolution (Quarto, 2002). Frustrating situations in supervision and ruptures in a working alliance can turn into helpful factors when properly approached and dealt with (Jacobsen & Taggaard, 2009). On the other hand, unnoticed and uncorrected ruptures in a working alliance can have various negative consequences (Gray et al., 2001; Nelson & Friedlander, 2001; Quarto, 2002; Shao-Ling & Shiou-Ling, 2006). On the basis of their research, clinical experience, and findings by earlier academics, Safran and Muran (2000) present a model of the different types of ruptures that can occur in a therapeutic working alliance, and a model to resolve these. They distin- guished between two main types of rupture: (i) withdrawal (the client withdraws from the relationship, emotions or therapeutic process), and (ii) confrontation (the client directly expresses anger or dissatisfaction with the therapist or therapy). The indicators of withdrawal are denial, minimum response, change of topic, intellectu- alization, story-telling, discussing other people, being late or cancelling a session, and the client’s wish to terminate or conclude the therapy. The indicators of con- frontation are complaints, attack on or confrontation with the therapist as a person, the therapist’s competence, therapy activity, time of therapy, continuation of ther- apy or complaints regarding the progress in therapy. My argument in this chapter is that the same types can be found in the supervisory alliance, although the transfer 50 Edited by Anja Podlesek of types and indicators between the alliances (from therapeutic to supervisory) would need to be scientifically confirmed. Parallel Process Supervision is a process in which the supervisor meets the supervisee to discuss the su - pervisee’s performance with one or more clients, with the purpose of helping the client and improving the skills of the supervisee. Supervision can be seen as a three-person process or system, which includes the supervisor, supervisee, and client. Constructs which arise from the notion of supervision as a three-person system are a parallel pro - cess, isomorphism, and interpersonal triangle (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013). The idea of a parallel process originates from the psychoanalytic concept of transference . Re- searchers have observed that the therapist’s transference and the supervisor’s coun - ter-transference within the supervisory session occur in parallel to what happens in the session between the client and therapist (McNeill & Worthen, 1989). This parallel pro - cess is an unconscious repetition of the therapeutic relationship in supervision. Despite the fact that the parallel process is mentioned in the literature on super- vision, in particular in the psychoanalytic literature, it still needs more empirically study. As reported by Watkins (2012), the research conducted by Tracey, Bludworth and Glidden-Tracey (2012) was the first to show that the parallel relationship can be studied in a rigorous and sensible manner, and thus he recommends it as a pro- totype for further research. Tracey et al. (2012) show that the parallel process in supervision proceeds in two directions: 1. When the therapist transfers the therapist–client interaction pattern into the supervision session. The therapist acts out the same pattern which happened in therapy between the therapist and client, only now the therapist acts out the client’s behaviour. 2. When the supervisee transfers the interaction pattern from supervision back to the therapeutic session as a therapist, and acts out the role of supervisor. The concept of a parallel process, without the inclusion of unconscious components, is included in the developmental models of supervision (Stoltenberg & McNeill, 2010). The authors of these models state that students with more advanced levels of train - ing/education are more likely to work on the personal questions which often show up as the parallel process (Rabinowitz et al., 1986; Stoltenberg & McNeill, 1997, 2010). In conclusion, it has to be emphasized that supervision helps develop and maintain professional competences with the purpose of offering the best services to clients. This is why supervision is essential for psychology as a profession and other helping fields of practice, both early in practitioners’ careers, and throughout their working lives (Aasheim, 2012; Bernard & Goodyear, 2013; Hawkins & Shohet, 2012; Hess, 2008; Watkins, 1997). Vlasta Zabukovec The Situation in the Field of Traineeship for Psychologists in Slovenia This chapter presents the traineeship situation in three fields of practice in psychol- ogy: health care, education, and social welfare. The article is based on three papers presented at the interim conference “What Kind of Mentoring Do We Need – Experi- ences and Transfer of Good Practices of Mentoring Psychologists,” within the frame- work of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. The paper on traineeship in the field of health care was presented by Petra Bavčar (Bavčar, 2015); that on traineeship in the field of education was presented by Špela Ševerkar (Ševerkar, 2015); and the work on train- eeship in the field of social welfare was presented by Valerija Bužan (Bužan, 2015). Psychologists in the Field of Health Care The Chamber of Clinical Psychologists of Slovenia has in recent years devoted a great deal of effort to the regulation of services performed by clinical psychologists and psychologists who are employed in health care. The traineeship programme for these is defined by the Order on the programme of apprenticeship and the profes- sional examination for the profession of psychologist in health care (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 71/2013). As set out in this document, the trainee should become acquainted with all levels and domains of health care services, and thus obtain, through training and examination, the knowledge and skills required for autonomous performance of services offered by psychologists who are employed in health care, regardless of their professional domain. The traineeship programme 52 Edited by Anja Podlesek defines the psychology field of practice and acquired competences, duration of traineeship, and takes into consideration the specific needs of each trainee. The traineeship programme is implemented over a period of 12 months. The initial three months are spent in the workplace. The second part of traineeship, which lasts for a minimum of four months, is prepared individually and includes circulating among the various employers who perform psychological services within the health care framework. The programme helps develop the following competences: 1. Clinical-psychological evaluation: establishment of an effective working alliance with the patient, including the choice, application and basic explanation of methods for the psychological assessment of children, adolescents and adults (e.g., structured observations, clinical interviews, and standardized psycholog- ical tests), evaluation of social context (family, education and work environ- ment) and cultural context, knowledge of workplace evaluation, i.e. estimation of workload and assessment of psychological load, and knowledge of how to assess work capability for different purposes. 2. Psychological formulation of a problem: definition of a treated problem and circumstances, inter-related connection of data obtained during the process of clinical psychological evaluation, and collaboration in multi-disciplinary teams of professionals for the treatment of patients. 3. Psychotherapy, psychological rehabilitation and other forms of psychological help: knowledge of the various forms for psychological help for children, adoles- cents and adults, which correspond to the focal problem and life circumstanc- es of the patient, knowledge of indications and contra-indications of individual forms of psychological help, activities to promote health protection at work, and the implementation of measures to enhance humanization. 4. Psychological research: identification and critical evaluation of research out- comes, understanding of qualitative and quantitative approaches to clinical psychological research, sensitivity for the ethical aspects of research. 5. Other professional and personal knowledge and skills: knowledge and utili- zation of ethical principles in clinical psychological work, consideration of the power relation between the professional and patient, and understanding of the impact of diversity and social inequality on the individual, recognition and man- agement of one’s own value system, personal traits and emotional states with regard to experience and conduct in clinical-psychological work, performance at the level of qualification and consideration of one’s own limitations, care for continuing professional development, mastering of project collaboration, mas- tering of educative methods applied in public health, knowledge of public relat- ed communication, participation in supervision and intervision processes. After the traineeship has been concluded the candidate has to pass a profession- al work assessment exam which tests his/her knowledge and skill with regard to various professional contents from the domain of health care: clinical psychology, 53 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia psychopathology, health psychology, clinical-psychological evaluation, psychologi- cal formulation of a problem, psychotherapy, psychological rehabilitation and other forms of psychological help, and psychology research and ethical principles. Moreo- ver, the candidate has to demonstrate knowledge and skills with regard to providing first aid, social medicine, and the legal basis of health services, health care, and health insurance. In addition to the Order on the programme of apprenticeship and the professional examination for the profession of psychologist in health care, another document is important, i.e. the Health Services Act (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 23/2005), which in Article 64 defines the requirements for work performance. Work in health care can be performed by those who have successfully concluded the traineeship and passed the professional work assessment exam. Important informa- tion is contained in the Rules on traineeships and professional examination of health and allied health professionals in healthcare services (Official Gazette of the Repub- lic of Slovenia, No. 33/2004) which regulates the requirements for the traineeship of health professionals and associate professionals, while Article 7 determines the re- quirements for the performance of the mentor who must have achieved at least the same level of professional education as the trainee, and has a minimum of five years of professional experience in the field of practice the trainee is being trained for. Ar- ticle 8 of the Rules defines the mentor’s tasks, and as such sets out that they should: (i) ensure that the traineeship is implemented in compliance with the defined pro- gramme; (ii) introduce the trainee into work and train the trainee for independent work by providing instructions, advice and practical performance; (iii) assure the trainee’s participation in professional consultation meetings; (iv) assign tasks which the trainee is supposed to master by the end of the traineeship in the mentor’s pro- fessional division; (v) supervise whether or not the trainee has mastered the work to an extent that they can perform it independently; (vi) ensure that the trainee can individually or in a group of trainees analyse practical cases and questions; (vii) make sure that the trainee is not oriented toward a narrow specialist domain, but obtains information about and becomes acquainted with the work of others in the work process, although with a particular focus on training for independent practice in his/ her own profession; (viii) ensure that the trainee learns how to properly use work equipment and is familiar with safety-at-work regulations; (ix) direct the trainee to follow the ethical codes in use at work; and (x) participate in the assessment of the trainee’s practical performance. Psychologists in the Field of Education The legal foundations for the services of psychologists in the field of education and care are the Organization and Financing of Education Act (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 16/2007), and the Rules on traineeship for professionals in 54 Edited by Anja Podlesek education (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 23/06) and the related amendments. Article 3 of the Rules defines the various forms of traineeship, such as that based on an employment contract, or on a contract for the provision of a vol- untary traineeship. Since 2006 there have been around 2,600 volunteers in schools and kindergartens. In the 2014/2015 academic year, there were 51 paid traineeships and 762 voluntary traineeships. Article 5 of the Rules determines the duration of a traineeship to be 10 months for a person with higher education. Schools and kinder- gartens have to keep the documentation related to traineeship, with the content of this stipulated in Article 23 of the Rules. The traineeship programme encompasses the following contents and develops the following competences of a trainee (Rules amending the Rules on traineeship for professionals in education, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 38/2014): 1. Knowledge and comprehension: knowledge of the subject field and curriculum or of another professional field; comprehension and application of the meth- odology and subject of special didactics, as well as the basis of educational sci- ence, educational processes, knowledge of developmental psychology, group dynamics, inclusiveness and diversity; knowledge of approaches and methods of evaluation and assessment. 2. Skills of effective teaching: mastering the principles and methods of planning, implementation and evaluation of the educational process; proper use of edu- cational equipment, classroom application of information and communications technology and development of the information literacy of children, pupils and students (hereafter: students); creating a safe and encouraging learning climate by means of various teaching methods and strategies, goal specification, moni- toring and evaluation of student progress with regard to the set goals, taking into consideration both the developmental characteristics and diversity of students. 3. Collaboration with work environment and society: collaboration with other school employees, parents, providers of counselling services, other schools and institu- tions, and professionals in the field of education and other fields of practice. 4. Beliefs, values and attitudes: awareness of the evolution of the focal subject and its relation to other domains; ability to carry out self-reflection; being responsi- ble for the direction of one’s own professional development in lifelong learning; qualified to take part in constructive collaborations in developmental research projects; providing encouragement for better learning and democracy to all stu- dents, including respect for diversity and multicultural awareness; and having a sense of one’s own effectiveness. 5. Organization and leadership: knowledge of the profession and regulations which manage school operations; successful planning and time management; mastery of organizational and administrative tasks in relation to planning, implementa- tion, monitoring and evaluation of the learning process; effective guidance of students, student groups and coordination of a teacher assembly; good team- work capabilities and effective problem-solving abilities. 55 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia In adherence to the Rules on traineeship for professionals in education (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 23/06) the mentor prepares the trainee- ship programme; advises the trainee on the implementation of programme-related tasks; collaborates with the kindergarten and school principals, school counselling service, professional boards and other professional kindergarten and school bodies, with regard to organization and implementation of traineeship programme tasks; counsels the trainee with regard to planning, organizing, and implementing practical presentations and other forms of direct educational work, which is monitored and analysed by the mentor who gives feedback to the trainee; monitors the trainee’s preparation and the Trainee Diary in the course of other parts of the traineeship programme; prepares the report on the trainee’s qualification for independent work performance and assesses practical presentations which are prepared for registra- tion for the professional assessment exam; after the traineeship has been conclud- ed, the mentor in cooperation with the principal reports about the traineeship; and performs other traineeship-programme-related tasks. In compliance with the Rules on traineeship for professionals in education (Offi- cial Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 23/06) the trainee has to, under the leadership of the mentor and the principal, carry out tasks which enable him/her to become knowledgeable in planning and implementation of educational work in kindergartens and schools. Such tasks start to be assigned in the first quarter of the traineeship programme. The tasks performed by the trainee are: (i) Preparation and implementation of the minimum of 30 practical presentations in a group, class or other modalities in the mentor’s workplace. (ii) Inclusion into direct educational work, which encompasses autonomous work under the guidance of the mentor, substituting, participating in excursions, mentoring students on research tasks, and tutorship of individual students for the minimum of two hours per week. The total scope of the described tasks should not exceed half of the traineeship period. (iii) Preparation and implementation of knowledge evaluation and assessment. These tasks are partly performed in the first quarter of the programme, and continue throughout the traineeship. During this period, and with increased intensity in the second half of the programme and in agreement with the kindergarten or school principal, the trainee is educated and trained in the areas of special didactics, psy- chology and pedagogy, organization and educational activities, interpersonal com- munication in the Slovenian language, the constitutional order of the Republic of Slovenia, organization of the European Union institutions and its legal system and regulations which manage human and children rights and fundamental freedoms, and the rules which manage the field of education, i.e. the Rules amending the Rules on traineeship for professionals in education (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slo- venia, No. 72/2007). The contents of these domains are included in the professional work assessment exam, with which the traineeship comes to its conclusion. Other trainee tasks enable the mentor and principal to take into consideration the train- ee’s individual characteristics and training dynamics, and correspondingly adjust the 56 Edited by Anja Podlesek traineeship programme. Here the trainee consults professionally with the mentor and other knowledge-holders with regard to the tasks defined in the traineeship programme, and studies the literature recommended by the mentor. Psychologists in the Field of Social Welfare The psychology tasks in the field of social welfare include services and measures intended for the prevention and elimination of social distress, and are carried out in relation to individuals, families and social groups. The Social Security Act (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 3/2007) states that the implementation of the professional work assessment exam in the field of social welfare can only take place once the traineeship has been concluded. The professional work assessment exams are carried out by the Social Chamber of Slovenia. Since 1999 a total of 1,477 exams have been carried out, out of which 588 were in the domain of public work, 486 in that of European social funding, and 403 in that of the employers. In the period of 2014/15 the professional work assess- ment exams for the field of social welfare were taken by 15 psychologists, i.e. 3.5% of all profiles. The professional work assessment exams are carried out before a three-member committee. The Social Chamber works to continuously upgrade the professional literature which is the basis for the exams, monitors the exam results and the performance of committee members. Besides the implementation of pre- paratory seminars for the professional work assessment, the Chamber also performs the training for the members of the committees. In compliance with Indent 4 Paragraph 2 Article 77 of the Social Security Act, the Social Chamber of Slovenia within the framework of public authorization defines the requirements and process for the traineeship implementation, and monitors the traineeship operation. It adheres to the Rules on the traineeship in the field of social assistance (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia No. 128/04), the Act Amend- ing and Supplementing the Social Security Act (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia No. 39/2016), the Collective agreement on health and social care (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia No. 15/94, with amendments), and the Act on Employment Relations (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia No. 21/2013). The aim of such a traineeship is education and training for work and professional de- velopment. The trainee should thus complete the training programme and acquire general knowledge of the field of social welfare; integrate theoretical knowledge into practice at the professional level; reinforce the knowledge, skills and techniques required for the implementation of independent professional work in the field of social welfare; and prepare for the professional work assessment exam. A trainee in the field of social welfare is a person who starts his/her first employ- ment in a social welfare institution, with an employer who performs social welfare 57 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia services on the basis of an acquired concession or work permit, or other providers of social welfare services and programmes, with the intention of being trained for independent action in an employment context. The trainee has to hold a college, higher or university education degree in social work or other professions, as defined by the Social Security Act (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 3/2007, with amendments). An employee who during the employment relationship obtains a higher level of professional education in the same orientation and starts carrying out the corresponding work tasks is not considered a trainee if he/she has been performing the same or similar work for the minimum duration of the traineeship period set out for the acquired degree of professional education. During the traineeship the trainee keeps a Trainee Diary as evidence of problem anal - ysis with regard to the work performed, and submits this once a month along with a report to the mentor. A Trainee Diary can be more than a report, as the trainee can describe and make notes about anything that happens or is observed, such as: the characteristics of the service users he/she works with, contacts with individual users, descriptions of the workplace and its influence on the personnel and users mood, ex - plicit work-related factors (interventions, conversations, individual tasks, assignments, treatments), everyday routine events and extraordinary events, personnel meetings, team meetings, supervisory discussions with the mentor, and so on. The training of trainees in the field of social welfare is defined by the programme, which includes both general and specific parts, with the later containing option- al elements. The general part is the same for all the trainees, and includes the introduction of a broader scope of social welfare and conceptualization and im- plementation of social policy, the network of social welfare providers, the types and fundamental contents of individual social welfare services and operations of public authorizations in the field of social welfare; the rights, roles and positions of users in service assurance and provision; the definition and role of a particular profession, and the rights, responsibilities, and authorities of a professional work- er in the field of social welfare; and significant professional approaches and meth- ods applied in the field of social welfare. The specific part of the training tasks is assigned to the trainee by the employer in relation to the work and/or profession which the candidate is being trained for (i.e., in relation to work requirements or an individual’s interest in a particular line of work. This can be done in agreement with the candidate and/or (co)mentor, and post-graduate education can be con- sidered). The specific part of training can be completed in relation to different issues, which are optional. For example: issues related to economic risk (unem- ployment, social exclusion and strategies for reducing this, along with poverty, and homelessness); issues tied to partner relationships (marriage, partnership, other forms of community); issues of child protection (youth programmes, behavioural difficulties, violence against children, the family and parenting in general); issues of family relationships (foster care, adoption, custody); issues of social care (target 58 Edited by Anja Podlesek user groups, nursing care in institutions and at home); issues of social inclusion (programmes to enhance the independence of people with special needs, the inte - gration of individuals after imprisonment, the inclusion of those after other forms of treatment); issues of mental health (addiction and intoxication, mental health difficulties, deviant behaviours); and issues of non-discrimination (the user as a subject; marginal groups, such as children, disabled persons, and the Roma peo - ple; standards of good practice in relation to non-discrimination). In the optional part of the programme the candidate has to obtain, build up and apply knowledge of the target group characteristics; level and type of social insecurity; legislation regulating the field of practice; the related professional network, and types of social providers and services addressing population issues (institutions, organiza- tions, agencies, programmes and services); the use of an integrated approach to treatment; collaboration between providers and other social activities; prevention activities; professional approaches and methods which the trainee should master and then be able to apply when working with the target group. The employer appoints the mentor for the trainee. The mentor is a professional worker who exhibits professionalism (as evidenced by the same or higher level of education than the trainee, awarded title, or by the consensus and confirma- tion of the Social Chamber of Slovenia), and explicitly gives his/her consent to mentorship. Besides adhering to the requirements stipulated by the Rules on the traineeship in the field of social assistance (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slo- venia No. 128/04), the employer should pay attention to the mentor’s ability to methodically transfer knowledge to the trainee. The mentor will be a professional in the social welfare field who ensures that the trainee’s training follows the de - fined programme. The mentor formulates the training programme based on the contents of both the general and specific parts, as outlined above. The trainee can be guided in the period of traineeship, in collaboration with the mentor, as well as by the co-mentor who is appointed by the employer. A co-mentor is a professional worker who participates in the traineeship as a mentor to the trainee for a spe - cific work area or professional tasks, or who provides guidance when the trainee performs the traineeship at another employer. The employer usually appoints one mentor to the trainee. When training is performed in different organizations, the mentor is assigned one or more co-mentors who are responsible for particular areas and/or periods of training. Both the mentor and co-mentor are accountable for the implementation of the entire traineeship programme. The mentor is thus obliged to cooperate with the co-mentor when the trainee is being trained in the optional areas of work or in a different organization. The mentor in cooperation with the co-mentor evaluates the trainee with regard to his/her ability to precisely define a work problem, the appropriateness of the cho- sen work method, the applicability of theoretical knowledge in task performance, and accuracy of task solution. In a report on the trainee’s training, the mentor 59 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia evaluates the following issues: (i) the scope of the performed work in relation to the trainee’s programme of training; (ii) the quality of performance, in which the mentor takes into consideration assessment of specifically assigned tasks, as well as the assessment carried out by the co-mentor; and (iii) a specific field the trainee has been most successful in, and an area the trainee has shown the highest interest in. The mentor and trainee work together to prepare the documentation regarding the concluded traineeship, and this is a prerequisite for registration for the professional work assessment exam (Social Chamber of Slovenia, 2016). Within the framework of public authorization the Social Chamber implements pro- fessional tasks of monitoring, implementing and controlling the training in compli- ance with the legislation. This includes: (i) monitoring, implementing and supervis- ing the traineeship training in compliance with the regulations on traineeship in the field of social welfare; (ii) advising and providing guidelines for the preparation of traineeship programmes for individual trainees; (iii) giving consent to the trainee- ship training and mentorship; (iv) keeping documentation on the training; (v) keep- ing records of registered mentors; (vi) monitoring the planning of requirements for trainees in social welfare institutions, and finding out the annual demand for train- ees with particular profiles in accord with Article 69 of the Social Security Act; (vii) organization of additional and adjusted forms of training for trainees and mentors; and (viii) collaboration with the competent Ministry in relation to the implementa- tion of the traineeship training in the field of social welfare. The Ministry of Labour, Family, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities of the Repub- lic of Slovenia will in its announced revision of the Social Security Act cancel the mandatory traineeship in the field of social welfare. The postulated amendments to the Act will keep the professional work assessment exam, while the mandatory traineeship will be replaced by a non-obligatory traineeship or direct introduction of the trainee into work by the mentor. The Act Amending and Supplementing the So- cial Security Act (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia No. 39/2016) stipulates that social welfare services can be performed by professional workers who have been educated in social work and have completed a six-month traineeship training, or when they have had six months of work experience, and have passed the profes- sional work assessment exam in the field of social welfare; and by those who have completed psychological, pedagogical, sociological, healthcare education and have had nine months of work experience/traineeship, and have passed the professional work assessment exam. Anja Podlesek About the SUPER PSIHOLOG project 2 Project Starting Points Supervised Practice as Assurance of High Quality Psychological Services The aim of psychological services is to aid in the development of users’ potential and the strengthening of their mental health, as well as providing support for the well-be - ing of society as a whole. In Slovenia there are currently around 2,000 psychologists, although the exact number is unknown because there are no records of all the indi - viduals who provide psychological services. Such individuals work in different fields of practice: health care, education, social welfare, public institutions, army and the police, civil protection, penal institutions and justice services, private businesses, state administration bodies, non-governmental organizations, and so on. They deal with various groups, such as children, young people, adults, and the vulnerable. They par - ticipate in the elimination and prevention of mental disorders and minor psychological disturbances, and in the creation of an environment that will enable the optimal de - velopment of individuals, groups, and organizations. Due to the fact that psychological services are embedded into various fields of practice, and that the related profession- als work with almost all sectors of the population, it is important that efforts are made to ensure the provision of high quality psychological services. This can be achieved if psychologists’ develop all the competences required for success - ful work performance. Although the acquisition of these competences starts during a psychologist’s years of academic study, it is not expected, or possible, that all these 2  A part of this chapter was presented at the 2 nd Academic Economic Congress (Podlesek, 2015). 62 Edited by Anja Podlesek abilities will be developed to the desired level on starting practice. This holds true for both general and specialized study programmes which educate and train individuals for practice in a specific domain of psychology. The Universities of Ljubljana and Maribor have decided, due to the small labour market in Slovenia, to offer non-differentiated BA and MA psychology study programmes which will enable graduates to obtain em - ployment in different areas of work. However, such programmes cannot develop all the competences which are required for performance in a specific domain of work. More - over, during the study period, whether non-differentiated or differentiated, students have few opportunities to enter health, education and other institutions, for a number of reasons. First, students have to acquire the required theoretical basis which can then be integrated into their later practice, as practice without the proper theoretical foun - dation and fundamental knowledge of the field will lead to low quality outcomes. Sec - ond, the study programmes in Slovenia do not receive sufficient resources to provide adequate financial reimbursement to any cooperating external institutions. Organiza- tional and financial connections between faculties and external institutions (learning centres) are thus difficult (if not impossible) to establish and maintain. Instead of organ - ized and well-planned training in learning centres, students must thus find and arrange for their own study internships 3 . Moreover, external institutions accept students for short-term internships and do not provide any financial support, due to limited human and financial resources. Students’ performance in such cases is adjusted to the needs of the institutions, and not to their own needs as learners. The study internships that do occur rarely follow a programme that has been planned in advance, and the mentors who take part in such projects have usually not been properly trained for mentoring. As such, the internships generally do not succeed in systematically developing all the required competences, and the results to a large degree depend on the mentor’s com - petences and his/her motivation with regard to mentoring. For the protection of clients it is essential that the performance of psychology stu- dents is adequately monitored and guided at all times. Students who have not had enough experience in working with clients, cannot and should not carry out psycho- logical treatment on their own. Competences are gradually developed, first within the study programme practicum and self-work, work with colleagues, other healthy individuals, and later on during internships when students work in a real setting and meet real groups of clients. When they enter into relationships with their clients, students need constant individual supervision, as offered by faculty members or staff working at the external institutions where the internship takes place, in order to ensure proper treatment for clients without causing harm. 3  The internship is students’ practical training during their academic studies, and its duration is rather short. Different psychology study programs assign different credits to internship (from 3 to 15 ECTS points and more). One ECTS point stands for 25–30 hours of study obligations. At the University of Ljubljana, one ECTS point in the internship can stand for 20 hours of student workload in the work organization outside of the university, and the remaining hours are devoted to home assignments (literature study, reflective practice, diary writing, and internship reports). 63 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Constant individual supervision in the workplace, at least at the beginning of in- ternship, is either impossible or possible for only a short period of time, due to limited human and financial resources in faculties and external institutions. While individual supervision is feasible within the framework of practicum carried out at a university, it is less so in external institutions where supervisors need to do their own work while offering mentoring and supervision to students. Students can thus be offered the chance to monitor a supervisor’s work, but it is rare that supervisors can provide supervision of the students’ own work in this context. As a result, after graduation most psychology students enter the labour market with inadequately developed competences, something that hold true in many countries around the world. There is thus a need for guided and gradual inclusion of novice psychologists as they enter a particular field of practice, and for such assistance to be provided by experienced colleagues. It is only when the individual enters the workplace and faces real problems, clients, and ethical dilemmas, that he/she starts integrating theoretical knowledge and practical skills, developing self-awareness, reflectivity, personal integrity, and ethi- cal competence. Such developments cannot occur with study programmes, because these do not take place in a real work setting. A young psychologist should thus be helped in the workplace in order to develop his/her professional competences more quickly, in an appropriate manner, and to the expected level. This can be achieved by provision of mentoring or supervision in the early phases of a psychologist’s career. An effective method of ensuring the provision of high quality psychological services is the implementation of one-year supervised practice 4 for novice psychologists or those early in their careers. In Slovenia, however, such supervised practice is not required in all fields of psychological services. Although individuals working in the fields of health care, social welfare and education need to pass a professional work assessment exam after a 9-month to 1-year traineeship, and this process is clearly defined (see the chapter The Situation in the Field of the Traineeship for Psycholo- gists in Slovenia), there are no regulations with regard to offering psychological ser- vices in other fields of practice, and the contents and modalities of the training that is offered are not clearly defined. Slovenian psychologists are thus unanimous in their opinion that the current inequality of standards for psychologist training in dif- ferent workplaces, and lack of regulation of the profession, which allows low quality services to be delivered, is not acceptable. This is why Slovenian psychologists as a group have been calling for the endorsement of the Psychological Practice Act. How- ever, for various reasons this call has so far been unsuccessful. The regulation of cer- tain fields of psychology, e.g., in health care, is a consequence of measures approved by the competent authorities who introduced the regulation of all employees in the 4  Supervised practice is implemented after leaving university. Before entering supervised practice, the psychologist must complete five years of academic studies in psychology (equivalent to 300 ECTS points) and obtain an MA in psychology. 64 Edited by Anja Podlesek related field, including psychologists. As such, those fields for which the authorities have not recognized the need for regulation remain unregulated. Therefore, it is un- derstandable that Slovenian psychologists have recognized and approved the stand- ards of psychological education and practice developed by the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations – EFPA, as a type of (self-)regulation in the profession, which can help increase the quality of work in the area of psychology, regardless of the lack of legislation in this regard. The Slovenian Psychologists’ Association, in collaboration with various departments of psychology, has been striving towards the implementation of these standards, which were proposed by the European Certifi- cate in Psychology – EuroPsy. EuroPsy – European Certificate in Psychology EuroPsy sets a unique standard for the education and training of psychologists in Europe (Lunt, Peiró, Poortinga, & Roe, 2015), helping to ensure quality services for clients. There are two types of certificate: basic and specialist. The EuroPsy Basic Certificate demonstrates that the holder possesses the basic qualifications needed for psychological work. In contrast, the EuroPsy Specialist Certificate demonstrates that the holder is qualified for the performance of more demanding, specialist tasks. The standards for obtaining the EuroPsy Basic Certificate are as follows (EFPA, 2015): successful completion of five years (300 ECTS) of study in psychology, one year of supervised practice and a positive assessment of the related competences by a su- pervisor, certifying that the psychologist is competent for the provision of individual psychological services, as well as a pledge made by the psychologist to engage in ethical conduct. EuroPsy enables comparability between the academic education offered in different states and universities in Europe, and so ensures equal standards of psychologist qualification. The EuroPsy regulations do not require all study programmes to be the same, but instead allow a diversity of content and various orientations of bachelors’ and masters’ programmes in psychology. The fundamental competences which have to be developed by all study programmes, and which provide the basis for obtain- ing the EuroPsy Certificate, are (EFPA, 2015): orientation in psychology (overview of specialities and fields in psychology, methods and history of psychology); knowledge of different domains of psychology (general psychology, neuro- and biopsycholo- gy, cognitive, differential, social, developmental psychology, personality psycholo- gy, work and organizational psychology, clinical and health psychology, educational psychology, and psychopathology); knowledge of working with data, tests, ques- tionnaires, knowledge of evaluation, skills of assessment and interview conduct; construction of tests and questionnaires; knowledge and skills of conducting exper- imental work; methodological and statistical skills; skills for working with qualita- tive data; knowledge of ethical principles; skills of professional and research ethics; 65 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia library and bibliographic skills; abilities of reading and writing articles; and knowl- edge of theories from outside psychology (e.g., epistemology, philosophy, sociology, anthropology). The study programme contents have to cover aspects related to the individual, groups and society as a whole. The second cycle of study programmes includes a more thorough study of content, in which the students participate in in- ternships for the minimum of 15 ECTS (a quarter of an academic year) and prepare their master’s thesis. The EuroPsy Basic Certificate can be awarded to an individual who has completed a study programme which, according to the EuroPsy National Awarding Committee, is in compliance with the EuroPsy standards. Not only does the EuroPsy Certificate ensure that psychologists have the appropriate theoretical knowledge and primary skills, but it also shows that during the obligatory one-year supervised practice the psychologist has been able to integrate theoretical and fundamental knowledge and develop his/her competences to a degree which en- ables independent practice at a basic level in a particular domain. All holders of the Certificate adhere to ethical conduct in their practice, and the ethical principles stated in the EFPA MetaCode of Ethics and the national code of professional ethics. This ad - herence to ethical and legal standards is a step towards protecting clients’ rights and well-being, and a better awareness of a psychologist’s tasks and responsibilities. The EuroPsy Certificate ensures that a psychologist is qualified for independent psychological practice in the field where he/she has successfully completed the su- pervised practice. These fields are defined as three wide domains (EFPA, 2015): (i) psychology of education, (ii) psychology of work and organizations, and (iii) clini- cal and health psychology. If another field of psychology were strongly represented in a certain state, then psychologists could also be awarded the Certificate for this field. However, to date the EFPA members have not agreed on the identification of additional fields of practice. This could lead to a scattering of the various domains of psychological services, and because the work of a psychologist often expands to different fields, the definition of the fourth field of practice could be too narrow. The prevalent opinion is thus that it is possible to categorize these narrow domains with- in the three broader ones. For instance, army psychologist services can be classified as psychology of work and organizations if such aspects are prevalent in the servic- es provided in this context. The services offered by a psychologist who operates in the field of public health in psychological prevention, or by a psychologist in social welfare who mostly applies therapeutic methods, can be classified as clinical and health psychology. However, this does not mean that such a psychologist who holds the Certificate can perform specialist clinical psychological services. The pledge to ethical conduct requires that the psychologist considers his/her duties and provides services which are in the scope of his/her competence, while refusing to provide those which are outside this. The Certificate has to be revalidated every seven years. In order to do this, the psy- chologist has to maintain his/her competences with regular psychological practice 66 Edited by Anja Podlesek and continuing professional development, such as participation in various work- shops, courses and other forms of professional training, acquiring new knowledge with practice in the workplace, collaboration in supervision and intervision sessions, supervising other colleagues, participation in professional and scientific conferenc- es, professional or scientific publications, presentations for professional audienc- es, editorial work, supervising a psychologist as part of supervised practice, active membership in professional work groups, and so on (EFPA, 2015). The EuroPsy Specialist Certificate can be obtained after the psychologist has been awarded the EuroPsy Basic Certificate and completed additional multi-year spe- cialization in a particular domain of practice. In order to be awarded the Specialist Certificate the psychologist has to fulfil the following requirements: 400 hours (16 ECTS) of post-graduate education; three years of work experience after he/she has obtained the EuroPsy Basic Certificate (of which a minimum of 500 hours should be acquired as part of supervised practice); a minimum of 150 hours of supervision (approximately 50 hours per year); 100 hours of personal therapy; and evidence that specialist competences have been developed with the use of certain psychothera- peutic model(s). The specialist certificate in psychotherapy is currently awarded in six states. The specialist certificate in psychology of work and organizations is award- ed in three states to psychologists who fulfil the following requirements: 2,400 hours (90 ECTS) of further study with the defined content, of which 1,600 hours (60 ECTS) is focused on organized professional training (if an individual has completed a mas- ter’s study programme in the field of work and organizations, the number of ECTS in the specialist training can be reduced by no more than 30 credits), and 800 hours (30 ECTS) of applied research, assessment and interventions. An individual has to have a minimum of three years of practice after the completion of academic study, with a minimum of 400 hours per year (and 1,200 hours altogether) of supervised practice, and at least 150 hours of supervision (an average of 50 hours per year), and has to demonstrate competences in compliance with the EuroPsy competence model (EFPA, 2015). EuroPsy certified psychologists are listed in the European Register of Europsy Psy- chologists. Users of psychological services can check the Register, which is accessible on the EFPA website (http://www.europsy-efpa.eu/search), to obtain information regarding the domain of a psychologist’s qualifications, regardless of the state of education and training, and whether or not he/she has completed specialist study in a particular area. The Certificate thus protects the public against unqualified service providers. Another aim of EFPA is to ensure that the Certificate serves as a European Professional Card in the future and helps the competent authorities in an individual state to recognize the qualifications of psychologists, thus enhancing their mobility. EFPA started the development of the EuroPsy Certificate in 2001 within the frame- work of the Leonardo da Vinci project, initially with the aim of unifying the standards of psychologist education, which was referred to at the time as the EuroPsy Diploma, 67 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia and later with the aim of developing unified standards of professional training. The idea of the EuroPsy Basic Certificate and the criteria for its provision were approved by the General Assembly of EFPA in 2009. Since then, the EuroPsy Basic Certificate has been awarded by 21 EFPA member states. However, it has to be emphasized that the EuroPsy Certificate does not aim to replace national licenses for the implemen- tation of psychological services. In states where psychological practice is regulated by legislation, the national law on psychological practice is superior to the EuroPsy Certificate standards. However, in most states the requirements for obtaining the national license are in accordance with those of the EuroPsy Certificate, or the cri- teria are very similar. The need for the EuroPsy Certificate is thus lower in states where psychological practice is regulated by legislation, as compared to those such as Slovenia where the Certificate is the only way for psychologists to prove their qualifications and commitment to the profession. In Slovenia, permission to award the EuroPsy Certificate was obtained from the EFPA in 2012. Following a short trial period, around 200 psychologists have been awarded the Certificate since 2013, according to the transition procedure. These were all qual- ified psychologists who had completed the previous four-year pre-graduate study programme and gained the title of university-degree psychologist, and practiced in- dependently as psychologists for more than three years, demonstrating a spectrum of continuing professional development activities. Since before the Bologna reform the various states had different systems for the education of psychologists, the EFPA stated that in the transition period it was possible to obtain the EuroPsy Certificate under different conditions than in the regular period, provided the EFPA member states defined the exact criteria for awarding the Certificate and obtained an agree- ment from the EuroPsy European Awarding Committee stating that these were ad- equate. Since the end of the transition period the Certificate has been awarded to psychologists provided they have completed a one-year period supervised practice following the five-year study programme. Supervised Practice as Defined by the EuroPsy Regulations Supervised practice stands for the performance of psychologists in real workplaces, as supervised by more experienced colleagues. Within the EuroPsy framework, su- pervised practice represents a form of practical and theoretical training which lasts at least one year with full-time employment (or encompasses a minimum of 1,500 hours). During the year of supervised practice the psychologist does not practice independently, but is introduced into their work under the supervision of an ex- perienced supervisor. In this way the psychologist gradually becomes qualified for independent practice in a particular domain of psychology. Supervision takes place one to two hours per week at an assigned time. During this period the supervisee and supervisor work together and discuss the former’s 68 Edited by Anja Podlesek performance so that he/she can process his/her work on both cognitive and emotional levels. The supervisor can thus observe the beginner at work and vice versa, and then both parties engage in detailed discussion and critical reflection on what has been observed. Audio and video recordings can be of great help in this analysis, as they enable the examination of different aspects of the observed performance. In addition to observation, supervising includes giving instructions, role modelling, mutual problem solving, reflective practice, discussion, evalua- tion, and giving feedback. Supervision is important, as it helps develop the partic - ipant’s awareness of their own competences, and enhances real self-assessment. (EFPA, 2015) At the beginning of the supervised practice, the supervisor and the supervisee have to agree on the implementation of supervision and its content coverage (such as which field of professional work and which groups of clients will be covered), the psychologist’s roles, and the development of competences. During the supervised practice the novice psychologist develops his/her competenc- es while working with clients in the real workplace. He/she thus gradually devel- ops the competences which could not be developed during academic studies. For example, the supervisee develops his/her professional role during evidence-based psychological practice, integrates practical and theoretical knowledge and skills and applies them in the work context, becomes qualified for working with specific client groups, develops professional responsiveness, self-awareness and self-reflection. The novice psychologist deals with real ethical dilemmas, and with the help of dis- cussion and supervision develops the ethical competence, personal integrity and robustness which are required to practice competently and responsibly as a psy- chologist (EFPA, 2015). The supervisee can apply the EuroPsy competence model when defining and recog- nizing his/her competences. Based on this, the supervisor and supervisee thus work together to evaluate the development of competences and identify the possibilities for further growth. The supervisee keeps a portfolio in which he/she documents his/ her work, competency development and need for professional development, and so monitors his/her own professional growth. The supervisor works to support the novice psychologist in the development of competences and professional self-confidence. As such, the supervisor aims to enable a safe environment for learning and establishes a collaborative relation- ship with the supervisee. Besides this supportive function, and the provision of encouragement for competence development, supervision also has an evaluative role. Upon the completion of the supervised practice, the supervisor has to as- sess whether or not the supervisee has developed the competences needed for independent psychological practice. The supervisor thus acts as a gatekeeper who ensures that an unqualified individual is not allowed to practice independently 69 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia before he/she has mastered all the required competences. In this way, the maxi - mum degree of client protection is achieved. Upon the completion of supervised practice, the novice psychologist provides ev- idence which demonstrates the scope of his/her competences with regard to the EuroPsy model, and has to conduct a systematic self-evaluation and plan his/her further professional development. The supervisor approves the evaluation and as- sesses the level of each primary and enabling competence of the supervisee, which is done by means of a four-level assessment scale. There are several different forms of supervised practice, as follows (EFPA, 2015): (i) the psychologist is a university student and the supervised practice constitutes a component of the university education and training; (ii) the psychologist is em- ployed and the supervised practice is a component of traineeship (supervision being officially regulated within the work position); (iii) the psychologist is employed and the supervised practice is non-officially regulated (supervision being implemented by a psychologist who is employed elsewhere); and (iv) the psychologist has a regis- tered private practice and organizes his/her own supervision. Regardless of the form of supervision, it is essential that the sessions between the novice psychologist and supervisor are regular. These should be scheduled at least once every two weeks, with the supervisory dyad meeting for an average of two hours each time. Moreover, the supervisee is able to have more than one supervisor, although in such cases the leading supervisor should be identified. In Slovenia, it is not possible for supervised practice to be performed within the frame - work of a psychology study programme. This is because the state provides enough financial resources for only five years of study in non-regulated professions, and thus the study programmes cannot be prolonged for another year in order to provide su - pervised practice for all students. Neither can all students be included in supervised practice in the supervisor’s workplace, as there is typically only one work position in - tended for a psychologist. For this reason, the SUPER PSIHOLOG project focused on the provision of supervised practice in a workplace where the supervisor is not em - ployed in the same organization as the novice psychologist, because it was assumed that this approach would enable the highest number of supervisory dyads. There are three options here with regard to the financial support provided for such training: the supervised practice can be financed by the novice psychologist, or his/her employer, or with public resources, e.g. through various state-funded projects. The system devel- oped within the framework of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project can easily be adjusted for cases in which the supervisor is employed in the same organization as the novice psy - chologist, and is, for instance, appointed as the supervisor during the novice’s train- eeship. In such cases the supervisor needs to be properly trained in order to lead the supervised practice, although the conditions for the implementation of supervision sessions in this case are probably less demanding than in other contexts. 70 Edited by Anja Podlesek Mentoring or Supervision? It can be observed that the professional literature communicates more about su- pervision than about mentoring when it comes to professions involving intense relations with individuals, such as psychology. Supervision is “[...] a distinct pro- fessional activity in which education and training aimed at developing science-in- formed practice are facilitated through a collaborative interpersonal process. It involves observation, evaluation, feedback, facilitation of supervisee self-assess- ment, and acquisition of knowledge and skills by instruction, modelling, and mutual problem-solving [...] supervision ensures it is conducted in a competent manner in which ethical standards, legal prescriptions, and professional practices are used to promote and protect the welfare of the client, the profession, and society at large” (Falender & Shafranske, 2004, p. 3). Although supervision is most important early in a psychologist’s career, it is recommended that psychologists receive supervision through their working lives. A key difference between supervision and mentoring is seen in the roles of mentor and supervisor. As opposed to a mentor, a supervisor is responsible for the adequate professional performance of the supervisee in compliance with professional stand- ards, and thus needs to evaluate the supervisee’s performance. The supervisor thus acts as a gatekeeper (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013, p. 9), and has to assess whether or not the supervisee’s competences have been adequately developed upon the com- pletion of the supervised practice. An early career psychologist can start performing independently only when he/she has obtained a positive evaluation by the supervi- sor (EFPA, 2015, p. 11). For this reason, the supervisor operates from a position of considerable power. On the other hand, the mentor’s role is to: “[...] guide, suggest, coach, but does not use power to direct actions” (The Growth Connection, 2012, paragraph 4), i.e., the mentor does not act as a gatekeeper with regard to the men- tee’s professional direction and conduct, and does not have the power to evaluate his/her performance. Moreover, supervision deals to a large extent with the feelings and experiences of a professional working with people, and with resolving the diffi- culties that arise in relation with clients. However, despite these differences supervi- sion and mentoring share a number of important characteristics, such as the process of relationship development and support for the mentee’s professional growth. As part of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, we introduced a system of supervised prac- tice in which the early career psychologist works under the supervision of a more ex- perienced psychologist. We built on the characteristics of successful mentoring pro- grammes, and the specific experiences of mentoring psychologists, because super- vision is not widely used in Slovenia, but only applied in a few psychology domains and with individual psychologists, such as during psychotherapeutic education. This is why in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project we often used the terms mentor (mentor of the supervised practice) and mentoring, and in this book we use the term mentor of the supervised practice with the same meaning as the term supervisor. 71 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Mentor of the Supervised Practice/Supervisor Psychologists need assistance, support and guidance early in their career develop- ment, and this can be provided by an experienced psychologist who is qualified to carry out mentoring and supervision, and who knows which competences need to be developed and how. In compliance with the EuroPsy Regulations (EFPA, 2015), a supervisor is a psycholo- gist who has in the last three years independently practiced psychology for at least two years of full-time work or its equivalent. The supervisor is accountable for the development of the novice psychologist’s competences and for the evaluation of these. The supervisor encourages the supervisee to perform as independently as possible with regard to the level of his/her competence. The supervisor has to be confirmed by the EuroPsy National Awarding Committee, or an equivalent national association, with regard to being qualified to adopt this role. The EuroPsy Regula- tions define different levels of supervisor qualification. A supervisor at the highest level meets all the EuroPsy criteria; has been practicing for a minimum of five years; has completed a five-year specialization; has received supervision for two years within a specific domain; has completed a two-year supervision training which in- cluded the supervised practice of supervision (e.g., with the presentation of video or audio recordings of his/her supervision), presentations of supervised cases, study of the professional literature and research on supervision. While states differ in their regulation of supervision, criteria for supervisors and supervisor education, the aim of the EFPA is to gradually develop systems in all European states which will require supervisors to meet all the defined standards. Supervisors are supposed to be experienced psychologists who have the time, mo- tivation and competence for the implementation of supervision. It is not enough for such individuals to simply have sound knowledge of the area of mentoring and supervision, as the supervisor has to be able to transfer his/her knowledge, skills and professional attitude to the supervisee. The supervisor thus has to demonstrate competences for mentoring, supervision and teaching in order to be seen as ade- quately qualified to fulfil the demands of this role. The supervisor has to be aware of what is expected from him/her, and which supervisee competences should be devel- oped and how. The skills of mentoring and supervision include the following: skills of active listening, openness and respect for the supervisee, the ability to reflect on the supervisee’s and his/her own work, and so giving effective feedback, managing boundaries in relation to the supervisee, understanding and managing the power imbalances in the relationship between the supervisor and supervisee, resolving any conflicts that occur in the supervisory relationship, dealing with difficult issues and feelings, recognizing, sharing and discussing ethical dilemmas, evaluating and assessing the beginner’s performance and competences (EFPA, 2015). It is essen- tial that the supervisor has developed an appropriate attitude towards supervision, is aware of its importance and is motivated to carry out supervision and transfer 72 Edited by Anja Podlesek knowledge, and is aware of supportive and evaluative functions of supervision. In order to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to carry out supervision with the appropriate attitude, supervisors have to undergo professional training which, in accordance with the EuroPsy Regulations, lasts for two years and includes practicing supervision (EFPA, 2015). Training of Supervisors: Activities in Slovenia Thus Far The project ”Establishing a Network of Mentors and Training for the Supervised Prac- tice of Psychologists” was carried out in Slovenia from 2009 to 2010. The project was co-financed by the European Social Fund and Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology in the framework of the Operational Programme for Human Resourc- es Development for the Period 2007–2013. The leader of the project and training of mentors was Vlasta Zabukovec. As part of this, the first training of mentors for su - pervised practice was carried out with the help of José Maria Peiró (see Zabukovec & Podlesek, 2010), who worked to transfer the related knowledge from EAWOP to Slovenia. The training programme consisted of five parts, in which the participants were initially acquainted with the EuroPsy standards and a competence model, and learned how to define and recognize competences and how to evaluate them. In the second part of the programme the participants learned about updated psychology study programmes and the competences they aim to develop. They talked about the situation in the field of traineeship, and became familiar with the formal requirements for the implementation of internship (an agreement between the university and work organization) and how to motivate their organizations to accept students for such in- ternships. They also discussed different work tasks which would enhance the devel - opment of individual competences. In the third part of the training the mentors were trained to evaluate the competences of the mentee and discussed the evaluation of the mentor. They thus became familiar with the methods of reflection and evalua- tion used with the supervised practice. Next, they practiced mentoring, and working with the mentees planned the supervised practice and implemented a one-week pilot supervised practice (internship). They then worked together with the mentee (i.e., a psychology student joined the mentor in the mentor’s workplace). In the fourth part of the training of mentors, which followed the supervised practice, the mentors exam- ined the related documentation, reflected on the process of the supervised practice, and evaluated it. In the last part of the training they discussed what they had gained with the training. Overall, the results showed that the 40-hour training programme with one-week of mentoring practice was not enough for the mentors to be properly qualified for the supervised practice (Podlesek & Zabukovec, 2012). In 2013, Vlasta Zabukovec and Anja Podlesek organised a new cycle for the train- ing of mentors which included the previously developed training programme and additional contents related to mentoring. In this, the mentors learned about the importance, forms and functions of mentoring; the importance of the roles, tasks 73 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia and competences of the mentor; the mentoring relationship and its evolution; and the effects of mentoring and different models of mentoring (mentoring, coaching, instructing). The mentors were presented with instruments which can be used for monitoring the process of internship, while ethical dilemmas which can occur during internship were also addressed. The one-week internship was then prolonged to the period of one month. The mentor’s and mentee’s tasks were structured, and the mentoring dyads were given exact instructions about the process of their work, from internship planning, reflection on performance, analysis, evaluation and documen- tation, to the final reflection on their understanding of the competence model and planning of their own professional development in the field of mentoring. A total of 32 mentors of supervised practice were trained in both programmes. After evaluating the training it was concluded that using the EuroPsy competence model in mentoring can be very effective, and lead to more structured and systematic men- toring of the supervised practice, and better monitoring of the mentor’s qualifica- tions. The results also showed that more emphasis has to be given to the process of mentoring, development of the qualities of a good mentor, methods for developing effective mentoring relationships, and the encouragement of reflection and giving feedback. The mentors also asked for more contents related to supervision. They also stated that it was necessary to develop a holistic, comprehensive training pro- gramme for mentors of the supervised practice, which would enable them not only to learn about the basic structure of mentoring in this context, and to master the competence-based approach, but also to acquire the knowledge and skills needed for supervision. The mentors concluded that the one-month study internship was too short for them to feel qualified with regard to mentoring a supervised prac- tice programme that should run for one year following the completion of academic study. It was also confirmed that the mentors needed collegial support and feedback regarding the quality of their mentoring. All these findings provided starting points for further development of the programme for the training of supervisors within the framework of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. Requirements for Supervised Practice and Qualified Supervisors/Mentors of Supervised Practice in Slovenia In the future, the second cycle of psychology study programmes in Slovenia are pre- dicted to be completed by approximately 100 individuals per year. At present, there are few psychologists among graduates and masters of psychology who start their professional careers under the guidance of a qualified mentor. If novice psycholo- gists are to be employed in health care, education, social welfare or public adminis- tration, they need to have concluded the traineeship and professional work assess- ment exam regulated by the state. However, often the traineeship such individuals take part in is not systematic and does not develop defined competences, and some- times the mentor is not a psychologist, or is not properly qualified for mentoring. In 74 Edited by Anja Podlesek other fields of practice, e.g. work and organizational psychology, a traineeship and a professional work assessment exam are not required. It is thus of paramount impor- tance to introduce supervised practice for all psychologists, set standards for it, train supervisors, and carry out supervision of this supervisory process. Most mentors in Slovenia now achieve only a low level on the scale of supervisor de- velopment. They meet the standards of the EuroPsy Certificate, and may or may not have been awarded it, and have had several years of work experience in the field of practice in which they provide mentorship. However, they have not completed spe- cialization in a specific field of practice, and they themselves have not participated in supervision, nor do they meet the EuroPsy standards for the implementation of su- pervision (i.e. they have not completed two years’ training in supervision). Inclusion in the supervision organized by institutions is typical only for some psychologists who are employed in the field of social welfare, and those who are being trained in one of the psychotherapeutic orientations. In the framework of a four-year speciali- zation in clinical psychology, which is the only specialization presently carried out in Slovenia, and accessible only for psychologists employed in the field of health care, the specialists in clinical psychology have mentors covering specific areas of work as well as a leading mentor, and the processes of specialization and mentoring are carried out in compliance with the regulations related to the programme. A project was thus initiated within the framework of the Norwegian Financial Mecha- nism 2009–2014 in order to establish a wide enough network of supervisors who could cover the needs of young psychologists who are entering the labour market, called “The Supervised Practice of Psychologists: Development of a Training Programme of Mentors and a Model of the Supervised Practice – SUPER PSIHOLOG 5 ” (SUPER PSI- HOLOG, 2015). The project was approved in December, 2014, and was implemented in the period from 5 February 2015 to 31 October 2016 based on collaboration among the following partners: the Faculty of Arts at the University of Ljubljana, the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association, the Norwegian Psychological Association (Norsk Psykolog- forening), the Andrej Marušič Institute at the University of Primorska, and the Institute for Psychological Counselling and Educational Developmental Projects – ISA Institute. This project was co-financed by Norway Grants 2009–2014 and the Government Of - fice for Development and European Cohesion Policy of the Republic of Slovenia. Project Activities The project carried out a comprehensive programme for the training of supervisors/ mentors of supervised practice, and a total of 24 supervisors were trained. Their training included participation in workshops organized in three thematic scopes 5  The project’s acronym is from the project title: “The SUPERvised practice of PSYCHOLOGISTs” (the Slovene word for a psychologist is psiholog). 75 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia (modules). Moreover, the training included practical work with the supervisees. Each supervisor was mentoring one psychology student taking part in an internship in such a way that he/she accepted the student into the workplace, and led the one- year supervised practice of two novice psychologists who, after they graduated from their masters’ studies, started acquiring their first experiences in a real work setting. To date, the model of supervised practice that has been used in Slovenia has been based on the supervisor’s workplace (see Zabukovec & Podlesek, 2010). Such a mod- el is usually considered a traineeship or internship, in which the supervisor and su- pervisee can be in regular and close contact, collaborate in performing tasks at work, observe each other’s work, and reflect on their work. In a direct collaboration, the supervisor can easily direct the supervisee, assign tasks suitable for the supervisee’s level of development in agreement with the employer, demonstrate the perfor- mance of a particular task in the workplace, and regularly offer suggestions that can help improve the supervisee’s performance. The supervisee is given support with re- gard to his/her career development and establishment of professional relationships within the work organization. In contrast, a different model of supervision was tested in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, and this is one that appears to be more realistic and sustainable given the current labour market conditions. A system of supervised prac- tice for psychologists was thus introduced using a model of mentoring which closely resembles supervision. During the project a model of supervision was tried in which the supervisor and supervisee work in separate organizations and meet regularly during scheduled out-of-work time, once every two weeks for a minimum of two hours. The meetings are intended to enable the parties to discuss the supervisee’s performance and analyse and reflect on his/her experience. Within the framework of these meetings, which have to be focused and well-prepared due to the limited time that is available, the supervisor works to help the supervisee process professional problems on mental and emotional levels, and offers support in the development of professional competences and self-confidence. While this model of supervised prac- tice is often applied in other states, in Slovenia it has rarely been used until recently. The establishment of supervised practice for all psychologists requires the use of this particular model, because organizations that have supervisors available are less and less likely to announce traineeship positions, or provide only one position for the employment of a psychologist. The establishment of supervision with the help of an external professional thus enables the expansion of supervised practice and sustainable inclusion of this into psychologists’ career development process. It has been estimated that this form of supervised practice can continue after the project has been concluded, and that it can be provided to all psychologists. An online platform was created in order to document and monitor the supervised practice, and this offers a modern approach to the collaboration that occurs be- tween supervisors and supervisees. It was tested whether or not this form of com- munication makes the supervision process and monitoring of the implementation 76 Edited by Anja Podlesek of supervised practice easier, and thus provides help in expanding the provision of supervised practice in Slovenia. We also tested the use of distance supervision through video conferencing. Such tools are relatively novel in the implementation of supervised practice, both in Slovenian and European psychology in general, which is still more inclined towards “live” supervisory sessions. The supervisors participated in regular supervision during the project. The individ- uals working in a supervisory group (which consisted of three to five supervisors and the supervisor-of-supervisors) analysed and reflected on the supervisory expe- riences they acquired. Two Norwegian professionals, Mona Duckert and Bjarte Kyte, trained six supervisors-of-supervisors who will continue to carry out the supervision of already qualified supervisors after the project’s conclusion, and also do so for those who will join the supervisors’ training programme at a later date. Various instruments were developed to establish and monitor the supervisory rela- tionship, and evaluate the supervisor’s mentoring and supervision skills. The docu- ments which were prepared during the project, such as the Supervision Agreement which is concluded between the supervisor and supervisee after their initial negotia- tions, or a form for reflection on the supervision session, can be used in future by su- pervisors and supervisors-of-supervisors in their work of mentoring and supervising. Based on the experiences gained in this project, a set of guidelines for the implemen- tation of supervised practice in Slovenia, the training of supervisors, and supervision of the supervisory process itself, have been created. These guidelines are to be used in the implementation of supervised practice in Slovenia, but they can also be of use to psychologists in other European states, and even beyond this. Similar guide- lines for supervision already exist, e.g. the APA Guidelines for Clinical Supervision in Health Service Psychology (APA, 2014) or the Australian Guidelines for Supervising Allied Health Professionals (HETI, 2012). However, to the best of our knowledge the guidelines created during the SUPER PSIHOLOG project are the first of their kind in Europe. Moreover, other professions might also find them useful in the establish- ment of their own programmes for the development of early career practitioners. An important part of the project was also providing information about the project’s activities. For example, the EuroPsy Certificate and the SUPER PSIHOLOG project were introduced to the professional public, and a promotional stand and leaflets about the project were created and used at various events (hosted by project part- ners and others), and so presented to the wider public. Details of the EuroPsy Cer- tificate, supervised practice and the project itself were presented to the students of the three Slovenian universities where psychology courses are taught. The pro- ject was also introduced to staff at the departments of psychology in these three universities, and at various educational events and conferences. The wider pub- lic was informed through the websites of project partners, media announcements at the time of project events, and the Facebook pages of project partners. Many 77 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia professional presentations were carried out at different psychology meetings, con- ferences and congresses. Three larger public events were organized, including a breakfast with journalists, interim conference about the project, and closing con- ference. At the breakfast with journalists the importance of the supervised practice and the goals of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project were presented. The interim con- ference, titled “What Kind of Mentoring Do We Need? – Experiences and Trans- fer of Good Practices of Mentoring Psychologists,” was devoted to discussions on the mentoring/supervision of psychologists. In addition to the early results of the project, the participants were provided with information regarding traineeship in the field of psychology in Slovenia, and the similarities and differences between mentoring and supervision. The modern paradigm of mentoring was also present- ed, with an emphasis on the mentoring process and the development of the men- tor-mentee relationship; the concept of a developmental educational model of supervision and its distinctions from other forms of leadership; the route from a graduate to a professional supervisor; intervision and the need for meta-supervi- sion were explained; and experiences with mentoring and supervision in the fields of social welfare, health care and education were communicated. In workshops the participants discussed the benefits of a competence-based approach to mentoring and supervision, and became familiar with the methods of a developmental ed- ucational model of supervision. A closing conference, entitled “SUPER PSIHOLOG – Quality First Steps in Psychological Work,” introduced two cases of best practice in the transition from education to practice: clinical training in the field of health care in the Jesenice Faculty of Health, Slovenia, and experiences of supervision by the Norwegian Psychological Association. The evaluation results of the SUPER PSI- HOLOG project were presented (including general results of the project, modules of training, the supervised practice system developed by the project, and supervision of supervisors), as well as the ideas for the future of supervised practice and devel- opment of supervision. Workshop participants became familiar with factors related to the effective communication of psychologists, and methods of developing pro- fessional competences in supervision. The SUPER PSIHOLOG project enabled the development of the comprehensive training of supervisors/mentors of supervised practice, thus developing supervisory competences, and the implementation of a specific model of one-year supervised practice. The results of the project can be transferred to the lifelong supervision of psychological services. A long-term goal of including novice psychologists in regular supervision in the first year of their careers is to establish a culture that would en- courage psychologists to accept supervision as a prerequisite for quality work, and so they would be more willing to participate in further supervision after the super- vised practice has been concluded. Moreover, due to the demands of their work, supervision which enhances self-reflection on professional performance and com- petences would be beneficial for all psychologists, including more experienced ones. Per A. Straumsheim, Eva Danielsen, Bjarte Kyte and Mona Duckert Transfer of the Experiences of the Norwegian Psychological Association to Slovenia The Importance of Supervision for Early Career Psychologists When psychologists have completed their university education and are then titled “psychologist” they face many expectations, from themselves and others. They face challenges that require both theoretical knowledge and the ability to implement this in a practical context. This can lead to uncertainty and doubt, and supervision is thus particularly important in this first stage of a psychologist’s career. The Importance of Supervision for the Patients and Other Users Supervision early in the career is important for a psychologist’s patients and other users of his/her services. Supervision provides a quality check from a more experi- enced psychologist, who monitors whether the psychologist works in compliance with evidence-based practice in psychology. This means that the three elements constituting evidence-based practice are assessed continuously: the user’s needs, clinical expertise, and best available evidence. The supervision will include thorough discussions and reflections on whether the measures applied are working in the manner they are intended, and if and how the desired effects are attained. User involvement and focus on the users’ families and social context is an important part of the supervision. 80 Edited by Anja Podlesek The Importance of Supervision for the Psychologist Supervision early in one’s career is often based on a “master – apprentice” relation- ship. The novice psychologist must find his/her new identity, and a safe relationship is critical for developing professional and personal maturity. Supervision is an important prerequisite for psychologists’ competence building. Through supervision, novice psychologists get the opportunity, working together with their supervisor, to reflect on their own practice. As part of this, the supervisor can challenge the supervisee on his/her professional choices and decisions. Super- vision thus provides a necessary opportunity for younger psychologists to process and integrate theoretical knowledge with practical experience in their work context. Supervision of new psychologists is one of the most important measures for devel- oping quality outcomes in the profession. By working with their supervisors, new psychologists can reflect on their own work and professional identity, and so better deal with any challenges that arise in this context. Moreover, employers who pro- vide supervision for psychologists early in their career are more likely to recruit and retain skilled psychologists. Supervision thus provides an assurance that new psy- chologists will be able to provide services that are safe to the public. Situation in the Field of Supervised Practice in Norway As in many other states, supervision and supervised practice in Norway were origi- nally associated with psychotherapy and psychotherapy education. When the psy- chologist education and degree (Cand. Psychol.) was established at Norwegian uni- versities in the late 1950’s, it was decided that supervision should be a part of the education of all psychologists, regardless of the domain. This means that the con- cept of supervised practice was from the very beginning recognized as providing an important arena to further the learning of new psychologists. In 1974 the Norwegian authorities decided to protect the title “psychologist” by legislation, and thus the “The Psychologist Act” came into force. The title can only be given to and used by those that have qualified for the Cand. Psychol. degree (or its equivalent). The authorities, together with universities, also established a stand- ard for Norwegian psychologist education, which states that one year of supervised practice is included in the six years of education. The supervised practice in psychologists’ education is integrated throughout most parts of the six years, but to a larger degree in the later period of the education. This practice is typically organized within two different arenas: • In university clinics. Students work with clients once or twice per week and re- ceive education and supervision in groups; • In institutions (primarily mental health institutions) external to the university. This practice takes place for shorter and longer periods at several institutions. 81 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia The universities support the supervisors, but they are employed at the institu- tion where the students practice their internship. An agreement between the universities and the external institution regulates the practice and the supervi- sion given. Supervisors’ Qualification Specialist education has been provided to supervisors by the Norwegian Psycho- logical Association since the 1950’s. This currently consists of a five-year period of supervised practice, 256 hours of courses, 240 hours of supervision, and a thesis. A candidate for this qualification must already be a specialist in the relevant field of specialization. Since supervision has gradually come to be recognized as a com- petence in its own right, in 1996 the Norwegian Psychological Association started a two-year education programme for supervisors (part-time). To date, about 260 supervisors have been educated through this programme. Exchange of Positive Experiences with Supervised Practice: The Motives of the Norwegian Psychological Association to Participate in the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project A EuroPsy meeting in Brussels in 2012 provided information that the Slovenian Psy- chologists’ Association together with the University of Ljubljana had established a model for supervised practice based on the EuroPsy standards, implemented edu- cation for supervisors, and published a book about their experiences. At the same time, the EEA/Norway grants programme was preparing to make a call for projects in many EU states, Slovenia included. The Slovenian and Norwegian participants thus found that it would be beneficial to partner in a project to provide a plan for educat- ing supervisors in Slovenia and establishing a supervised practice model. There were many reasons and motives for the Norwegian Psychological Association to participate in this project, with the most important being as follows. First, supervision and the supervised practice of psychologists have had a long tra- dition in Norway, with this being recognized as a central form of learning when it comes to integrating psychologists’ knowledge into the practical skills and compe- tences necessary for providing high quality services to the public. The Norwegian Psychological Association established a two-year programme of supervisor educa- tion in 1996. Due to the support of the experts who are the teachers in this pro- gramme, we were willing and confident to share our experiences and knowledge with regard to planning and implementing education for supervisors. Second, as a supporter of EFPA’s EuroPsy standards the Norwegian Psychological Association wants to assist associations, universities and states that want to educate supervisors and establish supervised practice as a key part of psychologist education. 82 Edited by Anja Podlesek This may help raise psychologists’ competences throughout Europe, and, as the Eu- ropean labour market has become more open, the competences of psychologists working within the EU are no longer only a national issue. Finally, in the Norwegian tradition the developmental side of supervision has been the most emphasized. In contrast, our colleagues in Slovenia primarily focused on building and assessing competences, based on the EuroPsy competence model. In the Norwegian context, the supervisor’s role and responsibility as a gatekeeper to the profession has been more emphasized in recent years. With our Slovenian pro- ject partners we thus agreed that an integration of a developmental model and a competence model for supervision should be one aim of the project. As such, the experiences and outcomes of the project could be highly relevant for how supervi- sion is practiced in Norway, and also for Norwegian supervisor education. The Training of Supervisors Anja Podlesek Importance of the Training of Supervisors and the Outline of the Training Programme in SUPER PSIHOLOG 6 Why do Supervisors Need to Be Properly Qualified? It is essential that the supervisor has very good knowledge of the field which he/she is supervising, in order to be able to participate in the reflective activity of his/her supervisee and in the resolution of professional issues, and to ensure the profes- sional development of his/her supervisee will enable him/her to offer psychological services of high quality and supported by evidence-based scientific findings. How- ever, the good professional qualifications of supervisors are not enough. The super- visor has to be able to transfer his/her knowledge, skills, and attitude towards the profession onto his/her supervisee. For this reason, the supervisor has to be familiar with different supervision methods and teaching skills, and has to be able to recog- nize the level of supervisory relationship development and adapt his/her approach accordingly. Further, the supervisor has to be able to resolve possible conflicts with the supervisee, recognize the factors which influence the quality of supervision, and deal with any dilemmas which may occur due to two roles being played – that of a supervisor who encourages and cares for the development of supervisee compe- tences, and that of a supervisor who evaluates whether or not the competences meet the desired level of development. To this end, the EuroPsy Regulations (EFPA, 6  Some of the contents of this chapter were presented at the second Academic Economic Congress (Podlesek, 2015). 86 Edited by Anja Podlesek 2015, pp. 61–62) state that the supervisor has to have well-developed supervisory skills, which include active listening, reflective practice, giving feedback, and dealing appropriately with boundary issues and those of power relations. Falender and Shafranske (2004) state that supervisors who gradually gain experi- ence through the implementation of supervised practice progress from the point when they are insecure of their role – too focused on difficulties and the supervi- see’s success, take mistakes personally, are too excited or too controlling – to a point when they are firm in their role of supervisor and become more appreciative of the supervisee’s contribution to the supervisory relationship. However, the imple- mentation of supervision and thus accrual of related experiences do not necessari- ly improve the supervisee’s competences. However, such progress can be acquired with specific training which equips the supervisor with proper knowledge of super- vision, enabling him/her to develop the skills of implementing supervision and have a proper attitude towards this practice (e.g., having an awareness that supervision is a lifelong activity, feeling motivated for the transfer of knowledge to younger gen- erations and to regularly participate in supervision, being willing to have a recipro- cal relationship with the supervisee, and so on). In short, the supervisor has to be properly trained in order to be able to guide the supervised practice and evaluate the supervisee’s competences, and is it estimated that formal training of supervisors should last at least two years (EFPA, 2015, pp. 59–60). The knowledge, skills, and positive attitude towards supervision which are devel- oped by the supervisors can lead to the optimum professional development of a young psychologist. A qualified supervisor understands which supervisee compe- tences should be developed and how. The supervisor knows how to establish a re- spectful and reciprocal relationship in which a beginner feels safe enough to share his/her dilemmas and problems, come to realizations about his/her weaknesses and feelings of powerlessness when dealing with professional challenges, anger because of failures, and work towards better relations with clients, colleagues and the super- visor. A qualified supervisor can enhance reflection by the supervisee and give him/ her specific feedback which leads to valid self-evaluations and further development of his/her competences. The supervisor recognizes the different phases of the rela- tionship and knows how to strengthen and develop it. The supervisor should also recognize obstacles in the relationship, know how to adapt, and utilize strategies for managing difficult situations in supervision. During the training the supervisor should also attend a supervisory group where, for instance, once a month he/she presents the cases of supervision to other supervisors and reflects on them, thus coming to greater awareness of all the aspects of supervision, which would other- wise remain less noticed. The aim of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project was to increase the self-confidence of supervisors and their satisfaction with supervision by training them so that they gained more knowledge of the characteristics of the supervisory relationship, key 87 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia influential factors, different methods of mentoring and supervision, understanding of dual roles of a supervisor, and so on. In this way a supervisor can establish bet- ter supervisory relationships and become more effective in transferring knowledge and skills to supervisees, help new psychologists to have a more positive attitude towards the profession, thus contributing to their professional self-esteem, profes- sional identity and better self-care. The key aim, however, is to ensure high quality psychological services and, in compliance with this, to train supervisors to recognize and evaluate the development of novice psychologists’ competences and thus serve as gatekeepers to the profession. The Contents of the Training Programme for Supervisors/Mentors of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists The training programme for supervisors which was developed in the SUPER PSI- HOLOG project consists of three modules, and each is oriented towards a particular aspect of mentoring and supervision. Module 1, which had previously been implemented (Podlesek & Zabukovec, 2012), trained supervisors to apply the competence-based approach in the supervised prac- tice, and emphasized the outcome of the supervised practice. Supervisors became qualified to recognize and develop specific professional competences in novice psy- chologists, and to evaluate whether or not the supervisee is prepared to start practic - ing independently. During this part of the training, which lasted 40 hours, supervisors became familiar with different competence models for professional psychologists, e.g. the Cube model (Fouad et al., 2009) and the competence model developed within EuroPsy (Bartram and Roe, 2005; EFPA, 2015), and elaborated on which competences have to be developed in order for a psychologist to carry out the psychological services in a specific field, and which competences are expressed in performing a particular work task. They were informed about current study programmes in psychology and the competences they develop and to what extent. They learned about modern par - adigms of mentoring and the development of mentoring relationships from prepara- tion to conclusion. They considered ethical dilemmas which can occur in the mentor - ing relationship, planned the supervised practice, and engaged in reflective practice. They became familiar with the related documentation and evaluation methods. They supervised a one-month internship and evaluated it in the final part of Module 1. They produced documentation about the internship, and assisted the supervisee in preparation of his/her own documentation. They learned how to assess the supervi- see’s competences and their level of development, and became more critical towards competence evaluation and the methods of evaluation and self-evaluation. They also thought about further development of their mentoring competences. Module 2 upgraded Module 1. It focused on the soft skills of supervision, the process of supervision and the development of the supervisory relationship. With Module 2 88 Edited by Anja Podlesek the Norwegian Psychological Association transferred to Slovenia their long-term ex- periences in the training and supervision of supervisors. Supervisors learned about the importance of the supervisory relationship and its compulsory content from the Norwegian experts. They became acquainted with the methods and skills of supervi- sion, learned about the establishment of proper supervisory relationships and sup- port for the professional development of supervisees. They were introduced to the analyses of audio and video recordings of the supervisee’s work, role playing, the reflecting team method, and learned how to give evaluative feedback. They were taught about the process of supervision and ways of resolving the conflicts which can occur during supervision. Module 2 included a total of 40 hours’ work. Module 3, with a duration of 80 hours, introduced supervisors to various topics in the field of mental health (e.g., the promotion of mental health and prevention of mental health problems, mental health of professionals, supervision of professionals who have problems in this area). Supervisors were taught how to support personal growth, mental health care, and the ethical professional conduct of supervisees. They worked on the skills needed to recognize difficulties in mental health, how to prevent these, and apply the appropriate conduct when problems arise as well as various different methods for strengthening mental health. The focus was thus on maintaining mental health in both supervisors and their supervisees. Not only is such care for professionals important for their mental health, but it also influences the quality of the professional services they can provide. Regular monitoring of and care for one’s own physical, psychological, social, and spiritual well-being is a key element in quality work with clients. A professional who works with people has to be able to recognize the factors which cause stress, and should be able to de-stress and recover a sense of perspective and purpose. As such, he/she has to be able to recog- nize the symptoms of secondary trauma and fatigue that can occur due to emotion- al involvement in case treatment, and so maintain a balance between professional and private life. The training of supervisors for faster recognition and prevention of difficulties in the mental health of supervisees can help reduce such negative phenomena among novice psychologists. The supervisees should thus be able to, under the guidance of their supervisors, better manage stress, recognize the signs of burnout at an early enough stage to deal with them effectively, resolve conflicts in the workplace, better organize their work, and so on. Module 3 was thus based on the link that some studies find between effective supervision in the workplace and psychological qualities such as the positive self-esteem, emotional adjustment, and psychological well-being of the supervisee (Eby et al., 2008). An important part of the training of supervisors is the guidance of the psychology student’s one-month internship in the supervisor’s workplace, and implementation of the one-year supervised practice of the novice psychologist. Supervisors develop the supervisee’s competences, monitor the traineeship process, and work with the supervisee to reflect upon this. It is recommended that they gain experience in both 89 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia the supervision of student internships and that of practitioners-in-training during supervised practice. The student performs his/her internship in his/her supervisor’s work organization. In this way the supervisory dyad is in constant contact, regularly reflects on and evaluates the process, learning is intense, the planning of internship can be adjusted to the actual circumstances, and the development of competences is very effective. However, the internship usually lasts for a short period of time, and the student can thus develop his/her competences only to a certain level. The internship presents the initial contact of the student with psychological practice, so supervision is more directive and the supervisor often plays the role of teacher, educating the student about specific practical approaches which are new to him/her, giving instructions and advice, and suggesting solutions to problems. The supervisor assigns work tasks to the student, and is to a large extent accountable for the student and his/her achievements. By supervising the internship, supervisors gain the experience of a typical mentor who cares for the mentee in a protective manner. The implementa- tion of the supervised practice, where the supervisee is employed in another work organization, provides the supervisor with insights into supervised practice where sessions between the supervisee and supervisor are regular but not that frequent. The relationship which is developed in the supervised practice exhibits different qualities to those seen in a typical mentoring relationship. The structure of meet- ings has to be clearer and planned in advance. The supervisor cannot assign many work tasks to the supervisee, cannot directly monitor the supervisee’s performance at any time, and the content of the supervision sessions depends on what material has been prepared by the supervisee. The supervisee is thus more active in self-reg- ulation of his/her learning and developmental process, taking responsibility for him- self/herself as the supervision is less directive and educational, and so there is more reflection and encouragement of reflective practice. These differences between the two supervisory relationships have, of course, been emphasized, but there are many aspects that are shared by both internship and the supervised practice. The experiences which are gained by the supervisor through guiding the internship and supervised practice are processed in a supervisory group. Such a group consists of supervisors working in a particular field of psychology, and their supervisor (i.e., the supervisor of supervisors) provides support and expands their learning. In the group, supervisors discuss the process of the internship and supervised practice, reflect upon the supervisory relationship, help each other in resolving dilemmas and conflicts, support each other, and learn from one another. The following chapters present the curricula of Modules 1, 2 and 3 of the training of supervisors developed in this project, along with their key contents: a compe- tence-based approach to supervision, the supervisory relationship and its develop- ment, the acquisition of supervision skills, and supervision as self-care and care for one’s own mental health. 90 Edited by Anja Podlesek Module 1 of the Training of Supervisors: Basics of Mentoring and a Compe- tence-Based Approach to Supervised Practice 7 The goals of the training: • To introduce the participants to the theoretical background of mentoring in the process of internship and the supervised practice of psychologists, and to train them to lead the internship and the supervised practice. • Application of the theoretical findings with regard to mentoring of the intern- ship and supervised practice in the workplace of a psychologist, and successful guidance of the internship or the supervised practice of psychologists. • Reflection and evaluation of the internship and the supervised practice, as well as strengthening the ability to keep detailed documentation about the prac- tice, and providing assistance to the psychologist-in-training in his/her prepa- ration of documentation. Competences developed by the programme: • The participants train to develop the primary and enabling competencies of psychologists-in-training (primary competences: goal specification, assess- ment, development, intervention, evaluation, and communication; enabling competences: professional strategy, continuing professional development, pro- fessional relations, research and development, marketing and sales, account management, practice management, quality assurance, and self-reflection. • The participants develop their mentoring competences, and thus acquire knowledge and skills related to the development and maintenance of the col- laborative mentoring relationship. • The participants develop the skills of reflective practice (openness to feedback and consulting with colleagues or supervision). They know how to reflect upon and evaluate the supervised practice. They know how to assess the psycholo- gist-in-training’s competences and prepare the documentation regarding the supervised practice; • They recognize and strengthen their own professional competences, and de- velop those for planning and implementing the supervised practice. Duration of training The duration of training is 40 hours. Training contents 1. The first scope (5 + 10 hours): EuroPsy Certificate: uniform education requirements for psychologists, im- plementation in Europe and Slovenia (lecture). The supervised practice in 7  The program was prepared by Anja Podlesek and Vlasta Zabukovec. The training leaders within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project were: Anja Podlesek, Vlasta Zabukovec and the supervisory groups’ leaders: Anita Kovačik, Jožica Možina, Julija Pelc, Vita Poštuvan, Andreja Rihter and Blanka Tacer, under the leadership of Mateja Štirn. 91 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia compliance with EuroPsy (lecture). Competences: the competence models (EuroPsy model, the Cube model), competences developed by the psychology studies (lecture). Explanation of competences (lecture and practicum). 2. The second scope (5 + 10 hours): Mentoring: importance, forms and functions of mentoring, importance, roles, tasks, and competences of the mentor, mentoring process and the develop- ment of the mentoring relationship, ethics of mentoring relationship, mul- ticultural diversity in mentoring relationships, distance mentoring (lecture, practicum, discussion in groups). Planning, implementation and evaluation of the internship and the supervised practice: formal background of the practical training, steps of practical training, relationship and communication between the supervisor and the psychologist-in-training, methods of enhancing reflec- tion, monitoring and regular evaluation of the psychologist-in-training and the supervisor, ethical aspects of psychological services and the supervised practice (lecture and practicum, which if possible take place in a dyad with the supervisee-to-be). Keeping records of the supervised practice (lecture and practicum). Reflection on and evaluation of the supervised practice: methods of evaluation and self-evaluation, assessment of competences of the supervi- see and the supervisor, reflection on the supervised practice, self-evaluation, evaluation of the internship and the supervised practice, supervision of super- vision (lecture and practicum). 3. The implementation of the internship (160 hours): Between the second and third scope there is the implementation of the in- ternship, with a minimum duration of one month. The participants supervise the internship in their workplace for a minimum of 160 hours. After the initial assessment of the supervisee competences, they adjust the internship plan in agreement with the supervisee. In their workplace, they guide the intern- ship (develop and monitor the development of the supervisee competences), working with the supervisee regularly to reflect upon the process of internship and evaluate it. 4. Inclusion into the supervisory group (10 hours): The participants join the supervisory group (i.e., they receive supervision of their supervising). In such groups they discuss the process of the supervised practice, and during training this should last for a minimum of 10 hours (the greater part of this is implemented within practicum at the location where training takes place). 5. The third scope (10 hours): The participants prepare the documentation about the process of the intern- ship and discuss it in their supervisory groups: they prepare the outline of the supervisee’s documentation of the internship, assess the development of the supervisee’s competences, and prepare the outline of the development of the 92 Edited by Anja Podlesek supervisee competences, structure and analyse the notes on regular reflec- tion, and prepare the final reflection on supervision and the process of intern- ship, structure and analyse the summaries of supervision-of-supervision, ana- lyse the ethical dilemmas which occurred during the course of internship and methods of their resolution, prepare the final evaluation of the internship and their role, as well as that of the supervisee(s). They upgrade their knowledge of the competence model. They suggest changes with regard to implementing internships, the development of new monitoring methods, and plan their own development to raise the quality of the supervision they provide. Work in this scope is performed individually and in supervisory groups. Study requirements The participants have to collaborate in all courses and meetings, take part in the internship for a total of 160 hours, and participate in a supervisory group. They have to prepare two products: 1. Prior to the start of the implementation of the internship, they prepare a port- folio with details of the related literature, definitions of competences, and planning of the internship. 2. After the conclusion of the internship they create a report which contains an overview of the supervisee’s documentation about the internship, an over- view of the development of the supervisee’s competences, an analysis of the notes related to their regular reflections and a final reflection on the intern- ship, an analysis of the summaries produced with regard to the supervision of supervision, an analysis of the ethical aspects of internship, final evaluation of the internship, an analysis of the evolving understanding of the competence model, suggestions with regard to changing the internship, development of new monitoring methods, plans of their own professional development to en- hance the quality of supervision, and so on. The products are assessed using two basic standards: competent / not yet competent. Modalities of training implementation The training is provided via lectures, discussions, practicum, various forms of ob- servation, examining the results of field work, working in mixed groups, evaluat- ing outcomes, and carrying out work assessments and case studies. The training programme encompasses individual work, performance in dyads (with the su- pervisee), work in supervisory groups, and work in ad hoc formulated groups of psychologists from the same or related field of practice. What are the benefits for the participants of the training? The participants who have received positive assessments of their products obtain a certificate confirming their participation, and this can lead to a formal certificate 93 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia indicating that they are qualified to serve as a supervisor/mentor for the in- ternship and supervised practice of psychologists. The training thus serves as a demonstration of their continuing professional development within the frame- work of gaining and revalidating the EuroPsy Certificate. Training programme enrolment requirements The participants have to meet the following requirements: • They have to be university degree psychologists. • They have to have a minimum of three years of independent practice in a par- ticular field of psychology. • Their work organization has to make it possible for them to accept a student for a one-month internship. At the beginning of the training programme, the participants will obtain forms indicating agreement on the implementation of the internship between the programme holder and work organization where the student will be based. Recommended literature for participants: Zabukovec, V., & Podlesek, A. (2010). A model of the supervised practice of psy- chologists. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. Anja Podlesek Competence-based Approach to the Supervised Practice Competence is the “capacity, skill, or ability to do something correctly or efficiently” (Colman, 2015, p. 151), i.e. in compliance with the related standards. Not only does a competent psychologist have adequate knowledge and skills, he/she also exhibits a proper attitude towards the profession and his/her clients. Suitable, safe and effective performance demands proper attitudes, evaluations, critical thinking and decision making, and this has to be carried out in compliance with the pro - fessional standards, ethical principles and values of the profession (Rodolfa et al., 2005). Competences are clusters of knowledge, skills, abilities and other traits which enable in - dividuals’ effective conduct in professional situations in compliance with defined stand - ards (International Declaration on Core Competences in Professional Psychology, 2016). There are different conceptualizations of psychologist competences. For instance, the APA has accepted the Cube model for competence development (Fouad et al., 2009; Rodolfa, 2005), while the International Association for Analytical Psychology (IAAP) and the International Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS) developed as part of a collaborative project (The International Project on Competence in Psychology – IPCP) a competence model which has gained international recognition as a suitable one, and these organizations also presented an international declaration on fundamental competences in psychology (International Declaration on Core Competences in Pro- fessional Psychology, 2016). In Europe, however, the competences model developed within the framework of the EuroPsy Certificate has already been widely used, and this is introduced as follows. 96 Edited by Anja Podlesek The EuroPsy Competences Model The EuroPsy competences model divides the competences of psychologists into pri- mary and enabling competences (Bartram & Roe, 2005; EFPA, 2015). Primary com- petences are specific for the professional work of psychologists, and cover details of the psychological content that occurs in the course of providing professional ser- vices. Enabling competences are general competences required for effective imple- mentation of psychological services, and provide support for the primary compe- tences. Moreover, it should be noted that the same competences could be present in certain other professional profiles. The conceptualization of primary competences in the EuroPsy model follows the course of psychological treatment. There are six categories of primary competences (EFPA, 2015), which encompass a total of 20 competences (hereafter marked with numbers in brackets): goal specification, assessment, development, intervention, evaluation, and communication. The specification of goals of psychological treat- ment includes the process of needs analysis (1), which encompasses gathering of detailed information about the client’s need for psychological treatment, and goal setting (2), i.e. proposing and negotiating acceptable and attainable goals with the client. What follows is the assessment of individuals (3), groups (4), organizations (5) and the situation (6) with the use of suitable methods for doing this. Sometimes, when standard approaches cannot be applied, the intervention method used in a particular case first needs to be developed. Developmental competences here in- clude definitions of the purpose of the intervention, services, or product (7), and their design (8), testing (9) and evaluation (10). The intervention needs to be proper- ly defined and planned (11) and then applied. The psychologist has to be competent enough to implement interventions oriented directly towards the focal individual (12) and the situation (13), and to implement indirect interventions when needed (14). Psychologists have to be able to properly use psychological products and im- plement services (15), and pay attention to their appropriate use by others. They have to be able to evaluate the suitability of their interventions and plan the related evaluation (16), measure the effects of interventions (17) and analyse these effects (18). They then have to be able to transfer the findings in the form of feedback to clients (19) or written reports (20). Besides these primary competences psychologists are required to demonstrate en- abling competences. As such, psychologists need a proper professional strategy (1), which means that they have to be able to assess their competences and choose cor- responding methods of problem solving. They are required to participate in contin- uing professional development (2), and should establish professional relations with other professionals and relevant organizations (3). They have to be able to develop new services and products (4) and apply a proper marketing strategy to their psy- chological services (5). Account management (6) and practice management (7) are 97 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia also important. They have to establish a system to ensure the quality of the services provided (8), and perform critical self-reflection on their own practice and compe- tence (9). Detailed information regarding the categories of primary and enabling competences can be found in the EFPA Regulations on EuroPsy (EFPA, 2015) or on the EuroPsy webpage http://www.europsy-efpa.eu/regulations. Although each psychologist is required to develop the competences outlined above, they differ in their level of development. Each psychologist exhibits his/her specific profile of competence development linked to previous experiences in psychological services, i.e. to the field of his/her practice. Workplaces differ with regard to their types of clients, co-workers, purposes, tools and applicable methods, and thus the competences of individual psychologists will also differ. An individual who is com- petent in one domain of psychological practice, or one workplace, or with a specific group of clients, does not necessarily show adequate competence in another do- main of practice, workplace, or with another group of clients. A change in the field of practice thus requires additional training (Bartram & Roe, 2005), or a new inclusion into supervision. Competences can be improved with education and development (Lucia & Lepsinger, 1999), and should be developed and upgraded through-out a person’s career. As such, it cannot be expected that individuals in different phases of their education, training and career will have equally developed competences. It is thus important to adapt the assigned work tasks to the level of an individual’s development. Moreover, the educational and training programmes that are offered have to be gradual; at the beginning the tasks are simpler, and then they gradually become more complex and sophisticated with regard to their content and methods for competence develop- ment (Kaslow, 2004). Primary competences for practicing psychology are developed during studies when students gain specific theoretical and procedural knowledge within different subjects, or during practicum when they practice how to apply dif- ferent approaches and develop various skills. Such knowledge and skills are upgrad- ed and integrated during the period of internship and supervised practice, when the acquired knowledge, skills, and understanding are applied in real workplaces, where individuals meet clients with real problems, and so need to establish good professional relationships with both clients and co-workers. During the internship, and while under supervision, students perform the first steps in their psychological practice, learn about practical approaches, reflect on their performance and discuss it with others, and so start to establish relationships with professional colleagues. Due to the limited duration of any internship and the focus on a few elements of psychological practice, students develop only selected competences during this period. However, in the one year of supervised practice that takes place after the completion of academic study it can be expected that students will practice all the elements of the psychological services they will be offering and work to develop all the related competences. This happens first under supervision and then more and 98 Edited by Anja Podlesek more independently, until the novice psychologists develop all the relevant compe- tences to a level which enables them to implement work tasks without supervision. At the end of supervision, the supervisor’s task is to assess, based on the per- formance shown through the year by the novice psychologist under supervision, whether or not the new psychologist has adequately developed all the primary and enabling competences. The supervisor assesses the psychologist’s competences by means of a four-level assessment scale (see Table 3). Level 1 means that basic knowl- edge and skills are present, but competence has not been sufficiently developed yet. Such a level can be expected after an individual has completed the first cycle of the psychology study programme with regard to a certain subject (if practicum is a part of the subject). Level 2 means that competence for task performance has been developed, but guidance and supervision are required. Such a level can be expected when a student enters supervised practice, i.e. after the completion of academic study. Level 3 means that competence for performing basic tasks without guidance or supervision has been developed, while Level 4 means that competence for per- forming complex tasks without guidance or supervision has been developed. A per- son has to achieve at least Level 3 in order to carry out independent performance of psychological services. In order for the psychologist to be eligible to obtain the EuroPsy certificate, his/her supervisor has to provide a summary on a special form stating whether or not the related competences have been sufficiently developed in all seven categories (six categories of primary competences and one category of enabling competences), and confirm the assessment with his/her signature. The su- pervisor thus expresses judgment as to whether or not the psychologist is “compe- tent” or “not yet competent” for independent psychological practice. Table 3. Competence assessment scale on the EuroPsy assessment form 1 2 3 4 Basic knowledge and skills present, but competence insufficiently developed Competence for performing tasks but requiring guidance and supervision Competence for performing basic tasks without guidance or supervision Competence for performing complex tasks without guidance or supervision Applicability of the Competence Model in Supervision The supervisor’s role as gatekeeper to the profession is new in Slovenia and many other European states, in particular in fields of practice where the professional work assessment exam has not been a prerequisite for practicing psychology. In comparison with the professional work assessment exam, the supervisor’s as- sessment of the supervised practice gives more emphasis to the systematic as- sessment of all competences and accurate insights into the novice psychologist’s 99 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia qualifications. The competences model assists the supervisor in evaluating the su- pervisee with regard to various different elements of performance, and ensures that no element is overlooked. Based on the experiences gained in the training of supervisors for the application of the EuroPsy competence model, and on the supervisors’ related reports, it can be concluded that supervisors find the competence model rather abstract when they learn about it for the first time. The definitions of individual competences are so general that they find it difficult to envision specific behaviours which are expressed by a psychologist who has mastered a competence. It is also challenging for them to understand and define the competences with regard to concrete work tasks and situations. This is why a minimum of eight hours was devoted to the training and presentation of the EuroPsy competence model to the supervisors in past trainings. During this, the supervisors gathered in domain-related groups and discussed how competences are expressed in the performance of different work tasks. They tried to explicitly write down how each competence was expressed, and a few examples of this can be found in Zabukovec and Podlesek (2010). With the exchange of opinions and discussion of actual cases of competence ex- pression, the participants gain a clearer image of individual competences and start to better understand the competence model. However, it is only after they have supervised an internship or supervised practice, and so practiced defining, planning and developing the supervisee competences, and reflecting on their development, that they thoroughly comprehend it. When they accept a supervisee into an intern- ship and plan with him/her how the competences will be developed and then finally assess the supervisee’s performance, they recognize the model as very useful and effective for planning and leading the internship and supervised practice. Inclusion of practical work into the training of supervisors is thus essential. Overall, the struc- turing of the training programme, in which practicing supervision with the use of the EuroPsy competence model is followed by yet another organized meeting of the participants, has been shown to be useful and beneficial for those who take part, as they are given another opportunity to reconsider their understanding of the compe- tence model and upgrade it as needed. The EuroPsy competence model follows the sequence of activities that occur in psy- chological treatment. After the psychologists are able to comprehend the model, it is easier for them to envision and remember the related competences. The model assists the psychologists-in-training in monitoring their qualifications and planning their own development, and also help supervisors in their monitoring of the de- velopment of the supervisee’s competences. When supervisors apply the model in real life, both at work and in supervision, they tend to see it as very useful. Not only does it help them structure the internship and supervised practice, but it also helps them define their professional identity, and distinguish psychologist compe- tences from those of other practitioners. The EuroPsy competence model thus helps 100 Edited by Anja Podlesek psychologists articulate what they know and what they can do, and inform the pub- lic, policy-makers and (prospective) employers about their abilities. For this reason, the supervisees also recognize the benefits of using this model. The supervisor’s knowledge and comprehension of the competence model enables the effective internship and supervised practice of a student and early career psy- chologist, respectively. It is important that the supervisor recognizes which compe- tences are developed and which need more attention in order for the supervisee to become a competent practitioner. The supervisor has to know how to guide the supervised practice so that the situations which the supervisee encounters are suit- able for his/her level of development, while also providing new knowledge to the supervisee. The supervisor has to be able to assist the supervisee in his/her planning of work tasks, as well as reflecting on and evaluating the practice. Upon conclusion of the supervised practice the supervisor needs to assess the competence of the supervisee with regard to independent performance of the work tasks. If the super- vised practice is to be effective and useful, it is equally important that the supervisee is familiar with the competence model, so that the supervisor and supervisee can better understand each other when they plan and monitor the development of com- petences and evaluate their developmental level. Table 4 shows an example of the application of the competence model when used to prepare for the supervisory relationship. Prior to the outset of the internship the supervisor and the supervisee evaluated which competences had already been developed by the supervisee as part of her internship in another work organization. From the table of competences required in her work position, which had been creat- ed by the supervisor (with an extract is shown in Table 4), they selected those which the supervisee wanted to develop during the period of internship, and within these competences the specific skills and knowledge in need of more attention. Moreover, the nature of the work that occurred during the implementation of the internship triggered the development of some other competences, although these had not been selected as central for the internship. 101 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Table 4. Example of the application of the EuroPsy competence model – Supervisor’s description of the competences of psychologists working in a kindergarten 8 Primary competence Work task Competence includes these specific knowledge and skills a. Goal specification Needs analysis • Communication: by phone, email, and in person • Directive interviews • Questionnaires Users: parents, kindergarten teachers, those in leadership positions, external institutions, for one’s own observations Skills: establishment of connection and trust, listening, asking questions, ability to understand others, and the skill of active listening Knowledge: knowledge of questionnaire application, technical conduct of an interview, content of anamnestic data, communication, developmental psychology, deviant behaviours, and child development Goal setting • Developing additional skills and knowledge of professional workers • Change of behaviour: in a child, kindergarten teachers, parents • Developmental-research analytical work (e.g. climate improvement) • Offering assistance and support Skills: listening, asking questions, engaged listening, and offering support Knowledge: knowledge of goal setting, developmental psychology, educational psychology, cognitive psychology, personality psychology, motivation, emotion, interpersonal relationship and communication, deviant behaviours, and child development b Assessment Assessment of individuals • Observation of behaviour: of a child and of professional workers (methods and techniques) • Use of standardized psychological tests (like SB-C) • Non-standardized instruments for observing behaviours: development scales, development area-related curricula for kindergartens, directive interviews, behavioural cognitive interviews, measuring disturbing behaviours, etc. Skills: listening, asking questions, active listening, supporting, selection of knowledge for a particular situation, focus on a particular situation, subtlety, and neutrality Knowledge: the recognition and application of diagnostic instruments, technical conduct of interviews, developmental psychology, educational psychology, cognitive psychology, personality psychology, motivation, emotion, interpersonal relationships and communication, group leading, social psychology, deviant behaviours, and child development 8  This description of the psychologist’s expression of competences in a kindergarten was prepared by Andreja Koler Križe. Vlasta Zabukovec Development of the Mentoring Relationship Mentoring can take place in various contexts (e.g. study, work, private). Although it differs in each situation, it shows certain common features (Eby, Rhodes and Allen, 2007) which are described in this chapter. Overall, mentoring is a unique relationship between two individuals with interpersonal exchanges. Mentoring is a learning part- nership which, despite the various forms it can take, generally includes learning and personal growth, and can be understood as providing professional and psychosocial support for the mentee. The mentoring relationship is reciprocal, yet asymmetric, because the mentor is an experienced person, and more attention is devoted to the mentee. The mentoring relationship is dynamic and changing. Phases of Mentoring Kram (1983) is one of the first works to empirically research the levels of mentoring relationship, and the author notes four predictable developmental phases: initia- tion, cultivation, separation, and redefinition. While the many researchers who fol- lowed Kram present different numbers of levels, they report similar developmental features with regard to such relationships. At the relationship initiation phase, both the mentor and mentee feel the excitement of a new challenge, and both are gradu- ally developing the relationship. The mentor cares for the professional development of the mentee (e.g. training, promotion), and provides psychosocial support, and it is important that in this phase, and in the continuation, that the mentee recognizes this support. It is also essential that the mentor becomes aware of his/her role. 104 Edited by Anja Podlesek In the cultivation phase the professional and psychosocial dimensions of the relationship are strengthened, and any expectations regarding the relationship are experienced in practice. The mentor and mentee learn about the importance of the mentoring relation - ship and its limits, thus enabling their partnership to become stronger. Of course, not all mentoring dyads develop their relation in the same way, because this depends on the needs and interests of both the mentor and mentee. In general, it can be observed that in this phase both parties will have positive evaluations of the mentoring relationship. After this, changes occur which are reflected in the greater independence of the men - tee and thus less perceived need for the mentor’s professional support. This phase of separation can bring some unpleasant emotions, such as sadness, anxiety, loss, and confusion. The relation between the mentor and mentee thus changes and a redefini- tion is required. The two parties can work to strengthen their relationship even more, or it may end in a period of ambivalence or discomfort. Ideally the mentee can feel a higher level of self-confidence and independence with regard to his/her professional performance, and this will cause the gradual closing of the relationship. When the existing relationship is concluded, the two parties either separate or establish a new professional relationship based on a new foundation. Lamb, Anderson, Rapp, Rathnow and Sesan (1986) study the development of profession - al relationships during internships in clinical settings. The six phases of the mentoring relationship which were discovered by Lamb et al. can, in my opinion, be transferred to different fields of psychological practice. These phases are courting, bonding, rapproche - ment, mentoring, launching, and reunion, and they are discussed in more detail below. Courting (introducing and establishing rapport) takes place outside the work environ- ment, where the mentor and the mentee meet for the first time; this is the time of exploration and creation of expectations regarding the professional relationship and selection of mentees. The mentee will generally introduce his/her strengths, and less often mention his/her weaknesses. Both parties wish the mentoring to be as effective as possible, so they agree to direct their energies to completing a successful intern - ship. In this phase the mentor introduces the mentee to broader picture of the men - toring relationship. Bonding (establishment of the relationship) takes place in the work setting. The men- tee starts meeting other people who are employed in this location, and his/her first connections are created with the mentor’s help. The mentee’s initial insecurity in the new context is thus reduced. In the first three months the mentor takes care of estab - lishing the border between dependence and autonomy and at the same time protects the mentee. At this stage consistency by the mentor is important, regardless of which behaviour of the mentee he/she is developing. The following three to four months belong to the phase of rapprochement, where an individual’s strengths and weaknesses are clearly differentiated. This is the phase when the mentor has to encourage the mentee’s independence and autonomy and 105 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia take care that clear boundaries are being set. The provision of greater freedom ena - bles the development of an individual’s competence and professional identity, but can lead to more risk taking. As a result, some conflicts may occur during this phase which can be successfully resolved by the mentor and mentee provided they have estab - lished a relationship based on trust and good connections. In this phase the mentor becomes more aware of his/her role, and thus he/she may decide to redefine it. However, due to their increased autonomy the mentee may make more mistakes, and this leads to the next phase, that of mentoring. This occurs in the sixth or seventh month and relates to an increased awareness of the mentee’s professional role and his/her tendencies with regard to new challenges. The mentor’s role is to engage in active listening and provide support for and recognition of the mentee’s professional development. At this time the mentor opens up more, communicates his/her expec- tations, problems and goals. The mentor encourages socialization outside of work, as this can strengthen his/her role and the relationship itself. Sometimes the mentor also offers assistance with regard to helping the mentee find a job. One danger that can arise because the mentee is expected to pass a professional work assessment exam at the end of the year, is that the mentor can become too protective and starts an intense process of preparation for the exam. The level of protection that the mentor provides here depends on the pre-preparation of the mentee. Launching occupies the last three months of internship, and this phase is character - ized by the mentee gaining experience in real settings and the mentor providing en - couragement based on professional closeness and evaluation. In order to strengthen the mentee’s professional competence, the mentor encourages him/her to undertake further education. The mentor may also be available for discussions of work strate- gies and the monitoring of work performed by other colleagues, and this can help the mentee to gain alternative perspectives on a problem and recognize new strategies to solve it. At the same time the mentor can undertake various activities (attending conferences, preparing articles, and so on) that foster professional closeness, while also giving and receiving regular feedback about goals, achievements, and possible obstacles to the mentee’s progress. Formal evaluation is carried out all through this time, by the mentor and those who are most frequently involved with the mentee, while the mentor also carries out self-evaluation. Finally, the relationship does not end with the conclusion of the internship, but can be further maintained by the mentor and mentee. This enables the mentee to revive their professional role, while the mentor can follow the mentee’s development and his/her progress in the workplace. Zachary (2012) defines four predictable phases of mentoring and its progress: pre- paring, negotiation, enabling growth, and coming to closure. These phases together shape a developmental sequence whose duration differs with each relationship. This model is different from the previously described model presented in Kram (1983), in 106 Edited by Anja Podlesek that the phases focus more on the behaviours required to progress through them. However, although the phases are predictable and sequential, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them. The mentor and mentee should recognize the impor - tance of each phase as it can help them maintain their relationship, and this relation - ship will not develop if one phase is missing. The mentor and the mentee thus need to separately and in partnership prepare for the relationship. Congruence plays a great part in this, as well as the initial attractiveness. Each party learns how to prepare for the relationship through attending mentoring programmes which train them to imple - ment the mentoring process. First, the mentor takes care for his/her own preparation where he/she checks his/her motivation and willingness to take up mentoring. The resulting assessment of the mentor’s own skills helps him/her recognize the areas for learning and development. It is equally important that the mentee explores his/her motivation and uses self-reflection to define his/her expectations with regard to the mentoring relationship. The mentee thus recognizes what he/she wants to learn and the easiest ways to do so, ensuring that he/she will be well prepared to achieve clear and well-specified goals. Clarity of expectations and roles help in defining effective and healthy mentoring relationship, and this is followed by the relationship preparation phases. This is why the initial conversation is important, when the mentor and the mentee explore the reciprocity of their interests and needs. In this way, it is easier for the mentor to estimate whether or not he/she can work with the mentee. Negotiation follows the first phase, and includes agreeing on the learning goals, con- tents and mentoring process. The establishment of reciprocal understanding with regard to any problems, expectations, goals, and needs is of high importance. More- over, the mentoring pair also discusses issues related to confidentiality, boundaries and limits, and agree on when, where, and how often they will meet. An important part of such discussions includes details of responsibilities, effectiveness measures, and the manner of concluding the relationship. There is also the possibility of a for- mal agreement where all this can be written down. The phase of enabling growth then follows, and this is longer than the initial two phas- es because it includes the realization of the mentoring relationship. It offers the most possibilities for education and development, and can be a very sensitive period when difficulties in the relationship can occur. However, even if the mentor and mentee have set clear goals, defined the process very well and identified the timeframe within which their activities will take place, difficulties can occur. It is thus important to main - tain a sufficient level of trust, as this has a stimulating impact on the learning process. During the preparation phase, the mentor and mentee should already have agreed on how to conduct the conclusion of the relationship. During training they should get to know each other very well, and recognize their own needs and expectations, mak- ing it easier for them to conclude the relationship. The phase of closure is relatively short but it provides rich opportunities for growth and consideration, regardless of whether the relationship is positive or not. This is an opportunity for the mentor 107 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia and mentee to look back and evaluate the outcomes of mentoring. They assess the learning process and confirm the progress. A successful concluding strategy has four components: conclusion of learning and integration of the acquired knowledge, some celebration of the successful outcome, a discussion on the re-definition of the relationship, and the closing of the relationship, or the establishment of a new one. In the literature there are many descriptions of the mentoring relationship, both the- oretical and empirically confirmed. The three models examined in this article were selected by the author because the description provided by Kram (1983) was one of the first in which the phases were empirically researched. Most descriptions include four phases, so this article also presents a six-phase model (Lamb et al., 1986) to enable readers to judge whether or not the differences between the models are significant or important. A description of the model in Zachary (2012) is included because of her comprehensive manuals for developing the mentoring relationship. Table 5 shows the differences between the three descriptions. Table 5. Comparison of the phases of the mentoring relationship shown in different models Model by Kram (1983) Model by Lamb et al (1986) Model by Zachary (2012) 4 phases 6 phases 4 phases 1. Initiation – establishing a relationship; awareness of the role of mentor; the mentee feels supported. 2. Cultivation – maintaining the relationship; professional and psycho- social dimensions of the relationship; arrangements and expectations are tried in practice. 3. Separation – the need for the mentor’s support is reduced; unpleasant emotions. 4. Redefinition – redefining the relationship; conclusion or a new relationship. 1. Courting – building rapport; going outside the work environment; exploring expectations. 2. Bonding – establishing a relationship; becoming familiar with the workplace. 3. Rapprochement – openness; independence and autonomy of the mentee; professional identity; first conflicts. 4. Mentoring – new challenges, conversations regarding expectations and goals. 5. Launching – independent beginnings; experiences in the real environment; professional closeness; evaluation. 6. Reunion – conclusion or a new relationship (new context). 1. Preparing – harmony in the relationship; personal preparation; relational preparation. 2. Negotiation – making agreements about the learning goals, content, and course; clear expectations and goals, trust, responsibility. 3. Enabling growth – training, possibilities of learning and development; open, stimulating climate. 4. Coming to closure – conclusion of learning; process of integration of new knowledge; celebrating success; redefining the relationship; conclusion of the relationship. 108 Edited by Anja Podlesek Regardless of the fact that these descriptions of the mentoring relationship evolved in different periods, it can be concluded that the models are very similar, and it is assumed that the findings would be the same in other descriptions of phases. While the number of phases is different, as are the names they are given, a thorough anal- yses of the contents shows strong similarities. The beginning of the relationship is marked by the parties introducing themselves, which can take place in or outside of a work setting. At this stage an awareness of roles and shaping of expectations are present. If the model consists of several phases, the initial one is devoted to estab- lishment of relationship, without setting work-related goals. If the model consists of fewer phases, the establishment of the relationship includes goal setting and the formation of individual tasks. Then, as a rule, the implementation follows, which en- compasses realization of the previous agreements in practice and conclusion of the relationship. The authors link the implementation of the relationship with various factors, such as conflicts, realization of agreements, or learning and development. In the concluding part of the relationship the authors emphasize proper closing of the relationship, which includes the evaluation of the achieved goals and a possibility for the establishment of a new relationship under different conditions. The authors emphasize that while the phases can be distinguished they sometimes overlap. This is a consequence of the different dynamics of various mentoring rela- tionships, and it is important to recognize this and to respond properly to the situa- tions that occur in a particular phase. One place where the models’ descriptions of mentoring relationships differ is with regard to their focus, i.e. whether they describe the process and its features, or behaviours typical for a certain phase. The latter is typical of the model in Zachary (2012), which is thus easily transferred into practice. Mentoring and Transformational Learning As has been already shown in the chapter Importance of the Mentoring and Supervi- sion of Early Career Psychologists, there are obvious differences between tradition- al and modern conceptualizations of mentoring. Modern conceptualizations refer to mentoring as a reciprocal and collaborative relationship, where the mentor and the mentee collaborate in order to achieve mutual goals, and develop the mentee’s skills, abilities, knowledge, and thinking. The mentee is an active participant of this relationship, as he/she shares accountability for planning and achieving the goals, and for the implementation of activities and learning. The mentor stimulates and develops his/her own reflection and the mentee’s self-regulation of learning. Zachary (2012) presents a paradigm for learning with regard to directive mentor- ing which has seven key characteristics: reciprocity, learning, relationship, partner- ship, collaboration, mutually defined goals, and development. She understands 109 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia mentoring as a continual learning process. It is true that mentoring pays more atten- tion to the mentee, but the mentor, too, gains new experiences and knowledge with every mentoring relationship. Mentoring thus brings specific outcomes for both the mentor and mentee, as described in the chapter Importance of the Mentoring and Supervision of Early Career Psychologists. Reciprocity and mutuality in the mentoring relationship contribute to both parties gaining something in the mentoring relationship, and simultaneously contributing to its development. Learning is a necessary process in every mentoring relation- ship, as the mentor and the mentee learn from each other. Every mentor thus needs to be familiar with the process of learning in order to encourage and direct the learning of the mentee. At the same time, the mentor himself/herself remains open to learning. A strong relationship between the mentor and mentee moti- vates, triggers enthusiasm, and stimulates learning and development. However, effective mentoring requires enough time so that the relationship can properly develop and grow, and it is not possible to accelerate this process, since as each assignment and goal needs sufficient time to complete. Mutual respect, trust, and appreciation of each other’s particularities must be established at the beginning of the relationship, with both parties contributing to its establishment, maintenance, and strengthening. Partnership has its basis in a good relationship. Provided the mentor and the mentee have succeeded in establishing a relationship of mutual respect and recognition of each other’s needs, trust will also be present. With a firm partnership the mentor and mentee can strengthen the relationship and feel safe enough to achieve the set goals. By working in partnership the mentor and mentee collaborate, as they together build up the relationship, share knowledge and agree on the goals, which are then more easily attainable. Mutually defined goals are a logical result of all the characteristics of the mentoring relationship. At beginning of the process both the mentor and mentee need to clearly specify what the goals are and adjust or change them during the course of mentoring if it becomes necessary to do so. Clear and open communication in this process is very important, including the skills of listening, asking questions, and clear argumen- tation in setting important goals. The mentor has to clearly present the mentee’s development, which is always future-oriented. The mentor’s role is to support the mentee and direct his/her activities in the direction of planned development. All this enables the development of skills, knowledge, abilities and thinking, and rais- es the probability of successful outcomes. In order for mentoring to evolve as described above it is important to take into con- sideration the characteristics of adult education, due to particularities of the partic- ipants’ already acquired experiences and knowledge. In general, it can be said that the education of adults can be more active, self-regulatory and practice-oriented. The next part of this chapter presents the paradigm of education-oriented mentor- ing in relation to the characteristics of adult learning, as shown in Figure 4. 110 Edited by Anja Podlesek Figure 4. Characteristics of the mentoring relationship, taking into account the para- digm of education-oriented mentoring. The requirements for adult learning (such as participation in the entire process of learning, a stimulating climate for learning, self-regulating learning, acquirement of specific knowledge, experience as a primary source of learning, knowledge ap- plication, and intrinsic motivation) enable the conversion from transactional into transformational learning. Transactional learning is the process where knowledge is transferred from one person to another, and where the roles are clearly defined, with the aim of creating knowledge and experiences. Transformative learning em- phasizes openness for critical judgment and reflection on the experiences obtained (Zachary, 2012). Mezirow (1991), as a pioneer of the transformative learning the- ory, emphasizes that adult learning is instrumental and communication-based. Instrumental teaching is carried out by means of directed problem solving and ex- planation of causal relations. Communication-based learning includes expressing one’s emotions, needs, and desires. The central concept in this theory is a struc - ture which includes meaning schemes and perspectives. The meaning schemes are constructed by means of reflection on the content, process and starting points of learning. Learning can thus include elaboration of the existing meaning schemes, their changing, and learning of new schemes, their transformation or transforma- tion of perspectives. The process of mentoring is transformative as the mentor enables the mentee to become aware of his/her beliefs, attitudes, and behaviour. Mentor's role Mentee's role Learning process Length of the relationship Mentoring relationship Setting Focus Self-regulating learning of the mentee Goal-dimension Several mentors and modalities Various opportunities and settings Process-orientation (critical reflection and application) Facilitator Active 111 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Mentoring is collaborative and reciprocal, so both insights and learning are also acquired by the mentor. It is expected that the mentor and mentee bring different experiences and differ- ent levels of competence development to the relationship. It is thus important that learning in the mentoring relationship includes four steps: from unconscious incom- petence to conscious incompetence, and from conscious competence to uncon- scious competence. The level of unconscious incompetence is one at which “we do not know what we do not know,” and this can lead to being overconfident. The level of conscious incompetence opens up gaps of ignorance. At this level the mentor and mentee can recognize what they need to learn. The level of conscious competence enables us to learn what we do not yet know by being persistent and goal-oriented. The more we experiment, the more competent we feel. At the level of unconscious competence we apply skills and knowledge which we have acquired without needing to think about it, and thus achieving tasks is much easier. The level of learning specifies the role of the mentor. At the level of unconscious incompetence the mentor is supposed to eliminate blind spots and encourage dis- covering what the mentee needs. When learning enters the level of conscious in- competence and the mentee is aware of what he/she does not know, the mentor is supposed to help the mentee understand his/her mistakes, enhance reflective practice and encourage thinking by asking questions, and this stimulates the devel- opment of knowledge and skills. At the level of conscious competence the mentee becomes more self-confident and increases his/her self-esteem, the mentor creates opportunities for exploring and experimenting, and provides effective feedback. At the level of unconscious competence the mentor encourages reflection and a ten- dency to continue improving. Mentoring in a Multicultural Context Mentoring can be implemented in different cultural contexts, if the mentor and men- tee come from different cultures. It is thus important that the mentor has developed a multicultural competence, which includes understanding of cultural differences and effective communication with people who come from another cultural environ- ment (Zachary, 2012). To be more precise, multicultural competence includes: cul- tural self-awareness, a sincere desire for learning about different cultures, harmony with other cultures, and development of a flexible attitude towards other cultures. Cultural self-awareness in the context of mentoring means that the mentor has to be aware of the differences between the related cultures, understand them and accept them. It is important that the mentor becomes aware of beliefs and presuppositions which affect him/her in a multicultural setting. For instance, in certain cultures it is disrespectful to ask the teacher questions. In other cultures, conversations about 112 Edited by Anja Podlesek emotions, problems and fears is a sign of weakness. Therefore, a sincere desire for learning and the acquisition of knowledge about other cultures is very important. The new perspectives thus gained can also enrich one’s attitude towards one’s own culture. The mentor is expected to listen to the mentee, non-judgmentally, and to ask questions when he/she needs additional explanations, in particular when the mentee’s behaviour differs from what is expected. In this context, it is good to ex- amine habitual thinking patterns and open new possibilities for learning. When the mentor expresses a sincere desire for education, the mentee will recognize this and the mentor will become a good role model for learning. Cultural attunement means that we understand behaviour and know what is hap- pening by simply observing the context and non-verbal communication. To achieve this, the mentor and the mentee can promptly check the understanding that each has, and if they have different interpretations they further clarification will be need- ed. Different understandings of an event are caused by different values developed within a culture. For instance, some cultures do not find humour between a man and woman acceptable, other cultures need a longer period of time to make a deci- sion, yet other cultures find it inappropriate to question the teacher. Development of a flexible perception of the other culture encompasses several ac- tivities, such as preparation, memorizing, observation, and demonstration. During preparation, the mentor checks on the mentee’s cultural origin before they meet, clarifies what he/she expects from the mentoring relationship, and specifies its goals. The mentor should memorize as much as possible of what the mentee expresses or talks about. The skills needed for this are active listening, expressing interest, pay- ing attention, and being empathetic. The mentor should respect learning distinc- tions, devote time to questions and different expressions, while judgments should be avoided. The mentor checks his/her own understanding all the time, especially when he/she wants to round up a thought, conversation, or assignment. The mentor stimulates reflection and should be patient and tolerant. He/she should be aware of his/her beliefs, doubts, and stereotypes. The mentor analyses his/her values, in particular in relation to those of another culture. The mentor should recognize dis- comfort, disconnection, and present emotions. Most importantly, the mentor shows respect, reliability, knowledge, and is oriented towards mentoring. Mentoring in an Intergenerational Context Being knowledgeable and understanding of the intergenerational context plays a key role in successful mentoring. If we understand mentoring as the transfer of knowl- edge, skills, and experience from a more experienced person to a less experienced one, then it is obvious that we will often encounter intergenerational differences, because in most cases the knowledge is transferred from an older person to a young- er one. The next few paragraphs discuss some of the differences among generations, 113 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia although it should be noted that these were written with America in mind, and thus there may be a slight time lag in Europe. According to Zachary (2012), there are three generations on interest in this context: baby boomers, generation X, and gen- eration Y , as shown in Table 6 along with the mentor’s tasks. The generation of baby boomers were born after the World War II and up to 1964, and grew up during a difficult economic period with traditional values still in place (Zachary, 2012). This is seen as an idealistic generation with a desire for status and wealth. Boomers are optimistic, competitive, and goal-oriented. They evaluate their quality in relation to their achievements, and in particular to work-related accom- plishments. They are sincerely devoted to their careers and dedicate a lot of time to work, which brings them luxury, recognition, and other rewards. They are self-re- liant, independent thinkers who seek new challenges. Younger generations regard boomers as workaholics. As mentors, they are sought after due to their experience, knowledge, wit, and devotion. By mentoring they want to reimburse what the or- ganization has invested in them. Moreover, they support lifelong learning and seek new challenges, with mentoring being one of these. They are thus willing to take up new tasks and new roles. The mentors encourage the boomers by creating challeng- es, recognizing their achievements, expressing interest and respect, and engaging in proper communication with them. Generation X was born in the period from 1965 to 1979, is also known as the “I” gen- eration, and such individuals are seen as industrious, successful, cynical, and scepti- cal (Zachary, 2012). For them it is important that their needs are met, that they take responsibility for themselves, are included and that people trust them. People from generation X want competent, directive, and less formal mentors. They want their mentors to help them see the big picture, define career expectations, and create a career path. It is reasonable to encourage their creativity and initiative. The men- tor is expected to specify clear expectations with well-defined success indicators so that the mentees can monitor their own learning process. The mentees desire ongoing communication, including prompt and clear feedback which enables them to progress towards their goals. They value trusting relationships, and the mentees need to be allowed to be accountable and solve their problems without the men- tor’s interference. Instead of interfering, the mentor can stimulate reflection on the mentee’s experience. Generation Y was born in the period from 1980 to 1995, and is the largest after the boomers, often being called the net generation, iPod generation, digital generation, or ”we” generation (Zachary, 2012). This generation seeks mentors who offer oppor- tunities for problem-solving, which is good for their development. They like positive, collaborative, achievement-oriented mentors who take them seriously. They give priority to development, and that is why they want to be mentored. On the other hand, they want to feel equal in a relationship, and so the mentor should ask ques- tions and listen carefully to their answers. Such relationships are personal, cheerful, 114 Edited by Anja Podlesek pleasant, and informal. The mentor is supposed to offer the mentee a great deal of challenges and various opportunities for learning. Goals should be smaller and more short term than with older mentees, and come with realistic time frames. The men- tor helps by providing the resources and information required for accomplishing the set goals. Technology is a key tool, feedback is vital, and generation Y needs a sense of reward and acknowledgment. Table 6. Generational distinctions and mentor’s performance Generation Features Mentor’s performance Boomers Idealistic Desire for status and wealth Competitive Goal-oriented Independent thinking, autonomy Need for challenges Opportunities for challenges Recognition of achievements Sincere interest and respect Proper communication Encouraging lifelong learning X Industrious, successful, cynic and sceptical Needs should be met Self-accountability Need for inclusion Need for trust Competent Directive Less formal Assistance in career path Encouraging creativity and initiative Clear expectations and success indicators Prompt feedback Enhancing reflectivity Y Importance of development Equality in relationship Use of technology Desire for acknowledgment and rewards Opportunities for problem-solving Asking questions Active listening Various opportunities for learning Positive, collaborative and achievement-oriented Mentoring Skills A great deal has been written about mentoring skills, and therefore it would be difficult to lay out a unique set of skills exhibited by an effective and experienced mentor. There are skills which are related to developmental phases of mentoring (e.g., the skill of presenting expectations regarding the mentoring relationship, or that of closing the relationship with a form of performance evaluation). There are also skills which are related to the relationship between the mentor and the ment- ee, such as those of empathy, respect, and building trust. And there are skills which emphasize the goals of mentoring, such as specifying goals, reflecting on experi- ence, and encouraging development. The authors are not unanimous with regard to the number of skills needed for effective mentoring. Some of them assert a lower 115 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia number of skills, others a higher one; some of them specify complex skills (e.g., in relation to the phases of the mentoring relationship) which can be partitioned into primary ones; some of them expose general communication skills built up with specific mentoring skills, such as asking questions, which can be divided into ask- ing open and closed questions. Some authors emphasize relational skills (e.g., the skill of establishing good relationships) which can be divided into more specific and operational ones (e.g., skills of building trust, empathy). Ramaswami and Dreher (2007) single out the mentor’s encouragement of development as a key skill which is partially built up by behavioural descriptions. Allen et al. (2009) emphasize the skill of career and professional development planning, which is a complex skill but can be divided into simpler ones, such as goal setting, goal attainment and evaluation of achievements. Even these simpler skills can be defined more operationally, such as setting SMART goals. The vast majority of authors state that the mentor’s key skill is listening (Mentoring Guide, 2003). Additionally, they find the skills of building trust, specifying goals, developing capabilities, encouraging, motivating, and inspiration to be very important for an effective mentor. Bird (2001) lists the following attributes of an effective mentor: experience, insight into performance, enthusiasm, positive regard, a sense of humour, and a feeling for communicating delicate topics. More- over, an effective mentor will have high standards and expectations, be willing to share time, and work hard, tolerate the diversity of mentees, encourage multiple approaches and various forms of thinking, and be open-minded, i.e. receptive to new ideas, suggestions, and considerations. According to Zachary (2012) the most important skill for mentoring is establishing connections, which means that through his/her own social connections the mentor introduces the mentee to people and resources which will help in accomplishing the mentoring and learning goals. Another skill is establishing and maintaining relations – the mentor should know how to commence, encourage and cultivate the focal re- lationship. Mentoring by means of coaching with regard to the planned and system- atic development of specific skills is important. A skill of communicating means that communication needs to be authentic, including active listening and checking for un- derstanding, and being clear and unambiguous. A skill of encouraging connects fu- ture orientation, positive regard, and clear vision. Encouragement can be expressed by building trust, gentle persuasion, critical friendship, enthusiasm and motivation. A skill of enabling, which relates to mutual learning, reflective practice, and insight into the mentee, is also important, as it enables people to overcome challenges with regard to learning, growth, and development. Goal setting is connected to the spec- ification of clear, well-structured and realistic goals. An effective mentor directs the mentee towards accomplishing the goal, enables learning, and monitors the goal attainment. The mentor also directs with modelling behaviour, and thus makes the learning easier. The mentor is focused on the mentee all the time, and helps him/ her make sense of every situation. A well-developed skill of listening harmonizes sending messages and receiving messages, while engaged listening is a prerequisite 116 Edited by Anja Podlesek for meaningful reflection. Managing conflict is yet another skill of open and focused communication which takes into consideration different perspectives, although it should be noted that conflict managing does not eliminate conflicts, but trains the mentee to manage those that arise. A skill of problem-solving is efficient when it includes asking questions and enabling reflection. Feedback should be prompt, con- structive, and keep the receiver on track towards the set goals. A skill of reflective practice enables the mentee to gain an insight into his/her thinking patterns and be- haviour, and thus stimulates the learning process. There are distinctions in the men- toring process between the mentor and the mentee, and these differences need to be evaluated. Diversity can relate to age, ethnicity, status, experience, and gender. The mentor is a role model of professional and personal conduct for the mentee. Bjarte Kyte and Mona Duckert Developing the Skills for Supervision 9 A competence-based approach to supervision is predicated on supervisors having the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes regarding the provision of quality su- pervision and professional psychology models, theories and practices. Implicit in the concept of competence is also an awareness of, and attention to, one’s interperson- al functioning and professionalism. In addition, supervisors must have knowledge, skills and values with respect to multiculturalism and diversity, legal and ethical pa- rameters, as well as be able to manage supervisees who do not meet necessary performance criteria (APA, 2014). Supervision is a distinct professional competence that requires specific training. A competent supervisor possesses, cultivates and maintains the various components of the supervisory competences, as well as those in relation to competence in the area of supervised practice. For the supervisee, the supervised practice is a bridge between theoretical psycho- logical knowledge and competence in the field of professional psychology. Development of a Supervisory Relationship The first and most important task of the supervisor is to establish and develop a good supervisory relationship. Openness and trust are prerequisites for success 9  The chapter is primarily based on the starting points and perspectives of the Norwegian program of supervision training and the APA Guidelines for clinical supervision (APA, 2015). 118 Edited by Anja Podlesek in the collaborative tasks of the supervisor and supervisee. From the first meet- ing the supervisor thus seeks to create a collaborative relationship that makes it safe for the supervisee to talk about any difficulties they have experienced, both in their own practice and the supervisory relationship. The supervisor promotes an interactive, safe and stimulating learning environment by showing interest and respect, by sharing experiences and thoughts, by giving feedback in a constructive and friendly manner, by asking the supervisee for their experiences and thoughts, and by encouraging their feedback. Establishing a supervised practice agreement is an important first step in the build- ing of a well-functioning supervisory relationship. It helps the parties to clarify expectations, needs and demands. The agreement (contract) needs to build on the principles of evidence-based practice, and on the ethical and legal require- ments that regulate professional practice. More specifically, the supervised prac- tice agreement needs to address the expectations, context and framework for the supervision process, and the goals and content of the supervised practice. Together the supervisor and supervisee should try to assess and evaluate what the supervisee has already mastered and what the key areas for development are. Other relevant topics for the agreement are the materials required for the super- vision sessions (video recordings, session notes, etc.), the responsibilities shared between supervisor and supervisee, rights and obligations and how to prevent and meet difficulties in the supervision room. A focus on relational variables from the very start will also be helpful. Because the aim of the supervisory relationship is to develop the professional com- petence of the supervisee, the assessment and evaluation of skills and competence must be discussed openly. It needs to be evident for the supervisee that his/her performance will be evaluated. The supervisor needs to reflect on questions such as: How do I make a fair, valid and reliable judgment? Do I know what “best per- formance” is, or what the best course of development may be? Where is the line between disagreement and disqualification? Addressing questions like this requires but also enhances trust and openness. Methods of Supervision Rather than communicating about theories of supervision, the literature discuss- es different models of supervision. There are three main types of models: those based on therapy theory, developmental models and social role models. A compe- tence-based supervision approach is meta-theoretical, and can in principal incorpo- rate any of these models. Social role models describe the supervision process independent of content. They provide a language to describe and clarify the supervision process. These models 119 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia contribute to knowledge about what happens in supervision, and open up the pos- sibility for more flexible use of the supervisor’s attention and behaviours. The methods of supervision are directed towards strengthening the supervisee’s mastery of his/her professional tasks and simultaneously contributing to an ade- quate sense of mastery, and the ability to realistically self-evaluate. The supervisor seeks to identify the supervisee’s resources and developmental tasks and provide regular and specific feedback based on his/her assessment of the learning process. To do this the supervisor needs to have a clear understanding of the competences needed in the supervisee’s line of work, and sufficient insight into the supervisee’s professional practice. The supervisor will communicate his/her thoughts to the su- pervisee in an empowering and directional way. The interactional behaviour of the supervisor should actively facilitate the supervisee in developing the understanding and skills relevant to his/her professional practice. Many specific methods of supervision are available, with the use of a “reflecting team,” role-play and watching recorded work sessions among the most useful. The reflecting team is a collaborative approach to group supervision, and this in- volves all the group members while also generating new ideas and reflections for those not receiving direct supervision. This is a person-centred supervision ap- proach, allowing and helping the supervisee to define his/her own developmental goals and pursue them. The supervisee is trained to make choices through careful - ly observing their own preferences and evaluating their own skills, while listening to a multitude of suggestions in a nonintrusive atmosphere. It has strong focus on developing the personal competences of the therapist, such as those of reflection, self-reflection, self-evaluation, decision-making, and autonomy. Role play is based on our human “child skills,” since we are born to learn from “act- ing as if” and from imitation. Playing roles creates engagement and brings the learn- ing closer to practice. Role play is most relevant when ”how to do it” is part of the question or problem. It is effective both in group and individual supervision. Role play is a teaching tool with three different functions: (i) Exploration: When explora- tion of a situation is needed in order to create better understanding, or to try out different alternatives of action. (ii) Teaching by demonstrating: When the supervisor wants to show ”how to do it” or show “how to make a difference” in delivering an intervention. (iii) Skill training: When the supervisee needs to try out a new strategy or develop new skills. Recorded work sessions give the supervisor a necessary base for giving evaluative feedback on the supervisee’s work. The supervisor should observe how the super- visee interacts with his/her “clients,” and give supportive and directive feedback. In this supervision method it is important that the supervisor has a good balance between supportive and corrective feedback; which probably means five support- ive statements for each corrective one. Shared observations of the supervisee’s 120 Edited by Anja Podlesek performance in the work sessions create opportunities for both multidirectional reflections and well-adjusted skill training. The Role of the Supervisor and Areas of Focus in Supervision Supervision consists of a lot of choices, and the supervisor needs concepts and maps to make appropriate, valid and reliable interventions. The social role models have a specific focus on the different roles of the supervi- sor and focus of supervision. Bernard (1997), with her model, has given a useful contribution to the description of the roles of the supervisor and the kind of skills that supervision pays attention to. Bernard divides and defines the activities of the supervisor into three different roles: teacher, therapist and consultant. In each of these the supervisor must identify what kind of skills the psychologist seems to need in order to develop professionally: process skills, conceptualizing skills or personal skills. The concepts in Bernard’s model help supervisors and researchers describe what the former are doing, enabling them to be flexible and conscious in the use of roles and focus – in accordance with the needs of the supervisees. Dealing with Problems in Supervision A competent supervisor seeks to identify and prevent the occurrence of relational obstacles to a good supervision process, and has access to helpful strategies in order to deal with difficult situations that may arise in supervision. Supervision is in its nature problem solving. The supervisor and supervisee work together to solve the different kinds of problems psychologists meet in their profes- sional work. These are sometimes serious and very difficult to solve, but when we talk about problems in supervision we talk about those that exist and arise between the supervisor and the supervisee. The supervisor prevents many relational problems by putting effort into negotiating a good supervised practice agreement (contract), and by taking responsibility for regular and thorough evaluation of his/her collaborative work and progress with the supervisee. If how to detect, prevent and solve problems are talked about in the initial stage of the relationship, both parties will be better equipped for meeting and solving the interpersonal, relational problems that often occur in all long-lasting collaborative, close relationships. Such problems in supervision typically arise from: • differences in theory preferences; • differences in attitudes and values; • differences in personal responses to challenges and problems; • interpersonal attraction or dislikes; • conflicts of interests. 121 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Another main area of conflict is connected to the evaluative, gatekeeping responsi- bility of the supervisor. The supervisor needs to be conscious of ethical dilemmas in supervision, related to the previously mentioned conflict areas, and behave in accordance with ethical guidelines. This also means that the supervisor must ensure they acquire the pro- fessional skills needed, or help the supervisee move in the appropriate direction, if a topic in which the supervisor is not competent is presented. It is an ethical ob- ligation of the supervisor not to use his/her professional knowledge and authority to gain advantage at the expense of the supervisee, or to humiliate or suppress the supervisee. The supervisor should consistently act and communicate in a way that demonstrates respect for the supervisee and his/her personal integrity. The supervi- sor serves as a model for the supervisee with regard to professional behaviour and communication. When serious problems disrupt the supervision, a third person should be con - tacted. This should be a trusted person or institution agreed upon and stated in the supervision contract. A well-functioning supervisory relationship is very well equipped to deal with challenges, disagreements and problems. It is the task of the supervisor to understand and act when a third person should be consulted. This could be because of a negative development in the supervisory relationship, or if the supervisor is unsure whether or not the supervisee is meeting their pro - fessional requirements. The work of psychologists is challenging on many levels and in many ways. Ade- quately performing our work as professional psychologists will steadily push us out- side our comfort zone. Successful professional development requires that we are willing and able to master our “normal” work challenges, working continuously to improve. Rønnestad and Skovholt (2013) investigate the phenomena influencing practitioner development over several decades. To better understand these process- es they introduce the following models: (i) a “phase model” for the development of psychologists; (ii) a “thematic model” for specific areas/challenges that need to be addressed and mastered; and (iii) a “process model” for the development or the stagnation of the psychologist as a practitioner. They point out that an awareness of work complexity and an active reflecting attitude when facing work challenges are essential for continuous development. Supervision is not only for beginners in the profession, as it is also of great value for experienced psychologists. It promotes growth and development, and counteracts burnout in the lifelong learning adventure of the professional psychologist. 122 Edited by Anja Podlesek Module 2 of the Training of Supervisors: Development of Supervision Competences 10 The aims of Module 2 • To create a solid understanding of supervision as a distinct professional activity. • To develop understanding of the role and responsibility of the supervisor. • To develop clinical supervision skills. • To increase awareness of ethical dilemmas in the professional work of the pro- gramme participants and in the supervision process. • To foster the development of professional competences of the psychologist (the supervisee) with evaluative feedback on the described and observed pro- fessional conduct which facilitates learning, explorative problem solving, and opening of new perspectives in complex clinical situations. Expected learning achievements • The understanding of supervision as a developmental process. • Knowledge of various supervision models. • Ability to negotiate a supervision agreement. • Recognition of fundamental factors required for establishing trustful relationships. • Ability to adjust the supervisory relationship with the help of regular mutual evaluation. • Creation of collaborative relationship which enables safe discussion of any dif- ficulties experienced, both in the supervisee’s practice and in the supervisory relationship. • Ability to identify the resources and developmental tasks of the psychologist. • Ability to assist the supervisees in their description of their needs and ques- tions, understanding and resolution of difficulties at work. • Application of role playing as a method for exploration and teaching. • The knowledge of different supervision methods and the application of meth- ods in a flexible and adjusted manner in supervision. • Recognition of different roles and focuses of the supervisor. • Giving regular evaluative feedback based on concrete descriptions of the ob- served behaviour and explicit evaluation criteria in a balanced and develop- ment-oriented manner. • Ability to recognize and be aware of ethical dilemmas in professional perfor- mance and the supervised practice. • Ability to recognize and reflect on a difficult situation in supervision. 10  The program was prepared by Mona Duckert and Bjarte Kyte. The training leaders within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project were: Mona Duckert and Bjarte Kyte, supervisor experts who lead a similar training of supervisors within the framework of the Norwegian Psychological Association, and supervisory groups’ leaders Anita Kovačik, Jožica Možina, Julija Pelc, Vita Poštuvan, Andreja Rihter and Blanka Tacer, under the leadership of Mateja Štirn. 123 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia • Reflection on the influence of the behaviour and attitude of the supervisor on the collaboration in a supervisory relationship. • Understanding when it is good to seek advice from a third person in cases when the supervisory relationship takes a negative turn. Training is intended for prospective supervisors, i.e. for the qualified psycholo- gists with work experience in different fields of psychology, and for supervisors of supervisors, i.e. psychologists with long term work experience and previous experience in supervision. The aim of training supervisors of supervisors is to ob - tain in-depth and more solid knowledge of supervision. Besides the above-mentioned learning achievements, they are expected to know how to lead supervisory groups consisting of supervisors, apply the reflecting team method, and offer individual and group supervision of supervision. Module 2 scope Two two-day workshops (eight hours per day; 32 hours altogether); additional learning activities: individual supervision or inclusion into a supervisory group led by the supervisor and where the participants receive supervision of their supervi- sion (minimum of six meetings). Teaching methods Short lectures including demonstrations on video recordings, reflective activities (individual, group, or plenary), skill training in small groups, role playing, and the use of reflecting teams. Contents The first scope: 1. Definition and understanding of supervision (supervision models). 2. Establishment of the supervisory relationship – negotiations for concluding a supervisory agreement. 3. Establishment of the supervisory relationship – evaluation in supervision and evaluation of the supervision process. 4. Evaluative feedback on the conduct observed. 5. Reflecting team. 6. Role playing. 7. Group practicum: Application of supervision tools. The second scope: 1. Frequent and recurring difficulties in supervision. 2. The supervisor role and areas of focus in supervision. 3. Assessment – evaluation – feedback on the supervisor’s skills/qualities. 4. Question assessment. 5. When supervision becomes more difficult. 124 Edited by Anja Podlesek Assessment No formal assessment is planned. Recommended literature for participants: APA. (2014). Guidelines for Clinical Supervision in Health Service Psychology. Ac- cessible at: https://www.apa.org/about/policy/guidelines-supervision.pdf Vita Poštuvan Psychology Ethics in Supervision The first codes of ethics related to psychology were developed after World War II, and these were produced to emphasize the principles and standards of ethical conduct which are important for humanity, as well as to offer a moral foundation for the pro - fession (Sinclair, 2012). Key values which are promoted by such standards, principles, guidelines, and rules, are acting for the public good, ensuring the quality of profes - sional work for service users, and informing the public about the competences of psy - chologists who adhere to the related codes of conduct. These guidelines are important for internalization of ethical principles, while rules and sanctions are necessary for establishing and maintaining ethical order (American Psychological Association, 1992). The ethical conduct of psychologists is influenced by professional and ethical guide- lines, codes of ethics, and rules, as well as (i) personal beliefs, values, and attitudes, (ii) the workplace (whether it is a larger or smaller organization with its own set of rules, or an independent business), and (iii) relationships with colleagues or other consulting bodies, and consultations with them in cases of complex and difficult sit- uations and ethical dilemmas (Pettifor, McCarron, Schoepp, Stark, & Stewart, 2009). Moreover, several studies point out that ethical conduct depends on the character- istics of clients who a psychologist works with (Pomerantz & Pettibone, 2005). Ethical Dilemmas in Psychological Practice Ethical dilemmas occur when a psychologist is in an unclear situation with regard to different aspects of ethical conduct, when there are ethical conflicts between the 126 Edited by Anja Podlesek different actors involved, or when an individual’s principles and the values of ethical conduct conflict with each other (Behnke, 2005). In the 1990s researchers studied which areas of work psychologists were most con- cerned with. Their findings show that most frequent problems occur in the following areas of work: information confidentiality (18%); unclear, ambiguous, or conflicting relationships (17%); income, action plan, work setting and methods (14%); academic dilemmas or training (8%); and forensic psychology (5%) (Pope & Vetter, 1992). Similar findings are obtained by Portuguese educational psychologists, who report that over a half of the cases of ethical dilemmas or worries are related to data pro- tection and confidentiality (Mendes, Nascimento, & Abreu-Lima, 2015). It is inter- esting to note here that such worries do not match the contents of the complaints filed against psychologists at various ethics committees. Such complaints more often refer to psychologists’ work-related competences or interpersonal relations. This dif- ference in focus can be explained by the emphasis that psychologists tend to place on confidentiality, with professionals rarely breaking the related rules. Ethics in Supervision Ethical principles in supervisory and mentoring relationships have been covered by several guidelines and ethical codes. The most widely applied of these are those presented by the Canadian Psychological Association (Pettifor et al., 2009) and the American Psychological Association (2014). Ethical dilemmas in supervision are complex, and the related guidelines are not meant as a way of providing simple prescriptions for their resolution, but rather as approaches to achieve the most in- tellectually, morally, and personally mature solutions. The guidelines thus stimulate psychologists to reflect on their conduct. Ethical dilemmas in the supervisory relationship are complex due to the fact that it is difficult to apply ethical principles in everyday supervision, as the relations among the supervisor, the supervisee, clients, and organizations are interwoven. Moreover, supervision is seldom regarded as an independent psychological professional activi- ty which demands specific competences and ethical awareness (Pettifor, McCarron, Schoepp, Start, & Stewart, 2010), even though in practice this is the case. Several authors examine the historical and organizational introduction and evaluation of su- pervision, which is integral part of education in some orientations of psychology, while in others it is not (Ögren & Boethius, 2014). These differences affect the level of attention devoted to ethics by the supervisor and supervisee. The nature of supervision is interactive, and so the accountability for ethical conduct in supervision is shared between the supervisor and supervisee, although the larger share of this responsibility is borne by the supervisor, due to the structure of the work, and his/her higher power, and greater professionalism. The supervisor is the 127 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia party who should ensure the appropriate nature of the relationship, because the su- pervisee is more vulnerable when difficulties occur. Nevertheless, in order to acquire a positive learning experience both the supervisor and supervisee have to both work to maintain a good relationship and the development of the related competences (Pettifor et al., 2009). The supervisor and supervisee must adhere to ethical principles which are valid for the psychological profession, and are written in explicit codes of psychological ethics (e.g., Slovenian Psychologists’ Association, 2002). Ethical conduct in supervision de- pends on supervisors, especially with regard to the following issues (Ögren & Boethi- us, 2014; Pettifor et al., 2009): • The supervisor is a role model of ethical conduct and decision making in accord with ethical principles (and legislation) for the supervisee. As a role model, the supervisor facilitates the supervisee’s acculturation into professional ethics and integration of ethical principles into everyday practice. This implementation in supervision includes reflection on processes and explicitly addresses the profes- sional values which drive the supervisor’s conduct. • The supervisor is primarily responsible for the client’s well-being, his/her sec- ondary responsibility encompasses strengthening of the supervisee’s compe- tences and personal growth. • Supervisors act as gatekeepers and assure that only competent professionals can enter the profession. They have to prevent those who have not developed the required competences or do not exhibit ethical awareness from performing in practice, and this builds up the integrity of psychology as a profession. • Supervisors ensure clear information regarding the expectations and structure of the supervision process, evaluation methods, documentation, and other as- pects of work. • The supervisor keeps detailed documentation on the development and pro- gress of the supervisee’s professional growth. A number of ethically sensitive situations and dilemmas can arise in supervision. When these happen the supervisor and supervisee reflect on which participant is most vulnerable: the client, supervisee, organization, supervisor, and so on. Wor- thington, Tan and Poulin (2002) list several ethically sensitive situations that can happen in relation to the supervisee’s conduct, as follows: • Intentional concealment of important information is one of most frequent ethically sensitive situations that occurs in supervision. This is when the super- visee hides from the supervisor information regarding mistakes at work, per- sonal problems, negative reactions towards clients, counter-transference, and sexual attraction towards clients. These situations in themselves do not neces- sarily present a violation of ethical standards, but in the context of supervision it is important for the supervisee to recognize them, accept them, admit there are difficulties, and work to properly resolve them by means of reflection (and 128 Edited by Anja Podlesek other modalities). It is particularly important that the supervisee discloses in- formation and dilemmas in supervision, and that the supervisor has the com- petences and attitude needed to resolve these. The Code of Professional Ethics of Psychologists requires that psychologists work fairly and sincerely in order to maintain their integrity, and the same holds true for the relationship between the supervisee and supervisor. • Poor documentation of cases – including supervisory cases – can reduce the reliability and credibility of the work. This is why the complete, accurate, and regular recording of cases is essential for protecting all stakeholders in super- vision. Awareness of the importance of keeping documentation is thus part of ethical awareness in the supervision process. • Inadequate level of performance, especially when the supervisee performs work for which he/she is not qualified or has not developed competences, is a breach of ethical standards. Within the framework of supervision it may happen that the supervisee independently performs an intervention without his/her supervisor’s consent, or that the supervisee intentionally mishears the supervi- sor’s guidelines, or that the supervisee misleads the supervisor with regard to his/her qualifications, or that the supervisee does not seek sufficient support in acquiring skills. Further, ethical standards are violated when the supervisee does not introduce himself/herself to the client properly, i.e. as a novice psy- chologist with limited competences. • Ethical standards are violated if the supervisee does not address personal factors which can obstruct competent performance. An awareness that the supervisee could be hiding such issues due to fear of a negative evaluation by the supervisor is thus important. In this context it is vital that the supervisor pays attention to dif - ferent aspects of potential discrimination, enables open discussions and ensures that the supervisory relationship takes place within an appropriate framework that allows for disclosure of the supervisee’s sensitive information. • Unsuitable managing of conflicts. Conflicts are unavoidable in the relation- ship between the supervisor and supervisee. Most frequently they arise due to the differences in theoretical orientations, expectations regarding the style of supervision, or personal preferences. Unresolved conflicts can cause a lot of stress, and the supervisee’s reaction to these may include a reduction in his/ her skills, and feeling psychological burden or doubt. Conflicts trigger resistance with regard to following the supervisor’s instructions, devaluation of the super- visee by his- or herself, or his/her violation of rules. Some supervisees may thus seek alternative advice from other colleagues. While this is welcomed if it con- tributes to further development of the supervisory relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee, it can cause even more difficulties and obstacles in the relationship with the supervisor. • Insufficient engagement in required professional development. During super- vision it is often recommended that the supervisee study the related literature 129 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia and participate in meetings, workshops, and seminars. It can thus be ethically questionable if the supervisee does not work towards obtaining more opportu- nities for developing his/her competences in such ways. The most frequent violations of ethical principles in supervision are related to the supervisee’s insufficient understanding of his/her limited competences and knowl- edge, and, as a consequence, his/her scope of competent authority. When such sit- uations arise the supervisor has to be able to recognize these ethical dilemmas, because he/she should work to support and teach the novice psychologist, while at the same time assessing his/her competence. One difficulty in relation to the violation of ethical principles lies in the inadequacy of supervision in such cases. Despite the widely accepted assumption that it is unethi- cal to perform professional work without adequate competences, there are occa- sions when this rule is not applied. Among the areas where supervision is rarely car- ried out is research work, especially with regard to adopting a professional approach to the participants in such efforts, and in relation to having adequate knowledge of appropriate research methods. These problems can be a result of the irresponsible conduct of either supervisors or supervisees (Goodyear, Crego, & Johnston, 1992). Ethically questionable situations are those where supervision is not adequate with re - gard to its content, is ethically unsuitable, or does not address the supervisee’s needs. Such cases occur when the supervisor does not exhibit sufficient supervisory compe - tences, is not aware of ethical values, or violates an ethical principle, e.g. does not pro - tect information, does not show respect to the supervisee, is in multiple relationships, lies, or otherwise abuses his/her power (Goodyear et al., 1992). Problems can also hap - pen when the organizational framework is not in compliance with the related ethical standards, and these standards may also be different for the supervisor and supervisee. In order to reduce organizational difficulties it is important to address ethical di- lemmas in supervision, and the legal and regulatory aspects of psychologist perfor- mance. Legally regulated areas of psychological performance that need to be ad- dressed include (Brulc, 2015): • Record keeping. • Care for protecting psychological data as sensitive personal information (infor- mation about psychological treatment, anamnesis, treatment results, results of tests, including psychological diagnoses and similar issues). • Giving consent for forwarding personal data and the forwarding itself. • Presenting the clients with their own personal data. Ethical Awareness and Resolution of Ethical Dilemmas Social norms are presented in the rules of expected or accepted conduct, thinking, and feeling, and relate to the social context. Psychological ethics are more specific, 130 Edited by Anja Podlesek because they relate to a certain context. It is thus of key importance that ethical awareness is cultivated among professional psychologists, and thus that we recog- nize the ethical aspects of everyday psychological work. Reflectivity is particularly crucial when the work is seen as settled, routine, and transferred from generation to generation, without any significant changes or evaluations. In this way common ethical norms are established and can persist for a very long time, and thus both good and bad practices can be transferred to novice psychologists. When a psychologist encounters an ethical dilemma, he/she can try to solve it through increased awareness, with the most common methods of achieving this be- ing taking the related ethical guidelines into consideration, accepting help, accept- ing advice in consultations, self-questioning, or making sure that his/her actions stay within the legal framework of conduct. Obstacles to effective resolution of ethical dilemmas are most often perceived in the political and institutional framework of work, insufficient competences with regard to solving dilemmas, and other person- al reasons (Kolay Akfert, 2012). Consultations with colleagues and written ethical standards seem to be the most important resources for directing a person’s conduct when ethical dilemmas occur, with, at least in the 1980s, national acts, research results, and local committees on ethics regarded as less useful (Pope, Tabachnick, & Keith-Spiegel, 1987). The course of solving ethical dilemmas can be carried out in steps. The model pro- posed by Rest (1982) is based on empirical psychological studies and encompasses the following stages: 1. Ethical sensitivity (a psychologist interprets a work situation or performance itself as potentially harmful for a client). 2. Considering and formulating a morally ideal course of reactions with the inte- gration of different aspects of a situation). 3. Motivating more ethical responses to a situation. 4. Plan implementation, which follows defined steps in order to achieve the set goals. In the everyday professional work of a psychologist the distinction between deon- tological ethical principles, which are usually very abstract and universal, and situ- ation-specific ethical virtues, which have to be sensitive to different contexts and personalities, is recognized (Korkut, 2010). In the process of supervision both the supervisor and supervisee reflect on abstract principles and actual virtues in individ- ual situations or dilemmas, and in order to ensure the best outcomes it is necessary to follow clear steps to resolve any ethical dilemmas. It is likely that the guidelines which are valid for the application of ethical principles in general practice could be applied for resolving those dilemmas which occur in the relationship between the supervisor and supervisee. In this context, Francis (2009) states that psychologists have to: 131 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia • Prevent harm; • Maintain respect for the dignity of all people; • Be open and sincere, except in situations when privacy and confidentiality are clear ethical imperatives; • Through their behaviour maintain the equality of relationships. Conclusion Ethical behaviour may change over time, and more appropriate behaviour can be learned (Tubbs & Pomerantz, 2001), and a good supervisory role model and general professional attitude are thus important for transferring ethical awareness from the supervisor to supervisee. Vita Poštuvan Supervision as Care for (Physical and) Mental Health Self-care and care of one’s own mental health can be understood in the framework of important topics for health promotion. Self-care can be seen as a personal will - ingness to be responsible for acquiring the knowledge, attitudes and skills needed to improve or maintain good health (Simmons, 1990). There are different factors which can influence the decisions, behaviour, and results of a lifestyle which stim- ulates good health, and how a person approaches this issue of self-care is an im - portant indicator of how effective he/she will be in various situations (Greaves & Campbell, 2007). People often experience self-care as an aspirational goal, i.e. as a long-term orien- tation. Norcross and Barnett (2008; see also Barnett, 2016) describe self-care as an ethical imperative for psychologists. Rarely do codes of ethics explicitly address self-care, but they do implicitly anticipate it through the principles of integrity and responsibility. To psychologists, self-care means paying enough attention to their physical and psychological well-being in order to be capable of effective imple- mentation of professional standards (Beauchamp & Childress, 2001). A competent psychologist is thus aware that his/her work can be hindered due to personal problems. That is why he/she must not take part in activities where personal problems could prevent competently performed work. In such situa - tions he/she must take proper measures, that is, seek professional support or consultation, and identify how and what tasks he/she can perform (Norcross & Barnett, 2008). 134 Edited by Anja Podlesek Paradox of Self-care in “Non-Vulnerable” Psychologists Psychologists’ work often involves painful aspects of human experience, and this can cause feelings of stress, burnout, secondary traumatization, a reduction in pro- fessional competency, or other unfavourable consequences. The majority of psy- chologists experience stressful situations, and one third of them have experienced the impact of stressful situations on the quality of their work (Guy, Poelstra, & Stark, 1989; Pope, Tabachnick, & Keith-Spiegel, 1897). However, the percentage of those who seek help is much lower than this. Although on a declarative level psychologists tend to agree with the importance of self-care, when it comes to their personal lives many adopt a defensive stance, finding it very hard to admit that they experience distress. This problem relates to the myth of psychologists’ non-vulnerability (Nor- cross & Barnett, 2008). From this perspective, awareness and changing of habitual patterns of professional conduct is important. This is supported by studies which show that professionals are more willing to offer help to those in distress if they themselves feel psychologically well (Sisask et al., 2014). Supervision as a Method for Introducing Self-care in Early Career Psychologists Supervisory relationships offer opportunities for increasing awareness of the impor - tance of self-care. The supervisee imitates and follows the lead of the supervisor, and by observational learning takes on skills and behavioural patterns related to professional work habits and attitudes. By observing the supervisor, the supervisee learns how to recognize stressful situations and his/her responses, starts reflecting on how best to deal with his/her workload and establishes a regular self-care routine. However, for effective transfer of such practices from the supervisor to the supervisee it is necessary that the former exhibit virtues such as personal integrity, as well as the knowledge, atti - tudes, and skills needed for the implementation of his/her own self-care. Supervision also offers opportunities for the supervisor to recognize the supervisee’s distress, and thus to support the supervisee’s constructive resolution of difficulties and encourage (long-term) self-care. This indicates that the supervisor has to recognize the signs and patterns of stressful situations, both in the workplace and personal life. The supervisor thus pays attention to changes in emotional, behavioural, and physical reac - tions, which can appear as changes in mood, social withdrawal, reduction in effective - ness, and/or compensation for all these by being excessively engaged in the workplace. The supervisor thus acts as gatekeeper in order to prevent the supervisee from engaging in the activities where his/her difficulties could hinder competent performance. Even if the supervisor does not have professional experience in solving a particu- lar problem, he/she can apply knowledge and experience to direct the supervisee towards more effective coping with distress, and bring a wider perspective to the 135 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia situation. The skills of decision making and recognition of automatic non-functional behavioural patterns may be of assistance in this. Self-Care Strategy Several programmes aiming to promote self-care have shown to be successful (Nor- cross & Barnett, 2008). In this context, it is essential that psychologists are aware of their motivation for choosing this profession. Altruistic reasons, such as a desire to help others, are usually the most frequent, but are not necessarily sufficient to maintain good mental health. A psychologist has to reflect on a complex combina- tion of things which satisfy and make him/her happy, and because of which he/she works in this profession. Such reflection will cause a greater awareness of self-care, and recognition of the dynamics which led him/her to choose this line of work. The strategies used here differ with regard to their effectiveness, and the best decision is simply to choose the most suitable strategy for each situation. Overall, however, more active methods for problem solving have proven to be better. In prevention programmes it is more effective to apply broad principles or strategies, as opposed to more specific techniques. Being knowledgeable of several techniques is better than mastering one, and less experienced psychologists are thus offered a palette of different options among which they can choose when they are in distress (Norcross & Barnett, 2008). It has to be emphasized that self-care is influenced by both personal characteristics and the features of the environment. This means that strategies can focus either on empowering an individual or changing the home and work environment. Strategies which address the work system should not be neglected (Norcross & Barnett, 2008), and these include supervision. Programmes on mental health should thus point to the fact that self-care is performed in- and outside of work environment, in private life (Norcross & Barnett, 2008). The SUPER PSIHOLOG Project and Self-care Module 3 within the framework of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project was the third part of the training of supervisors/mentors with regard to supervised practice. Its main aim was to inform the participants about different topics in relation to mental health (promotion, strengthening of mental health, and mental health of professionals), and to develop the skills needed to recognize difficulties in the area of mental health and then adopt appropriate measures and interventions. Overall, the goals of Module 3 were in compliance with the guidelines for the pro- motion of public mental health (Roškar et al., 2016), which assert that it is neces- sary to implement educational programmes in mental health for professionals with various backgrounds who come into contact with at-risk populations, with updated 136 Edited by Anja Podlesek educational programmes for those who have previously attended them. Additional- ly, the related measures should encompass the implementation of programmes for strengthening professionals’ mental health and increasing their sensitivity to mental health issues among their colleagues and the experts they come into contact with. These guidelines thus call for the establishment of supervisory groups for profes- sionals, in particular those at the early stages of their careers, and this was also one of the goals of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. Key topics within the framework of Module 3 and self-care were as follows: 1. Burnout: Recognition and prevention. 2. Self-reflection and seeking help. 3. Addiction: Risky and harmful use of alcohol. 4. Ethics and data protection in psychologists’ work. 5. Suicidality: Recognition and interventions in cases of suicidal behaviour. 6. Motivational interviews. 7. Psychological first aid after traumatic events. 8. Crisis counselling. 9. Coping strategies: Increasing the power of problem solving. 10. Mindfulness: Mindfulness as a psychological intervention for everyday life. The Module 3 workshops were not intended only for the supervisors, but were of- fered to various psychologists as short training sessions within the framework of continuing professional development. Module 3 introduced the importance of self-care into the training of supervisors. On the one hand it encouraged the supervisors to pay more attention to their own well-being; on the other it encouraged the supervisees to do the same. Module 3 strengthened the participants’ trust in their own sense of competency when dealing with profession - al dilemmas, personal distress and difficult life situations. While psychologists are not immune to distress, their expertise can help them in managing personal health issues. The Module 3 curriculum is described in the following text. Module 3 of the Training of Supervisors: Self-care 11 The goal of Module 3 is to empower professionals to work in the area of men- tal health. As such, it encompasses three scopes which are interlinked and evidence-based. 1. Knowledge of important topics in relation to mental health – Studies have shown that if professionals are knowledgeable and competent in a particular area, they will be better at recognizing people’s difficulties and will more ac- tively participate in their prevention (Sisask et al., 2014); 11  The program was outlined by Urša Mars Bitenc, Vesna Mlinarič, Črt Bitenc, Vlasta Zabukovec and Anja Podlesek. The program was prepared by Vita Poštuvan. The program leaders in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project were: Vita Poštuvan, Mateja Štirn, Sara Tement, Saška Roškar, Maja Zorko, Alenka Tančič Grum, Urban Brulc and Darja Boben Bardutzky. 137 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia 2. Development of professional skills – If professionals are taught how to apply skills, they can help themselves in different situations, and their sense of com- petency is thus increased. The skills can be used in different situations, includ- ing those where the professionals work with their clients (Blue & Brooks, 1997; Ernaut, 2003); 3. Self-care – Studies on social psychology have shown that the more satisfied and worry-free people are, the more pro-socially they behave (Darley & Batson, 1973). Not only is self-care important for a professional’s mental health, but it indirectly influences the quality of the work performed (Sisask et al., 2014). Figure 5 shows how the topics connect with regard to Module 3’s starting points, while Table 7 presents the key contents of each topic, and competences it develops. Figure 5. Module 3 topics in relation to starting points. Table 7. Module 3 topics, key contents and competences Topic Key contents Competences Burnout: Recognition and prevention • Definition of burnout (clinical and organizational perspectives) • Factors of burnout (e.g. characteristics of workplaces, personal traits) and consequences • Symptoms of burnout and its course • Prevention of burnout • Interventions for burnout prevention • Evaluation (e.g. evaluation of individuals) for difficulties of burnout • Intervention (e.g. person-oriented intervention) for preventing burnout or taking measures for recovery • Continuing professional development • Self-exploration and self-testing on own patterns for burnout • Burnout • Addiction • Suicidality • Ethics and data protection Knowledge of important mental health topics More effective recognition and intervention Skills training Greater well-being improves work performance Development of professional competences or skills Self-care • Motivational interview • Psychological first aid • Crisis counselling • Coping strategies • Self-reflection and help seeking • Mindfulness 138 Edited by Anja Podlesek Topic Key contents Competences Self-reflection and help seeking • Definition of self-reflection • Goals of self-reflection and its benefits • Understanding the course of the process, recommendations for practicing self-reflection and reflection on own practices • Specification of help seeking • Recognition of factors influencing help seeking • Knowledge of methods for strengthening of protective factors • Awareness of the advantages of self- reflection • Stimulation of own self-reflection practices and evaluation of own patterns • Development and strengthening of protective factors for seeking help in distress • Skills of intervention • Strengthening resources for own practice of self-reflection and help seeking Addiction: Risky and harmful use of alcohol • Key data and trends regarding alcohol consumption in the relevant country • Terminology used in the area of alcohol-related problems • Low-risk levels of alcohol consumption • Diagnostic criteria for addiction and key psychological aspects of addiction • Basic characteristics of promotion, primary, secondary and tertiary prevention, and programmes on alcohol related harm reduction • Knowledge of helpful resources and fundamental prevention- promotion programmes implemented in the relevant country with the aim of reducing risky and harmful alcohol consumption • Knowledge or use of proper terminology in the area of alcohol related problems • Analysis of alcohol related issues in the location where a psychologist is employed, and knowledge of key measures for improvement, • Ability to use different tests/psycho- diagnostic instruments or engage in conversation for detection of risky and harmful alcohol consumption by individuals. • Knowledge of help provision and treatment possibilities in the relevant country in cases of alcohol related issues, and adequate referral • Knowledge (and, if possible, collaboration in implementation) of prevention- promotion programmes implemented with the aim of reducing risky and harmful alcohol consumption; taking into consideration research findings on which programmes are effective • Connecting with (other) actors working in the area of alcohol-related difficulties • Understanding the role of psychologist in resolving alcohol-related issues, and encouraging a more critical attitude towards alcohol 139 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Topic Key contents Competences Ethics and data protection in psychologists’ work • Recognition of ethical principles, standards, guidelines and theoretical concepts for the comprehension of ethics, ethical conduct, and awareness • Principles of the Code of Ethics of Psychologists, and European MetaCode of Ethics • Legislative framework regulating the performance of psychologists • Knowledge of ethical awareness concepts • Knowledge of the process of resolving ethical dilemmas • Recognition of ethical dilemmas • Responding to ethically questionable procedures • Awareness of own responsibilities and ways of reacting • Ability to reflect on own ethical conduct and personal attitudes influencing the process of resolving ethical dilemmas Suicidality: Recognition and interventions in case of suicidal behaviour • Characteristics of suicidal behaviour in the relevant country • Knowledge of risk factors and protective factors for the development of suicidal behaviour • Knowledge of the development of suicidal behaviours (minor and major) • Warning signs of suicidal behaviour • Taking measures for different types of suicidal behaviour • Knowledge about depression as the most important risk factor • Specification of preventive activities and their application in practice • Knowledge of methods of promoting mental health • Recognition and evaluation of suicidal behaviour signs and risk factors • Knowledge of effective preventive measures for suicide prevention • Skills for intervention when individuals feel acute suicidal distress • Skills of offering support in cases when a close family member has committed suicide • Knowledge of the related treatment possibilities and adequate referral Motivational interview • Theory of motivation • Basics of motivational interviewing • Application of motivational interviewing for different areas • Recognition of inner motives for changes • Awareness of own motivation • Reflection on and understanding of barriers to communication 140 Edited by Anja Podlesek Topic Key contents Competences Psychological first aid after traumatic events • Definition of psychological first aid • Aims of psychological first aid • Procedure of implementing psychological first aid • Goal specification in post-traumatic application of psychological first aid • Assessment of the post-traumatic application of psychological first aid • Intervention and skills in post-traumatic application of psychological first aid Crisis counselling • Definition and characteristics of crises and traumatic events • Regularities in coping with crises and traumatic events • Possible consequences of crises and traumatic events • Definitions and aims of psychosocial support and assistance • Implementation of psychosocial support and assistance • Other types of psychological and psychotherapeutic assistance • Readiness for crisis events • Definition of and personal building blocks of psychological flexibility • Knowledge of regularities in response to crises and traumatic events and their possible consequences, knowledge of the process of psychosocial support and assistance • Adequate awareness of crisis readiness • Knowledge and skills of assessing and intervening in cases when psychosocial support and assistance are needed in the post-crisis period in one’s own workplace • Reflection on own patterns which can be helpful for personal psychological flexibility in crisis situations Coping strategies: Increasing the power of problem solving • Theories of problem solving • Definition and theoretical basis of character strengths theory • Skills of recognizing problems and problem solving • Skills of reflective practice and strengthening of one’s character strengths • Development of skills, techniques and methods for helping in problematic situations • Evaluation of one’s own character strengths • Analysis of problem-solving methods • Reflective practice and problem solving in the context of character strengths • Transfer of experiential learning techniques to psychological service users 141 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Topic Key contents Competences Mindfulness: Mindfulness as a psychological intervention in everyday life situations • Theoretical foundations of mindfulness • Mindfulness based psychological interventions – recognition, understanding, and action • Comprehension of the importance of the skills of directing attention (focusing) and loving kindness • Knowledge of the importance of recognition of automatic patterns by means of reflection • Method of evaluating suitability and efficacy of mindfulness programmes • Knowledge and analysis of the theoretical foundations and importance of the personification of mindfulness philosophy for self-care • Skills for evaluating the suitability of the application of mindfulness techniques for self-care and for clients • Experiencing kindness and accepting situations without judgment or avoidance • Adopting a distanced perspective and observing one’s own thoughts and emotions as temporal objective mind events • Ability of self-regulation and constructive redirecting of attention The duration of Module 3 Ten eight-hour workshops, with each workshop devoted to a specific topic. Teaching methods Short lectures, demonstrations by video recordings, reflection on films, reflective activities (individually, in groups, plenary), completion of worksheets, discussions in small groups, skill training in small groups, role playing, and so on. Recommended literature for the supervisors Baker, E. K. (2003). Caring for ourselves: A therapist’s guide to personal and pro- fessional well-being. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. The Development of the Supervised Practice System 145 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia In the following chapters, it will be shown how the SUPER PSIHOLOG project devel- oped the system of supervised practice in Slovenia. We want to present how the final results, which we wanted to be reliable and sustainable, were actually accom- plished. Although in the development of supervised practice one has to consider peculiarities of the context in which the system evolves (e.g., the regulation of the profession in the focal state, existing solutions, and so on), our experience can be useful for others in their development of supervised practice or a similar system. For instance, for other states where the supervised practice of psychologists has not been widespread, or in other areas of human service professional work where beginners can benefit from mentoring and supervision, and supervisors can benefit from the supervision of their supervision. Anja Podlesek and Katarina Kocbek Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists The Supervised Practice System Development Plan The development of a complex new system, such as the supervised practice system examined in this book, requires a good plan, which should include the key points of the project 12 , project execution plan, and possible risks. Before responding to the Call for Project Proposals within the Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2009–2014 programme, we intensively worked on the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project Execution Plan (PEP) 13 for half a year, taking into consideration our needs, goals, previous experi- ences, and ideas. Our planning was based on the criteria required by the Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2009–2014 (Norway Grants, 2014). The following points were defined (Faculty of Arts at the University of Ljubljana, 2014): 1. The operator and the main holder of the Project. The holder is responsible for the coordination of activities of all collaborating partners and is the main engine of the project’s implementation. 2. Project partners. We identified who would collaborate in the system devel- opment, what the partners’ activities were, their references, and what their human resources, technical, and financial capacities were, in relation to the 12  When talking about the project, we have this SUPER PSIHOLOG project in mind; however, under this title a reader can understand the development of supervised practice in a wider sense, outside the framework of the program financed by public resources, that is, as a project organized by a professional association, organization, and similar. 13  The collaborators in the preparation of the project content and NIP were: Črt Bitenc, Urša Mars Bitenc, Vesna Mlinarič, Anja Podlesek and Vlasta Zabukovec. 148 Edited by Anja Podlesek implementation of the project. We determined the expected contribution of each partner, their role and responsibilities during the project implementa- tion, their tasks, and what results and impacts of the project they would help achieve. The definition of the tasks and responsibilities of different partners facilitates the implementation of the project. 3. Members of the project team. Their role in the project, key knowledge and experiences, and their tasks and responsibilities were specified. An outline of the knowledge and experiences of individual partners/persons helps predict whether a partner/person will be capable of performing a task, and also aids in finding partners/persons who are most qualified for the performance of a particular activity. 4. Project justification. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of the situation and problems addressed by the project, and the challenges faced by it. 5. Project goals. We illuminated how the project would contribute to the reso- lution of problems. The goals were linked to the goals of different users, and incorporated into national and European strategies and directives, and linked to corresponding documents (guidelines, rules). The incorporation of the project into a broader framework was enabled by our emphasizing the importance of the project and providing arguments for the project goals, for instance, in con- versations with competent authorities. For instance: In the project we will de- velop and implement a comprehensive training programme for supervisors and train 25 supervisors. The system of the supervised practice will be introduced and the pilot supervision will be implemented. Each supervisor will supervise two novice psychologists for the period of one year. Supervisors will participate in regular supervision where they will analyse and reflect on the acquired super- vision experiences. We will train five supervisors of supervisors. The project will follow the Resolution on the National Programme on Mental Health 2011–2016, the EU Guidelines for the Employment Policy, Regulations on EuroPsy, and the Code of Professional Ethics of Psychologists. 6. Target groups. For instance: A target group consists of psychologists, in particu- lar novice psychologist, supervisors, and supervisors-of-supervisors. 7. Project work plan. We defined how the project would try to achieve the spec- ified goals, how it would surpass the existing practice, what its main activities would be, and what its key results would be. We identified different groups of activities (i.e. work packages) and defined individual activities. Each of these was described in detail. For instance: The project encompasses the following ac- tivities: coordination and management of the project (tasks of the project lead- er, steering committee, accountants, partner administrative staff, the project supervisor), information and publicity, the training of supervisors (preparation and implementation of workshops), the implementation of the supervised prac- tice (establishment of supervisory dyads, supervisory groups of supervisors, and web platform, the implementation of the supervised practice, and supervision 149 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia of supervision), and the evaluation of activities (evaluations of training, the su- pervised practice implementation, the supervision of supervision, and the entire project), and so on. The steering committee will meet once every half a year. Resources for the conduction of the meeting are set to the amount … and so on. 8. Planned outcomes of the project. We defined what exactly we wanted to ac- complish with the project. The indicators of outcomes and their target values were determined for each project activity. For instance: Prepared curriculum for the training of supervisors, individual presentations, teaching materials. The curricula for each part of the programme (3) will be posted on the project web- site. Attendance of participants in workshops will be recorded (25 supervisors present, the minimum attendance of 80%). Submitted documents as evidence of fulfilled requirements (each supervisor submits two reports). 9. Project financial plan. We determined the resources needed for the implemen- tation of each activity. 10. Project roadmap. We determined the duration of each activity, i.e. from when it started to when it finished. 11. The sustainability of project results and its financial and institutional aspects. We anticipated who would implement the developed system after the end of the project and what resources they would utilize. Long term impacts on the target group were considered, as well as further cooperation among the part- ners. For instance: The Slovenian Psychologists’ Association will care for the im- plementation of the supervised practice after the project has been concluded. Module 3 workshops will be offered to psychologists by the Slovenian Psycholo- gists’ Association within the continuing professional development activities, and to other professionals in the field of mental health; workshop fees will be paid by the participants. Supervisors and supervisors of supervisors will be allowed to use project forms, documents, guidelines for the implementation of the super- vised practice and the supervision of supervision, and web platform for carrying out and monitoring the supervised practice. Supervisors will be awarded a su- pervision qualification certificate. 12. The information and publicity plan. Aims, target groups of communication activ- ities, communication strategies, activities for spreading information and publici- ty, and evaluation of the activities were defined. For instance: The target groups for information and publicity activities are psychologists, novice psychologist, students of psychology, the staff at departments of psychology, employers of psychologists, the wider public (potential users of psychological services), and the competent authorities (ministries). Strategies for communication include: the use of the project website, leaflets, e-news, lectures at departments of psy- chology, breakfasts with journalists, and special conferences about the project. Evaluation of informative activities will be based on the following: number of disseminated leaflets, website visitations, contacts with journalists, and confer- ence papers. 150 Edited by Anja Podlesek 13. Project implementation risks. We defined the risks in the implementation of the project which could hinder the performance of project activities, the achieve- ment of goals, and the overall results of the project (e.g. difficulties in obtain- ing the needed resources, including a lack of human resources). Even with a good plan it is not possible to accurately predict the course of a project, as unforeseen obstacles can occur and thus the plan has to be adjusted or even changed significantly at certain points. Therefore, it is good to consider certain risks in advance, in order to assess what measures to take to avoid these, or minimize them. For instance: A risk in the training of supervisors is the inten- sity of the training programme, and thus its implementation was spaced out equally through the entire period of the project. A risk in conducting supervisory meetings is a lack of resources for travel expenses and for the payment of super- visors. Supervision meetings can thus occasionally be carried out by means of video teleconferencing. Obstacles to the Implementation of the Supervised Practice When developing a system of supervised practice we must be aware of the current situation. The main limitation is caused by legal decisions which define who can independently practice psychology in the focal state. If there is no law specifying that supervised practice is a prerequisite for independent performance of psycho- logical services, it is virtually impossible to ensure that all novice psychologists will participate in the supervised practice. The inclusion of supervised practice into a system where the profession is not formally regulated can be difficult, in particular if certain areas of psychology have already been regulated and there no need is seen for a change to the system, and other areas have not been regulated and there is no culture of participating in supervision. An important limitation in the implementation of supervision is the time which has to be scheduled for supervision by the supervisor and psychologist, i.e. time needed for the supervision sessions and preparation for them. Moreover, time must also be devoted to the supervision of supervision. If supervision is not regulated by the system and there is no legal provision stating that part of the work time should be set aside for supervision, then this has to be performed outside of the usual work hours. The supervisee and supervisor, as well as the other participants (supervisors of supervisors, the supervised practice administrator, training facilitators, etc.) need to invest extra time and resources into the implementation of the supervised prac- tice. In such cases the motivation for long-term collaboration can be weak. Obstacles to the implementation of supervision sessions can be of a financial nature, a lack of space for the implementation of supervision sessions and for the training of supervisors (and supervisors of supervisors), a lack of human and other resourc- es (e.g. qualified supervisors and supervisors of supervisors who are experts in a 151 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia particular psychological domain, competent trainers, equipment for the implemen- tation of training, equipment for quality performance of supervision sessions, such as instruments for recording of psychological work), lack of time on behalf of the participants, and inconvenient locations of the supervisor or supervisee. Another obstacle has recently emerged in the implementation of supervised prac- tice, as there has been a lack of psychologist positions on the labour market and thus employment is no longer stable or assured in this profession. Changes in work posi- tions are therefore very frequent, and novice psychologists often apply for part-time employment or do casual jobs. Changes in the area of employment among early career psychologists can be an obstacle to one-year inclusion in supervised practice with a supervisor who is qualified for supervision in a particular field of work. Another important obstacle may be insufficient devotion to the profession, and the system of supervised practice needs to be cared for in this regard. It is essential that psychologists do not have any reservations towards the system administrators, their management of financial resources, of their leadership strategies. A further obstacle can be caused by a lack of interest among the educational insti- tutions which provide psychology study programmes if they do not offer support to the system, give timely information to students, develop their awareness of the importance of the supervised practice, prepare them for internships, and so on. Moreover, other obstacles to accepting supervised practice as part of psychologist training are an insufficient knowledge of the focal society and work organizations (leadership, co-workers, and non-psychologist mentors in traineeship) with regard to psychological services, importance of supervised practice, psychologists’ need for supervision, lack of understanding about the needs of psychologists who want to participate in supervision, or those who want to be trained as supervisors and su- pervisors of supervisors, lack of interest and support for training in the workplace, fear of work organization of disclosing business information to external profession- als, feeling of organizations of being controlled by people who do not have one’s interests at heart, and feeling of being unprotected. Importance of Information and Publicity with regard to the Supervised Practice Good publicity and information about the supervised practice and its importance are essential for the establishment of the related system. If we want novice psy- chologists to participate in supervision, then supervised practice needs to be a re- quirement or we need to motivate these individuals to take part in it. If the super- vised practice is required, e.g. to obtain a license for practicing psychology, and it is not possible to offer such services in the state without it, then psychologists who want to practice psychology independently will register for it without the system 152 Edited by Anja Podlesek administrator needing to make any additional effort. The situation is different if psy- chological practice in the state is not regulated and participation in supervision is not required to start work, as is the case in Slovenia for the majority of fields of psychological practice. Inclusion in supervised practice in the first year of their ca- reers can be an additional workload for young psychologists if the supervision is not regulated, in particular when they do not have experience of supervision, or at least do not have positive experiences, and have to do it in their spare time and pay for it. Expenses for inclusion into supervised practice can be too high for novice psycholo- gists to bear, and thus they will not be able to participate in supervision even if they are aware of its importance. Until a culture of inclusion into supervised practice is established, special attention must be paid to informing psychologists (students, beginners, supervisors, and oth- er psychologists) and their employers, as well as the users of psychological servic- es, about the importance of supervision. Various stakeholders should feel the need to ensure and maintain high quality psychological services, and so understand the importance of participating in supervision. They have to be willing to support the supervised practice of the novice psychologists, the activities of the supervisory dyad, groups of supervisors, and so on. The positive aspects of inclusion into the supervised practice must outweigh possible negative points, such as financial conse- quences, time and energy devoted to supervision, and so on. How can we promote supervised practice? At the closing conference, we discussed with the participants of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project how to establish a sustaina- ble system of the supervised practice in Slovenia, and, among other things, how to promote supervision practice among (future) psychologists and their employers. A summary of findings, as set out below, points to what needs to be addressed by any such promotion efforts. The system of supervised practice enables a higher quality of psychological ser- vices and greater protection of the users of these. Supervised practice represents the systematic training of psychologists, and it impacts the professional devel- opment of psychologists as it enhances the building up of the required compe- tences. It thus makes it easier for the psychologists to transfer from education into the workplace. The supervisees gain an opportunity to properly apply the knowledge acquired in the supervised practice, through feedback received from more experienced colleagues, helping in the resolution of ethical dilemmas. With supervised practice the psychologists develop awareness of the need for further professional growth, and build their network of colleagues. They can thus shape their psychological practice in contact with colleagues even if they do not work in a team of psychologists and may even be the only psychologist in their work or- ganizations. Supervised practice supports collaborations and connections among 153 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia psychologists, and can aid when transferring between psychological domains. The psychologists who take part in supervision feel more competent, are highly moti- vated with regard to their work (the feeling of greater competence leads to great- er assurance and feelings of safety), and have a stronger professional identity. Participation in supervision during the supervised practice is beneficial for both supervisees and supervisors. The psychologists who take part are in contact with professional knowledge, they apply and upgrade it, and are in contact with new ideas in the field of practice. Novices then transfer their knowledge to prac- tice, while supervisors gain new knowledge from supervisees, update and up- grade their expertise. This is beneficial for the institutions where supervisors are employed. The system of supervised practice includes the offer of quality education for nov- ices, supervisors, and supervisors of supervisors. It sets educational standards for psychologists after they have concluded their academic studies. It is thus a form of lifelong learning. Initially it means the acquisition of new information from ex- perienced colleagues, and later it enables further professional development from the role of a novice to that of a supervisor, and then to a supervisor of supervi- sors. Institutions gain an opportunity to offer quality mentoring and supervision with the training of psychologists, and thus the better development of new hu- man resources. The system of supervised practice enhances networking and connections among the various domains within psychology. It presents a method of self-regulation of profession, and thus supports higher recognition of the profession. Various parties should be informed about the importance of the supervised practice and its implementation: those employed at departments of psychology, psychology students, novice psychologists, those who independently perform psychological ser- vices, employers of psychologists, the competent authorities and wider public. The users of psychological services, the general public, and employers in particular have to be aware of and understand the distinctions between novice and experienced psychologists, i.e. differences in their competences and responsibilities. They need to understand that supervision can contribute to enhancing the quality of psycho- logical services, as in this way they will support the inclusion of novice psycholo- gists in supervision, the training of supervisors, and the offering of assistance to colleagues when needed. In the SUPER PSIHOLOG project special attention was paid to informing both the pro - fessional and wider public about the EuroPsy Certificate and about the benefits of the supervised practice of psychologists. A comprehensive graphic design system was created for the project. Recognition of the project content was also achieved with the 154 Edited by Anja Podlesek project acronym, SUPER PSIHOLOG, which the professional public started to associate with the supervised practice system. The central communication strategy was the use of the project website, which in future will also support the system of the supervised practice. Links to the website were added to the websites of project partners and to Slovenian EuroPsy website. The contents on the website were in the Slovenian lan- guage, although key information and outcomes were also presented in English. The project and supervised practice were presented to psychology students and to staff at departments of psychology, who are supposed to encourage students to join the supervised practice in the future. The supervised practice and project were introduced to the competent authorities at meetings, and information was also spread using leaflets on the EuroPsy Certificate and project, formal correspondence, and personal communication. The professional and wider public were also informed about the project’s activities and results by means of electronic news, the Facebook page of the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association, and presentations at national pro- fessional and scientific meetings and conferences. Three public events were organized: (i) a breakfast with journalists, where project goals were presented and the wider public was informed about the implementa- tion of the project and the need for the regulation of the profession; (ii) an interim conference, where a professional audience was presented with details of the pro- ject’s activities, while discussions on the traineeship and mentoring/supervision of psychologists in Slovenia were also carried out; and (iii) the closing conference of the project, where its results and the guidelines for further implementation of the supervised practice in Slovenia were presented. Finally, the Guidelines for the Implementation of the Supervised Practice of Psy- chologists in Slovenia were prepared, and a booklet intended for psychologists giv- ing details of the supervised practice was created, as well as one for their employers. The Administrator of the Supervised Practice The tasks of the administrator of the supervised practice (hereafter: the system ad- ministrator) include expanding the network of supervisors, caring for the training of supervisors and their supervision, connecting the supervisors and novice psycholo- gists, i.e. forming supervisory dyads, caring for supervision agreements, monitoring the implementation of the supervised practice, assisting and advising supervisory dyads in the resolution of possible complications in the implementation of the su- pervised practice, taking action in cases when the implementation of the supervised practice is inadequate, maintaining and upgrading the web platform where the in- formation on the supervised practice can be accessed, updating the forms of the supervised practice, procedures of implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the supervised practice, in accordance with the results of project evaluations. 155 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia We planned that during the project and after it had been concluded the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association would be responsible for the system of the supervised practice. The Slovenian Psychologists’ Association is not the only psychological association in Slovenia, as there is also the Chamber of Clinical Psychologists of Slovenia. Choosing the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association as the system admin- istrator was a logical consequence of many factors. This Association is a member of the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations (EFPA), provides admin- istrative support to the Slovenian EuroPsy National Awarding Committee, works to establish the EuroPsy standards in Slovenia, and was previously engaged in es- tablishing conditions for awarding the EuroPsy certificate. The Association created the draft of the Psychological Practice Act which proposes one-year of supervised practice as a requirement for the acquisition of a basic license to perform psy- chological services in Slovenia. It has a function of connecting all psychologists in Slovenia, including those from different fields of practice, caring for the continuing professional development of psychologists. Administering and managing the sys- tem of supervised practice was thus logically included among the responsibilities of the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association. While the Association has resources for the financial and administrative support of the supervised practice, these are limited, and providing a long-term solution to this issue was one of key tasks of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. Another key task of the project was to ensure the fundamental conditions for the beginning of supervised practice, its implementation, monitoring and assessment after it had been concluded (i.e., preparing what was needed for the system admin- istrator to start work with an immediate implementation of the next stage after the conclusion of the project). As part of the project various methods of formalization of the supervised practice and its support were developed, including the following products and services: 1. The Supervision Agreement. 2. Numerous instruments for implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the supervised practice for both supervisors and supervisees. These assist the su- pervisory dyads in all steps of the supervision process. 3. Website and web platform. The purpose of the website was to collect all in- formation regarding the SUPER PSIHOLOG project and the supervised practice in one place, including the materials for the training of supervisors and instru- ments for supervision. The web platform was also intended to enable (and make it easier) for the supervisory dyads to document and monitor the super- vised practice and supervision process, and allow communication between the supervisee and supervisor outside of the supervision sessions, communication between the supervisory dyad and administrator of the supervised practice sys- tem, and communication between different supervisory dyads. 156 Edited by Anja Podlesek Forming of Supervisory Dyads Applications for the positions of supervisors and supervisees were collected through separate public tenders and calls for collaboration. In the public tender for 25 supervisors we invited psychologists with at least three years of work experience (independent psychological practice) in any field of the psychology. Priority was given to the candidates who had a EuroPsy Certificate and experience of mentoring of students in an internship. In the tender it was announced that the project required attendance and active par- ticipation in three modules for the training of supervisors for a total of 160 hours, and in six meetings of supervisory groups of supervisors, i.e. about once every two months. The applicants were required to accept one psychology student for a one- month internship in their work organization. They had to be willing to guide the one-year supervised practice of two novice psychologists from the field of their pro- fessional practice, for four hours per month for each beginner. The applicants were expected to participate in the evaluation of the programmes for the training of su- pervisors (sharing ideas and suggestions for improvement), and in the development of a sustainable system for the supervised practice of psychologists. The potential supervisors’ applications contained a curriculum vitae, evidence of work experience and experience of supervision, and a letter explaining their mo- tivation. They also sent a letter of confirmation in which a responsible person at the work organization where they were employed confirmed that the organization would accept a psychology student for a one-month internship within the frame- work of the training of the supervisor. A sufficient number of supervisors responded to this public tender process, and successful applicants signed a contract for 10% employment for the period of 13 months while the project was being implemented. The supervisors received a small payment for their participation in the project, and travel expenses for attendance at supervision and supervision-of-supervision sessions were also reimbursed. With regard to the supervisees, in the public tender we invited 25 psychology stu - dents in their final semester or additional (graduation) year who were interested in taking part in the one-month internship under supervision. In the tender it was an - nounced that students’ responsibilities would include keeping regular documentation on the internship, as well as attendance at two trainings sessions of the supervisors, implementation of activities important for the supervisors’ training (e.g. participating in negotiations, specifying competences, regular reflective practice), preparation of self-assessments of their competences, giving feedback to the supervisors regarding their guidance of the internship, the supervisors’ competences, and an evaluation of the internship (made together with the supervisors). In order to motivate students to apply, we wrote in the tender that one advantage of taking part in an internship under 157 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia supervision of a psychologist who was being trained for the supervisor was greater systematic development of their competences, and that the experiences gained in this kind of internship had previously proved to be very positive. We also invited the stu - dents to attend presentations about the project at different departments of psychology. A sufficient number of students in the first and second phases of their psychology and biopsychology studies responded to the public tender. Since several psychology study programmes also schedule internships in the middle of the students’ studies, and not only towards the end, it was decided to also include students in earlier se- mesters in the project, and not only those in their final semesters. In their applications the students specified the preferred fields of psychology where they would like to perform an internship. They also specified the locations in Slovenia where it was convenient for them to do an internship, as if they lived too far to make daily visits to the work organization where the supervisor was employed, then this would soon present problems. On the basis of applications and available supervisors the project coordinator prepared a recommended list of supervisory dyads, and shared this with the students at a joint meeting. The dyads were formed based on matching the supervisors’ fields of work and the students’ preferred domains. Due to greater interest in certain fields of psychology (in particular clinical psychology), and the lack of supervisors in those fields, a few applicants withdrew because they did not want to do an internship in another field. Some supervisors were thus left without students due to the relative remoteness of their work organizations. However, these supervisors even - tually got students for the internships later in the project after additional calls for stu - dents, and some of the supervisors made agreements with the students by themselves. In the public tender for novice psychologists we invited 50 young psychologists. We emphasized that one advantage of performing psychological services under the supervision given by a qualified supervisor was a more effective and less stressful entrance into psychological practice, due to the more systematic development of a novice practitioner, and that the support provided by an experienced psycholo- gist could strengthen positive feelings towards the profession and thus support the mental health of the supervisee (e.g., burnout would be less likely). It was empha- sized that any of the novice psychologists who received a positive assessment of their competences by their supervisors at the end of the supervised practice could use this to obtain the EuroPsy Certificate. The fundamental requirements for partic- ipation in the project for supervisees or novice psychologists were: (i) A university degree in psychology (having completed a four-year pre-Bologna university degree psychology study programme, or a second-cycle Bologna master’s degree psycholo- gy programme). (ii) Employment (preferably full-time) for performing psychological services in any field of psychological practice or other possibilities for the regular implementation of psychological services (e.g. part-time employment through the whole period of the project; possibility of volunteer traineeship; regular participa- tion in volunteer activities where an individual performs the work of a psychologist, 158 Edited by Anja Podlesek and similar). The application thus had to include a detailed description of the possi- bilities for performing psychological services. (iii) Zero to three years of work experi- ences in performing psychological services. The tender included a description of the following project-related responsibilities of the novice psychologists: (i) Conscientious implementation of one-year super- vised practice in the psychologist’s primary work organization and in agreement with the supervisor. (ii) Regular participation in supervision guided by the super- visor, in the scope of four hours per month (two hours every two weeks, in agree - ment with the supervisor). (iii) Assisting the supervisor in implementing his/her responsibilities within the framework of the training of supervisors (e.g. reflection on the supervisory relationship, giving feedback about supervision, documenta- tion of the supervised practice). The candidates’ applications included a curric- ulum vitae with details of work experiences and the work organization or where they perform psychological services (i.e., a description of the work position and related services). They also included a letter explaining their motivation for want- ing to join the project with their application. This public tender was responded to by fewer novices than anticipated. Therefore, al - though we intended to close the public tender two months after the beginning of the project, we had to prolong it and so the tender remained open during the entire project. After the closure of the first public tender (after the tender had been open for two months) we connected the supervisors and novice psychologists based on their curriculum vitae and letters or motivation. If this was not feasible we contacted the novice and tried to find him/her a supervisor in the related field of practice. If this was not possible we informed the novice that he/she was on a waiting list, and then told him/her if a vacant position appeared. Novices who joined later in the project were connected with available supervisors or with those who were willing to accept more than two people in the supervisory relationship, or they were added to the waiting list. There were several novices who expressed a desire to join a supervisory relation- ship, but practiced only occasionally. Several others terminated their employment relationships soon after their applications. We had to end the collaborations in these instances because they were not able to work on real cases in their supervi - sion. A few supervisory dyads experienced difficulties when a novice changed the field of psychological service. If a dyad’s relationship lasted for a longer period of time – for instance, if they were already in the second half of a one-year super- vised practice – the dyad continued the supervisory relationship even though this could be less than optimal due to incongruence of their fields of practice. Because there were not enough novice psychologists who met the requirements for inclu - sion into a one-year supervised practice, we enabled few supervisors to lead a prolonged two- to three-month internship with pre-graduates of the psychology 159 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia master’s degree, so that they could gain some experience in the longer supervi - sion of a young psychologist and apply the knowledge about mentoring and super- vision which they acquired during the training. Supervision Agreement The conclusion of an agreement or contract is very important for the supervision and supervisory relationship (Duckert & Kyte, 2015b; Falender & Shafranske, 2004). It is an important part of the process because it provides a framework for the work of the supervisor and supervisee, defines their responsibilities and rights, and spec- ifies goals and the context of their performance. The supervision agreement which was used in the course of the project by the supervisory dyads (the supervisor and novice psychologist) was developed in collaboration with project partners. We de- veloped the agreement based on the one used by our Norwegian colleagues in the implementation of the supervision of clinical psychology specialists. The agreement was translated with the help of Slovenian project partners, and adapted and supplemented when needed. We decided to divide the agreement into two parts – general and specific. The general part, which is the same for all the su- pervisory dyads, defined the purpose of the supervised practice, goals and purpose of supervision, and the responsibilities of the supervisor and supervisee. General rules for the implementation of the supervised practice were defined (complying with legislation and ethical principles, dual relationship, evaluation of work, and specifications of collaboration with the administrator of the agreement). The spe- cific part of the agreement was divided into several sections which are completed by both the supervisor and supervisee, and this part differed for each supervisory dyad. In the specific part of the agreement the supervisory dyad specified their ex- pectations, the context and contents of supervision (how and when the specification of goals would be carried out, development of competences, development of the supervisory relationship, documentation of the supervised practice, planning work after the supervised practice had been concluded, etc.), delivering the documen- tation and materials to the supervision sessions, formal managing of supervision (frequency and duration of supervision, rules for cancelation or change of sessions, other rules, how the evaluation of the supervisee would be performed), prevention of obstacles which can occur during the supervision process, the method of evalua- tion, and how to amend the agreement. The supervisory dyads concluded the agreement and completed the form in the first month of their collaboration. The supervisor and supervisee printed and signed three copies of the general part of the agreement. Each of them kept one copy of the agreement, and the third was sent to the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association, which operated as the administrator of the agreements. Two copies of the specific part of the agreement were printed and signed, then kept until the conclusion of the 160 Edited by Anja Podlesek supervised practice and six months after the conclusion of supervision. During the supervised practice the two parties checked the agreement and, if needed, revised it with mutual consent. The supervision agreement form was used by all supervisory dyads (the supervisor and novice psychologist, or the supervisor and the student on the prolonged in- ternship). Negotiations for the specific part of the agreement were carried out for approximately one month for the majority of the supervisory dyads (until the third session). After that they sent the signed general part of the agreement to the system administrator. In cases when there was a termination of the agreement (e.g., due to maternity leave or long-term sick leave), the supervisory dyad sent a written expla- nation to the administrator. The Instruments for Monitoring the Development of the Supervisory Relationship The supervisors and supervisees were given various instruments created in the project to better prepare for and implement the supervised practice. These in- cluded a check list for assessing readiness for the supervisory relationship, and questions for directing the conversation between the supervisor and supervisee regarding their personal paths and experiences. The instruments for the super- vised practice planning and negotiating on supervision provided guidance for the supervisor and the supervisee regarding the topics they had to discuss prior to the outset of the supervised practice. They were thus able to check whether or not the supervisee’s development was progressing in the planned direction, using the instruments for evaluating and assessing supervision sessions which were devel- oped in collaboration with the Norwegian project partners, those for reflection and evaluation of the supervised practice and the development of the supervisory relationship, and those for bringing the relationship to a close. Most of these in- struments were prepared in two parallel versions, one for the supervisee and one for the supervisor, so that they could concurrently use them in different steps of the supervision process. The supervisory dyads were encouraged to use the instru - ments together (e.g. to jointly assess supervision sessions and discuss assessment values, or reflect on and evaluate the supervised practice). If both the supervisor and the supervisee jointly answer the questions and share their impressions and feelings, they can better reflect on individual phases of the supervision process. Mutual evaluation of the supervised practice is a suitable task for bringing the relationship and supervision process to a sense of closure. The instruments applied in the project are described in Table 8. 161 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Table 8. Instruments for the implementation of the supervised practice Instruments for supervisors Instruments for supervisees Description Personal path Personal path An instrument to prepare for the supervision. The supervisor’s version contains an outline of the development of the supervision and his/her experiences in supervision. This helps the supervisor become aware of events which influenced the development of his/her practices in this context. The supervisee’s version contains an outline of the professional development and experiences of the supervisee, a subjective assessment of competency, and details of any challenges met on his/her professional path. Introductory conversation with the supervisor An instrument to prepare for the supervision with material that supports the introductory conversation with the supervisor. This includes a list of activities and questions for building rapport, identification of needs, the goals of supervision, personal attitudes towards supervision, and learning styles. Questions for internship planning Questions for internship planning An instrument for negotiations. It includes a list of questions which can help plan various aspects of the supervision process and need to be considered before the supervised practice begins. These are questions with regard to expectations for the supervised practice, the psychologists’ tasks in the focal work organization, formal regulation of the practice, time planning and organization of internship and supervision, the supervisory relationship, the supervised practice goals, methods of documentation, evaluation of practice, and interpersonal communication. The questions can be helpful in preparing for the supervision agreement. Preparation for supervision – check list An instrument for the phases of preparation and negotiation. The supervisor checks whether they (the supervisor and supervisee) have expressed clear expectations and motivations, and if the basic requirements for supervision have been fulfilled. The supervisor evaluates whether the supervisee is well prepared to enter the supervisory relationship. Supervision agreement Supervision agreement An instrument for the phase of concluding negotiations. It is a formal document which serves as a foundation for confirmation of the supervised practice by the system administrator. It is created by the supervisor and the supervisee at the beginning of the supervisory relationship and can be updated if necessary. It consists of general and specific parts. Negotiations – check-list Negotiations – check-list An instrument for the conclusion of the negotiations, and for checking whether or not these have covered all the important aspects of supervision. This includes a list of criteria of successful negotiations and questions for evaluating the fulfilment of the criteria. 162 Edited by Anja Podlesek Instruments for supervisors Instruments for supervisees Description Scale for evaluating the supervision session An instrument for evaluating individual supervision sessions. The supervisee can use this after each session or occasionally. The instrument enables monitoring of the effectiveness of an individual session with regard to the relationship between the supervisor and supervisee, the goals and topic of the session, the methods used, and a general impression of it. Multiple use of this instrument enables monitoring of the development of the supervisory relationship and the supervisor’s related competences. Enabling the supervisee’s development – check-list Enabling the supervisee’s development – check-list An instrument for evaluating the progress of the supervised practice. This consists of a list of criteria for evaluating how effective the supervisor is in enabling the supervisee’s development, and is used at the end of the developmental phase. The supervisor’s assessment of the supervisee competences An instrument for documenting the supervisee’s competences and the level of their development. This is intended for assessing the supervisee’s competences after a shorter period of supervised practice (e.g. after an internship). The supervisor identifies the competences the supervisee has been developing, describes their expression, assesses them by means of a four-level scale (see Table 3) with an additional five sub-levels, and recommends what can be done to improve them. The instrument can also be used when planning the development of the supervisee’s competences. EuroPsy form C – Competence assessment EuroPsy form C – Competence assessment An official form which needs to be submitted by the supervisee after the conclusion of the supervised practice if he/she wants to obtain the EuroPsy Certificate. The form (in Slovene) can be accessed at the webpage www. europsy.si. This is an instrument for a detailed assessment of the supervisee’s competences. It provides spaces for descriptions of how each of the 20 primary competences and nine enabling competences, as defined in EuroPsy competence model, are expressed by the supervisor. The evaluator assesses the development of a particular competence by means of a four-level scale (see Table 3). The form containing the descriptions of the expression of each competence is completed by the supervisee, who can self-assess; the supervisor then examines this assessment and confirms it with his/her signature. The assessment of the supervisee’s competences can be also done by the supervisor. The instrument is used at the end of the supervised practice, and can be useful for interim evaluation, and monitoring of the supervisee’s development of competences. EuroPsy form B – Assessment of the supervised practice An official form which needs to be submitted by the supervisee after the conclusion of the supervised practice if he/she wants to obtain a EuroPsy Certificate. The form (in Slovene) can be accessed at the webpage www.europ- sy.si. In this the supervisor specifies the field of psychological practice in which the supervisee demonstrated that he/she has developed seven clusters of competences, and whether the supervisee meets the criteria for practic - ing psychology independently. The supervisor completes and signs the form at the end of the supervised practice. EuroPsy form C, on which individual competences are accurately assessed, is attached to this form. 163 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Instruments for supervisors Instruments for supervisees Description The supervisor’s competences The supervisor’s competences An instrument for the supervisor’s self-assessment of their supervisory competences. The instrument helps the supervisor become aware of his/her competences and the level of their development. It includes the list of various competences (traits, qualities) of the supervisor, in the areas of general competences, guiding the supervised practice, and the supervisory relationship. The instrument has two versions. The shorter one consists of a six-point scale (1 – not true, 6 – completely true). The longer one consists of the scale and includes additional space for qualitative descriptions of the supervisor’s comprehension of individual competences. The supervisee’s version resembles the shorter version, and the category “cannot be answered” is added. The instrument can be used upon the conclusion of the supervisory relationship, and for interim evaluation and monitoring of the development of supervisory competences. Assessment of the supervisor An instrument for the supervisee’s assessment of the supervisor’s supervisory competences. This includes a list of various competences (traits, qualities) of the supervisor. The supervisee assesses the supervisor by means of a six-point scale (1 – not true, 6 – completely true). The instrument can be used upon the conclusion of the supervisory relationship, and for interim evaluation and monitoring of the development of the supervisor’s competences. Model of structured reflection of the supervised practice This model includes questions which help structure reflection on the supervised practice with regard to its course, contents, methods, explication of the learning process, and communication. The instrument can be used upon the conclusion of the internship. Questions for the reflection and evaluation of the supervised practice Questions for the reflection and evaluation of the supervised practice This includes questions regarding different aspects of the supervised practice which are used by the supervisor and supervisee to reflect on and evaluate the practice. The questions guide both parties towards thinking of the practice and its progress from beginning to end. They relate to the criteria of successful practice, its requirements (support by the employer, co-workers, financial management), preparation for and planning of the supervised practice, its course and outcomes, general assessment of the supervised practice, and plans for further development in the area of supervision. The instrument is used upon the conclusion of the supervised practice, and for interim evaluation. Concluding – check-list A list of criteria for a successful closing of the supervisory relationship. It is used at the end of the supervisory relationship. 164 Edited by Anja Podlesek In the implementation of the supervised practice, which is formally regulated and confirmed by the system administrator after conclusion, the following submissions are obligatory: the submission of the Supervision Agreement at the beginning of the supervised practice, and submission of the forms for the evaluation of the super- visee’s competences at the end of the supervised practice (to obtain the EuroPsy Certificate the supervisee must submit EuroPsy forms B and C). The utilization of other instruments, as described in Table 8, is not obligatory for the implementa- tion of the supervised practice, although it is recommended. The supervisory dyad does not need to use all the instruments, and they can just select those which can be beneficial to the development of the supervisory relationship and monitoring of the supervised practice. However, it is highly recommended that the supervisor and supervisee reflect on and evaluate the supervised practice in writing, not only orally, as in this way they increase their awareness of experiencing and understanding the supervision process, the development of competences, and so on. Development of the Web Platform In cases when supervision is carried out when the supervisees are not employed in the same work organization as the supervisors, it is very important that the supervi- sees diligently record their activities. Although they meet their supervisors regularly (e.g. for two hours every two weeks), this time is rather limited. It is thus essential that the supervisor receives a good outline of the supervisee’s activities. Effective documentation of these will enable the supervisor to monitor the development of competences of the supervisee more easily, and at the end provide an assessment of the supervisee’s competences. As part of the project a web platform was created for the purpose of connecting the supervisory dyads, as well as various stakeholders (supervisors, supervisees, super- visors of supervisors, and project team). The platform was accessible to registered users of the project’s website. Each supervisory dyad had their own private forum, where they wrote down their reflections on the supervision sessions, exchanged materials, made appointments for meetings, and so on. General forums (for connecting various groups) were acces- sible to all users of the platform, or all the members of a particular group. In order to monitor whether the supervision sessions are regular and in accord with the supervision agreement, the system administrator should be able to access some of the related documentation on the course of the supervision sessions. For exam- ple, the administrator must be able to monitor at least the dates of sequential ses- sions, but ideally he/she will also be able to gain insights into key topics of the ses- sions. In the application for the SUPER PSIHOLOG project we planned to monitor the implementation of the supervised practice using the records hosted on the platform, 165 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia and use the information thus obtained to inform the holder of the programme, the Norwegian Financial Mechanism, about the effectiveness of the supervised practice. Because of the need to meet this pledge, certain members of the project team had access into private forums, and were able to take records of the dates and number of sessions between the supervisor and the supervisee. However, it should be noted that the participants were informed about this at the beginning of the project. Documentation of Supervision Sessions The supervision sessions were documented by the supervisory dyads by means of regular notes that were put on the online platform. These consisted of the sequen- tial number of a session, date and (optionally) the main topic of a session. The text contained a reflection on the session, which included a more details of its content and any arrangements that were put in place until the next session. Some dyads decided to enter only brief session reports on this platform, and to exchange their reflections via e-mail. The majority of supervisory dyads also kept their own private evidence, for instance in the form of tables, where they recorded the content of the sessions and competences which the supervisee had been developing. Others wrote their reflections on pieces of paper and kept them for personal reference. Support for Supervisory Dyads Support for the supervisory dyads was offered by the project coordinator in person, by phone or e-mail. The participants also contacted the project leader and other people employed at the project holder. Most questions referred to organizational aspects of supervision (travel expenses, reservation of location). There were also content-relat- ed questions (dilemmas with regard to the field of work, or the beginner’s change of employment), and documentation-related questions with reference to the documents demanded during the implementation of the supervised practice and upon its conclu- sion. Other questions related to other aspects of participation in the project. The provision of support to the supervisory dyads emphasizes the importance of the availability of a contact person who can provide information to the participants, the contact’s promptness in responding to participants’ questions, and flexibility in pro- viding solutions (i.e. that suitable adjustments to the supervised practice are made in relation to the context). Monitoring of the Implementation of Supervision At the beginning of the project we created a form to monitor the implementation of supervision, where the system administrator regularly entered the dates of sessions documented by supervisory dyads on the web platform. Those dyads who were not 166 Edited by Anja Podlesek prompt in entering the information regarding their sessions received monthly remind- ers. In the majority of cases this proved to be efficient, and in those where it was not additional reminders were sent containing an explanation of the importance of enter - ing the information with regard to monitoring the supervised practice (for both the project itself and for occasional reporting to the holder of the project programme). One challenge to keeping regular documentation of the supervision was the lack of motivation among certain participants for entering the data on the web platform. For some of the participants this seemed to be unnecessary, while others questioned the security of the private conversations between the supervisor and supervisee. The former group were encouraged to enter this data with motivational addresses and explanations, while the latter received an explanation of how the platform op- erated and who had access to the data. With a few participants it was agreed that it was sufficient to post brief reports on sessions instead of personal reflections. Reporting by the Supervisory Dyad upon the Conclusion of the Su - pervised Practice The final report to the system administrator regarding the supervised practice, which served to evaluate the effectiveness of the supervised practice, included the following: 1. EuroPsy form C. The form was ordinarily completed by the supervisee who pro- vided a self-assessment of his/her competences. The supervisor then confirmed, by signing the form, his/her agreement with the supervisee’s self-assessment of individual competences. In cases when the supervisor’s opinion differed from the supervisee’s, the supervisor completed those parts of the form where his/ her assessment was distinct from the supervisee’s self-evaluation. 2. EuroPsy form B. The form was completed and signed by the supervisor; Additionally, in order to assess the supervisor’s competence in guiding the super- vised practice and evaluating the system of supervised practice established within the framework of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, the supervisors and supervisees submitted documents: 3. The supervisee’s final reflection on and evaluation of the supervised practice. A special form was prepared which contained the questions from the instrument Questions for the Reflection and Evaluation of the Supervised Practice, organ- ized into clusters, to which the supervisees could provide integrated, compre- hensive answers. 4. The questionnaire for the evaluation of the supervised practice. This question- naire was developed specifically for project evaluation and was completed by the supervisor. The items in the questionnaire followed the structure of the spe- cific part of the supervision agreement. The supervisor’s answers to addition- al questions regarding the implementation of the supervised practice helped 167 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia us shape the Guidelines for the Implementation of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists. 5. The supervisee’s evaluation of the supervisor’s competences of supervision. The supervisees completed a shorter version of the instrument The Supervisor Competences, adjusted for their use. 6. The supervisor’s self-assessment of the supervisor’s competences (The Supervi- sor Competences). The supervisees also participated in the study described in the chapter Evaluation of the Training Programme of Supervisors. Within the framework of the internship the students took notes of daily or week- ly reflections, which were submitted to the project holder together with a gen- eral description of the progress of the supervised practice, assessment of the supervisor’s competences (using the instrument Assessment of the Supervisor), and assessment of the supervisee’s competences. The supervisor added his/her report encompassing the supervised practice plan, outline of the supervisee’s competences development, the supervisor’s reflections, ethical dilemmas which occurred during the practice, and recommendations for the improvement of the internship. The reports provided an overview and insight into the supervisor’s de - velopment in supervision skills, the assessment of his/her qualifications for su- pervision, as well as the evaluation of Module 1 of the training of supervisors and project activities. The results of the evaluation of the internship are presented in the chapter Evaluation of the Internship. Over the course of the project we gathered a lot of different information in order to evaluate the effectiveness and efficacy of the established system of supervised prac- tice (the training of supervisors, and the implementation of supervised practice), and the qualification of supervisors for supervision. In ordinary performance of the supervised practice we would ask the supervisory dyads only for the most important reports. However, further consideration is needed as to whether the submission of the signed forms containing the supervisors’ assessment of the supervisees’ individ- ual competences at the end of the supervised practice is enough, and if all the goals of the supervised practice have been accomplished. Reflection on and evaluation of the implementation of the supervised practice, consideration of what the supervisor gained with supervision, insight into what was good and where difficulties occurred, and recommendations related to changing the system, can contribute to the profes- sional development of the supervisor, improving the quality of both future supervi- sion and supervised practice. On the basis of such information, written in brief re- ports and submitted to the system administrator, we can arrive to useful conclusions regarding the system’s operation. Such information can be valuable for supervisees, supervisors, and the system administrator. Julija Pelc Development of the Supervision of Supervisors The supervision of supervision in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project was organized with the aim of providing effective support for supervisors of psychologists in their attainment of the goals set in the process of supervision. Supervisors who were in charge of train - ing supervisors also attended the training for implementing the supervision processes. There were similarities in the approach, methods, and techniques in both trainings, as well as with regard to the importance of quality interpersonal relationships, compe- tence development orientation, and the reflectivity of the supervisors-in-training and their supervisors, which can lead to recognizing and managing the processes which will offer sufficient opportunities for achieving quality feedback, learning and growth. Supervision Duckert and Kyte (2015a) describe supervision as a form of continual collaborative relationship between the supervisor and supervisee, which includes both facilitating and evaluative components, with the purpose of establishing and advancing the su- pervisee’s professional competences in order for him/her to accomplish high quality professional practice, both scientifically supported and in compliance with the defi- nition of good practice accepted by the profession. The supervisor and supervisee enter a process which is, as a rule, an ongoing and long-term one. This can cause intense interpersonal interactions between them or among the members of the group, if the supervision is performed in a group. The relationship with a more knowledgeable professional in the supervision process 170 Edited by Anja Podlesek enables the supervisee to continually learn, experience in-depth professional reflec- tivity, engage in proper problem-solving and develop the competences needed for autonomous and high quality professional performance. Duckert and Kyte (2015a) state that supervision has several roles: • Supervision is essential for the integration of theory with the professional role and work experience. • Supervision enables monitoring of service quality and serves to protect the public. • Supervision has a gatekeeping function for the profession. According to professionals, the main objectives of supervision are client protection and care for the supervisee and the supervision process (Gilbert & Evans, 2000, p. 2; Gogala Švarc, 2002, p. 66). This view is particularly important when the supervisor holds responsibility for the achievement of the quality standards of an organization or a set of educational processes. This can include the introduction of supervised practice for psychologists with the aim of preparing them for independent prac- tice in a particular field of psychology. The role that supervision plays may change and develop during this process, depending on the purpose and aim of supervision. The introduction of a competence-based model of supervised practice is structured comprehensively, and so is the supervisory approach. The educational role of su- pervision includes the development of skills, understanding and the ability of a pro- fessional to recognize and manage relationship dynamics with the application of communication skills, choice of interventions, ability of conceptualization, and so on. The supportive role of supervision includes dealing with emotional experience and feelings, regulation of emotional expression and response, recognition of de- fence mechanisms and parallel processes in the supervised practice and workplace, and exploration and management of emerging distress. The qualitative role of su- pervision encompasses alerts with regard to ethical dilemmas, critical issues and the breaking of rules, or inadequacies which could harm service users. The evaluative/ qualitative role ensures the monitoring of quality in people-related work, observes the quality of knowledge, and any inadequacies or specific vulnerabilities of the su- pervisee which could be caused by their life events, personal status, prevailing be- liefs and value system and/or personal history. While supervision is not a form of therapy, its effects can be from time to time ther- apeutic. Both the supervisor and supervisee enter the supervision process on the professional and personal levels. The supervisor is the one who possesses the com- petences which enable him/her to recognize when the supervisee should perform work in his/her personal area, and enter therapy in order to resolve any conflicts which are obstacles to the continuation of the supervisory relationship and process. Which of the above-mentioned supervision roles is dominant in a particular period depends on several factors, such as the context and the aim of supervision, the phase of the supervision process, the quality of the supervisor–supervisee relationship, 171 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia the quality of relationships in the supervisory group, the level of professional and personal development of the supervisee and his/her specific needs for inclusion into individual and/or group supervision. The Purpose of Supervision of Supervisors Supervision is an important building block of the quality of the supervision pro - cess, from the point of view of the supportive, educational, and evaluative roles of supervision. The main purpose of supervision for supervisors is to offer support in supervisory groups for the achievement of high quality supervision and to develop values of responsible, professional, and highly ethical conduct in people-related work from the very beginning of a psychologist’s career. The abilities of self-reflec- tivity, meta-perception, establishing critical distance, giving and receiving feed- back, maintaining a sense of humour, recognizing personal qualities and points of growth are the foundations of every type of growth, including professional development. The overall purpose of this part of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project was to follow through on the ideals set out above on all levels: in the relationships that exist with regard to supervisees, supervisors, supervisors of supervisors, training organizers, and others involved in the project. In this regard the project was unique, profes- sion-based, and nourished with love, affection and an overall positive orientation. Supervisory Groups of Supervisors-in-Training As part of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project the supervisors were selected to lead six groups of supervisors-in-training, and this was done to ensure that high quality su- pervision would be implemented. The forming of groups depended on the partici- pants. Whenever possible, it is desirable to have equality in groups regarding num- ber and gender. However, the latter is almost impossible in feminized professions such as psychology. The supervisors who participated in the project were employed in different fields of practice: health care, education, social welfare, human resources, work and organizations, sports, business, psychotherapy, and a few other services related to psychological assistance and counselling. It was decided to form the groups according to the professional fields of the psychologists’ practice and to establish them with permanent membership (i.e., closed groups). The permanence of the groups was possible due to fixed duration of the project. A few psychologists who joined the groups after a slight delay were included in the group of supervisors in compliance with the principles of quality group leadership (such as pre-prepa - ration of the group and supervisor for a new member, acceptance of the new member into the group, evaluation of all important agreements with an emphasis 172 Edited by Anja Podlesek on confidentiality, i.e. the use of a non-disclosure agreement). However, when the forming of homogeneous groups is not possible or recommended, the groups can be heterogeneous with regard to professional fields, and both approaches have benefits and disadvantages. It was observed that temporary heterogeneity of groups during the training of supervisors brought a valued freshness and en - richment of the experience, which was marked as positive and desired by partici- pants. The original supervisory group of supervisors remained homogeneous and permanent. Occasionally, within the project educational workshops, the groups were mixed to perform a certain task, and this demanded greater adaptability, flexibility about addressing and managing changes, as well as recognition of one’s own capacity for effective conduct in different groups of supervisors. Responsive- ness, adaptability, assertiveness, and effectiveness in new situations are important competences for successful professional performance. The groups of supervisors-in-training were led by supervisors with experience in a particular field of practice. One criteria of quality supervision is that it is led by a professional who is more experienced than the supervisee, although not necessarily older. Supervision practice has shown that for a successful supervision process it is not necessary that the supervisor comes from the same field of practice, as the aim of supervision is not education on specific procedures (such as techniques of a certain psychotherapeutic approach). This proved to be true in the case of the project examined in this book, where the duration was fixed and consequently the time available for the implementation of the supervision process was limited. The supervisor’s knowledge of the field of practice and nature of the work in the initial phases of the supervision process contributed to the speed and quality of estab- lishing the working atmosphere, case evaluation, and building of trust between the group members and the supervisor. Contributions of the Supervision of Supervisors For the vast majority of participating supervisors-in-training, supervision strength- ened their sense of belonging to the group and identification with their profession- al choice to be psychologists, as well as with a more specific field of practice, and helped maintain their motivation and enthusiasm for the implementation of their responsibilities in the project. It was observed that for some participants the partic- ipation in supervisory groups had long-term effects, such as the establishment of a supportive network and its maintenance after the project had been concluded, and the forming of intervisory groups within the sections of the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association related to a particular field of practice. In this manner links to other pro- fessional situations were created for the transfer of methods, techniques, and work performance according to the principles of a competence-based model. More im- portantly, one sustainable effect of supervision is that the education of professionals 173 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia can become more self-reflective, enabling the participants to better engage in crit- ical thinking, be resourceful and research-oriented, ethical, responsible, and open to lifelong learning and continuing professional development, all features that go hand-in-hand with holistic personal growth. The aim of supervision is not only to change the personality of an individual, as stated in Kadushin and Harkness (2014, p. 145), but also to support him/her in his/her attempt to become a better worker. This is possible with the effective integration of knowledge, practical findings, ex- perience, encouragement of skills development, resourcefulness and those other traits which are needed for the greater competence, professional effectiveness, and satisfaction of psychologists in the workplace. The supervisors who participated in the project achieved the described qualities and performed their assigned tasks with the support provided by this project, which provided space for conversation, (self-)reflectivity, resolution of dilemmas and obstacles, brainstorming for new ideas and a safe environment for experi - menting with innovations. Further, it empowered the participants with trust, so that they could be more courageous in transferring what they had learned into practice, to the great satisfaction of the early career psychologists who participat- ed in the supervised practice. A more detailed review of what supervision meant to the supervisors, and how im- portant it was to the success of the project as a whole, was presented in the overall analyses of the final evaluations which the supervisors conducted during the final session in each supervisory group. These indicated that the supervisors felt they had gained the following benefits from taking part in this process: • A better insight into the supervision process and the dynamics of the superviso- ry relationship. • More opportunities for self-reflectivity and reflectivity. • Better learning, acquisition of new knowledge, ideas, and experience for a more successful supervision. • Feelings of support, safety, interpersonal connection, and trust, and a widening of their professional social networks. • Greater awareness of the importance of structure, boundary maintenance and accuracy in the initial phases of mentoring and supervision. • More opportunities to work on particular cases and current issues. • The experience of trustful and quality relationships • Better comprehension of the impact of dual roles on relationships. • An understanding of the importance of quality and effective communication in problem solving. • Obtaining different perspectives on the problem, and thus having more options for its resolution. • A greater understanding of the importance of a sense of humour in this context. • More opportunities to work on themselves and to lead the group process. 174 Edited by Anja Podlesek • Strengthening of self-esteem, and acknowledgement and strengthening of their identities as psychologists. • Better skills and self-care for maintenance of their own mental health. The Group of Supervisors of Supervisors The group of supervisors of supervisors included six people. Based on their experience and knowledge, they had the efficacy and personality traits needed to lead superviso - ry groups of supervisors. Prior to the project, they participated in the training on the competence model, which is a prerequisite for the collaboration in supervised prac- tice, because the early career psychologist training includes the development of those competences which are included in the competence model. The group was joined by a psychologist who did not lead her own supervisory group and was actively involved as a project partner. Her role was that of a coordinator of the group of supervisors, and thus she communicated with the project team and psychologists from Norway who were educators and meta-supervisors for the group of supervisors. The group met several times over the course of the project for the various purposes (see also Table 9): • Preparing for the implementation of two Module 2 sessions of supervisor train- ing, and concurrent training for supervising supervisors-in-training; the prepa- ration here was led by two psychologists from Norway and took place a day before and a day after the training sessions. • Implementing a three-day professional meeting with Norwegian psychologists, in addition to the preparatory meetings. • Intervisory treatments of supervision-related questions and ethical dilemmas. • Teleconferences between the group and the Norwegian psychologists as a way of supporting and monitoring the supervisory groups. • Preparing questionnaires for regular evaluations of supervisory meetings and a final evaluation of the entire supervised practice. • Presenting the project in professional meetings (such as the interim and closing conferences of the project, and the Days of Psychologists organized by the Slo- venian Psychologists’ Association). • Collaborating on professional meetings of supervisors with the aim of connect- ing various professionals from the field of supervision, and examining possibili- ties for further development of supervision in Slovenia and upgrading the edu- cation of supervisors, and establishing education in supervision of supervision with the aim of acquiring general and specific competences and the profession- al title supervisor of supervisors. • Collaboration on professional consultation meetings on supervision with the representatives of different psychotherapeutic orientations and other profes- sional domains who implement supervision programmes in Slovenia. 175 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Core Tasks of the Supervisor of Supervisors Duckert and Kyte (2015a) emphasize the following core tasks of a supervisor which are essential to ensure a high quality supervision process, and indirectly relate to the tasks of the supervisor in his/her relationship with the supervisee. A foundation of any collaboration in this context is the establishment of an agree- ment which is based on clear expectations among the supervisor, supervisee and supervisory group members. In this way, the basis for co-creation of the working alliance in the supervisory group and in the supervisory relationship is formed. At the very beginning of the supervision process it is important to specify the super- vision contents and methods, divide responsibilities, and clarify whether or not the supervision process includes elements of evaluation, in relation to what and in what manner. The supervisor must have definite specific and general knowledge (com- petences), be familiar with various supervision methods and techniques, use them subtly and adjust them to a situation and an individual or an entire group. The su- pervisor should be flexible enough to adjust the working alliance in the supervision process through reciprocal and regular evaluation. This can be achieved provided the supervisor cultivates self-reflection and masters approaches which stimulate and nourish conversations regarding expectations and (un)satisfied needs in the su- pervision process and/or relationship, and allow for not knowing, making mistakes, exploring novelties, and checking on the reality of his/her own professional practice and/or relationships in the group. Such an approach was applied in the supervi- sion of supervisors and in the educational group of supervisors-in-training by Mona Duckert and Bjarte Kyte, the professionals on supervision and leaders of the train- ing of supervisors in the Norwegian Psychological Association, who collaborated as coleaders in the entire programme of the training of supervisors as part of the SU- PER PSIHOLOG project. The supervisor is not only a gatekeeper to the profession and a person who can help ensure the well-being of clients, but also the first to be a role model to the supervi- see with his/her responsible conduct and awareness of possible ethical dilemmas in supervision and the supervised practice. With role modelling the supervisor teaches the supervisee how to deal with ethical dilemmas in compliance with the principles of the psychological profession. Abilities with regard to awareness and mindful presence, and the quality of profes- sional insight into a situation, knowledge, and strategies for resolving problematic situations in supervision, will help the supervisor prevent or successfully cope with obstacles in interpersonal relationships. The supervision process involves the partic- ipants’ lives as a whole, as not only do we enter as professionals, but also in a holis- tic way, with everything that defines, supports or hinders our life and professional performance. Supervision is thus about different experiences, personal contents, beliefs and value systems, parallel processes, the occurrence of transference and 176 Edited by Anja Podlesek counter-transference, and other mechanisms which are experienced in interperson- al relationships. Therefore, a “good enough” supervisor is not only one who cares for his/her own continuing professional development, but who develops himself/ herself holistically, including in both personal and spiritual realms. The knowledge, self-reflection and regular evaluation of one’s own work, directly in the relationship with supervisees and in supervision of one’s own supervision, i.e., meta-supervision, will enable timely and efficient self-regulation and implementa- tion of the supervision process, and thus achievement of the set goals. A supervisory group is a live organism. In accord with the axiom of systems theory which states that a system is more than the sum of its entities, it is understandable that what is good can be augmented, while negative phenomena can also expand unexpectedly. A responsible supervisor will thus seek help for himself/herself in order to prevent the development of a negative relationship in supervision and when he/she feels that the supervisee is operating outside of acceptable professional or/and ethical frameworks. It is obvious that the supervisor must be able to define the psycholo- gist’s sources of power and points of growth, developmental tasks, and help the su- pervisee define them on his/her own. To achieve this, the supervisor should be able to give quality feedback, which has to be comprehensive, regular and expressed in a way that empowers the supervisee, shows respect for being willing to learn, and at the same time is real and supportive of that which is important for the supervisee to develop and upgrade in his/her work. In this way effective feedback, based on a good quality connection between the supervisor and supervisee, provides sup- port for the supervisee to self-reflect, recognize progress, redefine expectations and goals if needed, and be realistic and motivated for learning. If the supervisor’s ap- proach has a foundation of high quality and open communication, and there are good relationships in the supervisory group, then this will provide support for the supervision process which can then be directed towards the continuous develop- ment and education of both individuals and the group as a whole. The supervisor’s performance in a group is a model that shows supervisees how to operate in professional practice. The process of learning in this context occurs “here and now,” but it is not a uniform one. By allowing diversity and enabling the participants to seek and create their own choices and paths, the supervision space becomes a safe one within which the focal skills, strategies, and competences can be learned, to be later applied in everyday practice. Provided the supervisor follows such recommendations, and his/her conduct is a model for the supervisory group, there is little likelihood that he/she will abuse the power gained by being an experienced professional and evaluator for his/her own personal benefit, or work to harm the supervisees. Within the framework of the project the supervisors of supervisors were actively involved in the training of supervisors and in the individual supervisory groups. Due 177 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia to their constant presence and consideration of the grounding principles set out above, the supervisors-in-training developed a strong devotion towards the project and the project team, which contributed to the quality of the relationships that were formed, and the positive impacts of this were noted by the supervisors of supervi- sors during their performance in supervisory groups over the course of the project. Table 9. Synoptic outline of activities performed by supervisors of supervisors Activity Goals A one-day meeting with two psy- chologists from Norway, a day be- fore the education of supervisors Preparation for educational days and leading of supervisory groups. Learning of supervisory methods and techniques. Participation in the training of supervisors Educating and leading the groups in group work in compli - ance with the requirements by the leader of the training. Providing assistance in the training of supervision skills. One-day meeting with two psychologists from Norway, a day after the education of supervisors Analysis of education and leading of groups. Reflection on the learning process. Upgrading knowledge based on experiences. Meta-supervision and education only for the group of supervisors of supervisors Supervision of supervision. Support in leading the supervision processes. Reviewing the questions on supervision. Reviewing ethical dilemmas. Support in recognizing group processes, traps, and important points in the supervision process. Support in the implementation of supervision arrangements and in self-reflection. Assessment and evaluation of the supervision process and the performance of supervisors of supervisors. Teleconference Following up work in supervisory groups, consultations, reporting. Intervention Reciprocal support in leading supervision processes and constructing questionnaires for the evaluation of the supervision session and the entire supervision process. Participation in professional meetings within the scope of the project Support and active contribution of individual members of the group in the project presentations. Process in Supervisory Group Supervision can be implemented in different modalities. When at least three peo- ple collaborate in supervision, beside the supervisor, then this is group supervision (it can be joined by individuals from different work groups who can be connected through performing particular tasks – this is a work group; it can be the supervision 178 Edited by Anja Podlesek of a particular team – this is team supervision). Within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project there was supervision in groups which were linked by professional field. All group members were required to perform mutually-agreed tasks defined by the content and goals of the project. The group members, in accord with the regular practice of group supervision, re- flected on their work and professional problems. Experiential learning enhances the growth of professional competence (Kobolt, 2010), and thus in the supervisory groups the supervisors presented their materials, with these relating to their roles and tasks of supervision in the supervision process or to their own professional tasks. Dealing with the cases that arose in each group enabled the members to learn from each other, and supervisors encouraged the active inclusion of members into the groups. Towards the end of the process several participants decided to try to individually lead a case. The experiences gained from this supported earlier research (Kobolt, 2004) which shows that a person achieves more of their assigned goals when he/she is active in a supervision session. The level of activity a supervisee engages in depends, among other things, on the size of the group. A smaller group provides more opportunities for active exchange, while in a larger group a person can more easily withdraw, hide, and become more passive. The groups in the project examined in this book were of different sizes, and consisted of three to seven super- visees. There was thus enough time for active participation in all groups, with the largest group achieving this by prolonging the duration of each session. Time man- agement is thus an important quality of a supervisor who should ensure that there is enough time for all the parts of a supervision session and for the participants to play an active role in them (harmonization of a group, case work, and final reflection). Moreover, in the group of supervisors of supervisors we also worked to manage the time carefully and responsibly, because in addition to studying the supervision materials we also engaged in learning professional contents, mastering skills, and making agreements with regard to our participation in the training workshops. The term process itself points to the fact that supervision does not consist of indi- vidual one-time sessions, as in the case of consultations, but is implemented over a longer period. However, within supervision sessions the time can also be devoted to consultations. The term process thus signifies a continued, long-term and regu- lar implementation of supervision sessions, where clearly defined aims have been agreed in advance between the individuals involved and the group as a whole. The main goals of the supervised practice of psychologists are to train the supervisors to successfully implement the supervision process, and to help the supervisees in- tegrate theoretical knowledge and practical experiences with the aim of developing the professional competences required for independent practice. The experiences gained in this project proved that regular inclusion in a quality supervision process not only impacts the participants’ professional development, but also affects them on a personal level. 179 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Kobolt (2010) states that the supervision cycle in group supervision is based on the level of group development. The model presented by Tuckman (see also Kobolt, 2002) distinguishes the following phases: forming (group forming), storming (con- flict level), norming (level of norm and rule establishment), and performing (level of effective performance/activity of the group). In addition, it is important to plan and systematically implement the phase of concluding the supervision process (fi- nal evaluation and farewell) in order to reach achieve efficiency and effectiveness of the supervision process, and help the participants become more aware of their own progress as well as that of the group, and be able to better recognize the dy- namics of the relationships involved. At all the levels we adapted the topics and contents as needed. We carefully chose methods which stimulated the work climate and enhanced trust and safety building in the group (Bogataj, 2004). Although the supervision process was relatively short in the project, its quality was ensured by applying suitable interventions and choosing contents suitable for a particular phase of the group’s development. In this regard the supervisory sessions were carried out with consideration of the guidelines presented by Duckert and Kyte (2015b), as we defined the steps and topics of the individual phases of the supervision process (some of which needed to be clearly agreed between the group members and the supervisor). For instance: initial agreements and establishment of the fundamen- tal structure of the supervision process, division of responsibilities and respect for confidentiality, prevention of and coping with conflicts that can occur due to some- body’s need to establish a certain position in the group. The way in which critical situations in the supervision process are resolved, as well as the communication style adopted by the supervisor when working with the group and individuals, should be based on open communication, ability to appropriately self-disclose, and the skill of asking high-quality questions, as this can create condi- tions for greater reflection and consequently more opportunities for the participants to listen and feel that they are heard. The goal of process development in superviso- ry groups is, among other things, to first allow and later outgrow the phase of storm- ing. The course of this growth follows a learning model showing how the supervisor can deal with similar difficulties in relationships with supervisees, or with the system within which the supervisor operates. The acquired competences, knowledge, recip- rocal support, and the comprehensive model of the training of supervisors, as set out by Duckert and Kyte, enabled the supervisory group to navigate skilfully through the phases and avoid the various pitfalls that could occur along the way. Birth of Supervisory Groups Duckert and Kyte (2015a, b, c) believe supervision to be one of the most important steps in the development of professional knowledge of psychologists. Trust, safety, and a positive emotional attitude will help the supervisee “put down his/her glasses” 180 Edited by Anja Podlesek and look into his/her mistakes. In the authors’ opinion, in a quality supervisory rela - tionship the supervisor can offer the supervisee what he/she needs for development and growth, and learning in such an environment is faster and more effective than would otherwise be the case. The foundations for this are set in the first supervisory session and even earlier: with the supervisor’s deliberation about his-/herself as the supervision facilitator, and his/her motives to become a supervisor, the supervision knowledge acquired, and with the supervisor’s preparation for the first and further sessions. Duckert and Kyte recommend devoting a lot of time to the development of the working alliance, in both the group of supervisors of supervisors and the training of supervisors, to establish quality agreements with the supervisees. Preparation Phase The beginnings of supervision for supervisees and their supervisor start before the first session. In the preparation phase supervisees collect information about super- vision and the supervisor. In the SUPER PSIHOLOG project the choice of supervisors was defined, and thus the supervisees could not choose their own supervisors or group members, although some expressed their preferences due to their profes- sional areas or personal acquaintance with a supervisor. Supervision was thus not based on a voluntary choice, which otherwise is recommended. Building rapport between supervisors and the group started within the framework of Module 1 of the training of supervisors, where the supervisors collaborated in a workshop, and discussed professional competences of psychologists in their profes- sional domain. The supervisors considered this to be a positive experience which provided support at the outset of the supervision process, because the participants had already established working connections with each other, and then continued with specific agreements in the first session of the supervisory group. Prior to the first session it is good for the supervisor to prepare very well and answer some questions (Bogataj, 2004), such as: whether or not the supervision that he/ she implements is voluntary or obligatory; whether or not he/she knows the insti- tution where the supervisees are employed and is familiar with the organization’s rules; whether or not he/she has had a thorough conversation and agreement with the user of supervision; whether or not the working conditions, requirements, ex- pectations have been clarified; and whether or not the responsibilities have been specified and divided. Another question worth considering prior to the beginning of the sessions is what the supervisor already knows about the group members and what his/her relationships with them are. Additionally, Duckert and Kyte (personal communication) emphasize the importance of the way on which supervisors start their relationships in the group or with individuals, what the conditions of collab- oration are, what happens if these are not fulfilled, and what they will and will not tolerate. Thorough consideration is needed with regard to dyad relationships and 181 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia possible exclusive roles, other contraindications of leading the group or the pres- ence of certain relations between the group members (such as superiors working with subordinates). Due to certain factors it could happen that after careful consid- eration the supervisor would not agree to implement the process, or would choose to direct his/her attention and self-reflection during the process to specific details in order to successfully prevent complications which could otherwise happen. It is im- portant that such factors are evident and the related boundaries are respected. For instance, a supervisor of supervisors and the coordinator of the group of supervisors of supervisors, who with their organizations were also the project partners, consist- ently adhered to the rules of confidentiality outside the supervisory group. This is especially important in the context of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, as Slovenia is a small country with a small population, and thus the supervisors and supervisors of supervisors are very likely to meet in other projects and work groups, and therefore consistent adherence to fundamental agreements on confidentiality and the ethics of participation is essential. Considering everything that has been described above, there is no doubt that su- pervision of supervision has to be led by a person who has experienced supervision and gained the competences required for implementing it, who is aware of the re- sponsibilities in this context, has his/her own supervision (meta-supervision or/and intervision, depending on experience), cares for his/her continuing professional and personal development, adheres to the moral and ethical standards of the profes- sion, and has a broad professional network that can help in resolving ethical and other individual and systemic questions. Guidance for the First Session Implementation The supervisor comes to the first session with a clearly defined plan of topics and agreements which need to be articulated, and activities which need to be performed. For the supervision to be successful the supervisor cannot rely on coincidence and luck for the right activities to occur at the right time. Duckert and Kyte (2015b) argue that there are several first session goals: • Developing the working alliance. • Sharing and clarifying expectations. • Discussing and negotiating. • Developing and reaching agreement. The following topics should be dealt with in the first session (Duckert & Kyte, 2015b): • Expectations towards supervision, the supervisor, supervisees and the group members regarding the content, structure, method of work, and activities. • Context and framework. • Specified goals and contents of the supervised practice. • Methods and techniques of work in supervision, and the format of supervision. 182 Edited by Anja Podlesek • Delegation of the responsibilities, rights, and duties of the supervisees. • Prevention of difficulties and conflicts. • Evaluation – benchmarking of the relational, content and procedural levels of supervision with regard to the set goals. • Attestation (depending on the context of supervision). In order for the supervisee to carefully deliberate on everything that has been agreed and to additionally discuss the questions that may arise during reflection, it is advisable to sign a collaboration agreement in the second session. It is also necessary to discuss the code of ethics of psychologists and work-related legislation during one of the sessions in the initial phase of the supervision process, so that the participants know where to find support for the system and information related to the regulation of supervision. The discussion and negotiations that occur here should be such as to encourage the supervisees’ reflective thinking. In order to avoid ambiguities and encourage under- standing of what has been discussed, it is important that the supervisor is familiar with the contents of the negotiations and those of the related legal regulations and/ or system protocols of the supervised practice. The supervisor strives to ask addi- tional questions which can help everybody clarify ambiguities and create a clear picture of what is going on and what will happen next. Undoubtedly, both the supervisor of supervisors and the supervisor are responsible for the process which they lead and for personal development, and for the well-be- ing of the supervisee or client. They should thus respect the participants’ confiden- tiality, as this is a building block for respecting the integrity of individuals, the group as a whole, and the supervision process itself. When the supervisor and supervisee agree on confidentiality and clarify expecta- tions which are affected by their attitudes, values, already accomplished skills and knowledge, previous experiences in supervision, possible anecdotes and stories heard from others, they also discuss the following topics: • Safety (it is allowed to talk about one’s own dilemmas, doubts, failures). • Time, duration, location, and number of supervisory sessions, regularity of at- tendance, method of informing about absences, number of allowed absences, in what circumstances a supervisory session can be cancelled, etc.). • Preparation for supervisory sessions and reports (the participants prepare the materials in advance, become familiar with what the material is, how to obtain video recordings, audio recordings, and so on). • Process: implementation of supervision, structure of sessions, active participation of all participants, communication, and conflict resolution. The focus of such dis- cussions is on relational variables and encouragement of self-awareness, self-re- flection, giving feedback, and the importance of keeping records of experiences. • Learning in supervision. 183 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia The supervisor encourages the supervisees to specify personal goals in supervision, define what they have already mastered and what they need to learn, and to ac- knowledge the professional skills and competences which they need to develop to effective implementing the supervision process. The supervisor needs to recognize and agree on what is important for the group as a whole. The supervisees’ experience of agreeing, negotiating, reflecting and compromising can be transferred into the su- pervision relationship. Through the process of supervision, the supervisor evaluates the development and progress of the supervisee regarding the criteria of the com- petence-based model. In contrast, the supervisors of the supervisors did not have such a task, because the goals were different. However, they provided their insights and observations regarding the supervisees in regular reflections and upon the final evaluation of the supervision process. Through this approach and the co-creation of goals, the supervisors of supervisors encouraged the supervisors-in-training to en- gage in open, sincere, reflective dialogue and exchange of comprehensive feedback which could serve as a mirror for self-assessment. Being Personal – to What Extent? It has already been mentioned that the first session is intended for building rapport, and increasing the supervisor’s insight into and recognition of the individuals’ per- sonal histories and how these could co-create his/her professional work and conduct and participation in the supervisory group. The first session thus provides building blocks for the quality of interpersonal relationships. With this intention in mind, Duckert and Kyte invited the supervisors of supervisors to introduce themselves: “We would like to get to know you. Could you please tell us your age, what your current duties in life are, children, partnership; tell us how you were raised, about your past experiences, what was happening at the age of eight, nine, and fourteen, fifteen, what you were doing at the time … what you like, what you do, what you are good at, the milestones and experiences which have changed you?” These are very personal questions. A reader may also think: ”Well, this is not therapy.” ”Well, not in the first session, these are topics for a time when you get to know the group better; most of all, supervision does not deal with such deeply personal things.” ”What about safety and confidentiality? They cannot be gained in one hour, this needs time.” In what has been written we can recognize that our experiences, beliefs, and values, and the professional, counselling, and therapeutic approaches in which we have been trained, define our attitudes towards the inclusion of personal contents, the questions we ask, and those we do not, the topics we talk about or that remain un- touched in the supervisory group. In this way the supervisor consciously or uncon- sciously co-creates the process and defines forbidden areas or taboo topics. The supervisors of supervisors introduced themselves in compliance with the guide- lines, and so gained an experience of the benefits such a start brings. This approach 184 Edited by Anja Podlesek was thus applied in the first sessions of their own supervisory groups. The members of the supervisory groups accepted the invitation and introduced themselves in a very personal manner, more thoroughly than had been typical of their past experi- ences in the context of supervision. Speaking for myself, I have been leading supervi- sion for many years, and never had the beginning been so personal and connective. This is supported by one of the responses of a supervisor involved in this project: ”I have never talked about all this, not at all outside the personal circle of friends. This was the first time I really set a mirror for myself.” The guidelines for introducing oneself are not strict, and every supervisee is responsi - ble for what and how much he/she discloses about himself/herself to others. What is more important is the supervisee’s skill of responding to what an introduction can trig - ger. Individuals can experience more intense emotions than had been expected, or lat - er experience feelings of shame and discomfort. Both the supervisors and supervisees noted that the introductions had brought a greater intensity and quality into their in - terpersonal rapport, contributing to a closer and more trusting and work atmosphere. Learning in Supervision The development of individuals is closely related to learning, which itself brings con- stant changes, as we repeatedly find ourselves at a point which presents a new chal- lenge requiring further learning. Žorga (2006a) quotes Hay who says that “the model of development is a hyperbola of competency rising as a spiral with one main life cycle and many smaller ones which appear during the times of changes such as em- ployment change, divorce, unemployment. How long a particular cycle lasts depends on numerous factors, including: change sensitivity, change-related consequences, and support received from the environment” (p. 83). On the path of maturity into professional autonomy, adulthood, independence, and/or maintenance of connec- tions with professional novelties and the quality of professional development, it is important that a person participates in individual or organized continuing profession- al development and learning activities which, beside presenting theoretical knowl- edge, include processes of critical (self-)reflection, awareness, and integration of new experiences in the context of old and new knowledge. Such learning increases one’s self-awareness, and we become more aware of how we operate, sense, feel, think, and respond in specific or/in random situations. Such knowledge and awareness are important for change to occur, but are not sufficient on their own for this to happen. An individual needs a motive and will to accomplish any changes that occur, to devel- op what is good and let go of weaknesses or transform them into a desired quality. Such learning encourages holistic changes on the professional and personal levels. One of my past supervisees had been collaborating in supervision processes in the workplace for many years, where these processes gradually developed into a strong culture. She said that she was satisfied with the changes that had occurred in her 185 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia professional development, as reflected in her feelings of increased self-esteem, self- trust, and awareness of professional competency. This woman told me that she had also experienced changes in the personal sphere of her private life, and referred to these as unexpected “side effects of supervision,” as she regularly applied the knowledge gained in the supervision process to her everyday life and relationships. The supervision process led by a professional and competent person is a place for quality and intensive learning and development which is carried out experientially, in the “here and now,” directly in the supervisory session and after it through practice, reflection, thinking, and coherence. Besides the joy of “collecting fruit” that can arise in this process, it can also be accompanied by greater challenges, feelings of power- lessness, inadequacy, shame, and other frustrations. In the case of group supervision, the learning process includes the supervisor and other members of the group. Professionals often use the Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning to present the learn- ing process in supervision (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012; Štebe, 2004; Žorga, 2002b, 2006a), which illustrates the abovementioned steps of learning on different levels. Žorga (2006a, p. 103) states that the purpose of supervision is to attract the par- ticipants into the learning process where they are helped in integrating their con- duct, thinking, and feelings into a comprehensive whole. The process of learning in supervision is carried out experientially; an individual’s experience is an anchor of the handling of cases where the supervisee with his/her active participation accom- plishes new and more comprehensive understanding of the situation, and his/her position in this. With a conversation on a topic which he/she presents as a supervi- sory problem, and with active exploration of skills in the supervisory group, the su- pervisee gains a new experience in which he/she, with the help of the group, views the focal issue from a distance and thus more objectively. Žorga (2006a) states that personal perception and experience of a particular event is often more important for an individual than objective factors. Žorga (2002b) supports Kolb’s statement that “only experience is insufficient for learning. He [Kolb] defines learning as a cyclical process where knowledge is ac- quired through the transformation of experiences” (p. 23). Hawkins and Shohet (2012, p. 14) state that learning is carried out on all four levels of the experiential cycle of learning, as well as outside the cycle, where, in my opinion, we can talk about comprehensive experience through the connection of knowledge derived at individual levels of Kolb’s cycle. Kolb (1984) argues that there are four phases of experiential learning (concrete ex- perience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimen- tation). He describes learning preferences with two dimensions: (i) active experi- mentation vs. reflective observation, and (ii) abstract conceptualization vs. concrete experience. By crossing the two dimensions he distinguishes four learning styles: (i) converging, where active experimentation prevails, oriented towards practical 186 Edited by Anja Podlesek utilization, affecting the environment, and theory construction; (ii) accommodating, where active experimentation, concrete experience and intuitive understanding of the situation prevail; (iii) diverging, where concrete experience prevails, in which an individual carefully observes and judges from different perspectives; and (iv) assimi- lating, with a focus on reflective observation and abstract conceptualization, theory models and inductive conclusions, systematic approach and connecting. The supervision drew on the work experiences of supervisees, and in the case of the focal project from the experiences of supervisors in the supervision process, and from those experiences of their supervisors in implementing the supervision of supervisors. Žorga (2006a, p. 104) describes in detail how learning in supervision is carried out. A concrete experience can be a story where a supervisee accurately describes an event (supervisory material). Reflection on experience or bringing to awareness is a form of analysis and consideration of the factors influencing the ex- perience, and the person’s conduct in this. In abstract conceptualization the supervi- see is searching for comparisons and connections between the reflected experience and his/her own past experiences or those of others, theoretical knowledge, atti- tudes, and so on. In this way, new knowledge is integrated into the existing cognitive structure and the structure is reshaped. The transfer of knowledge is accomplished with practical experimentation, planning of new patterns and strategies of conduct, and experimenting in practice. Every learning process is unique and non-repeatable because we enter it personal- ly, with past experiences, knowledge, and beliefs, value systems and own learning styles. There is thus no universal learning style which would suit everybody, nor are there such solutions or conducts which would be directly transferrable into new cir- cumstances. It is characterized by the cognitive, perceptual and personality dimen- sions of individuals and the conditions for learning in which the supervisory group operates. It is useful and important that the supervisee is aware of the importance of numerous factors which ensure the quality of the implementation of supervision, learning, and professional and personal development. The supervisor enters the process with his/her own learning style, which can be very different from the learning styles of others in the group. It is thus important that the supervisor recognizes how he/she operates and learns. This affects the way the su - pervisor leads the supervisory group and what communication, words, methods, and techniques he/she more frequently uses. The supervisor should become familiar with the learning styles of individual members, and this is possible if he/she starts ad - dressing his/her own needs and characteristics and those of the individual members, including learning styles, early in the introductory phase of the supervision process. Some people like to learn directly from their experience, others prefer to hear a the - oretical explanation on which they judge cases and experiences. Some people accept certain methods and techniques, others decline them. Some people like experiencing the new and facing the unknown, others prefer predictability and routine. Taking into 187 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia consideration the dominant sense, we distinguish visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic learning styles, and those which include smell and taste. The learning styles are often interwoven, combined, and it is good to recognize them in order to adapt teaching when needed and so increase efficiency. To this end, supervisors can ask supervisees the following fundamental questions (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012, pp. 13–14): “How do you learn the best? What is your best learning experience?” Knowledgeable individuals will find the materials needed to evaluate their dominant learning style and strategies and then try to improve them (Ažman, 2009, 2012). The supervisor has an important role in collecting and checking information and forwarding it to the supervisees; however, the supervision process is not only a place for gathering ideas and information. Its main value is in the provision of opportuni- ties for active comprehensive learning, in the experience of learning about learning, and at the meta-level, in thinking about learning. None of the individual peculiarities with regards to learning style, as set out above, is right or wrong, there are just different paths where each individual has a need to be met, heard, and understood. The latter is easier to achieve if the group members are similar, in harmony with the supervisor’s style, and in the “love” phase of the supervi - sion process, where the members emphasize similarities and equality, not differences. It is important how the supervisor manages the richness of diversity; not necessarily how he/she manages the distinctions, but how he/she manages individuals and their relationships where this diversity is evident. This reminds me of the gestalt therapists and supervisors Robert and Rita Resnick (personal communication), who have a sem- inar with the title “A bird can love fish, but where will they live?” For a defined period of time supervision becomes a living space intended for both “a bird” and “fish.” How will they live and survive? What is the role of the supervisor? What is the role of the group? How does an individual behave in such a learning environment and what emo - tions are triggered? Who does he/she make responsible for his/her feelings? What is he/she willing to invest time, effort, and emotions into? Does he/she have the courage and power needed to cope with any problems? How does he/she deal with conflicts? What is the supervisor’s support? Can individuals find support in the environment, the group? How resistant are they to stress? What protective factors are at their disposal? What strategies for preventing and managing conflicting situations do the supervisor and members of the group have? Who is neutral, and why? What roles have been established in the group? What role does the supervisee play, what about the supervi - sor? Do they function in this way somewhere else? Is it possible that a parallel process with some other situation is taking place? How can we use it for the process of aware - ness and recognition of (our own) transference and counter-transference responses? Where and in what manner is anchored the group’s power? And so on. With listing all these reflective questions we come close to process-related contents. At the same time, we can understand that accepting diversity is a precondition for a successfully implemented supervision process and fruitful learning in it. Both the 188 Edited by Anja Podlesek process and learning evolve together, and remain inseparably connected. Learning is carried out through the supervision process and the comprehension of what is happening to an individual on a personal level, and what is happening at the level of the group. For some people the differences they experience present a source of freedom and relaxation, offering more joy in life based on the pleasure of learning; in other people they trigger a fear of attack and the threat of conflict. In the opinion of Resnick and Resnick (personal communication), all contacts and connections hap- pen through diversity, and so differences are like “connecting tissue.” Without them there are no boundaries and no connections, but only a process of attaching, with a lack of boundaries, identity, and self-connection. The higher the feeling of safety and belonging to a group and the more the commu - nication is in the form of a dialogue, the easier it will be for the group members and supervisor to meet on the boundaries of quality connections and maintain their inde- pendence. Dialogue is aided by a sense of ethical conduct towards a person, in which we are aware of his/her uniqueness and wholeness, where we are authentic and re - spectful, and allow diversity and the reality of others without seeking to change it by force (Buber, 1999; Kuhar, 2015). In the context of learning for an independent profes - sional career, it is important to go one step further in cases when the supervisor feels that the practices of some supervisees are inappropriate or even wrong, and so work to find a respectful way to make changes to these by providing sincere, real and ef - fective feedback. With such an attitude by the supervisor and group members, or the supervisor in relation to the supervisee, the participants will find it easier to feel the benefits of reciprocal learning and diversity with regard to lived experiences. Accord- ing to the feedback received as part of this project from the supervisors of supervisors, supervisors, and supervisees, it can be concluded that the learning that occurred in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project happened in the described and expected directions. In leading the groups the supervisors of supervisors followed the guidelines for es- tablishing optimal conditions for learning. Learning was not only implemented for supervisors, but also the supervisors of supervisors, who thus learned more about the focal issues by engaging in the supervision process (see Štirn et al., in this book). Overall, supervision could enhance their psychological equilibrium, personal and professional power and health. The supervisors regularly and enthusiastically participated in meta-supervisory groups, did home assignments, prepared for the work with Duckert and Kyte, and collaborated in other planned activities. This enabled a prompt transfer of the ac- quired knowledge into practice, while new experiences enhanced opportunities for self-reflective walks on the spiral of Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning. In this way it was easier for the supervisors to cope with challenges. They overcame doubts with regard to their own competency, feelings of insecurity, obstacles to the duality of roles, obstacles in obtaining the recordings of supervisory sessions, and the so- called organizational difficulties in coordinating supervisory sessions (those related 189 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia to time, space, cancellation and absence of supervisors, motivation for examining the cases of actual supervision processes, diversity of expectations with regard to the implementation of supervision process, occasional difficulties in ensuring initial agreements while simultaneously desiring flexibility). Supervisors of supervisors paved the supervision paths with the same principles of learning as the supervisors-in-training did, with careful (self-)assessment, reflection through the exchange of feedback related to areas of strength, qualities and weak- nesses, points of growth, development of new strategies and competences in need of upgrading. The assessments by supervisors-in-training showed high satisfaction with regard to supervision. Supervisors of supervisors were more critical in their self-assessments compared to supervisors, although satisfied with how the process- es was implemented and their own work and development. They did not forget that the supervisor of supervisors was a model for supervisors, and thus repeatedly on stage with every new session. Methods and Techniques in Supervision Duckert and Kyte (2015d, e, f) classify role-play, reflecting team, and analysis of video recordings among the most effective methods of experiential learning. They trained the supervisors to master these approaches, first by experiencing the principles on their own and then gradually performing them in live supervision. This was one of preparation techniques for the group work of supervisors that was used during the course of education. The supervisors-in-training and their supervisors found these approaches to be effective, not only with regard to collecting advice, but because they also required careful and systematic thinking about a problem, recognizing dif- ferent perspectives on it, understanding who was experiencing a problem and what it was like for that person, what we could influence and what we could not, and how in- dividuals’ personal traits, beliefs, values, experiences contributed to the experiences they have. The supervisor can act as a model for teaching when he/she acts as a case presenter, or the supervisor can decide to invite other participants into discussions according to the principles of the reflecting team, as described in the chapter Situa- tion in the Field of Supervised Practice in Norway by Duckert and Kyte in this book. A very important part of this process is self-reflection, reflection on others in the group, and final reflection upon the conclusion of the session, where a case presenter in- tegrates his/her experience and can even make a plan for further actions. If there is enough time available, the supervisory group can be a safe space for experimenting, where the psychologists experience the first steps on their new paths. For accurate recognition of a supervisor’s skills with regard to treating a case in real time or by means of video or audio recordings (noting that the latter cannot present non-verbal responses), the Norwegian supervisors created two forms which include the following criteria: 190 Edited by Anja Podlesek • Verbal fluency. • Interpersonal perception. • Affect modulation and expression. • Warmth and acceptance. • Focus on the other. • Structure (leading without dominating). • Exploration. • Dialogue competence (pacing and leading). • Influencing towards good development. • Creating positive engagement. When observation is performed in a group, the observers can divide the areas of ob- servation and people who observe them. In this way they engage in more accurate observation of individual skills or add other criteria to be observed. It is important that the supervisee names the problem and expectations which he/she wants to work on in the analysis of a particular case. If he/she cannot do this for various rea- sons, the supervisor can offer help. It is desired that the presenter/supervisee speci- fies the areas or specific expectations where he/she wants to receive feedback, such as quality of contact, ways of terminating it, his/her responses to the supervisor’s interventions, guiding a case treatment, or other specific questions referring to the client, supervisor, process, work relationship, and so on. Giving Feedback Duckert and Kyte (2015e) and other authors (Gilbert & Evans, 2000; Kobolt, 2004) emphasize the importance of quality feedback for effective learning. In order for the supervisor to qualitatively support the supervisee’s professional development, he/she must be able to monitor and evaluate the psychologist’s work. This evaluation should be given in a kind, respectful, and supportive manner; information needs to be real, containing accurate descriptions of observations and criteria used, which should be known by the supervisee at the beginning of the supervision process. The scale of the supervisor’s competences presents one of the formal ways in which feedback can be given. It is an instrument for observing and shaping the supervisor’s opinion regarding the level of the competences acquired. (Attention can be paid to responses by clients towards the interventions, or to what and why we, as supervisors, like and what we do not like about the supervisee’s principles, attitudes, and choices, etc.) When providing opinions it is important that the supervisor maintains a neutral attitude and is aware of any of his/her own issues which could influence the evaluation. Such an awareness is necessary in order to minimize subjectivity in providing feedback. Providing quality feedback is, according to Gilbert and Evans (2000), an art and skill which can be acquired through practice. The supervisor can choose a less formal manner of providing feedback, such as ensuring regular discussion times regarding 191 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia the supervision process. The authors give four characteristics of effective feedback (Gilbert & Evans, 2000, p. 114), as follows: • Feedback is systematic, objective and accurate, and built on measurable criteria which can be observed and identified as areas of growth and change. • Feedback is timely. It is important that the supervisee receives the feedback as close to the event as possible, so that he/she can make a connection with his/her own process and experience before losing this. For this purpose video recordings are very welcome, as they enable the supervisee to refresh his/her memory and recon - nect with the essence of the process being used at a particular time. For instance, he/she may be better able to understand why a particular intervention was chosen. • Feedback is clearly understood. The language of providing feedback must be unambiguous so that it does not cause doubt. The supervisor can unintention- ally find himself/herself, for reasons of protecting the supervisee’s and his/her own emotions, in a position where he/she is not sincere, and the supervisee can thus obtain an unrealistic image of himself/herself. This can be avoided with the application of clear criteria which guide the supervisor in giving feedback, and the supervisee in carrying out self-assessments. • Feedback is reciprocal. The feedback is best provided in a two-way interaction in which suggestions are made, and not as a prescription or the only possible solution, but as one of possible beneficial alternatives. A choice is then made by the supervisee. Kobolt (2002) states the following guidelines for quality feedback which are also supposed to be followed by the group members: • Give the feedback only once when the person is listening. • Give the feedback in a concrete and accurate way. • Express perceptions as perceptions. • Express emotions as emotions. • Do not focus only on the negative. • Be willing to accept a response. • Take into consideration the amount of information that another person can receive. • Provide feedback only on the concrete behaviour. • Be aware that the person will accept your feedback only if he/she wants to and is willing to exchange information with you. (p. 89) In the project, the supervisors, supervisors of supervisors, and supervisees were trained to give feedback on different levels about different things with the aim of learning, (self-)reflecting, and co-creating the processes in which they participat- ed. The desire to know and find out and the relationships which allowed sincere dialogue enabled regular, directed, clear, sincere, and goal-oriented feedback. With regard to the criterion of reciprocity, when this was met it strengthened the feeling that we could co-create the project process and lead supervisory sessions towards the actual needs of supervision. 192 Edited by Anja Podlesek Using Reflection and Self-Reflection to Achieve Professional Inde- pendence, Sources of Power, and Points of Growth Reflection or reflecting through the planned introspection about what, how, and why we operate in a specific manner enables our learning to be planned, directed by will, thorough, more trustful, and systematic. The development of a profes- sional worker – a psychologist, team, and a professional body – is closely con - nected to the abilities of individuals to look into their own mirrors and amplify their thoughts, emotions, behaviour, etc. Understanding of the shadow sides of our personality and strengthening of our willingness to achieve higher levels of professional competences offer opportunities for us to not always walk on same less efficient paths and fall into the same traps, but to creatively co-create new realities and to be aware that we are owners of our emotions, the activities we do, and decisions we make. Later in this chapter some questions will be presented that we can ask ourselves to aid in this process, with the questions used depend - ing on the goals we reflect on or evaluate. When we are emotionally too excited it is difficult to see reflections. Everyone, in- cluding psychologists, supervisors, and supervisees, needs to learn how to simmer down when too excited and use a mindful presence to look inside and decode the content and message of our feelings. When we encounter obstacles, challenges, and problems in our work, we too quickly focus on the outer world. From being oriented outward to becoming oriented inward we move from reflection to self-reflection. “Learning self-reflection means learning how to critically think about our own think- ing (meta-cognition), i.e., to take a distance towards our own interpretations” (Rup- nik Vec, 2006, p. 448). With recognizing our own uniqueness, diversity of people, training of skills, strat- egies, knowledge, personal firmness, etc., we develop our professional identities. Not to know is our right, but to ask and learn is our responsibility. Self-reflection is a form of self-care and a protective factor which helps us recognize when we need help. With self-reflection we deepen our understanding of ourselves and gradually start operating from within our inner essence, with the help of core qualities such as accuracy, persistence, courage, and enthusiasm (Evelein & Korthagen, 2015). One of qualities of core reflection (see Table 10) and professional growth is in recognizing different aspects of our personalities, the frictions between them, and the ability to change problems into opportunities for growth. The goal of problem solving should be to make the supervisee feel more powerful and aware of having more choices in similar situations, where he/she can thus function more self-confidently, profession- ally, maturely, and responsibly. The process of achieving this goal requires several steps, and going through different personality layers, moving from “façades” and activities which are visible to the eye, to the essence of one’s personality, where feelings of joy and purpose spring from (Pelc, 2013). 193 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Table 10. The onion model of core reflection (Evelein & Korthagen, 2015) Layers of change Questions 1. Environment What am I coping with? What am I influenced by? 2. Behaviour How do I respond? What do I do? 3. Competences What do I know? What am I competent at? 4. Beliefs What do I believe in? 5. Identity Who am I? How do I perceive my role? 6. Mission What am I enthusiastic about? What is my passion? What inspires me? Research shows that the period from an experience to reflection on it is important, as is having the time, will, and courage for transferring the findings of reflection into practice (Ažman & Gradišnik, 2013). Exaggerated self-criticism is not welcomed, in particular not in the context of perfectionism, as the psychologist can be caught in a trap of increased vulnerability, an exceeding need to prove himself/herself, and a lack of self-esteem, and thus on a path to exhaustion and burnout. With the programme of supervision and parallel implementation of the supervision of supervisors, we prevented lengthy research without proper reflection and en- couraged the utilization of the power which stems from own desires and ideals, and eliminates inefficient patterns of operation. We concentrated on several factors: it is important to share knowledge, teach approaches, and focus on relationships. We all have images about ourselves, but a “copy, paste” system does not work un- less it accommodates to an individual’s personal traits. It is not a coincidence that both supervisors and supervisors of supervisors must ask themselves: ”Who am I – a teacher, counsellor, or therapist?” This is another important and welcome reflective question. It is recommended that the reflection which occurs at the beginning of the learning of new skills is structured enough (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012). Learning from books is valuable, but professional growth will be better achieved by experiencing inner power with full presence, mindfully, here and now, in a particular moment of direct (supervision) experience (Evelein & Korthagen, 2015). Model questions for (self-)reflection (adapted from Kobolt, 2004): • What happened? What was my response and conduct like? • What was I thinking about and how did I feel? • Was the situation easy or difficult for me? • What was important for me in the situation? • Can I see the reasons for what happened? • What do I believe that others think, feel? • What does this mean for me? • What did I do well? • What am I satisfied with, what is bothering me? • What would I do in a different way? • What would be the consequences now if I had behaved in a different way? 194 Edited by Anja Podlesek • What exactly would I keep? Why? • What bothers me with regard to the situation? • Have I done everything? • What solutions are possible? • Which solution will I utilize first? Why that one? • Which solutions do I not want to utilize? Why? • Describe the plan of taking measures, giving the initial five steps. • What have I learnt from the described situation? • How is it affecting me? Model questions for evaluating the process of reciprocal reflection on dyad perfor- mance (Ažman & Gradišnik, 2013; Pelc, 2004, p. 253) • How well did we define the goals? • Have we realized them? • Have our expectations come true? How? • How well can we observe our mutual work and provide feedback? • Did we engage in sincere and open communication and did we trust each other? • Were we equally devoted to mutual teaching? • Was reciprocal reflection carried out in accordance with the plan? • To what extent and how did we respect fundamental principles? • What did we learn while preparing and introducing reciprocal reflection? • Will we adhere to confidentiality of the information? • Will we carry out reciprocal reflection again next time? For the purpose of reflection on and self-assessment of the supervisee’s profession- al work in the supervision process, Zabukovec and Pelc (2009) formulated a list of questions referring to the following issues: • Assessing the course, content, and methods of practice. • Becoming aware of the learning process in practice. • Communication during the practice. • Integrating theoretical knowledge and practice. Evaluation as a Method and Process in Supervision The approach to reflection described above will contribute to a higher quality evalu- ation of the supervision process. In the course of supervision we conducted regular evaluations of the process. The questionnaire Brief Regular Evaluation for Supervi- sors (BRE-S) was constructed and completed by participants at the closure of each session. Additionally, supervisors could provide oral opinions, and final evaluations of the content, process, method of work, attitude, the acquired knowledge and so on. Immediately after each session and upon the conclusion of the process the supervi - sors of supervisors regularly conducted an evaluation of the process where they used the questionnaire Brief Regular Evaluation for Supervisors of Supervisors (BRE-SS). At 195 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia the end point of the supervision process the supervisors gathered responses from the group members and summarized them into a comprehensive report. Evaluation was thus carried out on a regular basis, directly after each session and at the end of the supervision process. In processes longer than ours one of the supervisory sessions contains an interim evaluation which, according to Miloševič Arnold, Vodeb-Bonač, Erzar-Metelko and Možina (1999), is not a special phase of the supervision process but presents the conclusion of the introductory phase and transition into the middle one. Evaluation is of great importance as it contributes to higher awareness, process management, monitoring and controlling of the progress regarding the set goals, and possibilities of goal re-definition, quality assessment of relationships, feelings of safety and trust, awareness of unpleasant moments, be- haviour and conflicts, and their regular resolution. Evaluation is thus a compass for directing the supervision process and learning. In the final phase the questions are repeated, but the analysis process is never the same, as there is the second half of the process, new learning, new or old findings, new challenges and approaches to resolving them. There are also evaluations of the group process and relationship dynamics, and what individuals learned, from whom, what their contributions were, and how they co-created the reality. Equally impor- tant is the role of the supervisor, his/her attitude towards individuals and the group, what was disturbing, what was supportive, was anyone interrupted by something, and so on. It is important not to open new areas at this point, but to set aside the last sessions for concluding, resolving open issues among the group members, as well as between the group and supervisor, so that by the end the spiral of learning and relationships is closed. Model questions for the final evaluation of the dyad implementation of the supervi- sion process (Pelc, 2004, p. 253): • What have you learned as a supervisor of your group? • What have you learned about the rules, exceptions, and surprises in the super- visory work? • Did you achieve the set goals in the course of supervision? • Did the group enable you to learn and grow? • What obstacles did you encounter in learning? • Which method did you find to be most applicable? • What are your weaknesses and strengths in dyad guidance? • How did you feel in the group and in the dyad before the beginning of the process? • What are your needs and expectations for the future? • What do you need to do for your learning process to continue? • What hinders the realization of your set goals? • What would happen if you terminated the relationship? What do you expect from each other? Why did you decide to work in pairs? • What is the situation now in comparison to the beginning? 196 Edited by Anja Podlesek • What has changed and why? • How will you know that cooperation has been successful? What defines it as successful? • What would you like to change about working in a dyad in the future? For reflection and evaluation of the supervision process the supervisor and supervisee can use the Procedure of reflection with the help of Socratic questions (Tancig, 1994, pp. 95–96), and a list of questions (Žorga, 2006a, pp. 210–212) divided into four groups on the following issues: (i) an individual’s learning and recognition of himself/herself and other members of the group; (ii) contributions by the supervisory group and its individual members, and development and learning of all participants; (iii) group dy - namics and group rules, (iv) setting of new goals and planning their accomplishment. Beside the techniques of reflective questions, role-play, reflecting team, and analysis of video or audio recordings, other creative approaches can also be applied, depend- ing on the goals that have been set, such as: drawing trees/plants; use of thematic and therapeutic cards, images, concepts; use of postcards, small objects, Lego blocks, drawings, paintings, clay or a sand box; writing stories, poems, and letters; using met - aphors, directed visualizations, music, and movement. It is important that the supervi- sor masters the use of various media, applies them with regard to the focal goals and in compliance with the needs of an individual or the group as a whole. The majority of the approaches mentioned here are described in detail by Lahad (2002). Conclusion The supervision of supervision proved to be a very important part of the project, which offered comprehensive support in the implementation of supervision and effective encouragement in the acquisition of the competences needed for inde- pendent work as s supervisor. Several elements of this process can be transferred to different levels (supervisor of supervisors/supervisor/supervisee), others are more focused on the experience, knowledge, recognition, and ability to conceptualize what is happening at different levels of learning and interpersonal relationships. Every psychological, therapeutic, and educational work which is human service re- lated needs to be done by professionals who are aware of their own strengths and weaknesses. Nourishing a sense of professionalism, ethics, and personal spirit in the helping professions is thus of vital importance. I believe that the path towards more professional work depends not only on increasing one’s professional knowledge and turning outward, but also on personal maturity and turning inward, towards one’s inner being, inner self. Supervision and the ability of self-reflection help maintain realistic optimism, the right level of self-criticism, and a willingness to cope with challenges. They enable safe learning of the initial skills and knowledge, and further steps towards changes which lead to professional “adulthood” and independence. Mojca Poredoš Case of the Internship Experience in the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project I participated in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project as a student. I decided to apply for an in - ternship within the framework of SUPER PSIHOLOG to, among other things, avoid the tiresome search for a supervisor, and to ensure that I would learn as much as possible during this period. My decision was to conduct the internship in the field of education. The first meeting with my supervisor was the introductory meeting at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. This was an interactive lecture, part of which was de- voted to building rapport between supervisors and supervisees. This experience was very interesting, because a more equal relationship was established in the neutral area under the leadership of a third party. Building rapport was directed; supervisees and supervisors both answered the questions which enabled faster establishment of a relaxed and genuine relationship. We described to each other our experiences and expectations regarding the supervision relationship and internship. Based on my su- pervisor’s expectations and requirements, as emphasized during this conversation, I was able to create a picture in my mind of how the internship would be carried out and what my supervisor expected of me. This created a sense of safety and cer- tainty, as I had a feeling that I could influence the development of the supervisory relationship, and at the same time I could express my desires and expectations, and emphasize my strengths. Establishment of the supervisory relationships continued in the second part of the obligatory Module 1 of training for supervisors, which I was unable to attend. My 198 Edited by Anja Podlesek supervisor and I thus agreed to meet in a supplementary meeting for which we thor- oughly prepared. I intensely thought about my expectations for the internship and carefully read the descriptions of the related competences, which were extended by the supervisor with descriptions related to the requirements of kindergarten work. The meeting took place in the supervisor’s office. The purpose of the meeting was to prepare the internship plan with the help of the materials intended for the training of supervisors within the framework of the project. As a supervisee, I more easily engaged in the conversation by answering the prepared questions because they de- manded my active responses, despite possible discomfort in the new relationship. The supervisor presented the institution and her work by relying on texts known and accessible by me. The supervisor clarified the distinctions between the work of a kindergarten psychologist and a primary or secondary school psychologist, which I knew better. With the presentation of the institution and her work she made me feel safe in the position of supervisee; I trusted her, and knew what I could expect. During the conversation, I became aware of my own wrong beliefs and stereotypes about the work of a kindergarten psychologist. I realized that a kindergarten psy- chologist’s work is very demanding and diverse, and broad professional knowledge is needed. It is essential to be knowledgeable of the older and more widely recog- nized fundamental theories, as well as new models and still developing methods. During my studies, I acquired great deal of knowledge about older theories, while the current findings and legislation were unfamiliar to me. We agreed to meet once more before the outset of the internship. At that meeting we focused on preparing an accurate and concrete plan of internship. We agreed on the formal arrangement of the internship, created a time scheme, and agreed on the structure. We agreed on a flexible schedule which would be regularly adapted to the situations or needs that arose. We also made a decision to communicate via e-mail and by telephone. With regard to structure, we decided that each task performed by me would be followed by reflection and feedback. Longer reflection and new knowledge awareness would be communicated at the end of the week. I pledged to write down both immediate and weekly reflections, which was a great help in becoming more aware of the new knowledge I was being exposed to. At the meeting we specified the internship goals, which were linked to competences. This provided the basis for defining the progress and goals achieved within the internship upon its conclusion. The already established supervisory relationship and clear agreement on the work method and goals enabled me to actively participate in work from the first day, when I was present and helped form the groups of children for the following school year. In the next days I listened to very sensitive and confidential conversations with kindergarten teachers and parents, and participated in the procedure of diagnosing the difficulties of some children. With my supervisor I carried out the first reflec- tion, which was helpful in enabling me to face my own feelings and strengthen my 199 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia newly acquired knowledge. We discussed the events of the first week of the intern- ship, and tried to find out which competence I was developing at each activity. The supervisor explained my experience and new knowledge by means of the EuroPsy model. After we had discussed a particular experience she directed my thinking to the competence which was being developed through the related activity. She helped me understand and become aware of the knowledge which was not encompassed by those competences. Already in the second week of my internship I took over increasingly independent tasks and participated in various activities, all the time supported by my supervisor who allowed me to do my own activities, and thus expressed her trust in my skills and knowledge. On all levels I found the equal and respectful relationship which my supervisor established with other parties in the process to be the most important factor to successful outcomes. During my observation of her relationship with oth- ers and myself, I became aware of the importance of respectful communication and allowing equality in a relationship, which are two of the building blocks of a success- ful psychologist work. The supervisor asked questions to direct people with whom she started communicating, but she did it in a non-intrusive and respectful manner. At the same time she offered them support and assistance when needed. The super- visor devoted her attention to evaluating various projects and her role in them. We both found accurate evaluation and thorough examinations to be very important, although people often avoid them due to lack of time. The number of tasks and amount of independent work I did increased in the third week. I was present at most meetings with parents and kindergarten teachers, I often observed children in their everyday activities as part of the diagnostic pro- cedure, and I was bringing my independent project – designing a leaflet about the toilet training of children – to a close. In my reflections on activities I became more independent and needed fewer questions from the supervisor to lead and direct me. During reflection my supervisor directed my attention to different explanations and perspectives which I did not notice myself, e.g. the defence mechanisms of par- ents or a kindergarten teacher’s behaviour, which affect subjective assessments of their competency by parents or co-workers. My supervisor focused on me during reflection so she noticed my need for feedback on the quality of my work. This is why she found time at the end of reflection and praised my independence and my increasingly active participation. It meant a lot to me that she noticed my distress on certain issues and responded appropriately. In the last week of my internship the supervisor showed a great deal of trust as I independently led the conversation with two kindergarten teachers, where we pre- pared the kindergarten’s opinion regarding a child, and participated in the signing of contracts on children’s enrolment into the kindergarten. At that point I encountered a very unpleasant situation, namely very upset and dissatisfied parents. I had oppor- tunity to discuss the situation with my supervisor, who was able to help me overcome 200 Edited by Anja Podlesek my unpleasant feelings and emotional distress. I actively participated in the process of evaluation of the project implemented by the kindergarten, and my supervisor prepared me very well for this. Initially, she directed my attention to the purpose of the evaluation and its goals. After we had determined the goals we formed ques- tions to assess their achievement. The supervisor then directed my thinking to the most appropriate implementation of the entire evaluation and a method I would choose for a particular section. Independently, I prepared various materials for the implementation of the evaluation and carried it out. During the course of the eval- uation my supervisor participated as the leader of the project. After the meeting the supervisor and I evaluated it and discovered that we had managed to obtain an- swers to all the key questions and thus accomplished the set goals. That was one of the last activities I performed in the internship. The performance of that task clearly showed my progress from initial dependence to final independence. My progress also was assessed by means of the plan prepared at the beginning of the internship, and this was the basis for regular and final evaluations of my development. The internship within the framework of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project distinguished itself from traditional internships. In the next section of my report I present several of the benefits which I, as a supervisee, cherished the most. 1. Feeling of safety: The internship was organized in such a way that I always knew what others expected of me and what I could expect from them. I experienced the feeling of safety during the introductory meeting when both my supervisor and I clearly expressed our expectations. The questions and materials prepared for us within the project directed us through entire process and made it possible for us to cover all the important points. 2. The supervisory relationship: Throughout the internship an emphasis was also kept on the relationship between the supervisee and supervisor. The relation- ship was slowly established and strengthened in the meetings held before the internship began. The quality of the supervisory relationship was defined by clear and respectful communication, the action plan that was prepared in ad- vance, and clear requirements. Because the most important points of the rela- tionship had been defined, the possibility of dissatisfaction and conflicts was minimized. 3. The internship plan: The internship plan determined the work requirements and activities for me to participate in, and offered possibilities for the evaluation of my progress. The plan was a starting point, as it had been prepared based on the level of my competences prior to the internship, and as such it enabled the measurement of my progress. 4. Reflection: During the regular and final reflections my supervisor devoted her time to me, and enhanced my expression of positive and negative emotions and thoughts. During the time of reflection I remembered my work, reactions and responses, and became aware of the new knowledge I had acquired. This served as the bridge between theory and practice. Reflections enabled the time 201 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia and space for professional discussions regarding the activities, which contribut- ed to my personal and professional development. Personally, I found it impor- tant for me to write down these reflections, as in this way I articulated all my feelings and thoughts and strengthened my knowledge. Additional evaluations and encouragement to think strengthened the important experiences which I encountered during the internship. The supervisor offered a safe environment for me to explore my already accom- plished competences, and support in acquiring new competences. The internship came to its conclusion with the final evaluation, which was very important to me. During the internship I progressed professionally and personally. My supervisor ad- vised me at the beginning to try and learn something from every situation, and I accepted her advice and think that I learned a lot during the internship. I trust myself more and I am better prepared to become a professional psychologist. Nastja Salmič Tisovec, Tina Podlogar and Nuša Zadravec Šedivy Case of the Supervised Practice Experience in the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project Introduction by the Supervisor Since 2011 I have been employed full-time in the field of social welfare, in one of the central Slovenian non-governmental and non-profit organizations in the area of mental health, Slovensko združenje za duševno zdravje (Šent), the Slovenian As- sociation for Mental Health. A few years ago I passed the professional work assess - ment exam in social welfare at the Social Chamber of Slovenia, and obtained the EuroPsy Certificate in the area of clinical and health psychology. I work as a coun- sellor in the programme of daily care. For a shorter period of time, I used to do such work in the programme of employment rehabilitation. Our users are people with difficulties in mental health and their relatives. Beside individuals who expe- rience more severe and chronic mental disorders, recently the share of those who seek help in distress due to various life challenges and milestones has increased. My work encompasses work with groups and individual psychological counselling, and is very dynamic. It is oriented towards the acquisition and strengthening of skills and competences, and thus the more independent and fulfilled lives of our users, their empowerment and destigmatization. We strive for interdisciplinary connections and the holistic treatment of individuals. I entered the project with mixed and unclear expectations – in particular because it was a new project and thus could not be compared to something I already knew about. However, participating in something new and co-creating such an important 204 Edited by Anja Podlesek story was the thing which attracted me. My practice in the field of social welfare enabled me to see how well the traineeship was organised in this regard, how important its role was in the development of professional workers, and how irre - placeable the role of supervision is in further professional development. Addition- ally, I was drawn to the project by my fellow psychologists and the connection with the profession itself, as there are few who practice in the area of social welfare. Introduction by the Supervisees We are employed as young researchers at the Slovene Centre for Suicide Research, Andrej Marušič Institute, University of Primorska, where we participate in various research and prevention projects within the areas of mental health and suicidal behaviour. Our work belongs to the domain of clinical psychology, and encom - passes different research-intervention activities of public awareness regarding mental health and work with vulnerable groups and so-called gatekeepers. We collaborate in the preparation and implementation of various programmes with the aim of strengthening mental health and preventing suicidal behaviour among adolescents (e.g. the European projects SEYLE, WE STAY , and the Slovenian project Do you understand (yourself)?!? (in Slovene: A (se) štekaš?!?), and adults (e.g. implementing the mindfulness programme MBCT, which we called the NARA Pro- gramme in order to increase its recognition in Slovenia). Besides, as assistants, we participate in pedagogical work with students. Our work is dynamic and diverse, and requires knowledge and competences in various domains of psychology. Prior to the inclusion into the project we had different expectations and wishes. We wanted to develop competences, improve our professional qualifications, and obtain additional support in coping with various work-related difficulties. As early career psychologists, we often encounter challenging or emotionally demanding situations in our psychological work, so the possibility of additional support by a third unbiased party who would supervise and direct the process was an impor- tant motivation for inclusion. Further, we expected that the supervisor’s experi- ences would present an important opportunity to learn and would be helpful in our resolving professional dilemmas. The latter proved to be important, but grad- ually the supervisory relationship became especially useful from the perspective of developing our competences and becoming aware of them, and from that of developing and strengthening our reflection on our work, which contributed to greater independence at work. A Course of the Supervised Practice The supervised practice lasted one year, and the supervision sessions were conducted approximately once every 14 days. Due to the circumstances of the 205 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia supervised practice – the supervisees were co-workers and encounter similar di- lemmas and difficulties in their work – we decided to implement the supervision process partially in supervisor–supervisee dyads, and partially in a group; that is, with both the supervisor and supervisees together. Due to the distance between the locations of our work organizations, the sessions were sometimes performed live, and sometimes by means of Skype video connections. Approximately every second session was conducted individually by Skype, and the remaining sessions were conducted live in the group, but we regularly discussed the manner of ses - sion implementation and thus adapted to any particular situations that arose. With exceptions due to occasional and minor technical difficulties, the work by Skype was comparable with the live performance. In cases when we were very busy, the Skype sessions enabled us to maintain regular communication without having to travel long distances. After each session the supervisees prepared brief descrip- tions of the session content. This is how the supervised practice was planned from the beginning, and it was implemented in accord with the plan. Prior to the supervised practice the supervisor presented information regarding the course of the practice. Then we clearly specified the relationship, purpose, goals, and course of supervision. We did this on the basis of the competences as - sessment and Supervision Agreement. We devoted most of the time to the specific section of the agreement where the supervisor and the supervisees first specified their own expectations and goals, and then we discussed them. We tried to state the expectations as clearly as possible, which helped us during the course of the supervised practice in the planning of individual sessions. The plan was examined several times during the practice and upgraded with regard to observations and the needs within sessions. The topics of most sessions referred to concrete situations and dilemmas in real work environments and different fields, such as clinics, education, work and or- ganization. We would like to emphasize that the situations discussed included real experiences of the supervisees and their workplace, and of the supervisor and her workplace. In this way, the supervisees directly or indirectly obtained a broader scope of competences, and had an opportunity to discuss the development and application of psychological competences in a more diverse context. Attention was paid to the acquisition of competences and the recognition of existing knowledge and skills by means of proper self-reflection, and to further development and strengthening of competences. Special consideration was given to ethics and ethical dilemmas in psychological practice. The emphasis was on the need for constant recognition of such issues and on the complexity and diversity of the area. While talking about ethics and ethical dilemmas we ascertained that ethical dilemmas could be very subtle so it is important for the psychologist to be sensitive in this regard. Even though psy- chology students gain an in-depth theoretical knowledge of ethical aspects of the 206 Edited by Anja Podlesek psychologist work during the period of their studies, we are certain that paying attention to ethical dilemmas in psychological work is one of important aspects of the continuing professional development of psychologists. In our supervisory relationships we followed the initial agreements so no ethical dilemmas occurred, as we tried to adhere to the main ethical principles in the implementation of the supervised practice. The attitude between the supervi- sees was also appropriate. We allowed each other to present dilemmas which were discussed during the sessions. The supervisees being co-workers enabled discussions with the supervisor about shared work situations and dilemmas, and on different situations where we learned from each other’s experiences. This en- riched the supervised practice, as it offered additional perspective in dealing with different topics. A pleasant climate was established in the group where all members contributed to clear communication, giving constructive feedback, and empathic interperson- al relationship. A formally defined and clearly structured supervisory relationship presented the basis for the creation of a safe and confidential environment. Such a relationship could be established provided there was a sincere desire of the mem- bers for professional growth and collaboration. We estimate that the motivation of the group members was one of the key aspects which added to the good mood in the supervisory relationship, and to the feeling that we could discuss any aspect of the work or professional domain when we sensed the need for developing our competences. For a successful course of supervised practice it is important that different com- petences of the supervisor and various supervision methods are applied. We will specify a few which we personally felt to be the most important for support in professional growth and competences development. The supervisor often encour- aged reflection on the events and performance when we were having a conversa- tion. She encouraged professional development, offered the required information, and adequately directed us towards acquiring knowledge and competences in the areas recognized as weaker and in need of further developing. We recognized as important that the supervisor knew how to expose possibilities for the generali- zation of findings arrived at during work, and our ability for resolving similar or different challenges based on the acquired knowledge and skills. Considering the possibilities of applying the acquired knowledge in future work tasks or challenges often seems to be neglected, but is a very important condition for professional growth, as it enables the transfer of knowledge and strengthening of the feeling of competency in new and unknown circumstances. Upon the conclusion of the supervised practice we outlined the previous sessions and areas dealt with. In the concluding sessions we focused on the goals which had received less attention. Finally, all three of us individually prepared the documentation for the entire work performed in the supervised practice, and the development of competences. 207 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia A Supervisor’s Experience In my opinion, the supervisees and I were lucky to be grouped in the supervisory relationship by the project team, because we shared similar vision of the super- vised practice implementation, and similar levels of motivation and engagement. All of us felt equally accountable for the smooth course of the practice and for establishing and maintaining trustful, respectful and pleasant relationships. I my- self considered the supervised practice to be a two-way process, and was look- ing forward to obtaining new knowledge from the supervisees who intensely and extensively deal with the area of suicidality. During the implementation of the practice it was proved that for good work there is no need for the professional areas to overlap completely. Indeed, in my opinion the diversity of our work con - tributed to richer contents and more possibilities for acquiring and strengthening the competences. During the course of the supervised practice I realized that I participated in the project at the right stage of my professional development. By means of training and education, practicing supervision and participating in supervision sessions, I succeeded in clarifying my professional identity. I acquired a clearer and more structured insight into my competences and specific professional knowledge. Con- sequently, I can differentiate them better from the competences of my colleagues from other professions, and I can more easily and efficiently integrate them in my interdisciplinary work. Supervisees’ Experience Regular cooperation with the supervisor proved to be very efficient, as it enabled continuity of the process and development of the relationship between the super- visor and the supervisees. It was of great help that during the sessions our super - visor gave constructive feedback, emphasized important areas, and directed the discussion. The feedback provided by the supervisor was positive, encouraging, and contributed to our increased motivation for work and feeling that we could deal with the work tasks assigned to us. The supervisor’s trust in our ability to pro - fessionally perform the work tasks was important too, and it encouraged us to do the work and increased the feeling of self-confidence. After the supervised practice we observed the very significant progress in our pro- fessional qualifications for the competent performance of the work-related tasks. This encompasses the development of adequate competences and acquisition of theoretical and practical knowledge. During the supervised practice we advanced in awareness of our existing knowl- edge and competences. The supervisor encouraged the transfer of existing knowl- edge into practice and new work situations. As an important component of this 208 Edited by Anja Podlesek we would like to emphasize the development of more independence on one hand, and self-reflection on professional work and awareness of own abilities and limi- tations on the other. Benefits and Weaknesses of the Supervised Practice We see the benefit of the supervised practice in providing much needed support for early career psychologists. Academic studies equip such psychologists with a great deal of knowledge which can transform into competences only when applied in spe- cific work environments, that is, the achievement of knowledge-based skills for the professional performance of work tasks. On this level of professional development every form of support is welcomed, and even more so if it is structured and founded on evidence-based concepts. In this regard, we think of not only the support provid- ed by a more experienced colleague psychologist in the sense of the addition and upgrading of knowledge, but also (or especially) by a supervisor who helps a young psychologist become aware of the acquired knowledge, and its effective connection with real work situations. The implementation of the supervised practice very sensibly included strengthening of the psychologists’ competences into their real work environments. The duties with- in the practice only encompass regular active collaboration on supervision sessions and the keeping of records, and do not assume the performance of other work tasks. Reflection on important work experiences during the preparation for a session and the discussion with the supervisor regarding various dilemmas, doubts, and challenges are a valuable opportunities for developing the supervisee competences. The supervisee is thus directed in his/her awareness of already developed competences and their application in different situations, and he/she receives valuable support and encour - agement in upgrading existing competences and developing new ones. Another benefit of regular supervisory sessions is in the stronger connection that can develop when the supervisor can devote more attention to supervisee, has bet- ter insight into the supervisee’s work, and the supervisee is encouraged to perform more thorough work and development on his/her own competences and skills. An- other beneficial aspect of the supervised practice is the possibility of discussing the different difficulties and emotions experienced by the supervisee in his/her work, and thus relieve emotional tension. After processing the emotions and opening up alternative perspectives on the situation, the supervisee is better prepared for deal- ing with further work tasks. Even though supervision by a supervisor who is not employed in the same institu- tion as the supervisee has its advantages, a weakness can be that the supervisor has insufficient insight into the entire nature of the supervisee’s work, and must often rely solely on the information provided by the latter. 209 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia A challenge for the supervised practice as it was implemented within the framework of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project is in the opening of further possibilities with regard to future implementation of the supervised practice. Since we believe that contin- uous long term implementation of the programme would contribute very much to the development of human resources and to the recognition and respect of the profession, we hope that the enthusiasm and satisfaction that we experienced in this structured supervision of novice psychologists would expand beyond the circle of individuals who collaborated in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. Julija Pelc Case of Supervision-of-Supervision Experience in the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project: Journey of One of the Supervisory Groups On the Way to a Kindergarten The supervisory group in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project started its journey in the pleasant room of a counselling worker in the kindergarten attic of a villa in Ljubljana. To reach the room, the members of the group climbed the wooden stairs, whisper- ing, on our toes; here and there a creaky sound could be heard, but the children’s snoring was louder. The image of the naughty Pippy Longstocking, who resided in the Villa Villekulla, stole upon me. This was not surprising, as I was feeling as I always do when entering a new supervisory relationship, a joyous excitement before a new journey whose path is still unknown, because we are going to create it together with the participants of the supervisory group. The villa is located on a green plot, among the city giants. The path leading to it is somehow hidden between the blocks of flats, turning here and there, and when the destination is almost reached a new circle of searching begins. However, persis- tence bears fruit, for some earlier, for others later, but the labyrinth of the unknown path was eventually solved by us all. It was good to have known each other before (the group had already collaborated in a workshop within SUPER PSIHOLOG), helped each other, directed each other, illuminated the path to the destination, and kindly accepted each other. The feeling of one’s own accountability cannot be avoided in this context, neither can the emerging emotions. 212 Edited by Anja Podlesek Describing this reminds me of the work process in supervision – expectations, goals, research, temporary loss of focus, recognition, naming, reflective practice, making sense, experimenting, and persisting until reaching the goal. Besides this path to the kindergarten and search for routes in the supervision process, I see a parallel- ism in the fact that for the first meeting we had chosen a kindergarten, a place of entrance into the area of educating and raising a child. Months after this, on their new professional paths, the supervisors helped the novice psychologists and psy- chology students in the traineeship so they could learn a diverse and broad range of psychologist work, and develop the required competences, professionalism and autonomy for independent performance. The supervisors and supervisors of super- visors collaborated in the process of acquiring the competences of supervision and of successful implementation of the supervised practice, respectively. The supervisory group was homogenous with regard to gender and area of work, and all of the psychologists were employed in the area of education and care. Two were employed in a primary school, two in a grammar school, and one was employed in a kindergarten. The group members had a great deal of work experience, including in their professional fields where they worked during the project implementation. They were employed as counselling workers, and in the secondary school were do- ing a combination of counselling work and/or teaching psychology. Despite its ho- mogeneity in some respects, the group was heterogeneous regarding the ages of the children and teenagers in the related institutions. Lifting Anchor The supervisory group met seven times. In the first and second meetings we de- voted some time to building rapport in concluding the supervision agreement in compliance with the recommended guidelines (agreement on time and location of sessions, intervals, the length of sessions, manner of defining dates, the importance of regular attendance, recording, responsibilities of supervisors and supervisees, be- nevolence, sincerity, communication style, the importance of telling each other less pleasant things, safety, trust and confidentiality, the type of materials we can use, what the supervisor’s learning is supported by and what it is hindered by, etc.). We examined our previous experiences of supervision and familiarized ourselves with the method of work, course of supervision, and predicted structure of a session, the importance of material preparation, active and timely attendance, and evaluation, both after each session and upon conclusion of the seven meetings. We discussed our expectations and considered the goals – both personal and group ones. In the second session we did what other groups had done in their first, namely we performed the recommended personal introductions (as described in the chapter Development of the Supervision of Supervisors). My initial opinion was that this guide- line by our Norwegian colleagues was too directive and could lead to discomfort, as 213 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Slovenians tend to be shy and reserved. Moreover, many people associated such personal questions with therapeutic work, and supervision is not therapy. Howev- er, the opposite happened, and I had a feeling that we were able to move closer together with deep level of connectivity, and our feelings of belonging, safety, and closeness were increased. Such a narrative approach contributed to our entering the relationship in an open, direct dialogue, with feelings of vulnerability, decisiveness and softness arising simultaneously, as expressed by us feeling greater power as in- dividuals. While listening to their stories I felt respect and gentleness, and as a group we were sorry that one psychologist withdrew from the project. However, I think that a positive aspect of this project was that our experienced colleagues joined it on a voluntary basis, and that the resulting supervision presented a privileged space for exploration and discussion of various issues, which in the supervision process emerge on an individual level – both professional and personal – and at the system level. This caused a sense of being part of a larger group of like-minded people who were creating something new in the Slovenian space, giving rise to feelings of crea- tivity and enthusiasm, as reflected within the supervisory group. Because of this the group felt able to unfurl its sails and head off into the unknown. Setting Sail During the sessions the psychologists exchanged valuable experiences and planned the beginning of the supervised practice with a supervisee, the procedure of direct- ing the discussion and the establishment of an agreement. They exchanged informa- tion on the materials they had used, definitions of expectations, conclusion of the supervision agreement, timeframe, and the location of discussion. In this way, they got oriented with the materials delivered within the project. They were supportive of one of the participants who, due to geographic distance, experienced difficulties in securing a supervisee. All of them received support in supervision with regard to supervisory questions relating to the relationships with supervisees, their position and operation in the system. As they described it, for some of them the participation in supervision was very beneficial, because it enabled them to learn in a natural way by collaborating with other participants. They elaborated on the skills, methods and techniques which they had acquired during the process of training. Learning was en- riched by providing separate feedback, which was very often presented and always welcomed. As awareness of the supervision process increased, it was realized how important the implementation of all its phases was, and that skipping or avoiding a certain phase would reduce the quality of the process. A supervisory space is an environment where the group pays attention to details. The result is broader than the development of the competences needed to implement the supervision process. Collaboration in the supervisory group and in the project, according to the final evaluation by participants, supported their regular duties in 214 Edited by Anja Podlesek the workplace and encouraged further professional development. Moreover, it also strengthened the participants’ awareness of the importance of the supervisor’s role in the relationship with the supervisee. This not only includes competences with regard to communication, but is about the whole attitude of an individual towards another person, the co-creation of the work relationship, and taking responsibility for one’s own contributions. Participation in this group thus had an indelible impres- sion on the implementation of the supervision process. The Group as a Mirror Sometimes looking into one’s own mirror can be difficult, because it is still foggy and gives a distorted picture. Subjective experience can fundamentally deviate from the reality that remains hidden from the person involved, and the resulting blind spots are also part of the story of those who can otherwise see clearly. “I can hear, I know, I was talking too much,” the supervisor-in-training, a member of the supervisory group, felt embarrassed before she presented an audio record - ing of a discussion with her supervisee. She told us that she had listened to the recording at home, and how bad she felt to have taken so much space for herself, to have been giving too much advice, not to have gone into more depth and asked additional more personal research questions. She was worried about triggering something in the supervisee, and the session not functioning appropriately. How- ever, she gained courage and shared her experience with the group despite this discomfort and embarrassment. She realized that listening to the recording in the group brought her a different understanding of the situation. We thus waited in- tently for the moment on the recording where she would talk too much, but it never arrived. While it was true that another person in the group might have asked more research questions, the woman was teaching and counselling her supervi- see, fulfilling the expected roles of a supervisor. During the discussion in the supervised group, the psychologist realized that her own need to care for others was taking over, to do whatever she could so that others would feel good. She said that this was a familiar story, one that she had supressed but which still occasionally impacts her professional relationships. She thus gained a greater understanding of herself and awareness that the supervisor acts as a teach- er, therapist, and counsellor. Moreover, with more realistic insights into what she was sharing during the conversation with the supervisee, she was then able to effec- tively transfer this new understanding into further conversations, and increased her own power to choose how to move from one role to another, taking into considera- tion the supervisee’s needs. Duckert and Kyte (personal communication) recommend analysing audio and video recordings in the presence of other professionals, “critical friends,” at least in the 215 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia initial phase of the development of the supervisor’s role. Professionals themselves can be too self-critical, and thus self-assessment (which is very important) can differ significantly from reality, and may not be supportive of the professional and their work. As such, other professionals can be our mirror and a reflection of reality, and the process of analysis can be a means of empowerment. It seems that it is easier and more comfortable for the supervisee to describe a specific case, and to talk about a particular topic, as it allows us to keep a safe distance. Howev - er, listening to a recording of such conversations brings another level: the perception of one’s own voice differs from our inner perception, we can hear how we structure a statement, our own thoughts, how we respond to the words of others, what we re - act to, and what we omit; what our tone is like, how we articulate are ideas, and the rhythm of conversation; whether or not a word is given its own space for expression, and whether or not silence has a space for expression in the quietness; what we ac - complish with silence, whether or not we allow it, how we feel in silence, whether we are the ones who terminate it, and if so, when and why; what our emotional response is like, what feelings we experience during the conversation; and what is happening in the particular moment when we are listening to and observing our own work in the presence of the group members. These are a few of the questions that can be used to strengthen our self-awareness and self-knowledge, as well as the awareness and knowledge of others, which can increase mindful attention, the ability to manage one’s own responses and ask relevant questions about what we need from our work. This process is intensified when we include audio and video recordings in the supervi- sion process, where every millimetre of non-verbal expression can be observed, and every millilitre of emotional experience is recognized. It is important for the efficiency and quality of supervision that those who are to receive it look through any video recordings beforehand, have one or more pos- sible problems ready and find video clips that are related to these. Moreover, less learning is achieved when supervisors and supervisors of supervisors do not spend time preparing for video-based supervision sessions (Kyte & Duckert, personal communication). Individuals obtain more direct information regarding themselves when they actively participate in the process of case analysis, and when they independently lead a case analysis in front of the group. Different leading styles are thus clearly expressed. Researching the creative space of a supervisor (paraphrasing Cajvert, 2001) is impor- tant for recognizing one’s own boundaries and identity in a particular role, as none of the suggested techniques works in isolation, and they have to be harmonized and integrated with our personalities. In our supervisory group, the supervision pro- cess contributed to a greater awareness and understanding of competences, both primary and enabling ones. Additionally, the supervisors-in-training developed the competences of providing effective communication, intervention, and evaluation. In their opinion, supervision enhanced continuing professional development and 216 Edited by Anja Podlesek brought to light the details of professional work. Overall, supervision played a sig- nificant role in the group members’ emotional relief, and enhanced their self-care. Cliffs There are both visible and invisible cliffs that need to be negotiated, becoming vis- ible when we hit them. Parallel processes are invisible until they are unconscious, only when they are “at work” can we notice them, perceive and gradually appre- hend them, and thus eventually change them. Despite a spirit of openness and will- ingness, individuals can experience hindering factors that cause them to suppress certain responses. These are then expressed in an uncontrollable way, and thus the supervisor or supervisor of supervisors co-creates new obstacles. During other times unexpected situations occur which require an appropriate response. Leaving of a group member. When to terminate a collaboration, how much time to give the person to decide by him-/herself whether to leave, what is the supervisor’s role in this context, what is that of the leader of the training programme, and what is the role of a coordinator? Which information regarding the supervisee is confiden- tial, which can be shared in the project? Due to objective reasons one of the supervi- sees was only present in the first session, and she officially ended the collaboration a few months later. During the time of her absence she was still regarded as a member of the group, we expected her arrival, but her seat remained empty. The participants thought of her in different ways, aloud or silently. All the members accepted her leaving as the most reasonable course of action at the moment she announced, and had farewell conversations with her. Nevertheless, the absent participant still was present in a way – as a person who had left. One of the participants experienced her leaving as a challenge. She had a bad feeling, and was worried that she herself had contributed to this, that she had not been understanding enough when expressing her desire for the other participants to come on time so that the sessions could start as agreed. On the cognitive level, she knew what was reasonable, real, and optimal, but her emotions took their own path. Despite the good general mood in the group, the building of deep trust and safety was a process which needed some time to occur. Acting different roles. A specific skill that needs to be developed by the supervisor is the natural movement among the roles of teacher, counsellor, and supervisor. This affects who and how leads the process, the supervisor or supervisee. Initially, this challenge presented a field of exploration and self-questioning for some supervisors. However, when we could express our thoughts and discuss them in the group, we could then relativize and normalize our feelings and emotions. Understanding a supervisee and self-disclosure. A group member stated in the final evaluation: “At the beginning of supervision, when the group has formed, it was dif- ficult for me to share myself, my thoughts, with strangers. Similarly, working with the 217 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia supervisor was challenging, because we differ in our methods of work.” It is good that I, as a supervisor, had a real interest in finding out how I could contribute to a better climate and interpersonal understanding. For this reason, certain issues were soon dealt with by means of feedback, reflection, examination and “translation” of our- selves. Developing quality connections and relationships was very important for me. We operate from different approaches and experiences, which could mean a specific use of language or terminology which is familiar to some, but unfamiliar to others. Meeting and understanding one another on the border of diversity is a quality which needs to be built up in order to develop stronger and more trusting connections. Agreeing on the time-schedule. We adapted to each other in terms of our desire that as many of us as possible could be present in the sessions. Slowly a feeling emerged that there was no continuity, and that fewer sessions could be arranged than was wanted. This was not true, however, and problems only arose due to issues related to coordinating the time-schedule of the sessions, with a longer than usual break occurring between the last two sessions. Upon conclusion of the process, a few of the participants felt a strong sense of belonging to the group and in the final evaluation they used the expression “We were …,” while one participant was not so connected to the group, and said that she experienced more intense unpleasant emotions when working with it. There were factors of an objective nature which hin- dered regular attendance, such as health or other issues which meant that going to a scheduled session was not possible. Such situations thus became part of the group’s reality. By means of conversations and compassionate understanding we could skil- fully avoid some problems here. For example, the rigid preservation of scheduled dates could cause the more frequent absence of individual members, which was not desired because it would cause obstacles to the overall aims of the process, in- fluencing the relationships and feeling of belonging among group members, as well as the outcomes. Sailing around the obstacles in the supervision process requires the active participation of all the participants. The use of a permanent location and long-term schedule planning proved to be a good option in this case, despite the problems with absences that sometimes occurred. In short, when planning a pro- ject like this it is good to know how to deal with any attendance issues, as they are almost certain to happen. Preparation of cases, materials. Occasionally, the participants did not have actual cases prepared regarding the implementation of the supervision processes, because they did not have supervisees or concrete questions. However, using an approach that allows for different topics and questions to be examined, there was no fear that we would not have enough work materials. Here, the “materials” can be the par- ticipants themselves, as they enter into supervision and supervisory relationships, and reflecting on this process can provide a new information that opens up new considerations. In our group we could focus on the process analysis, group dynam- ics, topics we dealt with, and what happened later with a case, we can encourage 218 Edited by Anja Podlesek more thinking about interpersonal communication, the emotions we experienced, group structure, its climate, self-reflection, reflection on others and the supervisor. In the group we managed to maintain a supervisory method of work, and so dealt with the cases through the analysis and exchange of experiences, thus increasing the well-being of all the participants – the supervisors-in-training, their supervisees, and the supervisor of supervisors. Between the supervisory relationship and friendship. The supervisory relationships presented specific challenges, joys, and reflections to the supervisees and supervi- sors. Some of them grew into friendships, and in some cases the supervision con- tinued outside the workplace. The supervisors thus devoted more of their time and moved some their boundaries, re-shaping of their roles. It is important to remember that both the supervisor and supervisor of supervisors are models, and as part of this are modelling how to set boundaries, which need to be skilfully arranged by the supervisee in his/her relationship towards the people he/she works with. In this re- gard, there were no significant deviations in the group which would require thought- ful consideration of the ethical aspects of this process, although the potential for ethical dilemma to arise in this context should not be forgotten. Ethical questions. In the group we engaged in regular reflection on the following ethical questions: 1. How to set boundaries? In the events described earlier in this chapter there were no ethical dilemmas, however, they could have occurred if the boundaries had been crossed, depending on the context and the relationship between the supervisor and supervisee. The supervisors in the group were highly profes- sionally qualified and knew how to manage the situations that occured. Nev- ertheless, the formal framework of collaboration between the supervisor and supervisee can loosen, and in certain cases this can become counter-productive for individuals who experience difficulties in setting borders and taking respon- sibility for their actions. 2. How long to persist if the supervisee is very unskilful with regard to particular competences and the progress is not adequate, of he/she lacks the courage to try, or is a passive observer with insufficient initiative? There are great differences among novices in terms of autonomy, knowledge, experience, self-confidence, and personal traits. Some of them are rather independent at the beginning, and can integrate guidelines into practice; others are slower, long-term observers, before they gather the courage for increased professional independence. 3. How to realistically and encouragingly inform an individual who is over-con- fident and in his/her opinion very successfully performs his/her work to drop their defences and see the reality from other perspectives? We are aware that a novice has a need to present him-/herself in good light in the processes of mentoring and supervision, and consequently more often presents cases which had been effectively solved, or describes an idealized image of a work situation. 219 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia 4. How much directedness should be afforded to a supervisee who avoids allow- ing the supervisor to visit him/her in the workplace, and should the supervisor visit him/her anyway? What if we are entering an environment which is not supportive of the supervised practice? What impact does our entrance have on the supervisee in his/her environment and in the reciprocal relationship? It is important that both the supervisor and supervisor of supervisors take both individual specifics and the broader context into consideration. 5. How to operate when the supervisor faces an important difference between his/her value system and that of the supervisee? We discussed this issue in our group, and found a solution which was implemented on the project level. It is important that the supervisor is in contact with himself/herself, and recognizes how disharmony influences him/her and the relationship with the supervisee. It is thus needed to examine how to manage the situation while maintaining professional boundaries and preventing a mixing of roles. In general, and in particular regarding cases of ethical dilemmas, it is responsible and important for the supervisor to participate in meta-supervision or intervision, where the questions and issues that arise are handled with the help of the group, the supervisor, and with the required critical distance. Distinction between the supervisor’s and the supervisee’s field of practice. “Can I be a supervisor, will I know how and be able to satisfy the supervisee’s expec- tations?” The supervisor discovered while having a thorough conversation with a supervisee about her expectations, goals, and needs that it was not about learning specific therapeutic approaches. Questions regarding borders and other competenc- es in psychologist’s work relate to both the supervisor and supervisee. In this way she maintained awareness of the supervisee’s efforts and of how to lead the process of exploration. Due to distinct fields of practice and different workplaces, the risk of including her own projections into the supervisory relationship was reduced. With an attitude of careful awareness she followed her own process and regulated the current goals important to the supervisee, adapted them by working together with the supervisee in order to better suit the supervisee’s altered life circumstances and long-term goals. The skill of setting boundaries is mutual one, regardless of the pro- fessional domain. It begins with recognizing one’s own needs, self-care, self-confi- dence, positive self-esteem, negotiating skills, ability to manage possible conflicting situations, and reducing the need to please others. Storms Is it wrong if no storm occurred? There were a few clouds, a bit of wind, but no storm. There were, however, some inner gales, counter-transference responses, and an inner dialogue: ” All of them are so experienced,” I thought. “The descriptions of their work express knowledge, enthusiasm, responsibility, an individual approach, accuracy. They 220 Edited by Anja Podlesek are innovative, devoted, creative, resourceful, skilful, autonomous, critical supervisors …” It was as if I had forgotten that I had been responsible for the process, helping the group sail to the destination, and that at the same time each of the participants had to take their own and shared sails, put in some effort, harmonize the work, tune in, in order to safely arrive at the destination. They added originality to the supervision process, upgraded their approaches by writing down reflections, carefully deliberated on how to encourage the supervisee so that an optimal experience of the supervised practice was gained. They were thinking about themselves, how they operate, what the result is, what could be changed and improved. They were able to dive into them - selves, feel the essence and understand how old patterns influenced their current professional relationships. Self-reflection and reflection in general are key competenc- es of supervision. As one of the participants noted, the supervision journey enriched them with new knowledge, experiences, and methods of work, which is now more thorough, structured, systematic, and systemic. Arrival When after a longer period of time you step from a boat onto the ground your legs can feel unsteady, and the body is like a wave. It is good to maintain this feeling of movement when no longer in the project or the supervisory group. The develop- ment of competences and mindful presence towards oneself and the others surely contribute to the quality of the work that is done. Asking proper questions gives rise to different perspectives, opens possibilities of choice, and different understanding of the situation. What do we take with us from this project? Joy. A feeling of satis- faction. A wealth of new experience. Progress. The importance of regular meetings. Closeness. Connection. Attachment. Distance. Humour. Authenticity. The gathering of fruit. Reciprocal enthusiasm and compassionate support. A supportive network, and feeling of belonging to a wider community. Silent processing of an absence. Unarticulated words. Refreshed memories of the past. Satisfaction. Knowledge. Self-care. Skills. Proper demands. Competences. Strategies. Exchange of experi- ences. Awareness that one can be understood. Laughter. The full table of the host. Trust. Confidentiality. Ethics. Memories of tiredness and illness. Caducity. Constant presence. Adherence to an idea and people, even oneself. Connection with oneself. Quality. Vitality and a well-spring of energy. Finally, we take with us reflections on the surfaces of thoughts which show that the openness, sincerity, and positivity experienced in the supervisory group can effec- tively be transferred into the professional environment. The Evaluation of the Developed System of the Supervised Practice and the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project 223 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia In the project we evaluated all sections of the training of supervisors (Module 1, Module 2, and all individual components of Module 3), the implementation of the internship, the implementation of the supervised practice, and the supervision of supervision. • Evaluation of the training programme was implemented on the basis of the analysis of the participants’ satisfaction with the contents of workshops, their opinion on the quality of the implementation of individual workshops, and use- fulness of workshops for the development of mentoring and supervision com- petences. We examined how self-efficiency for risk estimation and conduct in risky situations changed during the training in workshops within Module 3. • Based on the supervisees’ and supervisors’ reports, the implementation of the internship and the supervised practice was evaluated. • We examined how the supervisors’ self-assessment of their competences of supervision changed during the course of the project, and their self-assessment was compared with the assessments of supervision competences provided by the supervisees. • We examined the assessments of supervisees’ competences upon the conclu- sion of the supervised practice. • We collected the supervisees’ assessments of the quality of the supervisory re- lationship and compared them with those provided by the novice psychologists who had not participated in supervision within the project but were included in traditional traineeship, induction training, or participated in supervision out- side the project. About the different groups, we compared satisfaction with the supervisor and the training, and the assessments of the competences for per- forming psychological services. • We summarised the reflections by the supervisors on the work in the group supervision, and those by the supervisors of supervisors. Following the results of the evaluation of the project sections, the final evaluation of the project was conducted where the efficacy of accomplishing the set goals was also evaluated. The evaluation was the basis for planning sustainable implementa- tion of the supervised practice of psychologists in Slovenia, and for development of guidelines for the implementation of the supervised practice, supervision of super- vision, and training of supervisors. In the text that follows, different parts of the evaluation and its key results are presented. 224 Edited by Anja Podlesek Tina Pirc, Anja Podlesek, Vita Poštuvan, Tina Podlogar, Katarina Kocbek and Martina Ulčar Evaluation of the Training Programme of Supervisors Evaluation of Module 1 The participants of Module 1 were invited to give feedback two times by means of an internet questionnaire; the first (33 respondents) after two weekends of train- ing and before the implementation of the internship (hereafter: Survey 1), and the second (23 respondents) after the implementation of the last part of Module 1, i.e. after the implementation of the internship (hereafter: Survey 2). Survey 1 encom- passed 22 supervisors, two supervisors of supervisors, and nine students, while Sur- vey 2 included 25 supervisors and supervisors of supervisors. Where means and standard deviations are presented, the respondents provided their answers on a five-point Likert scale (1 – very bad/very unsatisfied/unimportant, 5 – very good/ very satisfied/very important). At the beginning of the training the supervisors wanted to obtain an accurate outline of the course of supervision and their responsibilities (in their roles) as supervisors. Some of the supervisors stated that they wanted more precise instructions for the implementation of the internship, or a sample of the report they would have to make after the internship. They expressed a need for a summary or guidelines for the implementation of the internship and supervised practice. They expressed their wish for as much group and practical work as possible, new practical knowledge of mentoring methods, and familiarization with real-life cases; they stated they were looking forward to applying theoretical knowledge in a real situation. Several times 226 Edited by Anja Podlesek they mentioned their wish for and expectation of participating in the supervisory group, or having professional support during the mentoring process. In general, the participants were satisfied or very satisfied with the implementa- tion of the module, and only a few of them were undecided on this issue (Survey 1: M = 4.2, SD = 0.7; Survey 2: M = 4.0, SD = 0.6). The entire Module 1, where they learned about the competence-based approach to supervision, the development of the mentoring relationship, and implemented and reflected on the internship, was evaluated as good or very good (M = 4.6, SD = 0.5). Similarly, most respond- ents evaluated their training and preparation for the implementation of the in- ternship/supervised practice as good or very good, and only a small percentage felt that they were prepared to lead the internship/supervised practice moderate- ly well (M = 4.4, SD = 0.7). The parts of the training where the work was performed interactively in groups or pairs with the supervisees were considered to be of high - er quality than the others. The programme of Module 1 was praised by the participants, who stated that they had acquired a lot of new knowledge. They further expressed that the programme was systematic, qualitatively outlined, and well implemented. Many respondents mentioned the pleasant climate during the sessions, chances to exchange experi- ences, conversations on possible dilemmas and difficulties during the supervised practice, and time for discussion, which they would have made longer for some of the topics. They expressed their satisfaction with the materials used, which they found to be useful, systematic, and illustrative. In particular, they liked the work- shops and possibility of active participation with their supervisees in one of the ses- sions. They would also have liked their supervisees (students) to be present at some other parts of the training. Some of the supervisors, who did not yet have their supervisees in an internship, mentioned that joint attendance would have made it easier for them to make sense of the practicum in the training. The supervisors saw the group work and possibility to transfer theory into practice as very interesting and useful, and wished to have more opportunities for that. Moreover, as a group they were satisfied with the diverse list of techniques and methods of work that were applied, and emphasized group work as an advantage of the training programme. The supervisors also felt that in Module 1 they had received the structure and the- oretical guidelines for systematic implementation of the internship and the super- vised practice. They were provided with knowledge about the competences and skills required for establishing and maintaining successful mentoring relationships. They thus became more sovereign and self-confident in performing their role as mentor. They also became more aware of their work from an ethical point of view. Quite a few of the participants recognized the importance of good planning of the internship and specification of goals, which they now more actively applied to their work. Many of them became more familiar with the concept of competences and the competence model, which they considered as very useful, seeing it as a good 227 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia starting point for internship planning, directing career development, and the basis for easier assessment of students and novice psychologists. The materials they were given were also thought to provide good support for their tasks. However, some of the respondents noted that it was only after the conclusion of the internship that they realized how much time would need to be devoted to the quality implementa- tion of the supervised practice. They thus started dedicating more time to evalua- tion and reflection, and the acquisition and application of feedback. They considered group reflection and evaluation of the mentoring relationship to be very important (M = 4.5, SD = 0.7). For some respondents the final evaluation of the internship was too long, because certain questions regarding reflection and evaluation seemed to be repeated. As such, when training supervisors we must be careful not to overload them with evaluations of their work. The documentation that they are required to prepare for us to evaluate their mentoring qualifications should be limited to the most important aspects. The majority of participants stated that their expectations about the training pro- gramme had been realized. They learned a great deal of new things, acquired new knowledge and skills, obtained more insights into psychologists’ competences, and gained practical experience in their roles as mentors. They believed that they imple- mented their roles very well in this context, and their participation in the project was thus a very pleasant experience. Collaborating in the development of the system of supervised practice enabled them to connect with other individuals from differ- ent fields of psychological practice, and openly and critically exchange experiences. They recognized the support provided by the group in resolving dilemmas and diffi- culties within the implementation of the internship, and expected assistance from their peers. Overall, the supervisors stated that they strengthened their profession- al identities through the entire process, and became more aware of and upgraded their work and competences. Evaluation of Module 2 After the implementation of each of the two parts of Module 2, the supervi- sors-in-training and supervisors of supervisors were invited to provide feedback by means of an internet questionnaire. Twenty-two supervisors and four supervisors of supervisors responded. Most majority of the participants were entirely satisfied with both parts of Module 2. They experienced Module 2 as educational, beneficial, and practically useful, pro- viding important insights into supervision. Most of them considered the material re- lated to the establishment of the supervisory relationship, fundamental documents, and competences of supervision very important for ensuring effective supervision. They emphasized the importance of becoming familiar with the role of supervisor and the area of supervision, delivering feedback, and preparing for complex cases 228 Edited by Anja Podlesek in supervision. They highly praised the use of video recordings, demonstrations and work in small groups (using the methods of role-play and reflecting team), that is, the experiential nature of the contents learnt. They liked the work in groups com- prised of members from different fields of psychological practice, as the experiences and views shared were more diverse than they would have been with homogeneous groups. They highly valued conversations on difficult topics, and their greater aware- ness of particular behaviour patterns which could have negative impact on the im- plementation of supervision. The possibility of such discussions was increased due to the feeling of safety established by the lecturers. Several participants commend- ed the exchange of practice between Slovenia and foreign states. What was perhaps most interesting and encouraging was the feeling of new energy and enthusiasm for future work which was felt by some participants. The majority of the participants thought that the training had prepared them well or very well for the supervision of a novice psychologist. They emphasized the im- portance of the contents of Module 1 which, in their opinion, presented a reasona- ble pre-level of Module 2. The Module 2 contents were beneficial, well structured, and valuable for reviewing and upgraded their knowledge. They found it particular- ly important that they acquired some competences and tools for establishing the supervisory relationship, monitoring, and giving feedback. Several of the respond- ents emphasized that they felt more competent in applying different supervision techniques. Their experimenting with the role of supervisor in different tasks and dilemmas was seen as useful, and they experienced a feeling of where difficulties could occur and practiced on concrete cases how these could be solved. However, they believed that they would need much more practical experiences to successfully implement supervision, as their participation in supervision also presented a learn- ing process for them. Some individuals pointed to the need for further training of individual competences, in particular giving feedback. Overall, they evaluated their inclusion into supervisory groups as very useful. Some participants found the training to be extremely intense, and would like to have devoted more time to particular activities. They also called for a more structured theory with additional information and a broader explanation of the individual parts of supervision, more literature, and an even more practically oriented implementa- tion of the training (more real-life cases, workshops, work in smaller groups, work with video recordings, etc.); more information regarding the supervision models and their application, experiential techniques, inclusion of participants in discussions, more time for work in groups (triads), more thorough analysis of video recordings, and a deepening of the knowledge about application of individual techniques in su- pervision. It can be concluded that it would be sensible to strengthen the contents of Module 2 and give more time to the participants to deepen their knowledge of supervision, and practically train their supervisory competences. This holds true in the current situation in Slovenia, where supervision has not been widely applied and 229 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia only a smaller number of psychologists participate in it. Moreover, their knowledge and competences of supervision are insufficient, because most have not had per- sonal experience of collaborating in this way. It would thus be sensible to take the situation and needs of psychologists in a particular state into consideration when upgrading the programme, and then to adjust the parts of the training as needed. Evaluation of Module 3 Satisfaction with Workshops Table 11 shows the evaluation of the individual parts of Module 3. The column Sam- ple presents the number of people among the workshop participants who complet- ed the survey. The respondents evaluated their satisfaction with the workshop (con- tent, tasks, and materials) on a 5-point scale (1 – very unsatisfied, 5 – very satisfied). Table 11 shows what aspects of the workshop the respondents praised, and what they would like more of. The supervisors-in-training and their supervisors assessed the importance of the workshop for supervision. It can be seen in Table 11 that the assessment rates are high, which points to the fact that both supervisors-in-training and their supervisors recognized the importance of the contents learned in the workshops for supervisors. The topics covered in all the workshops received an average estimation of very important for supervision. Table 11. Outline of the evaluation of Module 3 workshops Workshop Sam- ple Satis- faction M (SD) What did the par- ticipants praise? What would they like more of? Importance of the topic knowledge for supervision Will the workshop help in supervision? 1. Burnout 23/31 3.8 (0.8) Good theoretical outline, application of psychodiagnos- tic instruments in burnout, proac- tivity-orientation; among the home assignments they praised the use of diaries and the application of a questionnaire on burnout Even more practical interventions in the field, more informa- tion regarding the biological aspects of burnout and inter- active methods of work Very (73%), Extremely (27%) Very (27%), Slightly (67%), Not at all (7%) 2. Self-re- flection and help seeking 20/30 4.4 (0.6) Methods of work applied Even more theoreti- cal information and alternative methods and technique of self-reflection Very (33%), Extremely (67%) Very (73%), Slightly (27%) 230 Edited by Anja Podlesek Workshop Sam- ple Satis- faction M (SD) What did the par- ticipants praise? What would they like more of? Importance of the topic knowledge for supervision Will the workshop help in supervision? 3. Addic- tion 30/32 3.9 (0.8) Focus on various stakeholders (e.g. in schools, among vulnerable groups) To devote even more time to the topic and more con- crete interventions Little (19%), Average (48%), Very (19%), Extremely (14%) Very (10%), Slightly (52%), Not at all (38%) 4a. Ethics 29/35 4.2 (0.8) Materials and tasks, the content adapted to con- crete cases and dilemmas, and the combination of home assignments which opened important issues To devote more time to the top- ics because they are complex and demanding, need quality reflection and constant up- grading Very (10%), Extremely (90%) Very (85%), Slightly (15%) 4b. Data protection in the psy- chologist’s work 4.7 (0.6) 5. Suicid- ality 29/34 4.1 (0.7) Particularly impor- tant were theoret- ical findings and group discussions Even more practical exercises and spe- cific examples of interventions, and ways of providing emotional relief for those who provide help Average (20%), Very (33%), Extremely (47%) Very (20%), Slightly (80%) 6. Moti- vational interview- ing 20/30 3.6 (0.9) To devote more time to the topic; to devote sessions mainly to practical part of tasks Average (14%), Very (43%), Extremely (43%) Very (29%), Slightly (64%), Not at all (7%) 7. Psycho- logical first aid 30/44 4.7 (0.5) Practicality of workshops and combination of theory and practice To devote more time to the topic Average (17%), Very (44%), Extremely (39%) Very (78%), Slightly (22%) 8. Coun- selling at traumatic events 9. Strat- egies of coping 37/43 4.7 (0.8) Practical and ex- periential aspects of the workshops, which would help them in self-care and practical work To deepen knowl- edge of character strengths, and more experience with mindfulness con- cepts Average (16%), Very (47%), Extremely (37%) Very (63%), Slightly (37%) 10. Mind- fulness Evaluation of the Change in Perceived Self-Efficacy We wanted to evaluate the efficiency of the training of supervisors, and especial- ly the workshops within Module 3. The programme of the training of supervisors started in March 2015, and concluded in January 2016. Modules 1, 2 and 3 were 231 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia interwoven during the period. The course of the training implementation within in- dividual modules is shown in Table 12. Table 12. The training of supervisors and implementation of the pilot internship and supervised practice within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project Time of the training Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 a Internship Supervised practice Administration RAMSES March 2015 2 * 15 h April 2015 20 h X X May 2015 X X June 2015 10 h 2 * 8 h X + July 2015 X August 2015 X September 2015 20 h 2 * 8 h X October 2015 2 * 8 h X November 2015 2 * 8 h X December 2015 X January 2016 2 * 8 h X + February 2016 X March 2016 X Note. X stands for the period when the internship or the supervised practice was implemented. A few supervisors implemented the internship later due to unavailability of students. Some supervisors started the one-year supervised practice after April 2015 and thus finished it after March 2016. Instead of the su - pervised practice, a prolonged internship (two to three months) was implemented by some supervisors. a Every Module 3 workshop comprised eight hours of work including interactive lectures and home assignments. Usually there were five hours of collaboration with workshop leaders and three hours of work assignments. Method Instruments In order to evaluate the efficiency of the training we used the Risk Assessment and Management Self-Efficacy Scale – RAMSES (Delgadillo et al., 2014). RAMSES is used by mental health professionals to rate confidence in their competence of working with people who could endanger themselves or others due to mental health prob- lems. It consists of 18 items (assessed on an 11-point scale, from 0 – not sure to 10 – absolutely sure) referring to key aspects of mental health professionals’ competency: 1. Risk assessment (recognizing and assessing risk). 2. Case management (referring persons to other professionals, motivating, ethics of strategies and approaches applied). 3. Interventions (competency for efficient application of specific interventions for reducing risk in clients and/or other people). 232 Edited by Anja Podlesek Items could be understood in a broad sense and can refer to acute direct risk or endangerment of an individual, or to more remote and/or indirect risk factors. The scale encompasses self-efficacy assessments on a vast area of psychological services. On the basis of the first completion of the RAMSES scale (the scale was completed by 19 supervisors and five supervisors of supervisors, and at different time points by 28 other psychologists who participated in Module 3 workshops), the Cronbach α coefficients of reliability were estimated for individual sub-scales. With α coeffi- cients of 0.90 (Assessment), 0.92 (Case management) and 0.94 (Interventions) the sub-scales showed a high level of internal consistency. Procedure and participants The participants completed the scale before and after the implementation of Mod- ule 3 (in June 2015, and in January 2016). Before the training the scale was complet- ed by 54 participants, and after the training it was completed by 51 participants. We were interested in whether any changes occurred in the self-assessment of compe- tences after the training. Therefore, only the data provided by the respondents who completed the scale twice, that is, before and after the training, were included for further analysis. There were 40 such respondents, comprising 13 supervisors, four supervisors of supervisors, and 23 other participants of Module 3, aged between 25 and 70 years old (M = 37.2, SD = 10.3). In terms of gender, there were 37 female respondents and three male respondents. At the time of the first survey those who participated in the project as supervisors or supervisors of supervisors had already collaborated in two parts of Module 1, mostly concluded the internship, and participated in the first part of Module 2 (see Table 12). Within the scope of Module 3 the respondents participated in different numbers of workshops; 15 respondents had attended eight to 10 workshops (mostly supervisors and supervisors of supervisors), 20 respondents had been to one or two workshops, while five visited three to seven workshops. Results In order to estimate the distinctions between the first and second measurements we used the nonparametric repeated-measures test, i.e. Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and calculated the effect size. The results are shown in Table 13. After the imple- mentation of Module 3, self-assessments of competences increased in all three ar- eas. The respondents assessed themselves as more competent for risk assessment, case management, and the application of interventions. The results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed statistically significant differences, and the effect size was medium to large. 233 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Table 13. Descriptive statistics of the self-assessed scores of competences before and after Module 3, results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test and Cohen’s d as effect size Prior to Module 3 After Module 3 Results of Wilcoxon test Sub-scale RAMSES M SD M SD Z p d Assessment 5.55 1.87 6.98 1.59 –4.47 < .001 0.92 Case management 6.61 1.71 7.44 1.68 –3.14 .002 0.51 Interventions 5.75 1.98 7.00 1.88 –4.37 < .001 0.85 Next, the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient ρ was calculated and the relation between the self-assessed competences and the age of respondents was explored. Our first aim was to examine whether respondents of different ages evaluated their competency differently before the implementation of Module 3. It was observed that the age and self-assessment of the respondents did not correlate significantly at the time of the first measurement (for risk assessment ρ = .02, p = .877; for case management ρ = .02, p = .892; for interventions ρ = .15, p = .366). Our next aim was to examine whether after Module 3 the changes in self-efficacy assessments were of different sizes among the respondents of different ages. The results showed that age was not related to the size of change in competency self-assessment during the training (for changes in risk assessment ρ = –.03, p = .857; for changes in case man- agement ρ = –.01, p = .936; for changes in interventions ρ = –.04, p = .797). The connection between the number of Module 3 workshops attended and changes in assessments of self-efficacy was also examined. The number of workshops attend- ed was not statistically significantly correlated with the changes in the self-assess- ments (for assessment ρ = –.12, p = .455; for case management ρ = .09, p = .564; for interventions ρ = .09, p = .577). Discussion Although there was no control group, we assume that the differences in self-as- sessed rates of competences can be assigned to participation in the project. We believe that various project activities (workshops and other activities, such as group supervision, where different cases of risk behaviour were dealt with) were benefi- cial and valuable for the participants. However, we cannot omit the possibility that the participants’ feeling of professional growth could also be influenced by other factors, e.g. their collaboration in activities outside the framework of the project. Nevertheless, our impression is that the wide range of in-depth contents within the various project activities provided numerous opportunities for professional develop- ment, and contributed significantly to participants’ increased self-efficacy. With regard to the absence of correlation between the self-assessment and age of the respondents, we can conclude that the educational activities were welcomed for 234 Edited by Anja Podlesek the participants regardless of their level of career development or amount of profes- sional experiences. We conclude that the activities were innovative, well-planned and well-implemented, as they enhanced the professional growth of younger psychologists at the beginning of their career paths, as well as the more experienced participants. This confirms our belief in the importance of continuing professional development for practicing psychology, and of organized professional training for psychologists. The results showed that the changes in self-assessments of competences after the conclusion of the training were not connected to the number of attended workshops within Module 3, although it could be expected that a higher number of attended workshops would lead to greater changes in self-assessments of competences. It can be assumed that more confidence in one’s competences could arise by collaborating in educational activities, regardless of the number of topics studied at the attended lectures. It is important to emphasize here that those psychologists who attended a lower number of workshops joined those that they wanted to attend, and thus we assume that they selected those touching on topics important for their field of work, and/or those they wanted to upgrade their knowledge and competences in relation to. Since they could develop personally relevant areas, they soon recognized the strengthening of their competences. The psychologists who participated in a wider scope of project activities were offered numerous and diverse opportunities to be professionally trained. While some topics might have been personally more important to them than others, we assume that the majority of participants gained relevant experiences which contributed to the strengthening of their self-efficacy. The evidence-based increased confidence of the participating psychologists with regard to their competences seems to be an encouraging result. In our opinion, improved self-efficacy in working with people who could endanger themselves or others due to mental health problems can be of great help in coping with difficult sit- uations at work. Regardless of the field of work, self-efficacy in psychologists’ coping with such situations is an important part of professional self-confidence and iden- tity. For some psychologists, their self-efficacy is expressed in recognizing risk and referring individuals in distress to other professionals, while for others their self-effi- cacy is expressed in applying interventions for direct reduction of risk. In each case, the professionalism of a psychologist engaged with endangered individuals and the quality of their interactions can be vital, as it can impact the person’s motivation for strengthening his/her mental health. In this regard, we consider activities contribut- ing to a greater feeling of competency among psychologists in this domain to be very important for the profession. Conclusion of Evaluation of Module 3 The evaluation of Module 3 points to the tendency by psychologists to recognize self-care as an important value in professional work and private life. The participants 235 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia emphasized the necessity of continual self-care and for the development of com- petences in the domain of health care, as this increased their motivation for work, strengthened their professional identity, and also positively affected their supervisees. Direct experiential self-work, which was the basis of several workshops in Module 3, proved to be both welcome and critical for the transfer of the competences acquired and for self-efficacy at work with clients. Evaluation of the Entire Training Evaluation of the entire training refers to the participants’ opinions as to which knowledge in a particular module they considered to be of key importance, and how all three modules of SUPER PSIHOLOG link to one another. The participants provid- ed recommendations on which contents should be added, and in what way, so that future participants could feel completely ready to perform the role of supervisor in the supervised practice. Although some participants missed a clearer outline of the course of the entire training, they found the instruments they had at their disposal to be useful. They emphasized the benefits of the contents of Module 1 for higher quality implementation of the in - ternship, in particular in terms of structuring the supervision process. The contents of Module 2 provided in-depth knowledge of supervision methods, new supervision-re- lated experiences, and awareness of the importance of performing different roles as a supervisor. The contents of Modules 1 and 2 enabled more insight into the entire implementation of the internship. With regard to Module 3, most participants agreed that the contents of the mental health domain should be known by all psychologists, regardless of their field of practice, as they contribute to enrichment of their profes - sional work and provide a basis for personal and professional growth. However, the contents of Module 3 seemed less interesting for older and more experienced psy - chologists. For this reason it would be more sensible to offer the contents of Module 3 regularly (cyclically) to all psychologists within the frame of continuing professional development, not necessarily within the scope of the training of supervisors. In general, the opinions regarding the extent of the training programme differed – some of the participants perceived the entire education as rather time consuming, while others wanted the training to be even more extensive. The interconnectedness between the modules was praised by some respondents, and they emphasized the contribution of each to the training. In their opinion, the modules covered different contents and enabled the connection of theoretical bas- es, practical work, and care for the personal development of supervisors. Module 2 was seen as the advancement of Module 1 (in the participants’ opinion, Module 1 presented the vision, while Module 2 brought the knowledge needed for more thorough work and the guidance of supervisees). Additionally, they expressed their 236 Edited by Anja Podlesek wish for systematic teaching in Module 1, with the emphasis on practical cases, and for more extensive training in understanding and applying the competence model. The respondents wanted the extension of Module 2 and more sessions with the Norwegian professionals. They wanted to learn more techniques for processing di- lemmas in the supervisory relationship, and more different models of supervision, more contents from the area of supervisory competences (for instance, professional ethics, communication, the mentoring process, methods of work, guiding the group, implementing the supervisory conversation, recognizing the supervisees’ needs, es- tablishing relationships with users, relationships between the employees of other profiles, the basis of supervision, actual problems of supervision in the real world, how to encourage the supervisee to add value to the session, giving quality feed- back, and professional contents in the area of work), and more presentations of good practices. They missed an explicit explanation of the connection that Modules 1 and 2 had with Module 3, which seemed to be too extensive, or they could not sensibly relate the contents to the needs of the participants in supervision. Moreo- ver, a few stated that it would be good to learn about the topics in Module 3 earlier in the course of the training. A different sequence of modules was suggested (first Module 2, then Module 3, and finally, Module 1), as well as the possibility of choos- ing among a larger range of contents (similar to the ECTS credits system) within Module 3, which should be offered to both the beginners and supervisors. As it can be detected in the recommendation on including beginners into Module 3, there were several participants who suggested the entire training be adjusted for beginners as they would then be better prepared for the supervised practice. They found the professional contents and emphasis on self-care in Module 3 im- portant for the beginners. The beginners should, according to the participants, get familiar with the competence model before the internship, as well as the concept of supervised practice, ethical dilemmas, and the bases of all fields of psychological work. The education should be continual, equally distributed over the course of the supervised practice, and the lectures should be in the afternoons and on Saturdays. It is important to note the positive opinions of the respondents regarding the possi- bility of preparing at home for particular lectures (e.g. study theoretical foundations, do assignments, complete the lessons by means of internet e-classroom, participate in a chat room, analyse video recordings, participate in interactive on-line work- shops, etc.), and then at the seminars apply theoretical knowledge to practical cases by means of experiential learning and workshops. In conclusion, the participants highly praised the lectures, workshops, and project team. They liked the organization, clear and timely information, promptness and responsiveness. Numerous participants wrote that they were happy to have partic- ipated in the project because they enjoyed it. They considered the project to be es- sential for the development of the profession, and were glad to have helped co-cre- ate a better future for psychologists and psychology in Slovenia. Simona Painkret, Anja Podlesek and Vlasta Zabukovec Evaluation of the Internship 14 The internship is a practical training where a student in real work environment makes the first steps in psychological practice under supervision, learns certain practical approaches, reflects on his/her performance and discusses it with others, and starts establishing relationships with professional colleagues. During the internship the student is expected to become aware of the importance of self-reflection, self-eval- uation, and continuing professional development. For their part, the supervisor strives to reach equilibrium between directive and non-directive approaches in supervision during the internship. On the one hand, the students need, due to their first encounters with real problems, a great deal of assistance, explanation of the conceptualization of cases and suitable approaches of treatment, plenty of advice, and recommendations by the supervisor. On the other hand, the supervisor has to allow the students to implement assignments where they can apply their knowledge, skills, and competences. The students who exhibit adequately developed competences for independent resolution of tasks and show a will to overcome work-related challenges, can be hindered by a supervisor who gives too exact instructions. It is better for such students to find a situation for compe- tences training by themselves, or to solve a task by themselves and later with their supervisor analyse the process used, any difficulties encountered, and the possibili- ties for growth (Zabukovec & Podlesek, 2010). 14  The chapter is based on the analyses and outcomes of the diploma thesis written by Simona Painkret (Painkret, 2016). 238 Edited by Anja Podlesek For the internship to be as effective and high quality as possible, both the student and supervisor must apprehend the goals, process, and achievements. For this reason, it is important for them to focus on defining the initial situation, planning the compe- tences development, and thus set concrete and measurable goals at the beginning of the internship. The central part of the internship is intended for following the set goals and to systematically develop the students’ competences. Systematic develop- ment of competences includes the specification of work tasks, their implementation, and reflection. The internship concludes with the evaluation of the internship and achievements. Such principles were also emphasized in Module 1 of the training of supervisors, in its first part when supervisors were being trained for supervision by the competence-based approach. Students were invited to one of the sessions where they met their future supervisors and talked about their personal path and expecta- tions regarding the internship. To some extent they planned the course of the intern- ship here, in terms of which competences they would develop, and in what way. The Purpose of the Research After the internship, the supervisory dyads’ reports on the course of the internship were collected. A detailed evaluation of these reports provided information on the supervisee competences that were being developed in the internship (as perceived by both supervisees and supervisors), and to what level they were developed. We were interested in whether after Module 1 of the training of supervisors in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project the supervisors saw any progress in their mentoring competences, and how the supervisees assessed the supervisors’ level of development in this area. Reflections were analysed as well, and we were interested whether the participants ap - plied reflective thinking while writing reports on the internship, and what areas they reflected on. The analysis also focused on the notes regarding ethical dilemmas and gen - eral evaluation of the internship, including the improvement-related recommendations. Method Sample The evaluation encompassed 41 reports on the internship with enclosed documen- tation, out of which 20 were prepared by supervisors (one supervisor did not submit his/her report) and 21 by supervisees. The supervisors included in the sample had on average seven years and six months of work experiences (min = 2 years, max = 25 years). All participating respondents had dealt with mentoring prior to the project implementation (they had mentored one to 20 students in various professions, Mdn = 5, among them there were zero to six psychology students, Mdn = 2). With regard to the domain of professional work, the supervisory dyads covered the following ar- eas: nine supervisory dyads operated in a broader area of clinical psychology, seven 239 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia performed their services in the psychology of education, and five worked in the area of work and organization psychology. Instruments One of the following instruments was applied by the supervisors to assess the su- pervisee competences: 1. EuroPsy form C – Competence assessment; the instrument is intended for the evaluation of the development level of competences, following the EuroPsy model, and is accessible at URL http://www.europsy.si/za-prosilce/obrazci/. The form comprises 20 primary competences and 9 enabling competences, evaluat- ed by means of a four-level assessment scale (see Table 3). 2. The supervisor’s assessment of the supervisee competences; the instrument in- cludes the Scale for evaluating competences together with instructions (Table 8) and an empty table intended for supervisors’ notes on the supervisees’ compe - tences, their descriptions and recommendation for further development. Super - visors assessed the students’ competences using the four-level scale presented in Table 3, where levels 1 and 2 were further divided into sub-levels. Level 1 was divided into three sub-levels: (1a) Neither basic knowledge nor basic skills are pres - ent, (1b) Basic knowledge is present, but there are no basic skills, and (1c) Basic knowledge and skills are present, but competence is insufficiently developed. Lev - el 2 was divided into two sub-levels: (2a) Competence for performing tasks is pres - ent, but constant guidance and supervision are required, and (2b) Competence for performing tasks is present, but occasional guidance and supervision are required. 3. The supervisor’s assessment of the student’s competences at the psychological internship; the instrument is part of the obligatory report about the concluded psychological internship produced by master’s degree psychology students of the Ljubljana Faculty of Arts, and very much resembles the instrument named Supervi- sor’s assessment of the supervisee competences. The difference is that it contains space for the final assessment of the internship, and that instead of the empty table it offers a seven-lined table. Out of seven lines, six consist of primary com - petence categories with a brief description, while one line is intended for enabling competences. Next to the assessment column, there is another column for the supervisor’s recommendations of what the student should develop in the assessed group of competences. The assessment scale is the same as the scale in the Super- visor’s assessment of the supervisee competences (Table 3), with the addition of an instruction which informs the supervisor to leave the space empty in cases when the student has not been developing the particular group of competences. The supervisor competences instrument was used by supervisors to assess their own mentoring competences, with 42 mentoring competences divided into four areas (general competences, supervised practice, mentoring, and attitude towards the supervisee). On a six-level scale they marked their perceived level of mentoring 240 Edited by Anja Podlesek competence development (1 – very poorly developed or not significant, 6 – very well developed or absolutely significant). The section on general competences encom- passed six items (for instance: General competency in the work domain of mentor- ing). The section on the supervised practice included 13 items (for instance: Clearly defined expectations regarding the supervised practice and its course). The third sec- tion, mentoring, comprised 16 items (for instance: Awareness of the importance of mentoring), the remaining seven items evaluated the mentor’s attitude towards the mentee (for instance: Awareness of the mentee’s peculiarities). The students assessed the supervisors’ mentoring competences after the internship by means of the instrument Assessment of the mentor, which resembles the instru- ment by Zachary (2012). This is comprised of 20 items with named and described qualities or the mentor competences (for instance: Awareness – Ability to be self- aware and aware of others, sensibility with regard to own identity and the identity of others, social needs, and organizational and cultural diversity). Students assessed their supervisors by means of a six-point scale, where 1 means that a competence is very poorly developed or insignificant, and 6 signifies that a competence is very well developed or absolutely significant. Both supervisors and students used the instrument Questions for the reflection and evaluation of the supervised practice to assist them in final reflection and evalua- tion of the internship. The instrument was presented by Zabukovec and Podlesek (2010), and upgraded in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. It is intended for supervisors and stimulates a structured analysis of six important areas of supervision, through 35 questions. The first question refers to the criteria of successful internship (for instance: What in your opinion are the most important criteria for successful su- pervised practice?), the next five questions deal with conditions of the supervised practice implementation (for example: Were you supported by your employer in im- plementing the supervised practice?), and three questions investigate preparation and planning of the supervised practice (for instance: Were you well prepared for implementing the supervised practice?). The course of the supervised practice is covered by 14 questions (for example: What were the timeframe and organization of the supervised practice like?), outcomes of the supervised practice by seven ques- tions (for instance: Were the goals adequately defined?), and the final five questions ask about the general evaluation of the supervised practice and recommendations for the future (for example: What did you lack for the optimal implementation of the supervised practice?). The model on structured reflection on the supervised practice (Zabukovec & Pelc, 2009) is the instrument used with the mentees. It can assist the student/psycholo- gist in structuring his/her reflection on the internship. The questions are divided into three sections. The first section with five questions refers to the course, contents, and methods of the supervised practice (for instance: Which competences were central to the supervised practice?), the second section comprising 13 questions is 241 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia related to the awareness of the learning process in the supervised practice (for ex- ample: Where do you now feel more competent?), and the third section includes eight questions on the communication in the supervised practice (for instance: What did you expect from other (co-workers) in the institution?) Procedure In the training of supervisors, specifically in Module 1, the supervisors obtained the information, instructions, and the following instruments for the implementation of the internship: Personal path – supervisor version, Experiences of supervisor, Prepara - tion for supervision – check list – supervisor version, Self-assessment of the supervisor competences, Questions for the supervisee and the supervisor regarding the internship planning, Supervision agreement, Negotiations – check-list – supervisor version, Ena- bling the development – check-list – supervisor version, Questions for the reflection and evaluation, The supervisor’s assessment of the supervisee competences, EuroPsy form C – Competence assessment, and Concluding – check-list – supervisor version. Students participated in the second part of Module 1 of the training of supervisors where they, as their supervisors did, obtained the information, instructions, and in- struments, for the implementation of the internship (Personal path – supervisee version, Introductory conversation with the supervisor, Questions for supervisees and supervisors regarding the internship planning, Supervision agreement, Negoti- ations – check-list – supervisee version, Enabling the development – check-list – su- pervisee version, Model of structured reflection on the supervised practice, Ques- tions for the reflection and evaluation, EuroPsy form C – Competence assessment, and Assessment of the supervisor). In the period from March to June 2015 the supervisors in their workplace guided the internship of one psychology student for the scope of 160 hours (there were some deviations among the supervisory dyads about the planned period of implementa- tion). The supervisory dyads planned the internship, monitored the development of the supervisee competences, regularly reflected on the internship process and evaluated it. The supervisors participated in the supervision of supervision. They collaborated in supervisory groups formulated ad hoc during Module 1, where they discussed the course of the supervised practice. Supervisory groups were formed at the beginning of April 2015, that is, after the two parts of Module 1 of the training of supervisors had been concluded, and implemented one to two supervisory sessions during the period of internship. Before the final session the supervisors collected documentation regarding the in- ternship and then discussed it in the group’s last session: they outlined the super- visees’ documentation regarding the internship, assessed the level of the develop- ment of competences, and reviewed the supervisee competences development. They structured and analysed the notes on regular reflection, and created the final 242 Edited by Anja Podlesek reflection on the supervised practice. They also structured and analysed the sum- maries of supervision of supervision, analysed ethical dilemmas which occurred during the internship and their resolution, and created the final evaluation of the internship and their role of supervisor and the role of the supervisee in the intern- ship. They upgraded their understanding of the competence model. They offered recommendations regarding the changes of the implementation of the internship, development of new methods for its monitoring, and planned their own profession- al development for increasing the quality of the internship. The work was performed independently and discussed in groups with regard to their field of work. After the training, the supervisors and supervisees submitted the reports and docu- mentation to the project team of SUPER PSIHOLOG for further inspection. The final report of the students was composed of several parts: (i) the report on the internship prepared within the study programme; (ii) the internship action plan (e.g. notes from sessions with supervisors where they negotiated the implementation of the internship, or a print-out from the web platform); (iii) self-assessment of com- petences (completed EuroPsy form C or the instrument The supervisor’s assessment of the supervisee competences); (iv) assessment of the supervisor’s competences of mentoring (assessment of the supervisor); and (v) the evaluation of the internship. The supervisor included all the documents that the student prepared during the pe- riod of the internship into his/her report (e.g. work plan, regular notes, completed supervisor instruments, comments on the instruments, etc.). The supervisor added (i) his/her assessment of the supervisee competences (by signing the EuroPsy form C completed by the student, the supervisor expressed his/her confirmation of the student’s self-assessment of individual competences; in cases when the supervisor’s opinion differed from the supervisee’s assessment, the supervisor separately com- pleted form C on the points where his/her assessment differed; instead of form C the supervisor was allowed to complete the instrument The supervisor’s assessment of the supervisee competences); (ii) a brief outline of the development of the super- visee competences; (iii) regular reflections and their analysis, and the final reflection on the internship; (iv) synopsis and analysis of ethical dilemmas occurring during the internship and methods for their resolution; (v) final evaluation of the internship and the role of supervisor and the role of supervisee; (vi) reflection on own under- standing of the competence model and its development during the internship; and (vii) recommendations of changes in implementing the internship, new methods of its monitoring, and a plan for one’s own professional development to increase the quality of supervision in the internship. The documentation submitted was the source of the contents used in the analysis. The documentation was evaluated according to the user-oriented evaluation (Kump, 2000), with which we wanted to encompass both intended and non-planned information re - garding the internship implementation based on the EuroPsy competence model. 243 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Results and Discussion Supervisees’ Competences We were interested in which competences of the EuroPsy competence model were developed by the supervisees during the internship (as perceived by the supervisees and supervisors). Table 14. Number of students who self-assessed individual competences (N = 21) Competences f PRIMARY COMPETENCES Goal specification Needs analysis 18 Goal setting 18 Assessment Individual assessment 16 Group assessment 14 Organizational assessment 3 Situational assessment 7 Development Service or product definition & requirements analysis 10 Service or product design 11 Service or product testing 10 Service or product evaluation 10 Intervention Intervention planning 12 Direct person-oriented intervention 15 Direct situation-oriented intervention 3 Indirect intervention 3 Service or product implementation 4 Evaluation Evaluation planning 9 Evaluation measurement 6 Evaluation analysis 10 Communication Giving feedback 16 Report writing 16 ENABLING COMPETENCES Professional strategy 2 Continuing professional development 5 Professional relations 7 Research and development 2 Marketing and sales 3 Account management 1 Practice management 1 Quality assurance 1 Self-reflection 3 244 Edited by Anja Podlesek With regard to the self-assessment by the supervisees, Table 14 shows that among the primary competences development was most often perceived in the following: needs analysis (mentioned by 18 students), goal specification, individual assessment, group assessment, direct person-oriented intervention (f = 15), giving feedback, and report writing. Enabling competences were mentioned fewer times. The highest number of students (f = 7) mentioned the development of professional relations, and five supervisees mentioned continuing professional development. The compe- tences of account management, practice management, and quality assurance were also mentioned in the students’ self-assessments. The gap between the perceived frequency of developing primary and enabling compe - tences is rather unusual. Taking into consideration the contents and action plan of the internship which predicted goal-oriented development of competences, reflections, and evaluation-based critical thinking regarding one’s competency, we would expect that development of self-reflection competence would be recognized more frequently. It seems that the students did not entirely understand the competence model applied in the training. They were introduced to the model by their supervisors, who in their reports specified difficulties in their own understanding and classification of compe- tences, even after the training, and mentioned their gradual development of compre - hension of the model during the implementation of the internship. It can be concluded that it is necessary for the students to become familiar with the competence model, if possible already during their studies, and thus come to the internship equipped with the knowledge of the competence model applied in the internship by their supervisors. Non-acquisition of the competence model by some students can be seen in a statement written in one of the students’ reports: “I was also training the competence of prepar - ing an educational workshop on a specific topic.” A more relevant statement, in terms of the application of the EuroPsy competence model, would be that while preparing the educational workshop he/she was developing different competences, including needs analysis, goal specification, group assessment, and intervention planning. In the future it is necessary to devote more attention to the development of enabling com - petences. The instruments for the evaluation of internship-gained competences which have to be submitted to the university after the internship should thus be upgraded, as the existing forms give preference to the development of primary competences. Table 15 shows the supervisors’ assessments of the supervisees’ competences. Super - visors conducted the assessment by means of different instruments. Nine supervisors assessed the development of an individual functional category of competences (they provided assessment rates for seven functional categories – six categories of primary competences, and one category of enabling competences), whereas 10 supervisors as - sessed each of 20 primary competences and nine enabling competences. Nine supervi - sors who evaluated functional category A (Goal specification) as a whole provided the following assessment rates: one supervisor gave the assessment 1c, one supervisor gave 2, three supervisors gave 2a, three supervisors gave 2b, and one supervisor gave 3. The 245 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia remaining 10 supervisors evaluated each competence separately (assessed both A1 and A2). Competence A1 (Needs analysis) was assessed as follows: one supervisor gave 1c, one supervisor gave 2, one supervisor gave 3, two supervisors gave 2b, and three super - visors gave 2a. Two supervisors did not perceive any development of the competence in their students. Competence A2 (Goal setting) was assessed as follows: one supervisor gave 2, one supervisor gave 3, and two supervisors gave 1c, 2a, or 2b. Two supervisors did not perceive any development of the competence in their students. In Table 15 it can be seen how the supervisors assessed the supervisees with regard to other competences or competence functional categories. This shows that the most frequent grade given by supervisors was 2 (2, 2a, or 2b). Level 4 was used only once. Higher grades (3 or 4) were not expected, because the time available for the internship was short, the list of competences was long, and the abilities of students to perform in real work environment were limited. Nevertheless, the supervisors did perceive the development of numerous competences. In agreement with the as- sessments of the students, they most frequently observed the development of the competences as follows: needs analysis, goal setting, individual assessment, direct person-orientated intervention, giving feedback, and report writing. The outline of the supervisees’ (self-)assessed competences at the end of the intern- ship can be a useful starting point for planning the supervised practice, as the longer period of one year gives more time for goal-oriented development of competences, in particular those which are indirectly (if at all) developed at the internship. Table 15. Frequency distribution of supervisors’ assessments of supervisees’ compe- tences (N = 19) Assessment rate NP T ot al N 1 1a 1b 1c 2 2a 2b 3 4 Primary competences A. Goal specification 0 0 0 1 1 3 3 1 0 0 9 19 A1. Needs analysis 0 0 0 1 1 3 2 1 0 2 10 A2. Goal setting 0 0 0 2 1 2 2 1 0 2 10 B. Assessment 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 4 0 0 9 19 B3. Individual assessment 0 0 0 4 0 2 2 2 0 0 10 B4. Group assessment 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 0 2 10 B5. Organizational assessment 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 0 5 10 B6. Situational assessment 0 0 1 3 2 0 2 0 0 2 10 C. Development 0 0 0 2 1 2 1 3 0 0 9 19 C7. Service or product definition & requirements analysis 0 0 0 1 0 1 3 2 0 3 10 C8. Service or product design 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 0 5 10 C9. Service or product testing 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 1 0 4 10 C10. Service or product evaluation 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 0 5 10 246 Edited by Anja Podlesek Assessment rate NP T ot al N 1 1a 1b 1c 2 2a 2b 3 4 D. Intervention 1 0 0 1 0 3 2 1 0 1 9 19 D11. Intervention planning 0 0 1 2 0 2 2 1 0 2 10 D12. Direct person-oriented intervention 0 0 1 0 2 3 3 0 0 1 10 D13. Direct situation-oriented intervention 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 5 10 D14. Indirect intervention 0 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 4 10 D15. Service or product implementation 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 0 5 10 E. Evaluation 1 0 0 0 0 3 3 1 1 0 9 19 E16. Evaluation planning 0 0 1 2 0 2 1 2 0 2 10 E17. Evaluation measurement 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 3 0 3 10 E18. Evaluation analysis 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 1 0 5 10 F. Communication 0 0 0 1 1 3 3 1 0 0 9 19 F19. Giving feedback 0 0 0 2 1 2 2 3 0 0 10 F20. Report writing 0 0 0 1 1 0 4 3 0 1 10 Enabling competences UK. Enabling competences 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 3 8 19 UK1. Professional strategy 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 3 0 4 11 UK2. Continuing professional development 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 4 0 4 11 UK3. Professional relationships 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 2 0 4 11 UK4. Research and development 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 7 11 UK5. Marketing and sales 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 7 11 UK6. Evidence management 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 6 11 UK7. Practice management 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 6 11 UK8. Quality assurance 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 8 11 UK9. Self-reflection 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 3 0 4 11 Total 4 2 13 35 27 59 50 58 1 112 361 Note. The abbreviation NP presents the number of supervisors who did not perceive the development of a particular competence of category in their supervisees. Supervisors’ Competences The self-assessed competences provided by supervisors before and after the train- ing were compared. First, for each supervisor the score was calculated in the form of the median of the assessments within a certain area of mentoring competences. Scores were distributed very asymmetrically in both measurements, as were the differences between the scores obtained in the first and the second measurement. Table 16 shows the results of the nonparametric test, which was used for evaluating whether an increase in self-assessed rates was found in the second measurement. 247 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Table 16. Comparison of self-assessed mentoring competences (N = 18) in four areas before (Pre) and after (Post) the training Mentor competences Min Max Mdn Results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post General competences 3 3 5 6 4.75 5.00 Z = –2.12, p = .034 Supervised practice 3 4 6 6 4.00 5.00 Z = –2.97, p = .003 Mentoring 3 4 5 6 4.25 5.00 Z = –3.19, p = .001 Attitude towards the supervisee 4 3 6 6 5.00 5.00 Z = –1.54, p = .124 Note. In calculating medians, values were treated as group midpoints. According to the median values presented in Table 16, the supervisors’ self-as - sessments before the training were the lowest in the area of implementing the supervised practice, and the highest in that of their attitude towards supervisees. After the training, statistically significant progress could be perceived in all areas, except for the attitude towards supervisees. This can be explained by the fact that all participating supervisors had previous experiences in mentoring. Proper attitudes towards supervisees are required for successfully implementing the su- pervised practice regardless of the model, be it the EuroPsy competence model or any other. Although the training of supervisors was not directly oriented towards increasing their general competency in the workplace, an important positive change was per- ceived by the supervisors, which is in compliance with the literature, where, for instance, Ghosh and Reio (2013) confirm the positive impact of mentoring on men- tors’ career success and job performance. Since self-perception sometimes does not provide complete information, an assess- ment by another person is required. The supervisors were thus assessed by their supervisees upon the conclusion of the internship. Generally, the supervisees were very satisfied with the method of mentoring––median values were equal to the highest rate (6) in almost all items (Table 17). Students are generally eager to receive advice and information from experienced people (Boštjančič & Vidmar, 2011), which is why it is not surprising that they highly praised the supervisor’s competence with regard to Energy, enthusiasm and willingness to share experience with the supervi- see (Table 17). Median values were lower than the highest value in only four items (Change management, Tolerance of ambiguity, Giving feedback, and Assessment of competences). Change management, as one of the supervisor’s qualities/compe- tences, received the lowest median value (Mdn = 5). 248 Edited by Anja Podlesek Table 17. Assessment Scores for Supervisors Assessed by Supervisees (N = 20) Quality or competence Mdn Min Max Awareness 6 5 6 Empathy 6 5 6 Kindness 6 5 6 Skill of encouraging 6 4 6 Skill of educating 6 4 6 Skill of communicating 6 5 6 Skill of listening 6 5 6 Change management 5 4 6 Tolerance of ambiguity 5.5 4 6 Professionalism and broadness of the supervisor 6 5 6 Energy, enthusiasm and willingness to share experience 6 6 6 Giving feedback 5.5 4 6 Positive and active listening to the supervisee 6 5 6 Reflection on practical work 6 5 6 Managing difficult situations and feelings 6 4 6 Managing boundaries and power ratio 6 4 6 Reciprocal exchange of ethical dilemmas 6 4 6 Mentoring 6 4 6 Assessment of competences 5.5 4 6 Assessment of practice implementation 6 3 6 Note. A value of 1 means that a competence is very poorly developed or is not true of the supervisor, and value of 6 means that a competence is very well developed and is absolutely true of the supervisor. With regard to the Shapiro-Wilk test, the distribution of the rates was statistically significantly different from normal (p < .01), which is why median was used as the central tendency measure. Assessment of Reflections Reflection requires time for consideration, so that we can face problems, ques - tions, and challenges. Written reflection provides the opportunity to articulate and structure attitudes, opinions, interpretations, and conceptualization (Čotar Konrad & Rutar, 2015). We wanted to know whether the participants engaged in reflective thinking while writing the reports on the internship, and which areas they reflected on. The presence of reflections in the reports by the supervisory dyads was inde- pendently assessed by two evaluators. The evaluators examined the entire report with the enclosed documentation submitted by every participant. Previously, 12 categories had been determined: supervisory relationship (direct and indirect de- scriptors of supervisory relationship); feedback (notes on the method, frequency, and time frame of giving feedback); action plan (notes on contents, expectations, 249 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia harmonization, negotiating, and participation in preparing the action plan); (im- mediate/regular) reflection (notes on the method, frequency, time frame of im- mediate reflections); accomplished goals (notes on effectiveness and methods of goal attainment); employer’s support (notes on formal and relational support by leadership); development of competences (notes on the supervisee’s develop- ment of competences); professional identity (notes on the feeling of competency, self-confidence, identification with professional role, the feeling of (increased) be- longing to the profession, connectedness within the profession); increase in the supervisee’s awareness (notes on understanding the importance and contribution of supervision, qualification for supervision, and development of mentoring com- petences); transfer of theory into practice (notes regarding the application of the supervisee’s theoretical knowledge in practice); ethical dilemmas (notes regarding actual and potential, situational and relational ethical dilemmas); and the com- petence model (notes regarding the understanding, comprehension, challenges, potentials, obstacles, and contribution of the EuroPsy competence model). When evaluating whether reflection was present within the reports on individual cat- egories of the internship, the evaluators relied on the agreed assessment scale, where ND represented that there is no data on reflection in a report, 0 repre- sented general notice or description, 1 represented indirectly perceived reflection referring to a concrete situation, and 2 represented awareness of one’s behaviour/ thoughts/feelings referring to a concrete situation. We give a few examples to il- lustrate this. A note categorized under Supervisory relationship assessed with 0 is: “We both realize that we are getting on well in the relationship.” A note within the same category assessed with 2 is: “When talking about more personal topics our relationship became more trustful and open, therefore I could entrust my opinion, even when I did not agree with something.” A note categorized within the cate - gory Action plan assessed with 0 is: “The action plan is enclosed in the report.” A note within the same category assessed with 2 is: “A previous meeting intend - ed for agreeing on expectations, goals, and building rapport with the supervisee, seems very sensible to me. In this way, I had an opportunity to present my work and simultaneously plan where to include the supervisee with regard to his/her wishes, and personal traits.” 250 Edited by Anja Podlesek Table 18. Assessments of supervisors’ (N = 20) and their supervisees’ reflections pro- vided by two evaluators Supervisors Supervisees ND 0 1 2 ND 0 1 2 E1 E2 E1 E2 E1 E2 E1 E2 E1 E2 E1 E2 E1 E2 E1 E2 SR 0 0 7 4 8 11 5 5 0 0 4 3 11 7 5 10 FB 1 1 7 11 6 5 6 3 0 0 6 11 9 3 5 6 AP 0 0 2 4 13 10 5 6 0 0 6 7 10 8 4 5 RR 0 0 4 9 7 3 9 8 0 1 4 9 10 6 6 4 AG 0 0 2 8 15 9 3 3 0 0 3 6 8 7 9 7 ES 6 6 7 7 3 5 4 2 5 5 2 6 9 4 4 5 DC 0 0 2 3 7 10 11 7 0 0 3 3 4 6 13 11 PI 6 5 7 8 5 5 2 2 2 2 7 5 6 7 5 6 IMA 0 0 1 2 7 4 12 14 18 18 2 2 0 0 0 0 TTP 11 11 3 4 4 3 2 2 0 1 8 9 5 3 7 7 ED 3 3 7 8 1 4 9 5 8 8 10 9 1 2 1 1 CM 3 3 6 3 4 5 7 9 10 12 9 7 0 0 1 1 f 30 29 55 71 80 74 75 66 43 47 64 77 73 53 60 63 Note. E1 = evaluator 1; E2 = evaluator 2; f = frequency of the rate per evaluator. Categories: SR = Supervisory relationship, FB = Feedback, AP = Action plan, RR = Immediate/Regular reflection, AG = Achieved goals, ES = Employer’s support, DC = Development of competences, PI = Professional identity, IMA = Increase in men - toring awareness, TTP = Transfer of theory into practice, ED = Ethical dilemmas, CM = Competence model. Table 18 shows the rather diverse reports by supervisors and supervisees on reflec- tion in the category employer’s support (ES), as the evaluators perceived a spec- trum of rates––from no data (ND), to general notice (0), and partial/indirectly per- ceived reflection (1) to reflection (2). The supervisors’ reports contained in-depth reflections, assessed with 2, in the category Increase of mentoring awareness (IMA), while reflection by the supervisees’ was not found in this category. In the supervi- sees’ reports the evaluators observed in-depth reflections on the development of competence (DC), which were also common in the supervisors’ reports. The data on the frequency of values (f in Table 18) show that the evaluators observed more reflections in supervisors, while several supervisees’ reports did not contain data in particular categories. Differences in the category frequencies between the two evaluators point to the fact that evaluation of reflections can be very subjective. For more information on the evaluators’ assessments, see Painkret (2016). Reflection is a metacognitive activity of bringing into awareness thoughts, feelings, and behaviour. The internship was goal-oriented towards the development of com- petences. Correspondingly, supervisors and supervisees devoted more time to these categories when reflecting on the work. The supervisees’ reflections were most 251 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia frequent in the category development of competences (DC), while the supervisors’ focus on the competences expressed itself through their reflections in the category Increase in mentoring awareness (IMA, Table 18). This result is consistent with the supervisors’ observation of the highest progress in mentoring (Table 16). The cat- egory increase in mentoring awareness (IMA) was not present in the supervisees’ reports, understandably. The supervisees in their reports shows slight reflections on ethical dilemmas (ED) and the competence model (CM). The fewest reports by su- pervisors refer to the category transfer of theory into practice (TTP). The categories supervisory relationship (SR), feedback (FB), action plan (AP), immediate/Regular reflection (RR), and achieved goals (AG) were important to the participants; they all (except for two participants) included them into their reports. However, the all differed in the extensiveness of notes. Even though reflection was present in the supervisees’ and supervisors’ reports–– and this is satisfying, as reflection and effectiveness are related (Cropley, Hanton, Miles, & Niven, 2010)––it would be sensible to further expand the area of reflection in the training of supervisors, in particular in the direction of developing the super- visor’s competence of encouraging reflection in young psychologists. As emphasized by Marentič Požarnik (2010), developing the supervisor’s competence of encourag- ing reflection is one of the more important roles of a supervisor. One of the supervi- sors wrote in his/her report: “Reflections were a key opportunity for improving the work process and for changing the behavioural patterns in the internship.” It would thus make sense to prepare instruments for encouraging regular reflection in super- visees, e.g. an outline of the structure of the diary on the internship (see Painkret, 2016). Even though it can be difficult to encourage reflection (Marentič Požarnik, 2010), there are various techniques and approaches that can be useful (Bizjak & Valenčič Zuljan, 2007) for those who need encouragement. Ethical Dilemmas We were interested in whether or not the participants encountered ethical dilemmas in the internship. More than half of the supervisors (out of 20) reported the presence of ethical dilemmas in the internship (f = 11), while out of 21 supervisees only a third did so (f = 6). Four supervisors and four supervisees reported that during the intern- ship potential ethical dilemmas had been mentioned. Two supervisors and two super - visees reported that there had not been any ethical dilemmas during the internship. Almost a half of supervisees (f = 9) and three supervisors did not mention either the presence or absence of ethical dilemmas during the internship in their reports. The students had previously reviewed the psychological code on ethics, during their studies; however, such knowledge does not ensure real implementation (Falender & Shafranske, 2012). The internship is a period for integrating ethical conduct into the work of a future psychologist (Handelsman, Knapp, & Gottlieb, 2009). It is essential 252 Edited by Anja Podlesek that supervisors perceive and recognize real and potential ethical dilemmas in the workplace, and signal and discuss them with their supervisees. The results show that the vast majority of internship supervisors perceived real or potential ethical dilemmas. On the other hand, almost a half of supervisees did not mention any ethical dilemmas in their reports, and the latter finding may be due to a number of reasons. Clark, Harden and Johnson (2000) also reported at high percentage of ethi- cal dilemmas went unperceived by supervisees in the supervisory relationship. They explained this as due to a reporting bias, i.e. selective reporting by supervisees who described pleasant relationships with their supervisors, excluding cases when su- pervisees perceived ethical dilemmas and terminated the supervisory relationship. Because in our analysis the supervisees were very satisfied with their supervisors, it is possible that due to their general positive feelings they did not perceive or pay attention to ethical dilemmas. Another reason for a high percentage of not reporting on ethical dilemmas could be in the fact that the instructions on writing the intern- ship report for the university do not explicitly include a question on ethical dilem- mas. The supervisees may have perceived ethical dilemmas and may have discussed them with their supervisors, but did not feel the information was important enough to be included in their reports. In the future it would be sensible to emphasize the awareness of ethical dilemmas in psychological practice or in the supervisory rela- tionship, through explicit recordings of the dilemmas in documentation on the in- ternship or the supervised practice. Discussion on a list of concrete ethical dilemmas could supplement the curriculum of the training of supervisors. Assessment of the Instruments Eight supervisors (out of 20) found the instruments to be useful, three supervisors referred to them as partially useful (some useful, others not), and nine supervisors did not mention the applicability of the instruments in their reports. No one stated that the instruments were not useful. Five supervisors believed there were too many instruments, two supervisors thought there were too few, and 13 supervisors did not comment on the number. Evaluation of the Internship The analysis of the results reveals the general satisfaction of the participants with the internship, as implemented according to the EuroPsy competence model, and offer critical resources for effective further development and application of the su- pervised practice system. Fifteen of the 20 supervisors emphasized the structure and systematic approach of the internship that were provided by the EuroPsy competence model. In particular, they praised the introductory conversations with the supervisee which, by means of instruments for managing an introductory meeting, very clearly encompassed all 253 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia the important contents and areas (building rapport, expectations, goals, conflict res- olution, ethical dilemmas, etc.), and thus forming a favourable foundation for a suc- cessful internship. The agreement concluded by the supervisor and the supervisee also eases the entire internship process, because the activities are clearly and con- sensually agreed on at the beginning of the project. One of the supervisors wrote “that the structure enables safety to discuss dilemmas which would otherwise be difficult to communicate (e.g. how to proceed in cases when conflicts arise; where the boundaries of the supervisory relationship are, etc.)”. Referring to the results of the analysis we can say that the EuroPsy competence model became successfully anchored in the participants. One report even stated “I cannot imagine my professional work and implementing the internship without it”. Intensive promotional activities for increasing the recognition of the model should thus be carried out, so that more psychologists feel a similar relation towards the EuroPsy competence model, and the interested public should be informed of the benefits of supervision for supervisees, supervisors, and employers (Ghosh & Reio, 2013; Grima, Paillé, Mejia, & Prud’homme, 2014; Kristl & Repe, 2007; Skela Sav- ič, Kalender Smajlovič, & Pivač, 2016). Such promotion should also encompass the concretization of the model, and thus elaboration of the descriptions of the compe- tences regarding particular fields of psychological practice, so that the model can be better understood by all psychologists (also see Table 19). Thirteen supervisors recognized the benefits of the internship within the SUPER PSI- HOLOG project through its quality of being goal-oriented (they mentioned goal-ori- ented development of competences, the clarity and concreteness of the internship goals, clear expectations and roles). This points to the importance of clarifying the expectations during an introductory conversation. One of the supervisors wrote that “the conversation regarding the student’s expectations is the most important part of planning, because it makes you realize what the student would like to gain in the internship and which competences he/she perceives as the most poorly developed”. Consequently, the action plan made both the supervisor and the supervisee satis- fied and oriented towards the same goals, which favourably impacted the results. Three supervisors saw the internship as a critical evaluation of their own work (they mentioned increases in competency, self-confidence, development of psychological identity, opportunity for self-evaluation and progress). The majority an individual’s actions are routine, being repeated but not brought to awareness (Ličen, Bolčina, Žolger, & Gubalova, 2011); in contrast, the internship implemented according to the EuroPsy competence model encourages a participant to pause and reflect, and con- sequently critically evaluate his/her own work. Recognition of the development of one’s own competences, increased self-confidence, and greater sense of belonging to the profession are important indicators of an increase in professional psychologist identity (Bucik, 2001). This is of great importance for connectedness and profession- al identity among psychologists. 254 Edited by Anja Podlesek Four supervisors recognized the internship as an opportunity to collaborate (in their reports they mentioned socializing, networking, supervision, and collaborating), and four supervisors saw the internship as a beneficial source of new findings (their reports contained notes on recognizing the importance of reflection, focusing on the supervisee’s needs, and greater responsibility towards the supervisee and the process). A supervisor learns in supervision, remains in contact with new theories and practices, and encounters new ideas (Kristl & Repe, 2007). This was articulated by one of the supervisors: “Observations by the supervisee represented an impor- tant aspect of quality assurance of the services performed, because they provided a view of the situation which was not influenced by previous experiences, added new perceptions or confirmed the existing ones, and in both cases, rather unexpectedly, positively influenced the supervisor’s feeling of mitigation.” In their general evaluation of the internship the supervisors offered several recom- mendations. Fifteen supervisors, out of 20, made at least one recommendation, and altogether 35 recommendations were provided. The highest number of recommen- dation (18) referred to formal regulation of the internship and documentation. Five recommendations dealt with planning and the contents of the internship. The Eu- roPsy competence model and education and networking received six recommenda- tions each. Table 19 shows a summary of the recommendations. Table 19. The internship-related recommendations Recommendations Planning of the internship and its contents 1.1 The internship should include recognizing the importance of individual competences and the responsibility of both the supervisor and the supervisee for successful conclusion of the internship. 1.2 For optimal implementation of the internship, everyday reflection should be included in the internship action plan. 1.3 General internship action plans for different fields of psychological practice including the competences should be prepared. 1.4 At the beginning of internship, the supervisee’s competence development level should be assessed by means of three typical assignments performed by the psychologist in the organization. Formal regulation/management and documentation of the internship 2.1 It is necessary to systematically disseminate information to institutions/employers regarding their role in the internship. 2.2 The instructions regarding the internship documentation should be more specific – the participants should be informed whether the utilization of the supervision instruments is obligatory or merely recommended. 2.3 It is important for the internship to be standardized for the students of all psychology study programmes in Slovenia. 2.4 The internship should last for a longer period of time. 255 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Recommendations 2.5 A new form for monitoring the students’ progress should be created to enable a more effective, less time-consuming monitoring of the development of their competences. 2.6 Formal regulation of supervision is required, including the remuneration system (rewards, financial support, reduced workload, etc.), as in the current situation the supervisors perform their supervisory work entirely on a voluntary basis. 2.7 The internship documentation should be kept and managed using the online platform – an active electronic form should be developed. 2.8 The students should write letters of explaining their motivation and send them to their supervisors when making arrangements for the internship. 2.9 Documentation needs to be minimized, simplified, and merged, so that it is not duplicated. The EuroPsy competence model 3.1 It is necessary to carry out promotional activities in order to increase the recognition of the EuroPsy competence model and EuroPsy certificate, and to inform the interested public about the benefits of supervision. 3.2 Students should become familiar with the EuroPsy competence model and EuroPsy certificate during their studies. 3.3 The competence model should be enriched by concrete behavioural anchors, which should be generalized to the level that can be understood by all psychologists working in a particular field (i.e., separately for work and organizational psychology, clinical psychology, and educational psychology). Education and networking 4.1 It is necessary to maintain and manage supervisory groups and supervisors’ network. 4.2 More workshops on professional contents are required (e.g., workshops where recognized professionals present cases of good practice). 4.3 Occasional (maybe annual) meetings of supervisors with lectures and workshops for increasing the key competences of successful supervision should be organized. 4.4 A list of quality literature for better development and understanding of supervision would be welcomed. The positive responses and 35 recommendations offered by the supervisors point to their great desire for progress and provide the guidelines for further development of the system of (internship and) supervised practice in Slovenia. Katarina Kocbek, Katja Ponikvar and Anja Podlesek Evaluation of the Supervised Practice I: Reports by Supervisors and Supervisees and Assessment of their Competences The supervised practice was evaluated by means of the reports written by the su - pervisors and supervisees (novice psychologist who concluded a one-year supervised practice). A structured questionnaire was produced for the supervisors, assessing the effectiveness of various aspects of the supervised practice. The questionnaire also included open- and closed-ended questions on the organization and logistics of the supervised practice, dilemmas which occurred during the practice, methods of eval- uation of the practice, and general open-ended questions on the supervised practice and supervision. Special attention was devoted to questions on the contents of super - vision (methods and approaches applied in supervision, assessment of the supervisee competences, supervision documentation, etc.). The open-ended questions on reflec- tion and the supervised practice were used to obtain the evaluations from the supervi- sees, as given in the chapter Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists. The questions were divided into seven content-related clusters, and the supervisees answered all the questions in one cluster together. This chapter presents the respons- es by the supervisors and supervisees, as well as the findings from the survey analysis. We investigated how the supervisors assessed the supervisee competences in terms of the EuroPsy competence model, i.e. we analysed responses obtained with Eu- roPsy form C (see Table 8) on a four-level scale (Table 3). We also analysed how the supervisees assessed the supervisors’ competences in the form Supervisor compe- tences (see Table 8). 258 Edited by Anja Podlesek Supervisors submitted their self-assessment of supervision competences three times during the course of the project: (i) prior to the beginning of the training of supervisors, (ii) after the conclusion of Module 1, i.e. at the time of the internship report submission (in most cases three months after the beginning of the training), and (iii) upon conclusion of the supervised practice implementation (in most cases 15 months after the beginning of the training). Comparisons between these self-as- sessments show the change in self-perceived competences over time. The effective- ness of the training of supervisors, i.e. the effects of the training on the quality of supervision, was thus evaluated. Analysis of Supervisors’ Evaluation Reports A total of 32 reports submitted by July 2016 were used in the analysis. Twenty-one supervisors submitted their reports, and approximately a half of them submitted two reports, one for each supervisee. Even though they submitted separate reports, the content was repeated in some cases (the same answers for both supervisees), and thus the numbers given are not the same in all cases. Organizational Aspects of the Supervised Practice Implementation The duration of supervision. On average, the supervisors implemented 38.5 hours of direct supervision with their supervisees. All of them also applied other super- vision methods, so the set goal of 40 hours of supervised practice in one year was achieved. The location of sessions. Supervisory dyads most frequently met in the workplace of the supervisor or the supervisee, which was evaluated as suitable. Less often the dyads met in public places (evaluated by few dyads as suitable, and by several dyads as unsuitable), at supervisees’ homes or in the place of the project partners. With regard to the choice of session location, the key point was that there were no disturbing factors. The frequency of sessions. The majority (23) of supervisors stated that supervision sessions had been frequent enough, while five thought that they had been too rare. On average the dyads implemented 15 longer sessions (personally or by means of videoconferencing). Several reported that they had made frequent telephone calls, which had not been referred to as sessions so no notes were taken. Suitable length of supervision. In two thirds (19) of the reports, the supervisors shared the opinion that one year is the right length of supervision, while in one third of reports (f = 9) they thought it was too short. Ten supervisors agreed that a one- year period was a suitable length for implementing supervision, while seven super- visors preferred one to one and a half or two years, and one supervisor suggested a shorter period (nine to 12 months). 259 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Suitable length of sessions. Most supervisors conducted 1.5 to two-hour long ses- sions (90–120 min). Several sessions implemented in the supervisor’s/supervisee’s workplace were up to three hours long or longer. Almost all the supervisors sug - gested that 1.5 to two hours was the optimal length for sessions. A few supervisors recommended longer sessions (up to three hours for regular sessions and longer periods in the workplace), and two supervisors preferred sessions to be one to two hours long. Modality of sessions. On average, the supervisors implemented 80% of supervision sessions live (all supervisors applied this modality of supervision). Approximately one third of supervisory dyads (f = 12) implemented an average of 27% of sessions via videoconferencing. Almost one half of supervisory dyads implemented the ses- sions partly over the phone (9% of their entire supervision). The majority (79%) of supervisors used e-mail in supervision, on average during 7% of supervision time devoted to collaboration with supervisees. Approximately 50% of supervisors devot- ed 5% of supervision time to communicating with the supervisee through the web platform. Other modalities of supervision were applied by three supervisors (for 3% of the time devoted to supervision). Experiences with the Supervision Agreement Supervisors considered the Supervision Agreement to be a fundamental aspect of the process, and one that was beneficial to and required for quality supervision. In their opinion the agreement provided the possibility of establishing a good work- ing alliance, and added a formal basis and seriousness to the relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee. Negotiating the contents of the specific sections of the agreement offered opportunities for clear goal setting regarding the modal- ity and methods of work in supervision, assignment of responsibilities and roles of both participants, harmonization of their expectations, and definition of relationship boundaries. The agreement, according to supervisors responses, emphasized the supervisee’s proactivity, provided the basis for later evaluation, and served as a sup- port in cases of difficulties. Deviations from the agreement were not reported by the supervisory dyads, al- though there were some positive adaptations (additional agreements, additional formats and methods of work, upgrading of the supervisee’s goals). A few supervi- sors reported timeframe deviations, changes in supervision modalities (for instance, videoconferencing was more common than predicted), or changes in goals due to changes in the supervisee’s employment. The agreement-related difficulties perceived by the supervisors included initial ac- tion plans that were too extensive, and some thought that the general section of the agreement was too long. 260 Edited by Anja Podlesek Experiences with Different Modalities and Methods of Work Personal sessions were perceived as most suitable in terms of establishing a safe relationship, monitoring the supervisee’s responses, and enhancing comprehensive communication. In some instances there were some schedule-related difficulties, or the travel distance was too great, and thus the supervisory dyads selected other modalities of work (telephone, videoconferencing, e-mail). Videoconferencing created opportunities for the supervisory dyads to make appoint- ments or to implement sessions when the travel distance was too great for them to meet regularly. The disadvantages of this modality are a less intimate climate, internet connection-related difficulties, and so a lower quality of communication. However, no significantly negative consequences of this approach were reported. E-mail was perceived positively by the supervisory dyads, due to its enabling of prompt responses and resolution of dilemmas occurring between sessions. It also proved useful in making appointments and exchanging materials. However, one dis- advantage of e-mail was the relatively poor treatment of difficulties, which supervi- sees encountered between sessions. Communicating by phone was useful for making appointments, i.e. for organization- al aspects of the practice, as well as for dealing with central contents of supervision (resolving current dilemmas, questions). Implementing sessions by phone seemed less appropriate, due to the problems of conducting confidential conversations us- ing this modality. The web platform served in particular for keeping documentation regarding the pro- cess and regular evaluation. Several dyads applied it in making session appointments. Certain methods (except for personal sessions and videoconferencing) seemed too impersonal to some supervisors, and therefore they did not apply them often (except for organizing the process). Supervisors recommended combining various methods in a complementary manner in order to accomplish the goals of supervision. Methods of work applied in sessions. The supervisors and supervisees used various methods of work. During sessions they applied the analysis of audio and video re - cordings, role playing, reflecting teams (when working with more supervisees), case simulation, recording of role playing by the supervisor and the supervisee for later use, techniques of problem solving, checklists assisting in problem solving, brainstorming, analysis of cases of client treatment, (collegial) coaching, review and analysis of reflec- tions on the supervisee’s performance, supervisee’s psychological reports, and review and analysis of the materials provided by the supervisee and the supervisor. The non-regular sessions of supervisory dyads encompassed mutual article writing, workplace visitations (visits by the supervisor or by novice), job-shadowing (repeat- ed or longer observation of the supervisor at work), inclusion of the supervisee into 261 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia the supervisor’s work (e.g., leading the supervisor’s group of clients in one session), and attending an event together. The instruments developed in the project were useful for the supervisors and pro- vided support in structuring, planning, and guiding the process of the supervised practice. They were also applied in the evaluation of supervisory sessions. The most frequently used were the instrument Personal path – supervisor version and Per- sonal path – supervisee version, various check lists, questions on the supervised practice planning, the EuroPsy form C for assessing the supervisee competences, a scale for assessing group supervision sessions, i.e., sessions supervisors had with other supervisors and the supervisor of supervisors, and evaluation of individual sessions, questions on reflection and evaluation of the supervised practice, notes on reflections on sessions and exchange of reflections, and own instruments. In their responses, the supervisors stated that they found the instruments effective and rec- ommended them for further use. Satisfaction with the Supervised Practice Implementation The supervisors evaluated the supervision by means of a five-point Likert scale (1 – strongly disagree, 5 – strongly agree), and stated that the following aspects of supervision were the most successful: specifying the relationship-related rules (M = 4.91) and session cancelation (M = 4.69), establishing a safe and confidential re- lationship with the supervisee (M = 4.81), and adequately determining the context of supervision with regard to the supervisees’ needs (M = 4.63). They felt that they had specified the goals of the supervised practice successfully (M = 4.56), that their expectations for the supervision had been fulfilled (M = 4.44), as well as those of the supervisees (M = 4.56), that the delivered materials and documentation had contrib- uted to better implementation of the supervised practice (M = 4.53), and that they had successfully monitored the development of the supervisory relationship (M = 4.53). The supervisors were satisfied with their giving of feedback to supervisees (M = 4.34), the suitability of the supervisees’ expectations regarding supervision (M = 4.31), the supervisee’s delivery of documentation (M = 4.28), action planning after the conclusion of the supervised practice (M = 4.28), monitoring of the supervisees’ enabling competences development (M = 4.28), and monitoring of the suitability of the set goals and their accomplishments (M = 4.28). The lowest assessment values for success (although still high) were given by supervisors to monitoring of the pri- mary competences (M = 4.19), documentation of the supervised practice (M = 4.19), and suitability of their own expectations towards supervision (M = 4.19). Dilemmas and Obstacles during the Supervised Practice The organizational dilemmas and obstacles occurring during the supervised prac- tice included the travel distance between the supervisor and supervisee, and 262 Edited by Anja Podlesek timeframe obstacles in scheduling sessions. Dilemmas relating to the implemen- tation and content of the supervised practice included recording the supervisee’s performance and supervision sessions, establishing a clear supervision agree- ment, supervision of (temporarily) unemployed novices, (difficult) transitioning of supervisors between different roles (teacher, counsellor, therapist), closeness of job position to novices who were employed in the same organization as their supervisors, assessing the competences of supervisees who did not spend time with their supervisors every day, insufficient knowledge of the supervisees’ job po- sition, different therapeutic orientations, and different fields of practice between the supervisor and the supervisee. Several dilemmas and obstacles occurred in re - lation to the relationship between the supervisor and supervisee, e.g. intergener- ational differences, a lack of intergenerational differences (both participants being the same age), a sense of stagnation of the supervisory relationship, weakening of the relationship due to non-regular sessions, problems in establishing a good working relationship, insufficient encouragement of the supervisee’s reflection and development of competences, personality differences, and lack of motivation in the novices. Ethical Dilemmas The ethical dilemmas occurring during the supervised practice mostly related to the supervisee’s job position (for instance, accepting multicultural diversity, protecting personal data, providing feedback on testing, the responsibilities of a psychologist, application of psychodiagnostic instruments). When resolving such dilemmas the supervisors referred to the Code of Professional Ethics of Slovenian Psychologists, applied various methods and techniques for coping with the relat - ed problems, and regularly examined the supervisees’ knowledge of the ethical principles required in a particular situation. The supervisors presented concrete cases of their practice and studied them with the supervisees from an ethical point of view. In the relationship between the supervisor and novice psychologist ethical dilemmas referred to issues such as: (i) disclosing trade secrets in cases when operating in the same field of practice; (ii) conflicts among the supervisor’s roles; (iii) low levels of professionalism in the relationship (due to the relationship being closer to friend- ship than to a professional relationship); (iv) disagreements with regard to recording of supervision sessions or one’s own sessions with clients; and (v) reporting the re- lationship difficulties to the project leading team. Most of the supervisors did not report any ethical dilemmas in their relationships with the supervisees. In the future, more time should perhaps be spent on the train- ing of supervisors and supervisees with regard to recognizing such dilemmas. 263 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Analysis of Supervisees’ Evaluation Reports A total of 32 reports submitted by supervisees were analysed, with the results re- ported below. The Criteria of a Successful Supervised Practice The supervisees listed the most important criteria of a successful supervised practice as follows: the supervisor’s professionalism, establishment of a pleasant and trust- ful supervisory relationship, their own progress, accomplishment of the set goals, receiving feedback on their work, and development of the need for self-reflection. Supervisees frequently emphasized the supervisor’s professionalism. It seemed im- portant to them that the supervisor is very knowledgeable of his/her area of work, various methods and techniques of work, that he/she is very experienced, cares about continuing professional development, exhibits a high level of self-awareness, is aware of his/her competences, and knows when to refer the supervisee to other professionals for advice. Being aware that there is somebody with knowledge and experiences available to assist them in problem solving during implementation of psychological services gave the supervisees a sense of safety, as they realized that they had not been left alone in coping with professional dilemmas. They were thus able to manage stress more effectively. In the supervisees’ opinion, a good supervisory relationship is based on trust and re - ciprocal responsibility, which enables conversations on various questions, dilemmas, fears, wishes, weaknesses and possible obstacles encountered by the supervisee in his/her work. The majority of supervisees emphasized that the relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee created a foundation for monitoring and developing the supervisee competences, and for his/her personal growth. It seemed important to supervisees that the supervisor and supervisee have compatible personalities. Supervisee’s reported that the criteria of their progress and development included the difference between the initial and final assessment values of the focal compe- tences, the supervisors’ opinion, and subjective feelings of greater competency for practicing independently in a specific field upon the conclusion of the supervised practice. They reported on feeling greater sovereignty in their performance, which was a result of their supervisors’ acknowledgement that they effectively performed their tasks. It was important to them to be able to apply what they had learned in a real work setting immediately, and that the quality of their performance increased as a result of the supervised practice. The supervisees considered specifying goals (both long- and short term) to be im- portant, as well as regular monitoring of goal accomplishment, goal adaptation, and final assessment of the goals attained. 264 Edited by Anja Podlesek They emphasized the importance of receiving constructive feedback and encourage- ment to self-reflect in becoming more aware of the acquired knowledge, and other things they had not paid enough attention to before. Requirements for the Supervised Practice The supervisees reported they had been offered support by their work organization, both from leadership and co-workers. Several supervisees did not inform their em- ployers of their inclusion into the programme of the supervised practice, and talked about it only with co-workers who evaluated the project very positively. Several em- ployers expressed their support for the supervised practice by allowing the novice psychologists to use the work premises for sessions, and making computer equip- ment, materials, documents, reports, and the outline of practical cases available for the purpose of evaluating and monitoring supervisees’ performance. Formal regulation of the supervised practice was not difficult. The majority of begin- ners met their supervisors in the afternoon, so there were no cases of absenteeism. This was evaluated as very positive. Another characteristic that was seen as bene- ficial was the fact that all travel expenses incurred when traveling to the sessions were reimbursed by project funds. Preparation and Planning of the Supervised Practice In the comparison between their previous experiences of being mentored and the pres - ent experiences of supervision, the supervisees emphasized that the latter had a more effective structure, systematic approach, and promptness in following the agreements. The negotiations between supervisees and supervisors were carried out without diffi - culty. Supervisory dyads set the goals gradually, step by step, and with constant agree - ment checking. They set short-term goals whose attainment was examined in every session, and long-term goals whose attainment was assessed upon conclusion of the supervised practice. Slightly more time was devoted to determining the method of evaluating the accomplished goals. To construct the Supervision Agreement they first created an outline of the content, and then they elaborated on this and concluded the final version of the agreement. Several supervisory dyads succeeded in agreeing on fixed dates for sessions, while others made agreements regularly due to lack of time and long traveling distances, but they followed the recommended frequency of ses - sions, i.e. twice per month. Several supervisory dyads planned the supervised practice more broadly, and later narrowed it to cover the content areas which were at the time relevant for the focal work organizations. They paid attention to the development of ei - ther less developed competences or specific task-related competences. Supervisees re - vealed that a very good command of the competence model was necessary to develop competences and monitor their progress – and some of them stated that they should have learned more about the model prior to the implementation of the practice. 265 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia The Course of the Supervised Practice Beside live sessions, several supervisory dyads communicated by means of video- conferencing, telephone calls, electronic mail, and to a lesser extent through the web platform. Communicating by these varied channels enabled the supervisory dyads to regularly exchange feedback, and deal with cases which needed immediate assistance. Others used e-mail and telephone calls to communicate only about or- ganizational issues (e.g. regular scheduling of the next sessions). Supervisees reported that most of the time they followed the planned timeframe and organization of supervision, but in some cases there were adjustments due to changes in employment, illness, and similar reasons. Documentation was prepared regularly. Supervision sessions were evaluated at the end of each session, and in most cases further activities were also planned at this point. The supervisees report- ed on the gradual development of the supervisory relationship, which strengthened over the year and became more relaxed and confidential. However, most of the su- pervisees believed that over this one-year period their firm relationships had just been established, and they hoped that these would continue after the conclusion of the project. The supervisory relationships were described as suitable, professional, accessible, understanding, and safe for disclosing information within. In order to observe the supervisees at work (and thus observe their approach and method of work) and to give feedback, the supervisors visited their supervisees in the workplace. This was evaluated by the supervisees as the most beneficial form of work within the supervised practice. Many benefits were also recognized in role playing, where the supervisees were able to solve in their own experiential way the difficulties or dilemmas that occurred, and this was also true for the in-depth anal- ysis of individual cases. The development of supervisees’ competences followed different routes. Several focused on the development of particular competences from the very beginning, others tried to make progress in as wide area as possible, and there were those who followed only the development of competences related to the work tasks that were relevant at the moment. Ethical dilemmas occurring during the supervised practice (as there were some di- lemmas from previous work that the supervisees presented for discussion during the supervisory meetings) were discussed openly by the supervisory dyads. The pro- cess of resolving dilemmas was carried out in a way that the supervisor encouraged the supervisee to describe the dilemma in detail, and then directed his/her thinking by asking questions, in order for the supervisee to see the dilemma from various points of views and from the perspectives of all those involved. Some of the supervisees encountered minor intercultural and intergenerational di- versities during the supervised practice, which they discussed with their supervisors. 266 Edited by Anja Podlesek Outcomes of the Supervised Practice The majority of supervisees reported that their goals had been adequately specified. However, they realized that certain long-term goals were too difficult to accomplish in one year of supervised practice. Similarly, some of the supervisory dyads specified their goals too extensively to be able to attain them within the limited time-frame of the pro - ject. The Supervision Agreement, according to the supervisees’ opinion, contributed to the attainment of goals as it directed the supervision process and assisted in interim and final evaluations of goal accomplishment. It helped in clarifying expectations – as the supervisory dyads wrote down what their expectations towards each other and towards the course of supervised practice were. This enabled them to have an exact knowledge of what they could expect and what the agreed method of work was. The supervisees confirmed that during the supervised practice they in particular developed professional strategies and approaches to work (the role of the psycholo- gist in the organization, relationship with the leadership and colleagues, harmoni- zation of expectations), and skills of self-reflection, since they had been encouraged to think about their own methods of work and approaches to dealing with problems and dilemmas. They became more confident about their competences and working independently, and developed the skills of monitoring, listening, and transferring knowledge into practice. They emphasized that their supervisors had offered them alternative methods of problem solving. They felt relieved because of the moral and professional support provided by their supervisors, and became aware of the impor- tance of self-care, in terms of care for one’s own mental health. All of the supervisees observed progress in developing their competences. Sever- al developed their competences above the expected level, some worked towards the development of particular group of competences, and there were others who strived for success in all areas of competency. A few supervisees admitted that they had not been able to develop the defined competences due to the specifics of their usual work tasks, and one supervisee developed even more competences than planned when she ended up in a different workplace with different work tasks due to a change in employment. The unexpected achievements of the supervised practice, as perceived by supervi- sees, were as follows: the development of competences above the expected level, frequent positive feedback given by their supervisors, prompt acquisition of alter- native methods of problem solving and thinking, and increased awareness of the importance of regular self-reflection. One supervisee affirmed that supervision indi- rectly improved her relationships with her team members. Having an opportunity to discuss workplace challenges with an external person who could provide a different opinion or different perspective of a particular sit- uation was seen as important by the supervisees. There was one supervisee who reported a dilemma expressed by her workplace supervisor, which was that having 267 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia two supervisors with different approaches at the same time could cause confusion in the supervisee. According to supervisees’ opinions, the supervisors successfully developed their skills of structured supervision during the supervised practice. This was especially obvious in supervisors who had two or more supervisees. Each supervisee had his/ her own knowledge, needs, and skills that required adaptations by the supervisors, who thus got an opportunity to constantly develop and upgrade various supervision skills and competences. General Evaluation of the Supervised Practice and Recommendations for the Future When comparing supervision with previous experiences of mentoring, the supervisees revealed important distinctions in structure, extension of acquired knowledge, and required regularity (e.g. following the Supervision Agreement, regular sessions, and regular evaluation). Most supervisees would have liked more time for optimal imple- mentation of the supervised practice. Several long-term goals could not be achieved in one year, as some competences require longer to develop to higher levels. The super - visees encountered more challenges at particular times in their workplace. As a result, there was a shortage of time during the supervision sessions carried out in that period to discuss all the problems relevant at that moment. Sometimes the initial part of supervision––goal setting––took too much of their time, and they would have liked to devote more time to the analysis of cases and reflection. Several supervisees wanted a larger choice of educational programmes within Module 3 to be offered to novice psy - chologists. They wished for more common meetings where mutual evaluations could be conducted by all project participants, reflections on practical experiences could be exchanged, and they could increase their professional connections. Several super - visees suggested that the forms and materials should be simplified, while additional forms for regular evaluation of the supervised practice should be constructed, and additional trainings for novice psychologists and supervisors should be provided. They recommended agreements on performing work in both institutions/organizations–– the one where the supervisor is employed and the one where the supervisee is em - ployed––so both the supervisor and the supervisee can visit each other’s workplace. The majority of supervisees expressed their desire to continue the supervision rela- tionship after the supervised practice had been concluded. They recommended addi- tional supervision sessions be carried out after a definite time following the conclusion of the supervised practice. In this way, the supervisees’ professional qualifications, further development, and advancement of competences would be examined, and the relationships could be prolonged. Being aware of the importance of continuing pro- fessional development and the need for supervision, most novice psychologists stated that they planned to continue their professional development by attending additional educational programmes (e.g., training in psychotherapy). 268 Edited by Anja Podlesek Assessment of Supervisees’ Competences The supervisors assessed the supervisees’ competences on a four-level scale based on the EuroPsy competence model. Table 20 shows the median values of individual pri - mary competences in the sample of supervisees. It can be observed that all medians exceeded level 3, which is required to practice psychology independently. The sample exhibited on average highly developed primary competences in the functional catego - ries Communication and Goal specification, whereas the least developed categories of competences (yet still highly developed) were Intervention and Evaluation. The enabling competences were also adequately developed, in the opinion of supervisors (Table 21). Table 20. Descriptive statistics for assessments of the primary competences of super- visees (N = 30) upon the conclusion of the supervised practice Competence f(< 3) f(≥ 3) Q 1 Mdn Q 3 Goal specification Needs analysis 1 29 3.3 3.8 4.0 Goal setting 0 30 3.0 3.5 4.0 Assessment Individual assessment 1 29 3.0 3.5 4.0 Group assessment 2 28 2.9 3.5 4.0 Organizational assessment 4 26 2.6 3.2 3.7 Situational assessment 2 28 3.1 3.7 4.0 Development Service or product definition & requirements analysis 4 26 3.0 3.7 4.0 Service or product design 2 28 2.9 3.5 4.0 Service or product testing 2 28 2.9 3.5 4.0 Service or product evaluation 3 27 2.9 3.5 4.0 Intervention Intervention planning 0 30 3.4 3.4 3.9 Direct person-oriented intervention 2 28 3.0 3.5 4.0 Direct situation-oriented intervention 3 27 2.9 3.3 3.9 Indirect intervention 1 29 2.9 3.5 4.0 Services or product implementation 0 30 3.0 3.5 4.0 Evaluation Evaluation planning 3 27 2.9 3.5 4.0 Evaluation measurement 6 24 2.7 3.3 3.9 Evaluation analysis 5 25 2.7 3.4 4.0 Communication Giving feedback 0 30 3.2 3.7 4.0 Report writing 1 29 3.1 3.7 4.0 Note. Column f(< 3) shows the number of supervisees whose level of competence development was assessed at level 2 or the supervisor could not assess the competence because it was not expressed in typical work tasks. Column f(≥ 3) shows the number of supervisees with adequate levels of competence development (levels 3 or 4). Table also shows the values of the first (Q 1 ), second (Mdn) and third (Q 3 ) quartiles, calculated for values as group midpoints. 269 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Table 20 shows that that the supervisees were assessed with high median values in both competences of Goal specification. In the category Evaluation they were assessed as most competent in Situational assessment and Individual assessment, a little less in Group assessment and the least in Organizational assessment. The com- petences of the category Development were assessed with similar median values; the highest assessments were obtained for Service or product definition & require- ments analysis. In the category of Intervention competences the median values of three competences were similar (Direct person-oriented intervention; Indirect inter- vention; Service or product implementation), followed by Intervention planning, and the lowest values belong to Direct situation-oriented intervention. In the assessment of evaluation competences, the supervisees received on average the highest values in Evaluation planning, whereas Evaluation measurement and Evaluation analysis remained below the required level in several supervisees; the supervisees differed in their evaluation of their services. High median values were achieved in both Com- munication competences. Table 21. Descriptive statistics for assessments of the enabling competences of su- pervisees (N = 30) upon the conclusion of the supervised practice Competence f(< 3) f(≥ 3) Q 1 Mdn Q 3 Professional strategy 0 30 3.0 3.5 4.0 Continuing professional development 0 30 3.3 3.8 4.0 Professional relations 0 30 3.2 3.7 4.0 Research and development 2 28 2.8 3.4 4.0 Marketing and sales 1 29 3.3 3.3 3.8 Evidence management 1 29 3.2 3.7 3.6 Practice management 2 28 3.1 3.6 4.0 Quality assurance 0 30 3.2 3.7 4.0 Self-reflection 0 30 3.2 3.7 4.0 Note. See note to Table 20. The highest assessments were given to supervisees for their Continuing professional development (see Table 21), followed by Self-reflection, Professional relations, Qual- ity assurance, and Account management. Somewhat lower assessments were giv- en to Practice management, Professional strategy, Research and development, and Marketing and sales. Adequate median values of competences indicate that supervisees developed the competences during the supervised practice to the level which enabled them to practice psychology independently. However, Tables 20 and 21 also show that some supervisees had not developed certain competences to a proper level, or the super- visors could not assess their competences. This may be partly due to the fact that certain work positions of psychologists do not require all the listed competences. 270 Edited by Anja Podlesek In future research, it would be sensible to obtain assessment values of the super- visees’ competences at the beginning of the supervised practice (e.g., assessments after the internship has been carried out at the end of their academic studies), and compare the values with those obtained after the supervised practice has been con- cluded. In this way, the progress of supervisees could be estimated more accurately. Self-Assessment by Supervisors The supervisors (N = 18) assessed their competences by means of a self-assessment form (on a six-point scale; 1 – Not developed/Not at all true, 6 – Very well devel- oped/Completely true) in three time periods: before the start of the supervised practice (Wave 1), during the implementation of the practice (Wave 2), and upon the conclusion of the practice (Wave 3). Tables 22–25 show the assessed values and how they changed in different competences between the measurements. The columns on the right show assessments provided by the supervisees for their super- visors’ competences. The supervisees assessed their supervisors’ competences with high values, 5 or 6, upon the conclusion of the supervised practice. A comparison between the super- visors’ self-assessments and the assessments by their supervisees (comparing the columns Wave 3 and Supervisee in Tables 22–25) shows that the supervisees’ eval- uations were much higher than those of their supervisors who self-assessed their own competences. This points either to the supervisees’ overestimation of their supervisors’ competency, because of their high regard for their supervisors due to the positive supervision relationships, or to high self-criticism by the supervisors (their conscious incompetency). Kyte and Duckert (personal communication) believe that this finding may support the belief that the group of supervisors has reached a healthy maturity and a true, good competence. Wise and capable therapists and supervisors have a clear awareness of the complexities they must deal with in their work. This is often more prominent in those who have experienced uncertainties and feel humility in facing the fact that there are many things they do not have full control over. From this they may conclude that there is still much to master before they “deserve” a top evaluation. Examining Tables 22–25, we can observe that the dispersion of the supervisors’ self-assessed scores was higher in the first and second measurement waves than in the third. The scores among the supervisors differed at the beginning, and later be- came more homogeneous. In the last measurement wave the values were high and more homogeneous. The differences between the first and second measurements were high, which is in accordance with our expectations. The differences were lower between the second and third measurements, and in some cases there was no sig- nificant increase in the scores. 271 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Table 22. Changes in supervisors’ self-assessments of general competences and the comparison between supervisors’ and supervisees’ assessments Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 3 Supervisee Competence M SD M SD M SD M SD General competency in the professional area of supervision 4.7 0.8 5.2 0.8 5.5 0.5 5.8 0.4 Knowledge of legislation of the professional area of supervision 4.4 1.1 5.1 0.9 4.8 1.0 5.6 0.6 Knowledge of European standards of psychological practice 2.7 1.1 3.9 1.1 4.2 1.4 / / Time management 4.4 0.9 4.8 0.8 5.1 0.6 / / Accepting novelties 5.2 0.6 5.3 0.6 5.3 0.6 5.8 0.4 Knowledge and developed skills of teaching 4.7 0.7 4.9 0.9 5.3 0.7 5.8 0.4 General competences – Total 4.3 0.6 4.9 0.6 5.0 0.6 5.8 0.4 Note. The column Supervisee shows the assessments by supervisees. The sign / signifies that supervi- sees did not provide values for these competences. Table 23. Changes in supervisors’ self-assessments of competences of managing the supervised practice and the comparison between supervisors’ and supervisees’ assessments Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 3 Supervisee Competence M SD M SD M SD M SD Clear expectations regarding the supervised practice and its course 3.8 1.3 5.2 0.6 5.4 0.5 / / Clear expectations regarding the role of supervisor of the supervised practice 4.1 0.9 5.2 0.7 5.2 0.8 / / Knowledge of procedures, methods of supervision and their flexible application in supervision 3.6 0.8 4.7 0.9 4.8 0.7 5.7 0.6 General planning of the supervised practice (organization of time, space, etc.) 4.6 0.8 4.9 0.8 5.5 0.7 5.5 0.6 Utilization of information and communications technology for the purpose of implementing the supervised practice 4.2 1.3 4.4 1.2 4.9 1.0 5.5 0.8 Assuring the structure of individual supervision sessions 4.1 1.0 4.8 0.7 5.0 0.7 5.5 0.8 272 Edited by Anja Podlesek Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 3 Supervisee Competence M SD M SD M SD M SD Knowledge of competences required for practicing psychology independently 4.1 0.9 5.1 0.6 5.6 0.5 5.9 0.3 Planning of particular work tasks for the supervisee 4.4 0.8 5.2 0.9 5.1 0.6 / / Assisting the supervisee in resolving dilemmas which occur during the supervised practice 4.6 0.7 5.3 0.6 5.3 0.5 6.0 0.2 Reflection on the supervisee‘s practice 4.1 1.0 4.9 0.8 4.9 0.6 / / Drawing attention of the supervisee to ethical dilemmas and directing his/her ethical decision making and conduct 4.6 1.0 5.1 0.5 5.3 0.6 5.6 0.6 Keeping records of the supervised practice 3.7 1.1 4.5 0.6 4.6 0.9 5.3 0.8 Evaluating the level of the supervisee competences 3.2 1.0 4.5 0.7 4.9 0.7 5.7 0.5 Managing the supervised practice – Total 4.1 0.6 4.9 0.5 5.1 0.4 5.6 0.6 Note. See note to Table 22. Table 24. Changes in supervisors’ self-assessments of competences of supervision and the comparison between supervisors’ and supervisees’ assessments Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 3 Supervisee Competence M SD M SD M SD M SD Awareness of the importance of supervision 5.0 0.7 5.7 0.5 5.9 0.3 / / Awareness of factors influencing the quality of supervision 4.2 0.9 5.2 0.7 5.4 0.5 / / Knowledge of the supervision process and development of the supervisory relationship 3.7 0.9 5.1 0.6 5.3 0.5 / / Implementing negotiations in the supervisory relationship 3.6 1.2 4.9 0.8 5.3 0.8 5.8 0.4 Establishing and maintaining the supervisory alliance 4.1 0.8 4.9 0.8 5.3 0.8 5.8 0.4 Ability to establish a trusting relationship with the supervisee 4.9 0.8 5.6 0.7 5.7 0.6 5.9 0.3 Ability to establish a transparent relationship with the supervisee 4.5 0.9 5.3 0.8 5.1 0.6 5.9 0.3 273 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 3 Supervisee Competence M SD M SD M SD M SD Taking responsibility for the supervisee 4.7 1.0 5.2 1.0 5.4 0.5 5.8 0.6 Care for the supervisee‘s mental health (prevention of burnout, crises etc.) 4.4 0.9 5.1 0.8 5.3 0.7 5.8 0.5 Giving feedback to the supervisee 4.3 1.1 4.9 0.8 4.8 1.4 5.8 0.6 Preventing and resolving conflicts with the supervisee or unpleasant emotions in relation to the supervisee 4.2 0.9 4.4 1.0 5.0 0.6 5.8 0.4 Setting boundaries in the relationship with the supervisee 3.9 0.8 4.6 0.8 5.0 0.9 5.7 0.5 Managing changes in the supervision relationship 3.7 1.0 4.8 0.8 5.0 0.8 5.8 0.5 Reflecting on and evaluating the supervisory relationship 3.9 0.8 4.9 0.8 4.9 0.9 5.8 0.6 Reflecting on and evaluating one’s own skills of supervision 3.4 1.2 4.9 0.8 5.0 0.6 / / Awareness of the importance of supervision of supervision 4.5 0.9 5.6 0.6 5.8 0.4 / / Supervision – Total 4.2 0.5 5.1 0.5 5.3 0.4 5.8 0.5 Note. See note to Table 22. Table 25. Changes in supervisors’ self-assessments of attitude towards the supervi- see and the comparison between supervisors’ and supervisees’ assessments Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 3 Supervisee Competence M SD M SD M SD M SD Awareness of the supervisee’s uniqueness 4.3 0.8 5.1 0.8 5.1 0.7 5.8 0.4 Openness, accepting the supervisee 5.0 0.8 5.4 0.8 5.4 0.6 6.0 0.0 Empathy towards the supervisee 4.8 0.9 5.3 0.7 5.6 0.6 5.9 0.3 Kindness towards the supervisee 5.1 0.9 5.6 0.6 5.8 0.5 6.0 0.0 Skills of effective communication with the supervisee (directing the conversation, explaining, persuading) 4.7 0.9 5.0 0.8 5.3 0.8 5.9 0.3 Skill of actively listening to the supervisee 4.9 0.7 5.1 0.8 5.4 0.5 6.0 0.2 Skill of encouraging the supervisee 4.9 0.5 5.0 1.0 5.5 0.6 5.9 0.3 Attitude towards the supervisee – Total 4.8 0.6 5.2 0.6 5.4 0.3 5.9 0.3 Note. See note to Table 22. 274 Edited by Anja Podlesek Figure 6 shows the changes in the supervisors’ self-assessments in all four groups of competences. The average values increased, and the greatest increase was observed between the first and second measurements. During this period the supervisors un- derwent intense training, led the internship and the first part of the supervised practice (conclusion of the Supervision Agreement, first trial of supervision methods, inclusion in the supervisory group). Their sense of competency was thus increasing rapidly. Lat - er, between the second and third measurements, their training was less intense. The smallest increase was perceived in assessments of the attitude towards their supervi - sees, which were initially very high. This points to the fact that the project was joined by participants who were enthusiastic about supervision from the very beginning. The highest increase was observed in the assessments of leading the supervised practice and supervision. This leads us to conclude that the training was effective in encourag - ing self-efficacy regarding supervision. It is interesting that the scores of general com - petences increased as well. The supervisors’ participation in training thus seemed to benefit not only supervision but also the performance of psychological work. This was also confirmed by several supervisors in the evaluation survey. Figure 6. Changes in supervisors’ self-assessed competence scores during the super- vision training. Based on the changes observed in the self-perceived competences it can be conclud- ed that the training of supervisors, which included three modules, implementation of the internship and the supervised practice, were very effective. Overall, the super- visors perceived themselves as more competent to supervise novice psychologists. However, we should be careful when considering the positive effects of the training on the self-efficacy of supervisors. Without monitoring other simultaneous factors 4,0 4,2 4,4 4,6 4,8 5,0 5,2 5,4 5,6 1 2 3 Average assessment Measurement wave General competences Managing the supervised practice Supervision Attitude towards the supervisee 275 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia which could influence an increase in self-perceived competences (e.g., the partici- pants were aware that the programme leaders expected positive results from this project) it may be too early to emphasize the positive influence of the training pro- gramme. It would have been better if we had also monitored a control group in the research. A control group is, however, difficult to find, since it would be difficult to find non-educated supervisors and motivate them to complete the inventory three times in comparable conditions. As a result, in our conclusions regarding the ef- fectiveness of the training we considered parallel indicators such as evaluation re- ports by supervisors and supervisees, which––as was shown in the first part of this chapter––similarly supported the effectiveness of the training and the established system of the supervised practice. Our findings were also supported by additional research which is presented and communicated in the chapter that follows. Anja Podlesek, Sonja Bučar, Tea Skrbinšek and Katarina Kocbek Evaluation of the Supervised Practice II: Comparison between the Efficacy of the Supervised Practice and Other Modalities of Training of Novice Psychologists In Slovenia, the training programme for supervisors (also called mentors of the su- pervised practice) has been undergoing development and pilot implementation since 2009. The participants engage in practical work, i.e. supervision of students in an internship. The experiences obtained so far prove that students and super- visors are excited about this approach. Those who have experienced both compe- tence-based supervision and traditional mentoring, where mentors are not specif- ically trained in mentoring, usually report that there is a great difference between the two. This is not only about the level of satisfaction of the young psychologists, but the difference in the supervisory relationship and greater structure of the super- vision provided (see e.g. Zabukovec & Podlesek, 2010). In the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, the pilot implementation of supervision was trans- ferred from the internship to the supervised practice. With the aim of gathering ev- idence-based information regarding the efficacy of the established supervised prac- tice system (i.e. efficacy of the training of supervisors and efficacy of the supervised practice implementation), a special evaluation study was conducted within the pro- ject encompassing novice psychologists who participated in a one-year supervised practice under the leadership of a supervisor-in-training, and psychologists who in their early psychologist career received different forms of support. The goal of the research was to explore how different groups of psychologists evaluated their peri- od of training. This could help us evaluate the efficacy of the developed supervised 278 Edited by Anja Podlesek practice system when contrasted with other forms of training provided for early ca- reer psychologists in the workplace. The Purpose of the Research Young psychologists start their careers in various ways. Some (group 1) do not re- ceive special training in the workplace when they become employed; either the or- ganization does not have need for this, or the induction training is carried out by a co-worker who is not necessarily a psychologist. Other psychologists (group 2) enter traineeship where they collaborate with their supervisor who is often not qualified for supervision. Some of them (group 3) find a supervisor during the traineeship on their own, as they recognize the importance of being included in supervision. Yet another group of psychologists (group 4), after they have spent some time working in the area of psychology, attend special longer and more advanced trainings where they improve their knowledge and skills (e.g., specialization programmes in psycho- therapy or clinical psychology), and are included into the supervision process as an obligatory part of the training. A supervisor is assigned by a work organization or training organizers, or they find one by themselves. Even though individuals attend- ing such training are not ‘real’ beginners in performing psychological services, we can refer to them as such in a specialized area. The aim of our research was thus to compare the novice psychologists who participated in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project with four other groups of psychologists. The research focused on finding out how satisfied with the training the psychologists of the different groups are, how they assess the mentoring/supervisory relationship, and how they perceive the develop- ment of their competences during the period of training. Method Instruments An online survey was constructed with which demographic data, information on the features of training attended by young psychologists, assessments of the mentoring/ supervisory relationship, and assessments of the development of competences dur- ing the period of training were obtained. The First Section of the Survey The first section of the survey gathered data on the age, gender, education, and em- ployment status of participants, and different features of their training: which field of psychological practice the training covered, whether or not they received payment during the training and how much, the length of the training (the actual length, and the desired length in order to feel competent enough), whether or not their mentor/ supervisor gained certain benefits for leading the training, and whether or not he/ 279 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia she had enough time at their disposal, the reasons that led them to attend the train- ing, and the inclusion of and support provided by their work organization. By means of a seven-point assessment scale (the levels being: 1 – not present, 2 – very little, 3 – little, 4 – moderate, 5 – lots of, 6 – a great deal of, 7 – extensively present) the respondents assessed the mentor’s/supervisor’s: (i) professionalism at work (eth- ics, adherence to standards and legislation of the field of work, suitability of meth- ods of work, instruments, experiences, responsibility, professional attitude towards users/clients); (ii) psychological knowledge and skills of the field of work (theoretical knowledge, knowledge of profession novelties, knowledge of various techniques and methods of work, approaches, instruments); (iii) competences of educating, guiding (skills of guiding and leading, awareness of responsibility of being a mentor/supervi- sor, reflection on performance, skills of teaching and forwarding the knowledge); (iv) communication skills (appropriateness, respect, precise articulation, clarity, effective communication, counselling skills, skills of giving feedback, written communication, document keeping, report writing); and (v) interpersonal skills (kindness, empathy, engagement, showing interest, care, offering help, skills of encouraging). In addition, the respondents provided assessment values for the mentor’s/supervisor’s encour- agement of the development of all five categories of competences. The respondents assessed to what extent the mentor/supervisor had satisfied their needs for: (i) psychological knowledge and skills; (ii) mentoring and guiding (leading, explaining, providing feedback); and (iii) the availability and accessibility of the men- tor. They also assessed how much the training added to their (i) personal develop- ment, (ii) professional development, (iii) attitude towards clients, and (iv) final suc- cess in their work with clients. They stated whether or not they had been satisfied with the training and with the mentor/supervisor. This chapter provides the responses to selected questions. More information re- garding the analysis of remaining responses can be found in Bučar (2016). The Second Section of the Survey: Supervisory Relationship Questionnaire – SRQ In the second section of the survey, the Supervisory Relationship Questionnaire – SRQ (Palomo, Beinart, & Cooper, 2010) was applied. The SRQ is an instrument for evaluating the quality of the relationship between the supervisor and supervisee; it can be applied in a context wider than that of psychotherapy or clinical psychology (Palomo, 2004). Permission was obtained from Wiley, the copyright holder, to trans- late the questionnaire and validate the Slovenian version (see Skrbinšek, 2016). The questionnaire was translated independently by the first three authors of this chap- ter. The translations were then harmonized, and some expressions were adapted, if needed. An official translator then translated Slovenian statements back to Eng- lish. The translation of the questionnaire was checked by a co-author of the original questionnaire, Helen Beinart, and she confirmed the suitability of the translation. 280 Edited by Anja Podlesek The SRQ consists of 67 statements referring to various aspects of the supervisory relationship. Statements are grouped into six sub-scales. The Safe base sub-scale consists of 15 items which measure how respectful and collaborative the supervisor is towards the supervisee and how accepted the supervisee feels in the supervisory relationship (an example item: “I felt able to discuss my concerns with my supervi- sor openly”). The Structure sub-scale consists of eight items which measure how the supervisee perceives the organization, regularity and structure of supervision sessions (an example item: “Supervision sessions were focused”). The Commitment sub-scale consists of 10 items which measure whether the supervisor is interested in the supervisee and his/her availability (an example item: “I felt like a burden to my supervisor”). The Reflective education sub-scale consists of 11 items which meas- ure the professionalism of the supervisor, his/her flexibility, and encouragement of reflective thinking (an example item: “My supervisor facilitated interesting and in- formative discussions in supervision”). The Role model sub-scale consists of 12 items which measure how the supervisee respects the supervisor as a professional, prac- titioner and person, and what role model the supervisor presents to the supervisee (an example item: “I respected my supervisor’s skills”). The Formative feedback sub- scale consists of 11 variables which measure the benefits and constructiveness of the supervisor’s feedback, and the supervisor’s adjustment to the supervisee’s com- petences (an example item: “My supervisor was able to balance negative feedback on my performance with praise”). A respondent assesses the supervisor’s qualities on a seven-point scale, stating to what extent he/she agrees with each statement (1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 – slightly disagree, 4 – neither agree nor disagree, 5 – slightly agree, 6 – agree, 7 – strongly agree). A few items are reverse scored. The sub-scale score is obtained as the sum of (reverse-scored) responses, and the total scale score is obtained by adding up the subscale scores. Palomo et al. (2010) reported that on an English sample the SRQ proved to be a valid and reliable instrument for evaluating the supervisory relationship from the view of the supervisee. The principal component analysis showed six components that explained 65% of the variance. The subscale scores correlated highly, and the Cronbach alpha coefficients as measures of internal consistency were between .87 in .97 for different subscales. The total score correlated with scores on several ques- tionnaires which measure related supervision constructs, e.g. supervision process, role conflict, working alliance and relationship. Retest reliability was r = .97. Scores did not significantly change in one month. In the present research, the Cronbach alpha coefficients ranged from .90 to .96. Their values were: for Safe base α = .96, for Structure α = .91, for Commitment α = .94, for Reflective education α = .93, for Role model α = .90, and for Formative feed- back α = .96. Correlations between sub-scales were high, between .61 and .87. 281 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia The Third Part of the Survey: Scale of Competences According to the Cube Model We wanted to examine what development of competences was achieved in young psychologists in different groups. The EuroPsy competence model is not very suita- ble for accurate and general monitoring of the competences development, because the descriptions of competences are general and the supervisory dyad needs to make them more concrete. It is thus unlikely that psychologists who are not famil- iar with the model would understand individual competences and levels of their development. For this reason, we decided to apply behaviour indicators of individ- ual competences developed on the basis of the Cube model (Fouad et al., 2009; McCutcheon, 2009). The instrument for measuring the competences development created by Campbell et al. (2012) was adapted. This scale includes 55 competences divided into two large groups: a group of foundational competences and a group of functional competences. Foundational competences encompass the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values which create the foundation of psychological practice; Functional competences include the main functions of psychological practice which require reflective integration of foundational competences in specifying and resolv- ing psychological problems (Fouad et al., 2009). When comparing the EuroPsy com- petence model and the Cube model, it can be observed that most of the foundation- al competences of the Cube model, but not all of them, correspond to the enabling competences of the EuroPsy competence model, while most of the functional com- petences roughly correspond to primary competences. Foundational competences cover (Campbell et al., 2012; Fouad et al., 2009): 1. A domain of professionalism, including: a. Professional values and attitudes (integrity and honesty, proper behaviour and deportment, responsibility, concern for the welfare of others, profes- sional identity). b. Awareness of individual and cultural diversity (awareness of one’s own cul- ture ideologies and context, awareness of other cultures ideologies and context; knowledge of ideologies and operation of other cultures in inter- actions, intercultural skills). c. Reflective practice, self-assessment, self-care, participation in the supervi- sion process. d. Adherence to ethical standards and legal aspects (knowledge of ethical, legal, and professional standards and guidelines; awareness of and applica- tion of ethical decision making; ethical conduct). 2. A domain of relationships (interpersonal relationships, affective skills, expres- sive skills). 3. A domain of science, including: a. Knowledge of scientific findings and methods (scientific mindedness, un- derstanding of and respect for the scientific foundation of psychology, com- prehension and respect for scientific foundations of professional practice). 282 Edited by Anja Podlesek b. Research/evaluations in professional practice (scientific approach to gener- ating knowledge; application of scientific methods to practice). Functional competences include (Campbell et al., 2012; Fouad et al., 2009): 4. A domain of application, including: a. Evidence-based practice (knowledge and application of evidence-based practice). b. Assessment (measurement and psychometrics, knowledge of assessment methods, application of assessment methods, diagnosis, conceptualization and recommendations, communication of findings). c. Intervention (knowledge of interventions, intervention planning, skills of ef- fective intervention, implementation of intervention, progress evaluation). d. Counselling (role of consultant, addressing the reason for the referral, inform- ing on the findings of counselling, application of methods of counselling). 5. A domain of education, including: a. Supervision (expectations with regard to supervision and the roles of both parties in supervision; the process and procedures of supervision, develop- ment of supervision skills, awareness of factors affecting quality, the super- vision practice, ethical and legal issues in supervision). b. Teaching (didactic knowledge, teaching skills). 6. A domain of systems, including: a. Advocacy (empowerment of clients, changing the system). b. Interdisciplinary systems (knowledge of the shared and distinctive contri- butions of other professions, functioning in a multidisciplinary and inter- disciplinary context, understanding how collaboration in interdisciplinary teams contributes to outcomes, respectful and productive relationships with professionals of other disciplines). c. Management and administration (managing the direct delivery of services, the administration of organizations, programmes, agencies; management, administration, leadership, evaluation of management and leadership). The original instrument (Campbell et al., 2012), adjusted to the context of psychol- ogy education in the USA, includes a list of competences at three levels of psycholo- gist training: level of readiness for practicum (we estimate that in Slovenia this is equal to the level of readiness of a student for implementing practice in practicum and the internship), level of readiness for the internship (we estimate that in Slove- nia this is equal to the level of readiness of a psychologist for participating in the su- pervised practice), and level of readiness for entry to practice (i.e., into independent performance of psychological services). An evaluator assesses a person at the level corresponding to his/her level of training, and estimates how present a particular feature or behaviour which expresses a certain competence is. Due to our desire to examine the development of competences during the time of training, we adjusted the instrument and for each competence defined behavioural indicators at all three 283 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia levels. The participants marked how developed a competence was before the begin- ning of the training, and after its conclusion. An example is shown in Figure 7. If, for instance, the participants estimated that they did not reach level 1, they selected value 0. If they expressed a few behavioural indicators of level 1, they selected value 0-1. If the participants expressed all behavioural indicators of level 1, but none of those of level 2, they selected value 1. Therefore, when the participants expressed all indicators of level X, they selected value X; when they expressed only a few in- dicators of level X, and all the indicators of the lower level, they selected a value in between the two (partial operation at level X). Moreover, the participants estimated the frequency of the behaviour in their field of practice, that is, how frequent the expression of a particular competence was. 0 0-1 1 1-2 2 2-3 3 1-7 I operate at level 1 I partially operate at level 1 I entirely operate at level 1 I partially operate at level 2 I entirely operate at level 2 I partially operate at level 3 I entirely operate at level 3 Level of competence expression in a selected area of performance PRIMARY COMPETENCES: They refer to the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values of a person and serve as the basis for psychological practice. PROFESSIONALISM Professional values and attitudes Professional behaviour and conduct which expresses professional values and attitudes by a psychologist Integrity – honesty, personal responsibility and adherence to professional values: BEFORE training 0 0-1 1 1-2 2 2-3 3 1-7 AFTER training 0 0-1 1 1-2 2 2-3 3 • At level 1: A person is knowledgeable of and understands professional values and the principles of the code of ethics; behaves ethically and in compliance with ethical standards; demonstrates honesty and sincerity, even in more difficult situations, and takes responsibility for his/her actions. • At level 2: A person expresses knowledge and adherence to professional values and implements them in his/her professional performance; recognizes situations that challenge adherence to professional values and seeks advice from a professional and/or supervisor, if needed; is able to discuss his/her failures and lapses in adherence to professional values with a professional and/or supervisor. • At level 3: A person addresses situations where professional values are exposed, monitors them and independently resolves situations where professional values or integrity are violated. Figure 7. Assessment scale for the competence Integrity. 284 Edited by Anja Podlesek Procedure The novice psychologists who participated in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project com- pleted the online survey as an attachment to their report on the supervised prac- tice. In this way, their duty of evaluating project activities to which they committed when they had joined the project was fulfilled. Other groups of psychologists were invited through an e-mail list of the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association, an e-mail list of psychology students, including those who had recently graduated, and per- sonal acquaintances. Recipients of the invitation were asked to forward the e-mail to their colleagues. The online survey intended for the project participants was activated in March 2016 and received 62 clicks in six weeks, out of which three quarters were received in the first week. The survey intended for other psycholo- gists was activated in the middle of April 2016 and received 240 clicks, 94% of which were made in the first month. After we had removed inadequate units from the database (e.g., responses by psy- chology students and surveys which were doubled because participants exited the survey early), there were 137 units left in the database. The analysis included exam- ining the features of the sample, characteristics of the early career training, the SRQ scores, and assessments of development of particular sub-areas of competences at the beginning and end of the training. The majority of participants assessed their relationship with the mentor/supervisor and their competences retrospectively, (ex- cept for those who were just concluding their training at the time of evaluating the development of their competences). Sample In the survey, we collected 137 relevant units of responses (responses by psy- chologists who described their early training after the academic studies). The sam- ple included 12 male participants (9%) and 125 female participants (91%); this ratio corresponds to that seen in young psychologists in Slovenia. On average, the participants were 34.9 years old (SD = 9.7) at the time the survey was conducted. Four participants (3%) were unemployed, and the others were employed. Thir- ty-two participants (23%) described their training in the field of psychology of ed- ucation, 24 (18%) in the field of clinical psychology, 21 (15%) in the field of work and organizational psychology, 21 (15%) in the field of psychotherapy, 10 (7%) in the field of social welfare, seven (5%) in the field of psychological counselling, and three (2%) in other fields. There were 52 participants (38%) who had already performed psychological servic- es before the training described in the survey, at least to a minimum extent, while 85 (62%) joined the training inexperienced. One fifth of the participants (n = 28; 20%) had not yet concluded their training during the time of the survey, but only six had more than half of the training still to complete. Seventy-five supervisees (58%) 285 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia reported that their mentors/supervisors were employed in the same organizations as themselves. The respondents were divided into five subgroups comprised of individuals with similar training: (1) the traineeship without help by others (taking over) or with a co-worker’s assistance (in a sort of induction training), (2) the traineeship with the mentor, (3) the traineeship with the supervisor, (4) the supervised practice within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, and (5) a longer training, for instance, psy- chotherapy or clinical psychology education. Even though the subgroups 2, 3, and 4 are similar in the modalities, we wanted to treat them separately and compare them. It often happens that mentoring in the traineeship (in group 2) is performed by mentors who have not concluded any special training in mentoring or super- vision. Supervisors who implement the supervision of a trainee (in group 3) have presumably been trained in doing so, for instance, supervision in a particular psy- chotherapy domain. They exhibit the knowledge and skills needed for supervision; however, since they had not been trained in our project we wanted to treat their supervisees separately. The number of respondents who described their training were as follows: 20 participants (15%) described the training as happening with- out help (or a typical induction training); 45 participants (33%) described the train- eeship with the mentor (the mentors of five participants were not psychologists); nine participants (7%) described the traineeship with the supervisor (supervisors of four participants were not psychologists); 31 participants (23%) described the supervised practice within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project; and 32 (23%) partici- pants described longer trainings (mentors/supervisors of eight participants were not psychologists). Table 26 shows the features of individual subgroups. It can be observed that the supervisees participating in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project were on average a little older than other beginners, as were those who participated in longer trainings (this seems reasonable, as in Slovenia individuals enter specialization after they have been performing psychological services for some time). The period of train- eeship and the supervised practice was approximately one year, while the induc- tion training was typically six months long, and longer trainings had an approxi - mate duration of four years, according to the participants’ reports. Most respond- ents had completed the training in the period of three years prior to the survey; there were some participants, however, and in particular those who assessed the traineeship with the mentor, who had concluded their training more than three years prior to the survey. 286 Edited by Anja Podlesek Table 26. Characteristics of the five sample subgroups Training features Induction training (n = 20) Traineeship with the mentor (n = 45) Traineeship with the supervisor (n = 9) The su- pervised practice (n = 31) Longer training (n = 32) Age at the time of survey in years, M (SD), Mdn 35.9 9.5), 36 34.7 (10.2), 30 31.0 (3.6), 30 28.9 (3.5), 28 41.7 (10.4), 40 Estimated age a at the beginning of the training in years, M (SD), Mdn 28.9 (5.1), 27 25.7 (4.4), 25 26.9 (3.2), 26 28.0 (3.6), 27 32.3 (8.7), 30 The duration of the training in months, M (SD), Mdn 6.0 (3.5), 6 10.3 (2.9), 12 10.9 (2.0), 12 11.5 (1.2), 12 47.3 (17.8), 48 The period since the conclusion of the training in years, M (SD), Mdn 4.1 (4.2), 2 8.3 (10.0), 3 3.4 (3.8), 2 0.0 (0.0), 0 5.1 (6.9), 1 Mentee/supervisee had previous experience of psychologist work in the field of training, f (%) 2 (10) 6 (13) 1 (11) 26 (84) 17 (53) Co-worker/mentor/supervisor was a psychologist, f (%) 10 (71) 40 (89) 5 (56) 31 (100) 24 (75) Co-worker/mentor/ supervisor worked in the same organization, f (%) 11 (79) 34 (76) 6 (67) 7 (23) 17 (53) a Estimated age at the beginning of the training was obtained by comparing the age at the time of survey, the period of time since the conclusion of the training, and the duration of the training pro- gramme. Estimation was not possible for two participants of the group Induction training and two participants in the group Longer training. The groups differed in previous experiences of performing psychological services. The percentage of participants with previous experience is shown in Table 26. The percentage was the highest in the group who were trained within the SUPER PSI- HOLOG project. In this all the supervisors were psychologists, which was not the case in other groups. Moreover, in this group there was also a lower percentage of supervisees who were employed in the same organizations as their supervisors. Results and Discussion A few participants did not complete the whole survey, so the number of answers differs slightly among the analyses. We examined how the participants in different groups assessed their mentors or supervisors, their competences, the mentoring/ supervisory relationship, and the development of their own competences and sat- isfaction of their needs during the training. The majority of hypotheses were tested 287 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia with non-parametrical statistical tests, as the distributions of the responses deviated significantly from normality (they were asymmetric). If not specified otherwise, indi- vidual hypotheses were tested at the five-percent alpha-error rate. The Mentoring or Supervisory Relationship – Scores on SRQ Only participants who responded to all SRQ items were included in the analyses related to SRQ scores. We used the IBM SPSS 23 statistical package to perform bi- as-corrected and accelerated (BCa) bootstrapping with 10,000 samples in order to estimate the 95% confidence intervals of the mean subscale scores in different groups of participants. The results are shown in Figure 8. Figure 8 shows a comparison between the mean responses on different subscales of SRQ. Two groups can be seen for which the means were similar. One group was composed of the participants who participated in the induction training or in train- eeship with the mentor (who, as has been mentioned, were usually not educated with regard to mentoring); their achievements were lower. The second group was composed of participants who were included in supervision during the time of their training, either in the traineeship, within our project, or within a longer psychother- apy or clinical psychology training (specialization); the three groups showed higher achievements on the SRQ scales. Figure 8. Mean assessments of the mentoring/supervisory relationship based on SRQ subscales in five groups of participants. Whiskers represent bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals for mean scores on SRQ subscales. The analysis included the responses by participants who completed the whole survey; seven participants de- scribed the induction training, 29 described the traineeship with the mentor, nine described the traineeship with the supervisor, 30 described the supervised practice in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, and 17 described a longer training. 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 Safe base Structure Commitment Reflective education Role model Formative feedback Mean assessment SRQ subscale Induction training Traineeship + mentor Traineeship + supervisor Supervised practice Longer training 288 Edited by Anja Podlesek The Kruskal-Wallis H test was used to examine the equality of scores for the five groups with regard to the SQR scales, and the results showed that there were statistically sig - nificant differences in all six subscales; for Safe base H(4) = 25.15, p < .001; for Structure H(4) = 44.03, p < .001; for Commitment H(4) = 23.29, p < .001; for Reflective education H(4) = 29.62, p < .001; for Role model H(4) = 12.02, p = .017; for Formative feedback H(4) = 20.34, p < .001. Based on the 95% confidence intervals for the means in different groups, as shown in Figure 8, we can indirectly make conclusions about the statistical significance of the differences among scores in different groups (indirectly only, be - cause half of the confidence interval for the difference between two group means can in reality be smaller than the sum of one half of the confidence interval for the mean of the first group and half of the confidence interval for the second group mean). It can be observed that the participants who participated in the supervised practice of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project scored statistically significantly higher in the Safe base sub- scale than those who participated in the induction training and ordinary traineeship with the mentor, while they did not score not significantly higher than the respondents who participated in the traineeship with the supervisor and in longer trainings (the confidence intervals for arithmetic mean partially overlap in the three groups). Examining Figure 8 and comparing the position of supervisees included in the su- pervised practice in our project and that of the participants with the mentor, we can see that the former achieved higher scores for all SRQ subscales. The former outperformed the group of participants who participated in the induction training on the subscales Safe base and Structure. The Mann-Whitney test with Bonferroni correction for six comparisons of the two groups on the SRQ subscales where the al- pha error rate was reduced to .009 showed that the groups also differed statistically significantly on the Commitment sub-scale (U = 37.5, Z = –2.63, p = .007). The scores for the group of participants who participated in the supervised practice were equal to those for the two other groups who were included in supervision. It can be con- cluded that special training of supervisors contributes to the quality of the supervi- sory relationship. Referring to the comparison of scores for the three groups whose participants took part in supervision, we can affirm that the training of supervisors within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project was as effective with regard to the quality of the supervisory relationship as the training of supervision implemented by different psychotherapeutic schools and other models of supervision. Satisfaction with the Mentor/Supervisor and Training An additional indicator of the quality of the mentoring/supervisory relationship was provided by the participants’ reports on whether the mentor had been available enough, and whether he/she had fulfilled their expectations, and whether their own expectations had been met by the training. For these variables, the equality of the frequency distributions of responses by different groups was examined using the Fisher’s exact test. 289 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Table 27 shows that the availability of a co-worker in the role of mentor was the lowest during the induction training. In other groups, the availability of the mentor/ supervisor was comparable – approximately a quarter of the participants wanted their mentors/supervisors to have been more available. The differences in frequen- cy distribution of the responses regarding the mentors’ availability were not statisti- cally significant among the groups, χ 2 = 8.92, p = 058. In general, the co-workers/mentors/supervisors met the expectations of trainees/ mentees/supervisees and there were no significant differences in the distributions of responses, χ 2 = 10.80, p = .184. The groups, however, had different levels of satisfac- tion with the training, χ 2 = 18.67, p = .011. The participants who had participated in the induction training and traineeship with the mentor reported, more often than par - ticipants of other groups, that they expected more from the training. There were two notable results, namely the percentage of respondents participating in the supervised practice who responded that their training met their expectations, and the percentage of trainees with the supervisor who stated that their expectations had been exceeded. Table 27. Comparison of five groups of participants according to characteristics of the mentoring/supervisory relationship and satisfaction with the relationship and training Training features Induction training (n = 20) Traineeship with the mentor (n = 45 b ) Traineeship with the supervisor (n = 9) The supervised practice (n = 31) Longer training (n = 32 b ) Mentor/supervisor was available enough. 5 a (36%) 28 (62%) 7 (78%) 24 (77%) 24 (75%) Satisfaction with the training Below expectations 6 (35%) 13 (33%) 1 (11%) 4 (13%) 3 (11%) As expected 8 (47%) 22 (55%) 2 (22%) 22 (71%) 15 (56%) Above expectations 3 (18%) 5 (13%) 6 (67%) 5 (16%) 9 (33%) Satisfaction with the mentor/supervisor Below expectations 4 a (29%) 10 (24%) 0 (0%) 2 (7%) 4 (14%) As expected 5 a (36%) 26 (62%) 7 (78%) 22 (71%) 19 (66%) Above expectations 5 a (36%) 6 (14%) 2 (22%) 7 (23%) 6 (21%) Feeling competent c Already before the conclusion 1 (6%) 6 (15%) 0 (0%) 7 (24%) 5 (17%) Upon the conclusion 10 (56%) 26 (67%) 6 (75%) 18 (62%) 22 (73%) Not yet 7 (39%) 7 (18%) 2 (25%) 4 (14%) 3 (10%) Note. Table cells contain the frequencies (with percentages in parentheses). a The questions were answered by different numbers of participants. Only 14 respondents who partici- pated in induction training and had mentors answered the questions regarding the mentor’s availability and satisfaction with him/her; others did not have mentors. b Individual questions were not answered 290 Edited by Anja Podlesek by all participants. The number of obtained responses is evident from the sum of frequencies in differ- ent categories. The presented percentages are shares between those who responded to the question. c Several participants could not state when they had felt competent: two from the induction training, six from the traineeship with the mentor, one from the traineeship with supervisor, two from the su- pervised practice, and two from the longer training. The shares given are those from the respondents who were able to express their feelings of competence. Feeling of Being Competent The respondents answered whether they felt competent after the training had been concluded to perform the work they had been trained for. Those respondents who had not yet concluded their training at the time of the survey stated whether they thought they would feel competent after the conclusion of the training. Among those participants who participated in the induction training in the workplace there were more who expressed the feeling of not being competent (see Table 27) when compared with other groups; however, the differences among groups were not sta- tistically significant (Fisher’s exact test: χ 2 = 9.02, p = .311). The participants estimated how long it took them to feel competent, and if they did not feel competent at the time of the survey they predicted how long it would take them to feel so. They provided very diverse answers, but the median values in indi- vidual groups were equal to the median values of actual length of individual training programmes (see Table 26). This points to the fact that the participants perceived the actual duration of the training to be correct. It is interesting to note that the highest value for the duration of the training provided by the beginners participat- ing in the supervised practice was 12 months, whereas the highest response in the beginners who participated in the induction training about the right length of the training was 24 months, while the trainees with the mentor felt that 80 months was correct, and those with the supervisor felt that 48 months was needed for them to feel competent. It can be concluded that the project participants felt competent enough to practice psychology independently upon the conclusion of the project, while the participants of other groups needed more time and wished their training could have been longer. Assessments of Mentors’/Supervisors’ Competences and the Contribution of Mentoring/Supervision Using a seven-point scale the participants assessed their mentors’/supervisors’ com- petences, the development of their own competences, satisfaction of their needs in the mentoring/supervisory relationship, and the perceived contribution of the training. The values of the assessments were very high, and the distributions of re- sponses were negatively asymmetric. Tables 28–31 show the median values for dif- ferent groups of participants. The Kruskal-Wallis H test with Bonferroni correction for multiple testing (the corrected alpha error rate was .003) showed statistically 291 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia significant differences between the groups’ evaluations of the training’s contribu- tion to the personal development of mentees/supervisees, H(4) = 21.51, p < .001, the groups’ evaluations of the training’s contribution to the mentee/supervisee at- titudes towards clients, H(4) = 16.87, p = .002, and to the success of mentees’/su- pervisees’ work with clients, H(4) = 24.86, p < .001. The groups’ evaluations of the contribution of the training to the professional development did not reach the level of statistical significance (due to strict Bonferroni correction), H(4) = 15.04, p = .005. The Mann-Whitney U tests of paired comparisons showed statistically significant differences between the groups of participants who were included in the induction training, traineeship with the mentor and the supervised practice, and those who were included in longer training. This is a reasonable finding, as the two clusters dif- fered in the duration and specialization of training. In this analysis, the assessments of the supervised practice did not differ in any statistically significant manner from the assessments of other groups. Table 28. Comparison of median assessments of the mentor/supervisor in five gro- ups of participants Mentor’s/Supervisor’s competence Induction training (n = 14) Traineeship with the mentor (n = 44) Traineeship with the supervisor (n = 9) The supervised practice (n = 31) Longer training (n = 31) Professionalism at work 6.4 6.3 6.7 6.3 6.6 Psychological knowledge and skills 6.0 6.0 5.8 6.4 6.5 Educating 5.6 5.9 6.3 6.3 6.4 Communication skills 6.2 6.0 6.0 6.6 6.6 Interpersonal skills 6.2 6.2 6.6 6.7 6.5 Table 29. Comparison of median assessments of mentor’s/supervisor’s encourage- ment of participant’s competences in five groups of participants Participant’s competence Induction training (n = 14) Traineeship with the mentor (n = 42) Traineeship with the supervisor (n = 9) The supervised practice (n = 31) Longer training (n = 28) Professionalism at work 6.3 6.0 6.4 6.1 6.5 Psychological knowledge and skills 5.8 5.8 5.4 6.1 6.2 Educating 5.3 5.4 5.8 6.0 6.2 Communication skills 6.2 5.6 6.3 5.9 6.4 Interpersonal skills 6.3 5.8 6.4 6.1 6.5 292 Edited by Anja Podlesek Table 30. Comparison of median values of participants’ satisfaction with mentor’s/ supervisor’s encouragement of development of competences in five groups of participants Participant’s needs for: Induction training (n = 14) Traineeship with the mentor (n = 42) Traineeship with the supervisor (n = 9) The supervised practice (n = 31) Longer training (n = 29) Psychological knowledge and skills 5.8 5.4 5.0 6.0 6.3 Being mentored/supervised, guided 6.0 5.1 6.0 6.1 6.2 Availability and accessibility of the mentor 5.4 5.2 6.1 6.2 5.7 Table 31. Comparison of median assessments of the training’s contribution in five groups of participants Contribution to the participant’s: Induction training (n = 17) Traineeship with the mentor (n = 40) Traineeship with the supervisor (n = 9) The supervised practice (n = 31) Longer training (n = 27) Personal development 5.2 5.4 6.1 5.8 6.5 Professional development 5.6 5.9 6.4 6.0 6.6 Attitude towards clients 5.5 5.7 6.3 5.7 6.6 Success in work with clients 5.5 5.5 6.3 5.7 6.5 The participants completed the scale of competences in the final section of the sur - vey, where they assessed the development of their fundamental and functional com- petences (according to the American Cube model of competences). Levels of com- petence development were converted (extended) to a seven-level assessment scale (level 0 presented in Figure 7 was converted to 1; level 3 was converted to 7). For individual groups of participants, the median values of competences were assessed within the individual large groups of competences. With BCa bootstrapping on 10,000 samples, the 95% confidence intervals for the medians were also calculated. The results are shown in Figure 9. Advances in foundational and functional compe- tences during the training were evident in all groups. Individual groups progressed by one or two levels, meaning that the participants partially or entirely reached a higher developmental level. It can be observed that the participants in the super - vised practice reported a slightly higher developmental level of competences before the training than those in other groups did. This is not surprising, as in this group a larger percentage of participants had the experience of performing psychological services. Being more experienced was thus positively correlated with higher scores on 293 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia the assessment scale (for scores in foundational competences, r pb = .37, p < .001, n = 93; for scores in functional competences, r pb = 0.45, p < .001, n = 79). Due to a higher level of competences before the training, the participants in the supervised practice showed relatively low progress during the training. In all the groups, except for the one which participated in the induction training, the median level of the development of foundational competences upon the conclusion of the training was at a point of partial development towards the level where it is possible to enter independent psycholog- ical practice, while the development of functional competences was slightly lower. The development of functional competences was similarly developed in the groups of participants who had participated in supervision by qualified supervisors. The devel- opment of competences in participants who had participated in the induction training and the traineeship with the (non-qualified) mentor was lower. As in SRQ, the supervi - sees in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project assessed the development of their competences with similar values as those supervisees who had participated in supervision during their traineeship or longer training. The values were higher than those provided by the beginners who in their training had not received support by a qualified supervisor. However, even though the beginners participating in the supervised practice achieved a high level of development of their competences upon the conclusion of the project, this cannot be assigned exactly or solely to the impact caused by the supervised prac - tice, as the participants had reported the higher development of their competences even before the training, when compared to the other groups. Figure 9. Comparison of the development of fundamental and functional compe- tences in different groups of participants before and after the training. The column heights represent the median values of development, and whiskers represent their bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals. 2 3 4 5 6 7 Foundational - before Foundational - after Functional - before Functional - after Median level of competences development (transformed values) Competences Induction training Traineeship + mentor Traineeship + supervisor Supervised practice Longer training 294 Edited by Anja Podlesek Conclusions The study has several weaknesses, as follows. First, the number of participants in different groups was very low. The survey was long and demanding, therefore sev- eral individuals terminated their participation too early, and this limits the general- ization of differences between the groups. Despite the low number of participants, we wanted to treat the groups separately since the training they had attended had very different requirements. After the participants were grouped, we encountered another difficulty because within two groups there were participants who had at- tended very different trainings (those who had participated in the induction training, and those who had attended longer training). Second, it is a fact that psychologists participate in various training projects, and therefore the training described in the survey was not the only training they had attended. However, the clear contribu- tions of different forms of training are very difficult to study in non-experimental research, such as ours. Third, we could not obtain information regarding the quali- fications of mentors of trainees, i.e. whether they were qualified for mentoring, as the respondents did not have access to such information. It is possible that some of the mentors had been trained to apply the competence model in implementing traineeship, i.e. that he/she had participated in our previous trainings of mentors (or in some other training for this). Fourth, the group of participants who participat- ed in the supervised practice of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project encompassed a large percentage of those who had acquired prior experiences in practicing psychology, and thus their assessments of the developmental level of their competences were higher at the beginning of the training than those provided by other participants. As such, this research encompassed unequal groups, and therefore it is difficult to compare the efficacy of the supervised practice with the efficacy of other forms of training. Still, this was difficult to avoid due to the very unfavourable situation with regard to the employment of psychologists in Slovenia at the time the survey was conducted. There were very few one-year traineeships available at this time, young psychologists were mostly employed for brief periods rather than on long-term con- tracts, and the project required that the participants were full-time employees, with such individuals already having experienced work in the field of psychology (albeit mostly on a short-term basis). Fifth, the respondents answered the questions re- ferring to their training retrospectively, and the values given may thus have been influenced by various memory factors, and this will have limited the validity of the collected data. Despite the shortcomings of the study, it can nevertheless be concluded with great assurance that the training of mentors of the supervised practice implemented in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project was as efficient as the training in supervision imple- mented by psychotherapeutic schools or other models of supervision. This is very encouraging on the point of quality assurance. The results of the research revealed that the outcomes of the induction training and the traineeship with mentors who 295 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia most often were not qualified for mentoring were less favourable than the results of the training carried out under the guidance of qualified mentors/supervisors. The participants in the first two forms of training were less satisfied, wanted the training to be longer, and upon conclusion of the training the development of their function- al competences was lower, that is, the competences specifically connected to imple- menting psychological services were less developed. To summarize, the differences between the outcomes of the training guided by qualified supervisors and non-qual- ified professionals point to the importance of supporting supervisors to be trained for mentoring and supervision. Based on the results of our study, we recommend that supervisors who train novice psychologists should be given opportunities to obtain specific knowledge and skills of supervision in order to achieve good results. Supervisors, however, need more than competences. As one of the supervisors par- ticipating in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project stated: “Now I better understand my work and my competences. Today I know that my actions, which I took for granted in the past, are supported by my skills which I have mastered, upgraded and become aware of. Thus I can present concrete skills and knowledge to young people and help them become aware of their skills and their development […] I believe that in the future it will be necessary to devote more time to the values, attitudes, and beliefs which help us, as psychologists, be successful, be recognized as successful, be needed and effective. In my opinion this is a key part of psychologists’ competences, which al- though somehow in the background, help us to have key positions in society.” Finally, we should also point out that a rather high percentage of the psychologists participating in our study worked in the same organization as their mentors/super- visors during the period of training (see Table 26). It can be predicted that a lot of supervisory relationships will be established within work organizations, and super- visees will not have to search for external supervisors. A supervisor employed in the same work organization as his/her supervisee will have a much better insight into the work of the supervisee, while the schedule and location of supervision will also be easier to plan. A supervisor can face a dilemma when assessing the supervisee, as the assessments of competences upon the conclusion of the supervised practice not only expresses the supervisee’s qualifications, but also the supervisor’s effectiveness, in terms of his/her efficacy in leading and guiding the supervised practice, which can then influ- ence his/her position in the work organization. Further consideration is thus need- ed regarding the prevention of potential difficulties in this respect, and whether it would be more sensible to encourage supervision under the guidance of a supervi- sor from outside of the supervisee’s workplace. Mateja Štirn, Blanka Tacer, Andreja Rihter, Anita Kovačik, Julija Pelc, Vita Po- štuvan and Sabina Čepon Evaluation of Supervision of Supervisors The supervision of the supervisors of psychologists was carried out in six groups. Each group consisted of three to six psychologists – supervisors-in-training (here- after called supervisors). Six supervisors of supervisors actively participated in the process of training the supervisors, and collaborated in implementing the supervi- sion. Supervision sessions took place from May 2015 to March 2016, and there were a total of 38 sessions). Monitoring and evaluation of the supervision of supervision were carried out from the beginning of the work in supervisory groups until the conclusion of the super- vision process. The course of supervision was monitored and evaluated in all six groups. Two questionnaires were constructed for monitoring and evaluating the su- pervision of supervision: A brief regular evaluation for supervisors and A brief regu- lar evaluation for supervisors of supervisors. The questionnaires were completed by the supervisors and supervisors of supervisors upon the conclusion of each group supervisory session. Upon the conclusion of the supervision a final reflection on the entire process was performed in all groups. Two specific questionnaires were constructed for this: Final evaluation of the supervision process for supervisors and Final evaluation of the su- pervision process for supervisors of supervisors. The two questionnaires were com- pleted by supervisors and supervisors of supervisors before the final supervisory session. Their reflections served as the foundation for the mutual reflection per- formed in the final supervisory session. 298 Edited by Anja Podlesek The rest of this chapter presents summaries of reflections by the supervisors and those by the supervisors of supervisors who implemented the supervision. Summary of Reflections by Supervisors In general, the supervisors were very satisfied with various aspects of the superviso- ry sessions. Using a 10-point satisfaction assessment scale (1 – very unsatisfied, 10 – very satisfied) they assessed their satisfaction with the content/topic of the super- visory sessions with the average value of 9.35. Total average value of their satisfac- tion with approach/method of sessions was 9.46, while their satisfaction with own activities/contributions on sessions was estimated with the average value of 8.51. In most cases, the supervisors felt safe for active participation in the supervisory groups. The total average value of their assessment rates was 9.38 (on a 10-point scale; 1 – not safe at all, 10 – absolutely safe). In the supervision process the supervisors stated that they had obtained what they expected. The total average value for this was 9.20 (on a 10-point scale; 1 – not at all, 10 – absolutely). The supervisors emphasized the possibility and readiness for active participation in a supervisory group as positive in the supervision process. They praised the exchange of opinions, experiences, and ideas between supervisors and supervisors of super- visors. By working with personal devotion, genuine participation, and reflection, the participants contributed to a higher level of engagement and interpersonal trust in the group. They reported on their positive relationships with the supervisors of supervisors, and these supportive relationships enhanced reflection, so overall they were motivated to engage in more active collaboration. As for weaknesses or things that bothered them, some of the participants mentioned the late arrival of certain members to some sessions, which influenced the dynamics and work in the supervisory groups. Others noted the unclearly structured process of supervision, occasional difficulties in focusing on group work caused by tiredness or concerns in relation to events happening outside of supervision. Several supervi- sors expressed a need for better preparation for the supervision sessions. They stated that they wished they had had more time for material preparation in order to provide concrete and elaborated dilemmas and audio and video recordings. The factors men- tioned as challenges in the supervision process included those related to self-disclo- sure, self-exposing, logistics of supervision sessions, and disharmony in the process creating supervisory dyads (a few supervisors did not have supervisees at the begin- ning of their group supervision). Several supervisors emphasized the low payment for their work. For some supervisors, it was challenging to find a topic for a supervisory session (at the beginning of the process there were few cases and contents, whereas towards the end there was an overabundance of these). Further, they mentioned a 299 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia lack of time for the supervision-of-supervision process as another challenge, as well as the dual roles they needed to play in the supervisory groups (some of them were co-workers in the work organization, and members of the same supervisory group). Moreover, they wondered how to develop a healthy critical attitude towards their work and that of their colleagues, while stating that they were aware that any gains in the process depended on their own contributions to it. With the help of supervision of supervision they acquired more insight into the structure of the supervision process and the dynamics of the supervisory relation- ship. The supervision process enabled opportunities for reflection and self-reflection. The respondents thus obtained new ideas and experiences for even more effective supervision. Working in groups, they developed interpersonal trust, connectedness, and a feeling of safety, and supervision provided a space for relief of their anxieties, although several supervisors recognized the need for better self-care. Additionally, by collaborating in the supervision-of-supervision process, the respondents stated that they gained the following: • Knowledge and experiences of new methods of work. • Case-based learning. • Collaboration in case treatments. • Expanding social network and connectivity with colleagues. • Emotional support. • Awareness, experience of the importance of a well-structured group work (agreement, introducing one’s expectations at the beginning). • Experience of trustful, quality relationships. • Structured time and safety for working on cases. • Strengthening of self-confidence. • Opportunity for affirmation and strengthening of one’s professional identity. • Experience of how important well-moderated communication is in case treatment. • Experience of taking a different perspective on cases. • Experience of how important the role of humour is in the group process. • Opportunity for self-growth. • Opportunity to lead the group process. • New methods and techniques of work. • Communication skills. • Opportunity for further professional development. • Experience and understanding of how dual roles can influence the relationship and process of supervision. • Awareness and strategies of self-care (care for one’s own mental health). Supervision and collaborating in the supervision-of-supervision process enhanced supervisors’ acquisition and further development of competences. Among the primary competences, they in particular noted goal specification (needs analysis, 300 Edited by Anja Podlesek planning), application of interventions (better knowledge of the role of supervisor and supervision process, establishment of safety and trust in the supervisory rela- tionship, etc.), evaluation (monitoring and evaluation) and communication (giving clear and structured feedback, report writing). Among the enabling competences, they listed professional strategy (making decisions on ethical dilemmas), continuing professional development (care for mental health, knowledge of legislation and dif- ferent legal procedures, effective time management), development of professional relations, independent implementation of psychological services, quality assurance, and self-reflection. Summary of the Reflections by Supervisors of Supervisors Supervisors of supervisors assessed general climate/mood in a group by means of a 10-point scale (1 – very bad, 10 – excellent) as very good. Total average value was 9.0. They were very satisfied with their role of leading a supervisory group and expressed this satisfaction with the average value of 8.4 on a 10-level scale (1 – not satisfied at all, 10 – absolutely satisfied). The development of the supervision-of-supervision process: At the beginning of this process the focus was on structuring, defining the frame of collaboration, form- ing of groups and building rapport, setting a safe framework for work, and establish- ing trust. In all groups, the process was carried out more on a cognitive level at the beginning, supervisors were somewhat reticent. In the continuation the process be- came more spontaneous and genuine. It was not before the final sessions when the clear focus was on the contents relating to the supervision process. At the beginning of the supervision-of-supervision process the supervisors exposed several technical dilemmas; towards the end the dilemmas were more procedural, relational, ethi- cal. In some groups at the beginning of the process they experienced the supervi- sors’ delivery of materials as “being forced upon them”; later it was a consequence of their own needs. There were several contents for work/learning in supervisory groups. Through the larger part of the process, some groups experienced difficul- ties in “what to deal with; how to find material to work on”. During the supervi- sion-of-supervision process trust and connectedness developed in the groups. Upon the conclusion of the process several supervisors expressed their gratitude for hav- ing been able to participate in the group and the exchange. A lot of them expressed the necessity for the learning process to continue. Challenges in the supervision-of-supervision process exposed by supervisors: Some of the supervisors of supervisors expressed doubt in own competency, feeling of insecurity. They discussed dilemmas regarding dual roles. For most of them record- ing of supervision of supervision sessions was a challenge. They had to cope with logistics of sessions’ coordination (time, location, cancelations by supervisors etc.). It was challenging for some of them how to follow and implement the introductory 301 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia agreement, and adapt it if needed. Another challenge for some of them was the fact that supervisors in their group needed more motivation for active preparation and participation in the supervision-of-supervision process. As good in their work the supervisors of supervisors praised their engagement, spontaneity, and adaptability. Regularly, they monitored development and the course of the supervision process. They appraised an open, relaxed relationship in their groups. They strived to assure a feeling of safety for all the group members. They motivated and encouraged the supervisors to actively collaborate in the super- vision-of-supervision process. The relationship established in the groups was found- ed on a high level of interpersonal trust. Communication within groups was open, stimulating and empathetic. The supervisors of supervisors showed compassion for actual distress and offered support in dealing with dilemmas and challenges of im- plementing the supervision process. Acting the role of leader of a supervisory group supervisors of supervisors gained the skills of better self-care, strengthened their self-esteem, self-confidence, de- votion to the profession, feeling of shared responsibility in shaping of psychologist identity, and new knowledge and skills. The supervisors of supervisors strengthened and developed different competences. Among the primary competences they listed goal specification (needs analysis, goal setting, structure at work), application of interventions (support assurance), evalua- tion (monitoring and assessment), and communication (giving clear and structured feedback). Among the enabling competences they emphasized the development of professional strategy, continuing professional development, quality assurance, pro- fessional relations, and self-reflection. When assessing the supervisors’ competences and their development, they pro- vided similar evaluations as supervisors did. Among the primary competences they confirmed goal specification (analysis of needs, planning), application of interven- tions, evaluation (monitoring and assessment) and communication (giving feedback, report writing). Among the enabling competences, they listed development in the area of professional strategy (perception of and coping with ethical questions, di- lemmas), continuing professional development (openness for and exploring novel- ties), quality assurance, and self-reflection. Conclusion The supervisors participating in the training of supervisors and in the supervision of supervision became better informed on the application of the competence mod- el. They thus developed a comprehensive perception of the supervision process, and now approach it systematically and procedurally, taking into consideration the factors in the competence model, while previously they approached supervision 302 Edited by Anja Podlesek “by feeling and intuition.” They have strengthened their focus on sources of power, gained skills of supervision, motivating the supervisees to learn and prepare the materials, and the skills needed to successfully conclude the supervision process. With regard to feedback by supervisors and supervisors of supervisors relating to the development of competences, it can be observed that they followed common goals in the supervision-of-supervision process, and that the work in superviso- ry groups contributed to the development and strengthening of the supervisors’ competences. For most of the supervisors and supervisors of supervisors, the experience of the supervision-of-supervision process was very positive and beneficial. In general, they valued the positive climate in the supervisory groups, sense of safety and trust, and motivation for collaboration. Despite limitations due to the project requirements (the short timeframe of the project, planned quantitative outcomes), the psycholo- gists who participated in the supervisory groups did gain new knowledge and expe- riences, and developed and strengthened different competences. They built on their professional identities and made connections with a network of colleagues. Most expressed a desire for the work implemented in the project to continue, because they saw progress in their professional development and work. Systematic regula- tion of supervision and supervision-of-supervision implementation thus seems to be needed to make the best use of this approach. While in this evaluation of supervision of supervision we were critically reflective and did not overlook the weaknesses that were brought to our attention, there may still be some weaknesses we were not made aware of, and these may thus represent the basis for further improvements. Julija Škarabot Plesničar The Evaluation of the SUPER PSIHOLOG Project Introduction and Background Information The evaluation of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project provides an external view of its im- plementation, with the aim of monitoring the project and reviewing its achieve- ments, and evaluating the extent of to which the goals set by the Norwegian Finan- cial Mechanism were achieved. It differs from other evaluations carried out within the project in its focus, since it does not focus on the educational results of the activities implemented in the project. Instead, its purpose is to ensure better trans- parency and accountability of the project holders towards the finance providers, professional public, and general public. The project’s finance provider, the Norwegian Financial Mechanism, applies the as- sessment methodology set out in the document titled Evaluation Guideline: EEA and Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2009–2014 (Evaluation Guideline: EEA and Nor- wegian Financial Mechanism 2009–2014, 2011). This methodology is intended for evaluating entire programmes, and thus it has been adjusted to suit the evaluation requirements of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. The evaluation of SUPER PSIHOLOG concentrates on the following basic criteria: • Relevance • Effectiveness • Efficiency • Impact • Sustainability of project outcomes 304 Edited by Anja Podlesek The evaluation is comprehensive, as it includes all the criteria determined in the Evaluation Guideline: EEA and Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2009-2014 (2011). The planning of evaluation is based on the Project Execution Plan (Faculty of Arts at the University of Ljubljana, 2014). The external evaluation deals with the following target groups: • Supervisees • Supervisors • Supervisors of supervisors • Norwegian supervisors • Project leader, project coordinator, and other project operators Due to its pilot nature, the project developed several questionnaires, and the pro- ject operators evaluated the results of these in accord with their research aims. As an external evaluator, I used the results of other surveys in addition to analyses of my own questionnaires, with the aim of evaluating the project outcomes with a particular focus on the criteria of the effectiveness and impact of the project. This chapter presents an interim evaluation, while the final evaluation was performed in the closing part of the project when recommendations for further work were developed. Outcomes and Results The Project Followed the Set Goals Among the key challenges and needs of the Republic of Slovenia in the field of public health, as defined by the programme of the Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2009– 2014 for Slovenia (Ministry of Economic Development and Technology of the Repub- lic of Slovenia, 2013), is a key statement in relation to the SUPER PSIHOLOG project: “[...] that the field of public health and primary prevention does not receive enough financial support, therefore the implementation of new concepts and mechanisms is slow” (p. 4). The SUPER PSIHOLOG project was part of a sub-field aimed at improving services in the field of mental health, with the goal of establishing new models and concepts of mental health promotion, including psychosocial help for children and adolescents, prevention and treatment of peer violence, and the development and implementa- tion of integrated programmes for suicide prevention. The aim was also to increase the knowledge and skills of various profiles of professional workers in the field of mental health (the Ministry of Economic Development and Technology, 2013, p. 9). The priority target groups were professional workers who are in contact with vulner- able individuals and perform in the fields of public health services, primary health care, education, social welfare and related areas of practice, and in the non-govern- mental sector (Ministry of Economic Development and Technology of the Republic 305 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia of Slovenia, 2013, p. 9). The services envisaged in the Call for Proposals were, among others, (i) the development and establishment of new models and concepts for the promotion of mental health and prevention of suicide, and (ii) programmes for prac- titioner training in the field of mental health, and prevention of suicide and violence. The active participants confirmed that the implementation of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project followed the set goals and thus contributed to the fulfilment of the priorities of the Norwegian Financial Mechanism. They evaluated the training and supervised practice, and agreed that the project was very well planned and the contents were profession-relevant. The participants felt that the content sequence in the three modules of the training programme was appropriate. In their opinion, each part of the content built on the previous one and integrated theory and practice. The supervisees confirmed that the topics dealt with during the supervision process were useful. The supervisors ac- quired knowledge which was, in their opinion, necessary for systematic and detailed work, while the supervisors of supervisors stated that they received good support from their Norwegian colleagues. The timeliness of the project’s activities was seen as compatible with the Project Ex- ecution Plan (Faculty of Arts at the University of Ljubljana, 2014). The project started more than six months later than originally planned due to a delay at the Norwegian Financial Mechanism programme holder in the assessment of applications. After the project was confirmed, the project team put together very quickly, engaged super- visors and supervisors of supervisors, and took all the initial steps in order to enable further implementation. In practice, the planned sequence of activities proved to be appropriate. The time allowed for the project’s implementation was prolonged by six months with the approval of the Norway Grants programme operator. The partners were thus given opportunity for better implementation, evaluation and ar- rangement of all the project’s results. The Project was Financially Well Planned The evaluation also examined whether the cost of the project was justified by the results. The project documentation showed that most of the expenses were incurred by partners which are public institutions, and the documented expenses for the vari- ous forms of project work were appropriate and not too high. The non-governmental partners also included their costs into the proper frameworks. Due to additional limi- tations by the programme operator with regard to cost eligibility, some activities were transferred to external parties who provided services at more reasonable prices. For activities which cost more than had been estimated, e.g. the costs associated with the Norwegian supervisors, the partners obtained internal resources and did not exceed the planned financial framework. In order not to exceed the planned 306 Edited by Anja Podlesek costs, the project operators determined the maximum amount per event, per par- ticipant or per promotion instrument. According to the opinion of the project leader, overall the project was financially well planned. The Main Goals of the Project Were Achieved The general aim of the project within the programme area “Public health initiatives,” i.e. improvement of services offered in the field of mental health, was a starting point for the effectiveness and efficiency evaluation. On the basis of the Project Ex- ecution Plan (Faculty of Arts at the University of Ljubljana, 2014) the expected main impact of the project was the increased competency of mental health practitioners in the primary health care, as well as that of some other practitioners. The project operators pledged to train 155 employees, i.e. 50 novice psychologists, 25 students, 25 supervisors, five supervisors and 50 other psychologists. The project reached and partially exceeded these goals. The effectiveness of the training was evaluated based on the participant surveys. The purpose of Module 1 was to train supervisors to guide the supervised prac - tice according to the competence-based approach. The participants acquired the structure and theoretical guidelines for systematic implementation of the super- vised practice, and were most satisfied with interactive work in groups or dyads with their supervisees. Module 2, whose curriculum was the development of su - pervision competences, was led by two Norwegian experts who presented many new perspectives and approaches, and much new knowledge. Their performance impressed the participants, who claimed that it prepared them well for the im- plementation of the supervised practice. Module 3, whose aim was to empower the novice professionals to work in the field of mental health, was evaluated as effective and the participants noted that they would like to receive more training of this kind in the future. At the conference “What Kind of Mentorship Do We Need? Experiences and Trans- fer of Good Practices in Mentoring Psychologists” which was held on 18 November 2016 in Ljubljana, 75% of the survey respondents stated that the approach which had been applied by the SUPER PSIHOLOG project to develop the supervision of early career psychologists was effective. The majority (64%) evaluated the project outcomes as useful for their further professional performance. Information on the progress of the target groups was first gathered on the basis of a group self-evaluation of progress, and then with the help of evaluations conduct- ed by other stakeholders or target groups. This form of cross-evaluation made the results more reliable. The supervisees evaluated their progress as effective, and felt the same for the work of their supervisors. The supervisors also responded posi- tively regarding the progress of their supervisees, the development of their own competences, and successful collaboration in supervisory groups. 307 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia The supervisors of supervisors advanced in their professional development, as was reported by the Norwegian supervisors Mona Duckert and Bjarte Kyte in an inter- view conducted on 6 February 2016. They emphasized that the group of supervisors of supervisors had learned a lot during the implementation of the project, and thus were well trained for further professional work. The emphasized that the key quali- ties of the supervisors of supervisors were openness, motivation, and decisiveness. The Norwegian supervisors adjusted the programme as needed to better meet the cultural context it was carried out within, and accepted several solutions which were put forward by Slovenian colleagues to achieve this. The subjective understanding of the project’s effectiveness was evaluated with a survey conducted at the closing meeting of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, on 9 April 2016 in Koper, Slovenia. The project was evaluated as effective or very effective by all participants, although it should be noted that the closing meeting was only at- tended by satisfied participants. Nevertheless, the opinions expressed at this meet- ing provided both positive evaluations of the project and offered valuable insights into its aims and how the participants understood these. Participants emphasized the following factors with regard to the project’s effec- tiveness and efficacy: the creation of a positive climate that was animated, crea- tive and lively, with a compatible team of project operators; good organization and support for active participants, with high attendance at training sessions and the closing meeting; the transfer of knowledge, practice and opinions between different generations and fields of practice, and thus greater professional development; the creation of new personal contacts and a network of psychologists in Slovenia, with greater motivation for supervision, an increased awareness of the importance of su- pervision, a higher quality of performance, the establishment of mechanisms for the systematic development of supervised practice and its promotion, better knowledge of the EuroPsy competence model, and so on. The activities related to providing information and publicity about the project were performed according to the plan. An interim evaluation of the extent and effectiveness of such efforts was carried out at the conference “What Kind of Men- torship Do We Need? Experiences and Transfer of Good Practices in Mentoring Psychologists.” The results of this survey showed that nearly all the participants were familiar with the project’s web platform, and that they followed the Face- book profile of the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association, where news regarding the SUPER PSIHOLOG project was announced. Most of the participants learned about the conference through the invitation sent by the Slovenian Psychologists’ Associ- ation, and other electronic announcements. Most conference participants stated that they had obtained enough information regarding the project, and expressed satisfaction with the conference. 308 Edited by Anja Podlesek The Model of the Supervised Practice Has Long-Term Potential Within the framework of the project, the pilot implementation of the supervised practice model, as developed in compliance with the standards of EuroPsy, was per- formed and thoroughly documented. The pilot implementation confirmed that the supervised practice could offer appropriate support for psychologists early in their careers, and this enhance the quality of the psychological services they provide. At the closing meeting, which was held on 9 April 2016, the active participants stated numerous benefits that they had obtained by taking part in the project, in addition to the explicitly educational ones. On a personal level, they experienced better self-knowledge and awareness of their own competences, along with great- er self-confidence and curiosity, as well as new personal contacts, enthusiasm for transferring knowledge and caring for the development of others, and better skills with regard to active listening and organizing their work, in addition to other pos- itive outcomes. On a professional level the project helped the participants to better understand the importance of continued learning, the evaluation of one’s own competences, knowl- edge of best practices, better reflection and self-care, and increased their desire to become supervisors in the future. With regard to their specific work positions and the benefits participation in the project had delivered, they emphasized the possi- bility of transferring theoretical knowledge into practice, the increased quality of their client-related work, exposure to new ideas, awareness of the importance of intervision and supervision, greater efficiency, better collaboration with co-workers, identification of the factors that make up a good work environment, and the need for relaxation and a better life-work balance. According to the results of the survey carried out in the closing meeting, the SUPER PSIHOLOG project was effective in its preparation of starting points for the model to be transferred into practice, and the development and application of uniform guidelines for the supervision of early career psychologists. The respondents felt that the project would further contribute to the strengthening and development of psychological services in Slovenia, the better formation of psychologists’ profes- sional identities and attitudes towards the profession, improved professional rela- tionships, more effective professional networking, higher ethics, self-regulation of the profession, and better informing of the general public and potential users about psychological services, and thus better recognition of the profession. How to proceed? Upon the concluding phase of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, our key challenge was to develop a system of supervised practice which could be implemented more broadly in Slovenia, based on the experiences gained and evaluations conducted in the project. Within the framework of the project we developed and implement- ed different segments of the supervised practice system. Prior to creating the final guidelines for the implementation of the supervised practice, we wanted to opti- mize the existing solutions by considering the evaluations and experiences of the project’s participants. As shown in the previous chapters, a lot of information regarding the project’s benefits and challenges was gathered using questionnaires that were completed by the supervisors and novice psychologists, by means of evaluations conducted by the supervisors of supervisors and their supervisory groups, and those per- formed by the supervisors of supervisors. Moreover, a final evaluation session was organized where all active participants were invited (supervisors, novice psycholo- gists, supervisors of supervisors, and the project team). Most of the final meet- ing was devoted to a workshop on optimizing the supervised practice, where in a short period of time we gathered many useful recommendations for how the system should be implemented by the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association after the conclusion of the project. This workshop was created based on the principles of so-called service design work- shops. As such, the participants were divided into six groups (each had its own fa- cilitator), which all had the same first assignment. By applying the materials and instructions prepared by their facilitators, each group had to specify the goals, 310 Edited by Anja Podlesek context, and desired results of the supervised practice. The groups defined their ideal novices, supervisors, and supervisors of supervisors, and specified what moti- vates and demotivates these three target groups. In the next part of the workshop the participants were introduced to six key challenges which, in the opinion of the project team, needed special attention. These were as follows: (i) education for su- pervisors and beginners; (ii) financing of the entire system of supervised practice; (iii) an online system for monitoring the course of supervised practice and other materials/instruments/literature required for its implementation; (iv) promotion and recognition of the supervised practice among various groups of stakeholders; (v) the implementation of a one-year supervised practice; and (vi) the implemen- tation of supervision and/or intervision for novices, supervisors, and supervisors of supervisors. The participants were asked to come up with new ideas to address each challenge by engaging in brainstorming. Each group was assigned one challenge, and then tried to answer questions about the future users of the part of the service they covered, about various challenge-related activities, the motivations and require- ments of the future users, and about how to evaluate whether the service-related goals had been obtained. They also prepared a clear plan for implementing the focal service, and finally presented their work to the other participants at the workshop. All the documents and ideas developed during the final meeting were carefully in- vestigated and evaluated by the project team, who integrated and applied them in the development of the supervised practice system. The data obtained in this man- ner proved to be very important and useful in the further planning of related work, and would have been very difficult to obtain using another approach. One of the important conclusions of the evaluation was that the SUPER PSIHOLOG project itself provided a valuable opportunity for the psychological profession. Within the framework of the project, both we and our Norwegian colleagues jointly developed a comprehensive programme for the training of supervisors, with the aim of developing mentoring and supervision competences, and thus establishing higher quality supervisory relationships, and so increasing the satisfaction of young psychologists with their supervisors and early training in the workplace, and giv- ing them an increased sense of competence. Providing an effective way for novice psychologists to enter the profession by enabling safe and supportive supervisory relationships can provide benefits not only for psychologists, but also, and most im- portantly, for their clients. Upon the conclusion of the project two main findings were derived: (i) that the pro- gramme for supervisors could be enriched with additional supervision knowledge and skills; and (ii) that there is a need for psychologists to be included in supervision after they have concluded a one-year period supervised practice. Lifelong inclusion in supervision in all fields of psychological practice would increase the quality of the psychological services that are provided, and thus we should strive to establish a system of supervision for all psychologists. 311 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia A consulting meeting on supervision was organized in the last part of the project. In this, professionals working in the field of supervision from various areas of psychol- ogy gathered to exchange experiences and views on what the training programme should include in order to prepare supervisors to carry out the optimal supervision of novice psychologists. In this consulting meeting the programme for the training of supervisors, as implemented within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, was presented. The supervision experts provided feedback on how the programme could be supple- mented, upgraded, and extended. We discussed the standards required for super- vision to be implemented in various fields of psychological practice, what standards already exist and in which fields of psychology, and how other fields could follow them in this regard. Psychologists working in different fields have different needs for supervision; nevertheless, a set of common principles could be created using differ- ent supervision models, enabling novice psychologists to have a better start to their careers in different fields of work. The group of supervisors of supervisors discussed the theoretical foundations, cases of good practice, experiences gained in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, and evaluation of the supervision of supervision in the project. Based on their discussions, the start- ing points for the implementation of the supervision of supervision were set. First, supervisors should have access to regular (individual and/or group) supervision. Second, the supervision of supervisors should be implemented under the umbrella of the supervised practice administrator (the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association). Third, the requirements for the supervision of supervision and its implementation should be defined (training, work conditions, financing or other types of compensa- tion, etc.). Fourth, the training and education of supervisors of supervisors should follow the established standards of educational programmes for supervisors of su- pervisors. The implementation of education/training can be performed in partici- pation with the organizations where applicable programmes are being implement- ed, or an independent programme should be established within the framework of the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association. Fifth, in establishing a national system for the supervised practice of psychologists it would be wise to work to connect the individuals and organizations who implement mentoring, supervised practice, and supervision. These were also the starting points for developing the guidelines for implementing the supervision of supervision. There are a number of possibilities with regard to financing the system of supervised practice in the first year of novice psychologists practicing psychology (with supervi- sion, supervision of supervision, training of supervisors, and training of supervisors of supervisors), and later through-out the entire careers of psychologists. We must be aware that it is almost impossible to expect, at least in the short run, that such supervision would be financed by the resources of the state budget. One of the financing possibilities is thus based on grants, but this solution would be only tem- porary and unlikely to be provided on a regular basis or multiple times in succession. 312 Edited by Anja Podlesek Similarly, it cannot be expected that supervision would be systemically regulated, such as by requiring a definite number of hours within a supervisor’s working time. For these reasons, it is essential to consider the financial support for the supervised practice system in cases when supervision is paid for by those who participate in it, or by their employers. This made us think about how to promote the supervised practice to the wider public, and in particular how to demonstrate the benefits that supervision can bring to work organizations, how to inform the competent authori- ties of the need for supervised practice and why it needs to be regulated. The relat- ed promotional activities should primarily include psychologists (experienced, nov- ice and student) in order for a culture of obtaining supervision to be established as soon as possible. The next chapter presents the guidelines for the implementation of the supervised practice that we have developed. These include the various aspects discussed so far, and cover the wide spectrum of activities that need to be carried out for the system of supervised practice to be successfully realized. Anja Podlesek, Julija Pelc, Katarina Kocbek, Vlasta Zabukovec, Mateja Štirn, Vita Poštuvan, Tina Pirc, Per A. Straumsheim, Eva Danielsen, Mona Duckert, Bjarte Kyte, Sonja Bučar, Katja Ponikvar Guidelines for the Implementation of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists The Supervised Practice and Inclusion of a Novice Psychologist 15 in the Supervisory Relationship After having concluded a five-year programme of academic studies, a master’s de- gree psychologist is not yet qualified to practice psychology independently, and an early career psychologist must thus perform his/her psychological services under supervision for at least a year. The supervised practice is a form of professional training carried out in a real work setting with the aims of: (i) preparing a psycholo- gist for independent practice; (ii) developing the professional role of a psycholo- gist, including his/her professional judgment, self-awareness, responsiveness, personal integrity and ethical conduct; and (iii) integrating theoretical and practi- cal knowledge. A one-year period of supervised practice is therefore a necessary precondition for independent practice and for providing high-quality psychological services. During this year, the newly qualified psychologist will encounter different professional tasks, challenges and issues which will be solved with the support of a supervisor, i.e. a psychologist recognised as being adequately trained for providing supervision in the relevant field of psychology. 15  The terms novice psychologist and supervisee are used as synonyms. 314 Edited by Anja Podlesek The implementation of the supervised practice is managed and monitored by the supervised practice administrator (hereafter: the system administrator 16 ). The Scope of Supervision Sessions The supervised practice is at least one year long. Supervision sessions are carried out during the same period of time. Supervision sessions encompass a minimum of 20 two-hour sessions (120 min- utes), and thus 40 hours of supervision are performed during the supervised prac - tice (for a minimum of 2,400 minutes). Additional longer visits by the supervisor to the supervisee’s workplace are recommended, the duration of each such visit being a minimum of 5 hours, or the supervisee can visit the supervisor, if this is more appropriate. In cases when the supervisory dyad does not make a longer vis - it, an additional five hours of supervision should be implemented. The minimum total supervision period is 45 hours. The implementation of supervised practice is terminated (frozen) when exceptional circumstances occur (e.g., sick leave, maternity leave, change in employment, and so on). The termination status is agreed among the supervisor, supervisee, and sys- tem administrator by a supplement to the Supervision Agreement. The Establishment of Supervisory Dyads The novice psychologist selects a suitable supervisor with regard to his/her domain of psychological practice, location, etc., from the database of qualified supervisors. They jointly decide on the beginning of the supervised practice. The supervisee in- forms the system administrator about the selected supervisor and the date when the supervised practice is set to begin, and pays the fee for entering the supervised practice system. The system administrator prepares everything that is required for monitoring the work of the supervisory dyad. It is important to avoid so-called “double roles” as much as possible. If the supervi- sor is also the supervisee’s superior or has another role in the supervisee’s work or- ganization (or elsewhere), this could conflict with their role as supervisor. Moreover, since organizations often find it convenient and more affordable to use an internal supervisor, this situation may often occur. If they cannot be avoided, then doubles roles should be discussed explicitly between the supervisor and supervisee, both at the starting point of their relationship and later. 16  In Slovenia, the system administrator is the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association – a member of the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations (EFPA). 315 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia The Structure and Content of Supervision Sessions During the supervised practice and supervision sessions the contents specified be- low should be covered, although not necessarily in the same order. The contents can be regularly included in supervision sessions, or treated in special sessions. 1. Getting to know each other, building rapport and exchanging expectations The first session is intended for building rapport. Here, the supervisor and supervi- see communicate their expectations, motivation for participating in the supervised practice system, personal experiences regarding the implementation of psychologi- cal services and the supervisory relationship, etc. The instruments accessible on the website of the supervised practice can be useful in this context, as well as those on the web platform and other resources that the parties may choose on their own. Building rapport is very important in establishing a safe and confidential relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee. The quality of their initial contact de- termines the quality of their further supervisory relationship. Directedness, compas- sion, and authenticity in the relationship enable them to enter into direct dialogue, and so exchange their personal experiences. In this context it must be remembered that there are individuals who are reserved and need more time to build a collab- orative relationship. The supervisor thus responds to the individual needs of the supervisee, and together they jointly explore routes for optimum achievement of the set goals. 2. The supervision agreement The system administrator sends the Supervision Agreement form to the supervisees already upon their inclusion into the supervised practice system, that is, after they have paid the fee to enter it. The supervisees can obtain information regarding the agreement at the training or the supervised practice conference. As such, the super- visee can inspect the Supervision Agreement form prior to the first session, consider important topics/contents, and become familiar with his/her rights and duties. A general section of the Supervision Agreement includes the introduction of the purpose of the supervised practice, its goals, and the aims of supervision, the re- sponsibilities of the supervisor and the supervisee, and general provisions regarding the implementation of supervision. A specific section of the Supervision Agreement covers the expectations of the supervisor with regard to the supervisee, and vice versa, plus the context and content of supervision, documentation of the supervised practice and session materials, formal regulation of supervision, ways of prevent- ing obstacles during the supervision process, and the evaluation of the Supervision Agreement itself. The supervisor and supervisee start preparing the Supervision Agreement during their first session. In cases when they do not discuss the entire agreement in the first 316 Edited by Anja Podlesek session, they agree to prepare suggestions for the specific part of the Agreement in the next session, when they aim to complete the Agreement. Advice: The superviso- ry dyad can be assisted in preparing the Supervision Agreement by using instruments for mutual preparation of documents (e.g. Google Drive, Dropbox). The second session is when the supervisor and supervisee have to conclude the Supervision Agreement. They communicate with regard to all the aspects of the Agreement (both the general and specific parts), and write down the provisions of the second section. They clearly specify the roles of supervisor and supervisee while adhering to professional and ethical standards. They accurately define their expec- tations, methods of documenting the supervised practice and supervision sessions, methods of reflection, evaluation, and so on. The supervisor and supervisee then sign the general section of the Agreement, which is sent by the supervisee to the system administrator, no later than one week after the second session. The specific section of the Supervision Agreement is kept by the supervisor and supervisee. The plan of the supervised practice is jointly communicated between the supervi- sor and supervisee. The supervisee writes down the supervised practice plan, and this kind of note-taking regarding the set goals and expectations in the supervised practice course is essential for the work to be successful. Articulating, writing, and clarifying the goals and expected course of the supervised practice enhances both parties’ awareness of the related ideas and understanding of the needs and expec- tations that each have regarding the project. The supervised practice plan is a sup- plement to the specific section of the Supervision Agreement. The supervisor and supervisee regularly monitor how they follow the Supervision Agreement, and upgrade and adjust it as needed. 3. Communication with clients By means of video recordings based on the supervisor’s visits to the supervisee’s workplace, the supervisory dyad analyses the supervisee’s communication with cli- ents, how he/she establishes contacts and working alliances with them, and informs clients of the treatment findings. The supervisee reflects on the situation and the supervisor provides feedback on what has been observed, and then they discuss possible improvements. It is important for the supervisee to become aware in his/ her work of what may be unconscious experiences and conduct towards clients and towards himself/herself, and other peculiarities arising from clients and/or the con- text of the supervised practice. It is also important for the supervisee to, with the help of the supervisor, find more suitable ways of understanding the situation and his/her performance, and to apply new ideas and skills within the framework of the supervision process. The supervisor thus helps the supervisee reflect on the experi- ence, perceive it from a meta-position and so establish critical distance. 317 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia 4. Ethical dilemmas 17 When working to solve any ethical dilemmas that occur when implementing psycho- logical services, as well as any ethical questions relating to the supervisory relation- ship, the supervisory dyad adheres to the Code of Professional Ethics of Psycholo- gists and other relevant documents. The supervisor is advised to constantly bring to his/her and the supervisee’s aware- ness possible ethical dilemmas. Some instances when such dilemmas can occur in the relationships between the supervisor and supervisee, and that between the su- pervisee and clients, are as follows: • Intergenerational differences (or the absence of differences when the supervi- sor and the supervisee are of similar age). • Friendship and/or other forms of dyadic roles. • Interpersonal attractiveness/repulsiveness. • Not clearly defined and specified roles and expectations when both the super- visor and the supervisee are employed in the same work organization, so their work and supervisory relationships interfere. • Application of different theoretical/practical models and approaches. • Presenting the supervisor-supervisee session recordings to the supervisor’s su- pervisory group. • Violation of confidentiality with regard to data about the client, supervisee, or supervisor. 5. A psychologist work position, relevant legislation and legal performance by the novice psychologist The supervision sessions treat, among other things, the systematization and charac- teristics of a novice psychologist’s work position and tasks. Moreover, the supervisor brings to the supervisee’s awareness important aspects of the relevant legislation, and ensures that the novice follows the law. When talking about the characteristics of the work position, they discuss common ethical dilemmas in the workplace, per- sonal data protection, violence prevention, etc. At the beginning of the supervisory relationship the supervisory dyad systematically outlines the work position and work tasks of the supervisee, and legislation regulat- ing the domain of psychological work (including ethical conduct). These aspects are introduced at the initial training for implementing the supervised practice, and also at annual conferences on supervised practice. It is the supervisee’s responsibility to be knowledgeable of the related legislation and operate in compliance with the law. The supervisor and supervisee should thus reg- ularly discuss such legislation and related aspects of the psychologist’s performance 17  See also the chapter Psychology Ethics in Supervision (Poštuvan, this volume). 318 Edited by Anja Podlesek in a professional environment. It is important that both the supervisor and the su- pervisee have these factors in mind during the entire supervised practice and all supervision sessions. Even though the supervisee initially needs structured training in relation to legislation, performing the actual work tasks and solving practical cases with the supervisor’s regular support and reflection can help the supervisee master different aspects of the related laws. 6. The competence model The novice learns about the EuroPsy competence model prior to inclusion in the supervised practice (within his/her academic education and/or in other ways). The development of competences is a constant issue during the supervised practice, and in the supervision sessions the supervisor and supervisee should talk about which competences the supervisee has been developing in his/her work since the previ- ous session. When, for instance, the supervisee describes the intervention he/she applied, both the supervisor and supervisee should define which competences were used and developed in this. Towards the end of each session they examine which competences have also been developed during the session. The supervisee thus trains his/her sensitivity for and awareness of the application of specific competenc- es in a particular situation, and their effects on the quality of the task performed, the relationship, and so on. 7. Reflective practice and providing feedback Through receiving the supervisor’s feedback the supervisee learns how to give feed- back him-/herself to either clients or the supervisor on supervision. The provision of quality feedback is jointly implemented in the supervisory relationship. It is thus important for the supervisor and supervisee to devote enough time to reflection on various levels during the supervision process, in terms of the contents, process, relationship, and recognizing inner experiences. 8. The supervisory relationship The supervisor and supervisee should establish a professional supervisory relation- ship which includes self-disclosure and the exchange of personal contents, as this is vital in developing a safe and open supervisory relationship. The supervisor enters this relationship on a personal level, with responsibility and a desire to collaborate. The supervisor is aware that he/she brings certain expectations and a vision of the supervisee’s development to the supervisory relationship, as well as a vision of his/ her own growth and advancement of the supervisory relationship. These factors can influence the supervisor’s creation of collaborative relationship with the supervi- see. The supervisor’s relationship with the supervisee should be distinguished by re- spect, sincerity, empathy, participation in and support of the supervisee’s realization of his/her own powers and resources, and so helping him/her in achieving the set 319 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia goals. The supervisory dyad maintains a professional relationship, and reflects on it regularly (e.g. the supervisor and supervisee talk about how they feel while discuss- ing a topic or problem). Constant reflective practice is important for another reason as well – the supervisory relationship is constantly developing and changing. Meta- communication, conversation about the relationship, and reciprocal dialogue-based communication enhance the understanding of what is happening in the relationship over time, and the dyad’s agreements can then be adjusted if needed. The quality of the supervised practice process is closely related to the quality of the supervisory relationship, which can be managed efficiently only with regular reciprocal and sin- cere reflection. 9. Evaluation The supervisor and supervisee conduct an interim evaluation and the final evaluation. The interim evaluation is important for evaluating what progress has been made to- wards achieving the set goals, both the supervisor’s and supervisee’s. The supervisory dyad evaluates the development of the supervisee’s competences in the supervision process (the course of their collaboration, supervision work, obstacles occurring dur - ing the process, and what the process is supported by). On the basis of accurate anal - ysis of the implementation of the Supervision Agreement, the goals attained, and rec - ognition of obstacles, the supervisor and supervisee upgrade the developmental plan in compliance with their needs and any emerging goals. They redefine the supervisory relationship goals and readjust the Supervision Agreement as needed. The supervisor’s responsibility is to regularly treat the supervisee-related cases in his/her supervision of supervision. In cases when the supervisee’s progress is too slow, the supervisor and/or supervisory group help the supervisor find suitable ap- proaches. As such, the timely solution of possible obstacles is achieved, the desired progress is enabled, and the timely conclusion of the supervised practice is assured. The final evaluation is conducted upon the conclusion of the supervised practice. During at least one of the closing sessions the supervisor and supervisee perform a comprehensive evaluation of the supervisee’s continual professional development during the time of their collaboration, and discuss the supervisor’s assessment of the supervisee’s competences. The supervisor assesses the supervisee after one year of the supervised practice, where at least 20 two-hour sessions have been performed (and in some cases after a longer period of time, as if the supervised practice has been terminated/frozen due to extraordinary circumstances then the practice period is prolonged for the length of this). The supervisor submits the evaluation of the supervised practice to the system administrator. The supervisor is obliged to inform the system administrator on the agreement between him/her and the supervisee regarding any further par- ticipation in the supervised practice. 320 Edited by Anja Podlesek In cases when after the period of one year (and within this period after the mini- mum of 20 sessions) the evaluation of supervisee’s competences remains negative, then the supervisor and supervisee agree on whether they will continue working together – the supervisee can continue the supervised practice with the same su- pervisor, or select another one. In cases when the supervisee continues supervision with the same supervisor, the supplement to the existing Supervision Agreement is concluded, or the Supervision Agreement is adjusted and updated. In cases when the supervisee continues the supervised practice with a different supervisor, he/she informs the system administrator about this, and in collaboration with all three par- ticipants (the supervisor, supervisee, and system administrator) a new Supervision Agreement is concluded. 10. Bringing the supervisory relationship to an end Closing of the supervisory relationship is carried out gradually by means of regular reflection on the supervisee’s achievements and on the goals which will be attained upon the conclusion of the process. The final session presents a concluding dialogue of the final evaluation. It is recommended that the supervisor’s assessment of the supervisee’s competences and self-assessment by the supervisee is prepared and presented to the supervisee on the previous session. The last session thus provides enough time to evaluate the achievements and the supervisory relationship, and address any open questions and dilemmas. The supervisor and supervisee examine and celebrate their achievements, and agree on whether they will conclude the rela- tionship or continue collaborating. In the case of the latter, they specify the modality of collaboration. Modality of Supervision Sessions Supervision sessions are implemented as meetings in person (face to face sessions), although exceptionally, due to certain circumstances, they can be implemented by means of videoconferencing (e.g. Skype sessions). An individual supervision session is recognized as implemented if it is at least 90 minutes long, is at the time sched- uled in advance, and in an appropriate location. The expected length of a supervi- sion session is 120 minutes. Exchanges of information or consultations via telephone, e-mail, etc. do not count as supervision sessions. In extreme cases the supervisee can contact the supervisor and they can schedule an extra supervision session. Examples of such emergencies and the related inter- ventions are determined in the Supervision Agreement, and so the boundaries of the relationship are clearly specified. The supervisor empowers the supervisee to act on his/her own and offers information on how and when to do so, and where he/ she can find more information if needed. 321 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Time Frame and Location Recommendations The supervisory dyad defines the period of supervision in the Supervision Agree- ment. They agree on the time frame of sessions – for instance, every first and third Wednesday each month. It is desired that they prepare a schedule of sessions for three months in advance and adjust it regularly. Deviations from the scheduled time frame are exceptional, and occur only in cases of extraordinary circumstances. The supervisor’s responsibility is to find a suitable and permanent location for the supervision sessions. The supervisor can find this on his/her own or in agreement with the supervisee or system administrator. The place has to be suitable for pro- fessional implementation of supervision, enabling privacy, safety, and ethics with regard to the supervisee and the people treated, and the institution of practice. It has to be quiet, without disturbing factors, adequately lighted and with a suitable room temperature. Preparation of Materials for Supervision Sessions It is supervisee’s responsibility to come to each session prepared, as they need to have the material which provides the content basis for the work done in this period. The supervisee can bring notes on cases, word-for-word notes on treat- ments (i.e. verbatim reports which contain the client’s and psychologist’s words, with accurate notes or transcriptions of audio recordings being recommended), audio recordings, video recordings, and other kinds of material. The choice here depends on the focus and goals of the supervision session. It is thus recommended that the supervisee discusses the format and content of this material with the su- pervisor in the previous session. The use of case notes is sufficient focusing on the content of the psychologist’s work. When the focus is on the psychologist’s com- munication with the client, establishment of the relationship with the client, the emotional responses of both, and so on, then video recordings are more suitable, as these enable more objective insights into the psychologist’s verbal and non-ver- bal responses, and accurate analysis of all parts of the treatment. Here it should be remembered that case notes can only selectively cover parts of the treatment, because the supervisee may not write down all the important aspects of the treat- ment, even if he/she is aware of them, or sometimes he/she may not notice, write down, or be aware of something that is relevant to the supervision. Video record- ings enable (multiple) reviews and analyses of individual sections of the recording. By focusing on various parts of the treatment we can spot its strengths and weak- nesses. The supervisee can then more quickly recognize inadequate procedures, become aware of them, learn more effectively, and improve his/her performance. It is important for the supervisor to be aware that important information is also expressed directly in the session through the quality of the supervisory relation- ship and ways of communication that are used. The supervisor should also pay 322 Edited by Anja Podlesek attention to the use of defensive stances, contact terminations, and parallel pro- cesses, which are always an expression of the unconscious, and mirror possible happenings, in the work cases presented. Documenting the Supervision Sessions The supervisee enters basic information regarding the supervision session in com- pliance with the related protocol (location, date, session duration, participants, contents treated) on the web platform of the supervised practice system, no later than one week following the session, or writes down why the session was cancelled. The system administrator regularly monitors the production of notes, and in cases of delay takes suitable measures. The system administrator checks with the supervisor how the sessions are being implemented, why there was a delay (if there was one), and what the plan for further work is. In cases when there are unreasoned and irrep- arable deviations from the prepared plans, the system administrator resigns from monitoring the supervised practice. The system administrator then agrees with the supervisee and supervisor on the continuation of the supervised practice (e.g. how the supervisee will compensate for the missed sessions, whether the supervised practice should be terminated if the supervisory dyad does not perform the required tasks in due course, or when there are relational difficulties whether or not the su- pervisee should continue supervision with a different supervisor, etc.). After the Conclusion of the Supervised Practice After the supervised practice has been concluded, the supervisee sends the re- quired documentation (i.e., the EuroPsy forms) to the system administrator. The system administrator then awards him/her a certificate on having successfully concluded the supervised practice, and this provides a basis for obtaining the Eu- roPsy Certificate. Even though after successfully concluding the supervised practice the novice psy- chologist can now practice psychology independently, it is recommended that he/ she continues participating in supervision as this further enhances his/her compe- tences and contributes to the quality of the psychological services provided. The novice psychologist can join various types of supervision (group supervision, individ- ual supervision, intervision, etc.), and can continue working with the same person as in the supervised practice. It is also important for the novice psychologist to regu- larly attend other activities for continued professional development, with the aim of ensuring the quality of his/her work. Moreover, demonstrating active involvement in continued professional development is a requirement that must be fulfilled in order to keep one’s certificate/license for practicing psychology. 323 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Supervision of Supervision The supervision of supervision is intended for supervisors. The Scope of Supervision of Supervision The supervision of supervision is at least one year long, encompassing a minimum of 10 sessions of supervision, with each lasting at least three hours (30 hours or 1,800 minutes altogether), implemented during the supervision of the novice psycholo- gists’ practice. The supervision can be terminated when exceptional circumstances occur (sick leave, maternity leave, change in employment, termination of the supervisory re- lationship requiring the supervisor to participate in the supervision, etc.). The ter- mination status is agreed between the supervisors in the supervision group, the supervisor-of-supervisors, and the system administrator by a supplement to the Su- pervision Agreement, and this should be concluded as soon as possible after the focal event has occurred (and no more than one month later). Establishing Supervisory Groups Individuals who want to be qualified as supervisors settle the fee for entering the system of supervised practice, and thus obtain a chance to participate in the training of supervisors, posting their information in the database of supervisors, applying on the web platform, engaging in continued professional development in supervision, and having the possibility of participating in the supervision/intervision of supervi- sion. The fee is intended to cover the administrative expenses for the operation of the supervised practice system. During the training of supervisors, which lasts for one year, various individuals are included in the supervision. The supervision of a supervisor is usually performed in supervisory groups, although in exceptional cases it is implemented individually. The experience of group supervision is very important for the supervisor, as in this he/ she can learn to recognize group dynamics, the different levels of group processes and the various roles that are adopted, thus improving his/her understanding of the related systems and their functioning, with the aim of being able to sensitively and with greater awareness include an understanding of the supervisee’s function- ing within a particular system or context in the supervision process. Later, after the training to obtain the title supervisor, the supervisor can participate in intervision instead of supervision. This intervisory group is not necessarily the same as the group which operated under the guidance of the supervisor during the training. The members of an intervisory group can be individuals who already have the experi- ence of participating in the entire process of the supervision of supervisors, since performing in an intervisory group requires knowledge of the development of the 324 Edited by Anja Podlesek supervision process, and a certain level of professional autonomy and maturity with- in this process. Supervisory groups, as a rule, are comprised of four or five supervisors, and are led by the supervisor of supervisors. An adequate number of supervisors encourages greater dynamics and diversity of the group process, which enriches the supervi - sion. These groups are formulated at the beginning of each training of supervisors. It is important for the supervisor to be included in a long-term supervision process at least once, as he/she will operate with systems and groups in his/her workplace and within the supervisory relationship. A group can offer more interactivity and diversity, which also enables the more intense learning of different relational and communication competences, problem-solving skills, etc. Supervisory groups are created by the system administrator with regard to the supervisor’s field of prac- tice, location of work, and so on. The system administrator informs future super- visors about the beginning and course of the work in a supervisory group. The system administrator prepares everything required for monitoring the work of a supervisory group (such as instructions and forms, adding the supervisor-in-train- ing to any e-mail lists, etc.). The Structure and Contents of Supervisory Sessions The structure of the supervisory session comprises three levels: introduction, body (case treatment), and closing (analysis, reflection, summary, plan, and findings with regard to the session’s contributions). Supervisory sessions encompass the following contents: 1. Getting to know each other, building rapport and exchanging expectations, the Supervision Agreement The supervisors-in-training and their supervisor present their expectations and dis- cuss the Supervision Agreement in the first session. They clearly define the roles and responsibilities of the supervisor and members of the supervisory group, their expectations, the methods of documenting the supervisory sessions, and ways of intervention in special cases, as agreed on during supervisory sessions. Besides pro- fessional contents and the fulfilment of formal obligations in the initial sessions, the supervisor is also responsible for stimulating the process of developing a sense of belonging, safety, identity, goal-orientation and purpose within the group. It is important for the supervisor to devote enough time to building rapport, while he/ she skilfully leads the supervision process and establishes conditions for the devel- opment of quality relationships, open dialogue, and resolution of possible conflicts. The supervisor and supervisors-in-training sign the Supervision Agreement. The signed Agreement is sent by the supervisor to the system administrator no later than one week following the second supervisory session (in cases when the Agreement 325 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia consists of general and specific parts, only the general section of the Agreement is sent to the system administrator). The supervisor and supervisors-in-training regularly monitor, by means of regular reflection, how well they follow the Supervision Agreement. The Agreement is up- dated and readjusted as needed. 2. Ethical dilemmas 18 Sensitivity with regard to questions and dilemmas in the area of ethics is important, and special attention needs to be devoted to such issues. Ethical dilemmas often relate to the value system of a person and his/her beliefs. Maintaining ethical con- duct on all levels in relationships improves the quality of work and the choice of our behaviours. The supervisor and supervisors-in-training should thus adhere to the guidelines for treating ethical questions when such dilemmas arise. Common cases of ethical dilemmas are related to: • Intergenerational, intercultural and interpersonal diversity (between supervi- sors-in-training and between supervisors-in-training and their supervisor). • Setting of boundaries, friendships between the members of the supervisory group, and/or other forms of dyadic roles. • Interpersonal attractiveness/repulsiveness. • Application of different theoretical/practical models and approaches in work and supervision. • Presenting the supervisor–supervisee session recordings to the supervisory group. • Violation of data confidentiality regarding the client, supervisee, supervisor, and members of the supervisory group. • Conduct and intervention in cases of violence, and the protection of young and vulnerable groups, etc. 3. Legislation The supervisor ensures that the supervisors-in-training become aware of the rele- vant legislation and perform their practice and supervision in compliance with the law. In cases of misconduct the supervisor is expected to adhere to the law and act accordingly. 4. The competence model The supervisor encourages supervisors-in-training to be continually aware of the quality of the supervision competences they are supposed to acquire (level of devel- opment, progress, lack of progress, etc.). 18  See also the chapter Psychology Ethics in Supervision (Poštuvan, this volume). 326 Edited by Anja Podlesek 5. Reflective practice and giving feedback During supervision of supervision, the supervisors-in-training must reflect on their supervision. Every supervisor is obliged to treat their supervisees’ cases in super- vision and obtain feedback. In cases when there are problems in developing the supervisee’s or supervisor’s competences, the supervisor of supervisors and/or the supervisory group help find suitable solutions. Timely resolution of any obstacles occurring during the process of supervision is thus achieved as is the well-timed conclusion of the supervised practice. By receiving feedback from their supervisor and other members of the supervisory group, supervisors-in-training become trained to provide comprehensive and qual- ity feedback to novice psychologists. Giving and receiving feedback is reciprocal in the supervisory relationship, with feedback enhancing and enabling higher quality self-reflection. The focus of research and communication in this context is on both the professional and personal areas of functioning in supervisory relationships (i.e., in the relationship between the supervisor of supervisors and the supervisors, and that between the supervisors and supervisees). 6. Supervisory relationship In a supervisory group, there is a professional supervisory relationship between supervisors and the supervisor of supervisors. Such a relationship includes self-dis- closure and the exchange of personal contents, as well as open conversations re- garding the supervisee-related contents. Supervisors enter the supervisory group personally, with a desire to collaborate, and with the responsibility for enabling appropriate development of their supervisees and of the supervisory relationship. They are aware of their expectations with regard to supervisees, themselves, the supervision relationship, other supervisors-in-training, the supervisor of supervi- sors, relationships in the supervisory group, and the supervised practice system administrator. All these mentioned relations are taken into consideration when establishing collaborative relationships in the group. It is important for supervisors to have an attitude towards the group that is indicative of respect, sincerity, pres- ence, empathy, participation and providing support to other members in exploring their own power and resources in relation to accomplishing the set goals. Such professional relationships are maintained and reflected on by the group members in compliance with the guidelines on reflective practice and in relation to their own work and relationships (e.g. they reflect on how they felt during a particular conversation on a particular topic; they monitor what is happening to their rela- tionship over time; they reflect on their satisfaction with their goal attainment, what they would like to change, etc.). The supervisors should then modify their responses as needed, in accordance with the focal relationships and the degree which the competences of interest are developed. 327 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia 7. Evaluation The supervisory group conducts regular evaluations of supervision upon the con- clusion of each session. This is important for monitoring whether supervisors show adequate progress, and whether the supervisory relationship is advancing. Regular evaluations provide essential information on how supervisees experience their su- pervisor and how this impacts both group functioning and the performance of the individuals in the group. By means of regular evaluation, self-awareness and the awareness of group dynamics become more profound. In the middle of the supervi- sion process special attention should be paid to the interim evaluation, and upon the conclusion of the process (i.e., after one year of supervision) special focus is put on the final evaluation, which encompasses the various different levels of the project. The aim of the interim evaluation is to find out whether the supervisors are pro- gressing adequately, what supports and what hinders their advancement. The su- pervisory group evaluates the supervisors’ development of supervision competenc- es, supervisees’ competences development, the supervisory group process, and challenges occurring in the relations among the group members. The interim evalu- ation can reveal whether any supervisors or supervisees have not seen the expected advances in their competences, whether there are any difficulties in the supervisory relationship, and on factors such as the relationships between the group members and with the supervisor, the learning process, individuals’ roles in the group, and so on. Taking into consideration the interim evaluation results and the predicted consequences of the established course of the development of supervisors and the supervisory relationship, the group may then re-define the requirements for build- ing and developing a higher quality supervisory relationship, and update the Super- vision Agreement. In the final session, the supervisors and their supervisor appraise how the super- visors have developed during the period of the supervision process, and discuss their supervision competences. The supervisor of supervisors evaluates the qual- ifications of each supervisor. In cases when a supervisor is seen as being insuffi- ciently qualified, the supervisor of supervisors should inform the system adminis- trator of this and all three parties then meet in person to reach agreement on any further measures. 8. Bringing to a conclusion Bringing the process to a conclusion takes place through the last sessions, and the entire final session is devoted to a thorough analysis conducted in compliance with professional guidelines. The supervisory group follows the structure agreed by the group members, appraises its achievements and celebrates them. Even before the final session the group decides whether the group work will be terminated or con- tinue, and, in the case of the latter, in what form or modality. 328 Edited by Anja Podlesek Modality of Supervisory Sessions Supervisory sessions are only performed in person, face to face. A supervisory ses- sion is considered as implemented when it lasts for at least 120 minutes and is per- formed during the time and at the location scheduled and agreed in advance. The recommended duration of a supervisory session is a minimum of 180 minutes. Any information exchanges or consultations that occur via telephone, e-mail, or sim- ilar means are not regarded supervisory sessions. Time Frame and Location Recommendations When concluding the Supervision Agreement, the supervisory group agrees in ad- vance on the time frame of the supervisory sessions (e.g. every first Thursday each month). It is best if the group members prepare the schedule for three months in advance and readjust the plan as needed. Deviations in dates of scheduled ses- sions are exceptional, and acceptable only in cases when extraordinary circum- stances occur. The supervisor-in-training is responsible for regular attendance in supervisory sessions, and making up for any sessions missed due to extraordinary conditions. The supervisor of supervisors is responsible for providing a suitable space for supervisory sessions to be implemented. He/she can find the location by him-/ herself, in agreement with the supervisors, or in agreement with the system ad - ministrator. The place has to be suitable for professional implementation of super- vision: it has to enable privacy, be quiet, suitably lighted, and with a proper room temperature. Case Treatment with Supervision Methods The supervisors and their supervisor are required to adequately prepare for each supervisory session. Supervisors-in-training should regularly bring materials to the supervisory sessions, as these are the content base for session work and are stud - ied and treated during sessions. The suggested contents are sent to the supervisor of supervisors in advance, and reflections on sessions are written down if it has been agreed to do so. It is recommended that supervisors-in-training agree with their supervisor with regard to what format and material content to bring to the next session. As a rule, supervisors-in-training bring video formats of their supervision to the su- pervisory sessions (or audio recordings if video recordings cannot be obtained). Various and case-adjusted supervision methods are applied in case treatment dur- ing the supervisory sessions, including: role-play, reflecting team, evaluative feed- back, case analysis and/or other creative techniques. 329 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Documenting Supervisory Sessions Supervisory sessions are documented by the supervisor of supervisors. He/she writes down basic information regarding the supervisory session (location, date, time, topics treated, etc.) on the web platform of the supervised practice system, no more than one week after the supervisory session has been concluded, or provides information as to why a session has been cancelled. He/she provides a list of the individuals pres - ent. If the group members agree to do so, they can write down their reflections on the supervisory session and then send these texts to other members of the group and the supervisor. Important points from these reflections are then briefly treated in the introductory part of the next session. After the Conclusion of Supervision of Supervision It is recommended for supervisors to continue participating in supervision of supervision after they have concluded the one-year supervision period, that is, the minimum of 10 sessions. This continuation can be implemented in different ways: individual supervision, supervision in the same group, supervision in a different group, or participation in an in - tervisory group. While these later supervisory/intervisory sessions can be less frequent, it is important that they are continuous. Reflection on supervision can be interlinked with reflection on a supervisor’s psychological services. The recommended frequency of the sessions held by supervisory/intervisory groups is at least once every two months. Training Training of Students Informing psychology students about competences is carried out in the first phase (by mentioning the competence model and the basic competences) and in the sec- ond phase (more complex, in-depth, applied competences) of studies. A competence model should be communicated and discussed within practicum implementation, as it is easier for students to envision competences in concrete situations and thus under - stand what a particular competence encompasses. It is important for the internship to also emphasize the recognition and application of the competence model and devel- opment of competences. Consequently, faculty and professional personnel working outside the university should be continually trained to apply and transfer the related knowledge. The system administrator can organize a consulting meeting for educa- tional institutions and mentors of the internship programmes who have not participat - ed in the competence model training. Training of Novice Psychologists The novice psychologists entering the supervised practice must be prepared and taught about the fundamental purpose of the supervised practice and its basic 330 Edited by Anja Podlesek concepts (e.g. the competence model). Adequate knowledge can be obtained in conferences on the supervised practice or initial training organized by the system administrator, or other institutions confirmed by the system administrator. Conferences where novices and supervisors can present cases of good practice are organized once or twice per year by the system administrator. Participating in confer - ences is beneficial to supervisors, as they can see and show to others how they ensure and maintain the quality of supervision. For such conferences, both supervisors and supervisees prepare papers to be posted on the website of the supervised practice. In order for information to reach the target groups, novices-to-be (master’s degree psychology students) are invited to the conferences. Every conference consists of a special section intended for the novices-to-be to gain information regarding various aspects of the supervised practice. The topics included in the initial training of novice psychologists (or a section intend- ed for potential novices within the conference on the supervised practice) are: • Importance of the supervised practice and license for work, or EuroPsy Certificate, or other confirmations acknowledging qualifications for practicing psychology. • The competence model. • Legislation in the areas of psychological practice. • The traineeship and professional work assessment exam in the areas of psycho- logical practice. • Learning about the supervised practice and forms/instruments for implement- ing the supervised practice. • Role and importance of supervision and mentoring. • Examples of good practice demonstrating the ideal course of the supervised practice, how to prepare for a supervision session, how to document the super- vised practice, and learning about effective utilization of the materials prepared for monitoring attainment of the supervised practice goals. • Case presentation (by means of video or audio formats, or live) with a brief analysis. During the course of the supervised practice, the novice psychologists should regu- larly participate in activities of continued professional development. Novices are expected to be educated in various areas and participate in the activities intended to provide training in the supervised practice and continued professional development, for the minimum scope of 80 hours per year. The activities for the ongoing professional development of novice psychologists are as follows: 1. Initial training (or attending a conference prior to the supervised practice); this training is a prerequisite for entering the supervised practice. 2. Attending a conference on the supervised practice, between or upon/after the closure of the supervised practice. 3. Training in the area of ethics and personal data protection. 331 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia 4. Training in the area of mental health: optional workshops offered by organiza- tions confirmed by the system administrator. 5. Participating in other workshops organized by organizations confirmed by the system administrator (or its relevant bodies) as being suitable for the continued professional development of novices. 6. Other work activities within the framework of maintaining the supervised prac- tice system confirmed by the system administrator (or its relevant bodies) as being suitable for the continued professional development of novices, including the organization of events such as a conferences on the supervised practice, preparation of online news reports covering the supervised practice, partici- pating in the initial training of novice psychologists, promoting the supervised practice among students, employers, writing tender applications and so on. Training of Supervisors The aims of training are to inform supervisors about the theoretical background of mentoring and supervision of psychologists at various levels of professional devel- opment, to develop the supervisors’ skills of mentoring and supervision, and to train supervisors to implement and evaluate various aspects of the supervised practice. The criteria for entering the training of supervisors are as follows: • Five years of experience in psychological practice. • Regular and documented participation in activities for continued professional development; • A completed EuroPsy competences evaluation form – supervisors must be fa- miliar with the EuroPsy competence model before they start the training. They can learn about competences and the EuroPsy model by completing the eval- uation form (i.e., they define their own competences and conduct a self-as- sessment). Those who hold the EuroPsy Certificate have already fulfilled this requirement (to obtain the certificate they needed to carry out an evaluation of their professional competences). • Having been supervised (documented inclusion in supervision for a minimum of 60 hours). • A written report by the supervisor is optimal, but not essential. The training is provided in a combination of interactive workshops and individual e-learning with the help of materials posted on the supervised practice system web- site, and additional relevant literature. Materials posted on the website include: • Theoretical background of supervision • Instructions for implementing the supervised practice • Instructions for supervision • Recommended literature 332 Edited by Anja Podlesek Learning should be interactive in all environments (e.g. virtual and live sessions). On- line education should follow the e-learning principles. The participants should regular- ly provide evidence of the knowledge they have acquired, by means of quizzes, work sheets, tasks performance, reflective practice, submission of required products to the e-classroom, and so on. These products are then examined by the training leaders. In interactive workshops the participants develop those skills which are impossible to advance by e-learning. They exchange experiences of supervision practice, pres- ent practice cases, train the skills of mentoring and supervision, integrate experience and theory. It is important that such workshops include work in supervisory groups which can temporarily be mixed (i.e., comprised of supervisors from different regu- lar supervisory groups). This can enrich the exchange of experience among supervi- sors and/or enable recognition of different supervisors’ work, and thus promote the development of a supportive, collegial network of professionals. The training of supervisors is carried out in modules. Before entering a module con- sisting of several workshops, supervisors are required to participate in (web-based) pre-preparation. Failure to carry out this pre-preparation will mean that a supervisor cannot join the related module. Supervisors are required to participate in 10 workshops lasting 5–8 teaching hours. Beside 5–8 hours of live sessions, a typical workshop also consists of approximately 7–10 hours of individual work, i.e. tasks that need to be done before and after train- ing, such as special assignments and (self-)reflection. Supervisors are obliged to prepare for individual workshops or they cannot partic- ipate in them. This preparation may include learning about the theoretical back- ground (reading the literature), home assignments, challenge resolution, on-line lessons (in an e-classroom), chat rooms, video analyses, interactive workshops, be- coming familiar with cases of good practice, and so on. The time frame and outline of contents are announced a year in advance. Workshops are implemented once a month, presumably 10 times per year (as a rule, there is no education in July and August). Workshops can also be implemented by qualified supervisors who thus transfer their experiences and cases of good practice to future supervisors. A number of workshops are reserved for supervisors participating in the training, and other workshops are open to other psychologists and profession- als. The latter help supervisors develop the skills needed for effective adjustment to change, and provide individuals with information on how to cope with such changes and what they need for more active performance. The training of supervisors must include contents on the competences needed for performing psychological services, mentoring, supervision, the ethics of psycholog- ical practice, and care for the mental health of supervisees and supervisors. Special attention is devoted to the following topics: 333 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia • Definition of mentoring and supervision, goals of mentoring/supervision, dif- ferent roles of mentor/supervisor, areas of focus in supervision, models of mentoring/supervision. • Establishment and development of the mentoring/supervisory relationship, and components of the Supervision Agreement. • A competence model – recognizing individual competences, planning their de- velopment, and assessing competences. • Ethics and personal data protection – Supervisors are expected to internalize these contents and to have them in mind while implementing the supervision process. They are expected to become aware that ethical dilemmas can always be present, and that they must be prepared for any potential dilemmas and questions which can occur. They need to be able to recognize these and respond in a timely and suitable manner. Supervisors must be aware of the issue of eth- ical judgment, and need to point to common ethical dilemmas in supervision, regardless of how minor and insignificant they may seem. Supervisors should bring ethical questions occurring in psychological services and the supervisory relationship to their own awareness, and to that of their supervisees. • Skills in mentoring and supervision, supervision methods, and the development of the skills needed to apply them in practice. • Communication in the supervisory relationship, recognition of obstacles and defence mechanisms, recognition of supervisees’ needs, leading the supervi- sion conversation, reflective practice and techniques for stimulating reflection, giving feedback and evaluation. • Material formats in the supervision sessions, various techniques of material analysis, use of video recordings in supervision (how to prepare video record- ings, how to select suitable parts for inspection in supervision). • Solving difficult cases. • Care for the mental health of professionals: an experiential workshop focused on the mental health of professionals (exhaustion and burnout, burnout factors in the helping professions, stress management; addiction, depression, suicidal behaviour, counselling in crisis, etc.). • Types of supervision (metasupervision, intervision, individual supervision, group supervision), inclusion into group supervision, knowledge of leading group supervision and group dynamics, group supervision processes, roles of group members, obstacles, etc. The offer of workshops on mental health topics is prepared according to the supervi - sors’ need to learn about mental health, as obtained by means of inquiry. Possible top - ics include: burnout, addiction, depression, suicidality, motivational interviewing, crisis counselling, mindfulness, and responsible self-care. Workshops covering the area of mental health offered by the organization confirmed by the supervised practice system administrator (or its bodies) as being suitable for participating in supervisors’ training are selected by the supervisors, with a focus on continuing professional development. 334 Edited by Anja Podlesek An Example of the Training of Supervisors Workshops are eight hours long. The first five hours are intended for theoretical introduction, panel discussions, and general development of skills. After a lunch break, the remaining three hours can be used to either implement a workshop (i.e., training in practical skills) or work in supervisory groups. The first and second day of training (e.g., Friday and Saturday) are implemented together. The primary knowledge and skills are presented here, without which supervisors cannot enter the supervisory relationship (definition of mentoring and supervision, negotiating the Supervision Agreement, skills of specifying goals, mentoring/supervision methods, ethics in the supervisory relationship, and build- ing rapport between the supervisor and supervisee). The first day encompasses five hours of workshops and three hours of establish- ing supervisory groups. In the morning (five hours): • Defining and understanding supervision and the different roles of the supervi- sor (support, evaluation). • Establishing the supervisory relationship (how to implement negotiations with the novice and conclude the Supervision Agreement). In the afternoon (three hours): • Building rapport in the supervisory group of supervisors. • Negotiating and concluding the agreement on supervision within the supervi- sory group, preparing the Supervision Agreement: - Group members agree on documenting their supervision performance by means of video/audio recordings. - Next, the group records the session, for instance, while role playing the conclusion of the Supervision Agreement. Group members watch the vid- eo together. The supervisor of supervisors can hand out the guidelines for observing or leave it to an individual supervisor to extract important observations. The group provides a feedback to a supervisor. The feed- back is such as to strengthen and empower the supervisor. In this way, the members train their skills of giving and receiving feedback. - It is important to show the recording to the group. The group can then see the value of this approach, i.e., what we can achieve by seeing our own re- sponses and those of others in the video. The recordings can be watched several times and analysed, and offered to the participants’ colleagues for more objective reviews. - By practicing video recording the group members learn how to prepare and use these, and this can then reduce resistance to using recording in sessions. 335 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia • Metasupervisory aspects (reflection on what has been implemented in the group, for what purpose and results, how the supervisors felt, and what they learned and recognized); • The experiences gained when concluding the Supervision Agreement in the supervisory group can later be transferred by supervisors to concluding the Supervision Agreement with their supervisees. The second day encompasses five hours of workshops and three hours of practi- cal work in groups. • In the morning: general information regarding the competence model. • In the afternoon: - The competence model is transferred to a specific area of psychological services. - How to prepare for a supervision session. A meeting of the supervisory group is implemented between the second and third days. The third day (the same or the following month): • The competence model – in-depth treatment of one of the competence func- tional categories: - What difficulties can be encountered when developing the competences. - What supervisees need for developing the competences. - Methods of working with supervisees to encourage the development of the competences (how supervisors can help them/teach them/encourage changes), e.g. how to give supportive or corrective feedback. - Participants discuss the topics in groups formed according to their fields of psychological practice. • Supervision didactics: - How to make videos, how to select a recording to be reviewed in a super- visory session (discussion about what material is important to be shared in a supervisory group, what can be used as a supervisory material). - What to observe and how to provide safe and empowering feedback when watching a video. - Ethics in the supervisory relationship (i.e., it is good to consider whether an ethical issue is involved when talking about problems with the relationship). Meeting of the supervisory group: • The optimum structure of session: group synchronization, introductory relief and connecting, case analysis and inference by means of reflection on individ- uals and the group as a whole (how learning was carried out, what recogni- tions and experiences they arrived at, what the relationships in the group were like, what was empowering and what was hindering, satisfaction with one’s own activity and contribution, etc.). 336 Edited by Anja Podlesek • Some session time is devoted to discussing ethical dilemmas in supervisory relationships. The fourth day: • The competence model – in-depth treatment of one of competence functional categories. • Supervision methods, such as: reflecting team, other forms of individual su- pervision; training of giving feedback in relation to recordings. • Assessment of the supervision session and supervisory relationship: defining a quality session and relationship, application of assessment scales, developing skills of (self-)reflection. • Ethics in the supervisory relationship. The fifth, sixth, and seventh days of training and the meeting of supervisory groups: • Learning about different perspectives on supervision: learning about supervi- sion characteristics within specific therapeutic orientations, different supervi- sion models, discussing the similarities between various supervision models, confrontation and evaluation of different models. • Different views of leading groups (leadership, group work from the perspective of different supervision models). • Research into psychological practice and supervision, and their efficacy. • Supervision methods: - Different aspects of video analysis (e.g. conceptualization/focus on a su- pervisor – what he/she felt, what he/she was thinking in a particular mo- ment – and conceptualization on a supervisee). - Analysis of recordings of one’s own performance in the role of psychologist, and showing the recordings to another group with the aim of building trust. • Difficult issues and how to provide (corrective) feedback, i.e. information that is at the same time both critical and empowering for a person, and that en- courages him/her to study further, and increases his/her self-confidence and desire to improve. • Reflection on a supervisor’s typical supervision style (typical responses in the role of supervisor and in that of supervisory group member; recognizing what makes a person special, his/her qualities, how to creatively develop his/her sources of power for autonomous but not self-sufficient implementing of su- pervision, etc.). The eighth day of training: • Evaluation of the training. • Celebration of efforts and achievements. • Awarding certificates to qualified supervisors. • Before the session the supervisory group decides whether or not they will con- tinue implementing supervision of supervision, and if so, in what form. 337 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Training effectiveness and goal accomplishment are determined by: • Satisfaction with the training, and reflection on the training immediately after the conclusion of a workshop (a standard questionnaire is prepared by the sys- tem administrator, and the participants answer the questions). • Regular evaluations conducted upon the conclusion of each supervision session. • Estimation of the usefulness of the educational contents, what aspects of the training can be changed in the future, where more attention should be paid, what was good to have been treated in the supervisory group and what was not, etc. These topics are discussed by the participants during the last session within the training, and the final session of the supervisory group. • Assessment of to what extent the training learning goals have been achieved (per- formed by the training programme leaders and the supervisor of supervisors). • Assessment of supervision competences (comparison of supervision compe- tences before and after the training, e.g. by means of comparing video record- ings made at the beginning and end of the training process, assessment provid- ed by the supervisor of supervisors, self-assessment of supervisors). • Portfolios (monthly reflections and evaluations of the work with supervisees during the training). • A questionnaire completed by the supervisors after a period of two months, and which includes a question on how they have transferred the acquired knowledge into practice; respondents can provide self-assessments of their competences. • Other methods specified in advance. The training programme includes instruments for assessing learning outcomes and minimum standards. A person who has not attended at least 20% of the training, or has missed any of the supervisory group sessions without previous permission by the supervisor of supervisors, or does not demonstrate the minimum standards of qualifi- cation for supervision, does not obtain the certificate of qualification for a supervisor and cannot supervise novice psychologists. The missed parts of the training can be substituted in the next round of education provided a supervisor-to-be has made an agreement with the system administrator. Absence from a supervisory group session can be addressed only by inclusion into a new supervision process (i.e. the entire su - pervision with a new group), or in a manner stipulated in the Supervision Agreement. Supervision practice within the training During the training a supervisor acquires direct experience in supervising a novice psychologist. Supervision practice is comprised of 45 hours of supervision (usually 40 hours of regular supervision sessions and one longer, five-hour session) and ac- tivities outside of supervision, e.g. preparation for a session, reflection on sessions, assessment of beginners’ competences, etc. During the period of training to become a supervisor, a person can charge half of the recommended fee for his/her supervision. 338 Edited by Anja Podlesek Inclusion of supervisors into a supervisory group Each supervisor participates in a supervisory group during the time of training, and inclusion into a group is obligatory. Supervisory groups can be comprised of psy- chologists who perform their services in the same field of practice, or they can be mixed, i.e. comprised of psychologists from different areas of practice. An individual is expected to remain in the same supervisory group through the entire course of training, and changing groups is only possible due to extraordinary circumstances. The permanent composition of groups enables greater safety and trust, supports the group development and quality of work. Supervisors who employed by the same organization are not recommended to be in the same group. During the training of supervisors the supervisory sessions for supervisors are sched- uled once per month. In particular cases a supervisor-in-training can, in agreement with the system ad- ministrator, participate in individual supervision of supervision. This could be when supervision requires advanced knowledge of individual supervision and the super- visor needs to gain specific personal experience in individual supervision, or when the supervisor is preoccupied with supervision and estimates that additional intense support and preparation are needed in the process of supervision. Training Supervisors of Supervisors The inclusion criteria are as follows: • A person is a qualified supervisor. • He/she regularly participates in continuing professional development in the topics important for implementing supervision, and provides corresponding documentation. • He/she has undergone supervision of his/her supervision for a minimum of two years, or has been included in another supervision process. In cases when a person has concluded a different type of training for implementing supervision instead of the training of supervisors/mentors of the supervised practice, he/ she is obliged to fulfil differential requirements with regard to developing the competences of leading the supervised practice of psychologists. These require- ments are defined by the system administrator. The system administrator exam- ines the programmes included in the training the person has completed, and then defines the different requirements. As such, when the person has fulfilled these they will have demonstrated all the competences needed for supervising/ mentoring the supervised practice. • He/she has experienced inclusion in supervision (and can provide evidence of at least 100 hours of inclusion). It is recommended that he/she has participated in supervision under two different supervisors, and each supervisory relationship has lasted a minimum of two years. 339 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia • He/she has experiences in implementing mentoring and supervision. • The supervisor needs to provide a written report. Contents of the training for supervisors of supervisors encompass: • In-depth knowledge of group work, group dynamics, leading groups, roles in a group, the group process. • Recognition and understanding of the supervisor’s/supervisee’s responsibility. • Supervision models based on different types of therapy (specific supervisions, e.g. supervision of analytic psychotherapy, developmental-educational supervi- sion model, process models of supervision). • The supervision-of-supervision process (a course of the supervision process through 10 sessions of a supervisory group composed of supervisors). • The supervisory relationship: developing the relationship, establishing the su- pervisory alliance, communication in the supervisory relationship, managing emotions, how to cope with ruptures in the alliance, self-disclosure, (non-)dis- closure in supervision and typical topics which remain concealed, parallel and unconscious processes in supervision, transference, counter-transference, re- sistance, shame and other emotions connected with relationships, closeness, distance, boundaries, managing silence, etc.). • Supervision-of-supervision methods and techniques. • Creating an effective learning environment. • Critical events in the supervision of supervision. • Concrete questions asked by the supervisor of supervisors (training in asking, formulating questions). • Ethical aspects in the supervisory relationship and supervision of supervision. • Evaluation in supervision of supervision. • Bringing the supervisory relationship to closure. • Metasupervision, one’s own inclusion into supervision (and eventually in per- sonal therapy) and the development of a personal supervisory style. Scope of the training: The curriculum of the training for supervisors of supervisors is multilevel, so that the supervisors can gradually build their knowledge of supervision. The first level can be the training of supervisors. The next can be the training for supervisors of supervisors. The title awarded after the conclusion of the training is a psychologist supervisor. The supervisor of supervisors has to ensure regular supervision of his/her super- vision work (by means of intervision, metasupervision), must care for continued professional development, and so updates his/her knowledge and skills in the area of supervision. He/she conducts evaluations of his/her own supervision work. The acquired knowledge and experience of supervision are then shared with others, by lecturing, implementing introductory workshops, writing professional papers, and so on. 340 Edited by Anja Podlesek Web Platform The web platform developed and maintained by the system administrator includes the following information and materials: • Data regarding the supervised practice system administrator (contact informa- tion, system presentation, its evolution and development, presentation of the supervised practice and its goals, basic information regarding the EuroPsy Cer- tificate, frequently asked questions – FAQ). • Emergency call number (contact of administrative support, contact in cases when mental health related aid is needed, or crisis support). • All materials required for implementing the supervised practice, supervision, and supervision of supervision: - Instructions about the course of the supervised practice. - Guidelines for implementing supervision sessions. - Instruments for implementing individual supervision sessions (check lists, questionnaires, forms for supervisor and supervisee assessment of individ- ual supervision sessions etc.). - A form for monitoring the supervised practice. • A form for evaluation of training. • Data base of novices, supervisors, and supervisors of supervisors. • Literature library. • Entrance into the e-classroom, with video lessons, pre-preparations for work- shops, discussions on workshop topics. • Forum or networking support. • Entrance into an online communication application for videoconferencing. • Other information relevant for implementing the supervised practice. Session form A new session form is created after each supervision session by the supervisee. The form is completed with information regarding a session and then saved. In this way, the supervisory dyad and the system administrator monitor how the supervised practice is being implemented and how supervision sessions are performed. The form is short and simple. It may include tables, checklists and so on. It provides information regarding individual supervision sessions, such as: • Session date. • Session location. • Session content (a brief description of the main content, e.g. in a title). • Structured reflection on the session. • Competences treated during the session. • Session evaluation. 341 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Training evaluation forms A user can provide assessment scores of his/her satisfaction with training, quality assessment, and an assessment of the usefulness and applicability of the training contents. Not only it is important to take notes on the participants’ satisfaction with the training, quality assessment, and applicability of training and so on immediately after the training, but also to obtain assessment values two months after the con- clusion of the training. Novices database The database of novices is a list of novice psychologists who have entered the system of supervised practice. The following data about the beginners are in the database: • Contact information. • Work organization where the supervised practice is being carried out. • Description of the field of practice. • Work experience (references). • A chosen supervisor. • The database includes all other data about the novice which he/she wants to keep there. Supervisors database The supervisors database is a list of psychologists who can supervise novice psy- chologists and have joined the system of supervised practice. The following data about supervisors can be found in the database: • Contact information so that he/she can be accessed by novice psychologists, except in cases when the supervisor explicitly states that the first contact is to be carried out by the system administrator. • Work organization. • Description of the field of practice. • Work experience (references). • Places available (yes/no) for supervision, or the number of places, the number of places taken, and the period when a particular place is occupied (from when until when). • Fulfilment of some of the following criteria for implementing supervision, with the details provided in the related database: - A minimum of five years’ experience independently practicing psychology. - A minimum of four years’ experience in a particular field of psychological practice. - Concluded specialization in the area of practice (e.g. specialization in clini- cal psychology). - Two years of supervision in the field of practice where supervision is offered. 342 Edited by Anja Podlesek - Qualification for a supervisor, i.e. concluded training of supervisors (has concluded a training programme for supervisors as described above (see Training of Supervisors), has participated in supervision of supervision, reads professional literature on supervision/mentoring, collaborates in conferences on supervised practice. - Qualification for a mentor of the supervised practice, i.e. has concluded Module 1 of the training of supervisors (training in a competence-based approach on supervision, basics of mentoring). - EuroPsy Certificate. • The database includes all other data about the supervisor which he/she wants to keep there. Supervisors-of-supervisors database The supervisors-of-supervisors database is a list of psychologists who can implement supervision of supervision and have joined the system of supervised practice. The following data about these supervisors can be found in the database: • Contact information • Work organization. • Description of the field of practice. • Work experience (references). • Places available (yes/no) for supervision, or the number of places, the number of taken places, and the period when a particular place is occupied (from when until when). • Fulfilment of the following requirements for implementing supervision: - Concluded specialization in the area of practice where supervision of su- pervision is offered (e.g. specialization in clinical psychology). - Two years of supervision in the area of practice where supervision of super- vision is offered. - Qualification for a supervisor, i.e. concluded the training of supervisors (has concluded a training programme for supervisors as described above, see Training of Supervisors), has participated in supervision of supervision, reads professional literature on supervision/mentoring, collaborates in conferences on the supervised practice. - Qualification for a mentor of the supervised practice, i.e. concluded Mod- ule 1 of the training of supervisors (training in a competence-based ap- proach on supervision, basics of mentoring). - EuroPsy Certificate. - Minimum of 10 years of practicing psychology independently in the field where supervision of supervision is offered. - Concluded training for supervisors of supervisors. - Fulfilment of other criteria for implementing supervision. 343 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia • The database includes all other data about the supervisor which he/she wants to keep there. Personal data protection The information in databases is private and accessible only to a user and the plat- form administrator (the system administrator or a person confirmed by the system administrator, and responsible for the web platform operation and for monitoring the supervised practice implementation). The public only has access to the informa- tion that users have specifically allowed to be published in this way. Prior to entrance of information into the database, the users must sign permission for their data to be gathered in the database. The keeping of the data of individuals participating in the system, in a suitable form and for the period of time agreed, is financially covered by the registration fee that must be paid to be included in the supervised practice system. Prior to the first public publishing of users’ information, the user has to sign a per- mission form allowing the information he/she has marked to be published publicly, and allowing other information to be seen by the person responsible for monitoring the supervised practice and the web platform administrator. Financing of the Supervised Practice System The resources that are presumed to be available for the system of supervised prac- tice include the following: • Fee for registering in the supervised practice system. • Tuition fees paid by novice psychologists for supervision sessions. • Tuition fees paid by supervisors for supervision sessions. • Tuition fees paid by novice psychologists, supervisors, supervisors of supervi- sors, and other psychologists paid for training (in relation to topics which are in- cluded in the training of beginners, supervisors, and supervisors of supervisors). • Other resources: contributions by employers, state institutions, donations, pro- ject and tender resources, etc. Fees for system registration, sessions, and training are announced on the supervised practice website. System registration fee Every person who wants to be included in the supervised practice system must pay a registration fee to the system administrator. This allows them to participate in the su- pervised practice system, publish their data in the databases of novices, supervisors, and supervisors of supervisors, and have the opportunity to use the web platform to monitor the supervised practice and continue their professional development. 344 Edited by Anja Podlesek The fee is intended to cove the administrative expenses and for developing and maintenance of the supervised practice system – developing and maintaining the databases of qualified supervisors and supervisors of supervisors, website of the supervised practice, and web platform; organizing the training of novice psycholo- gists, supervisors, and supervisors of supervisors; awarding all three groups of par- ticipants their certificates or other forms of acknowledgement; and other activities related to supervised practice. Payment for supervision sessions Novice psychologists can pay for every supervision session or for several sessions in advance. The session fees of novices may be paid by the organizations where they are employed or which they cooperate with. Payment for supervision-of-supervision sessions Supervisors can pay each session separately or for several sessions in advance. Su- pervision-of-supervision sessions can be paid for by the organizations where the supervisors are employed or which they collaborate with. Methods of payment Novice psychologists (or their work organizations) can pay for the supervision ses- sions individually or in clusters. Members of the psychological association which is financially supporting the super- vised practice system administrator can be offered discounts for the training fees. The system administrator concludes contracts with supervisors and supervisors of supervisors (or corresponding contracts with independent entrepreneurs and pri- vate enterprises). The supervisors are paid for the supervision periodically (or as agreed), e.g. once every three months for the implemented sessions. Resources intended for the training The training fees paid by the supervisors, supervisors-in-training, novice psycholo- gists and other psychologists are utilized for implementing the training. Any surplus is used to implement the supervised practice (e.g. for paying any related taxes and social security contributions). Fees paid by any “external participants” attending workshops on mental health are utilized solely for the purpose of implementing the supervised practice. Efforts to obtain other financial resources The system administrator strives to minimize the financial burden of the partici- pants in the supervised practice. The system administrator thus regularly exam- ines public tenders, and informs competent authorities, other institutions, and 345 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia employers of psychologists about the importance of the supervised practice. In cases when the system administrator succeeds in obtaining financial resources, then those users included in the supervised practice system can face a lower fi- nancial burden. Resources for the development and maintenance of the supervised practice system A person should be chosen by the system administrator to maintain the supervised practice system and its administrative procedures (i.e. the keeping of agreements, checking the information entered into the web platform, and monitoring the fulfil- ment of responsibilities by those who are included in the system). This individual must follow the related regulations and legislation with regard to data protection, and respect the Code of Professional Ethics of Psychologists, as stated in an agree- ment that they sign with the system administrator. Financial matters related to the supervised practice system (i.e. accounts, invoices, expenses incurred by organiz- ing the training of supervisors and novice psychologists, conferences, etc.) are dealt with by an accountant of the system administrator, whose conduct is carried out in accord with the related legislation, and who also signs an agreement with the sys- tem administrator. Promotion of Supervised Practice The supervised practice has to be promoted among the following groups: • Employers – their understanding of the importance and goals of the supervised practice should be increased, as well as the support they provide for the super- vised practice. • The wider public – promoting the supervised practice can contribute to in- creased recognition of psychologists in society. It should be emphasized that the supervised practice empowers novice psychologists, and thus the users of their services will receive better quality care, even in early years of a psycholo- gist’s career. In this way, the entire society benefits from the implementation of supervised practice. • Academic institutions – the staff and students of such institutions must become familiar with cases of good practice and the benefits of the supervised practice for individuals, the profession, employers, and society as a whole. Promotion of Supervised Practice within the Framework of Academic Studies From the beginning of their studies students need to be informed about the im- portance of supervised practice for their professional development, and that it will be part of their further work. They must thus be taught about the EuroPsy compe- tence model, and need to comprehend and internalize its principles. The develop- ment of all professional competences needs to be emphasized when promoting the 346 Edited by Anja Podlesek supervised practice, as well as the importance of the EuroPsy Certificate or licenses for practicing psychology. Students should be prepared to participate in supervision after the conclusion of their studies to increase quality of their work. To this end, it is important to increase students’ awareness of how important quality work with clients is, and how important it is to participate in supervision not only in early in their careers, but also later and throughout their professional lives. Inclusion of stu- dents into practical work during their studies is important for their development of a sense of competency, identification with the psychologist profession, proper attitude towards profession, and adherence to ethical conduct. Students must thus understand the benefits that accrue to a person who has concluded the training, in terms of both personal and career fulfilment, and in the better quality of the servic- es he/she is able to offer. During annual meetings, the representatives of different departments of psychology are informed about the EuroPsy Certificate by those responsible for the supervised practice. They receive additional information regarding the supervised practice, new developments in relation to it, and cases of good practice, and consequently learn about the importance of being included into the supervised practice project. On the other hand, the representatives of psychology departments can provide infor- mation to those responsible for the supervised practice on how students develop competences in different fields of practice, how they prepare for work, and how their studies connect with practice. They can give details on concrete ways of in- cluding students into the internship, and about the network of supervisors and su- pervision institutions that departments are using for their students’ internship. The participants in such meetings can discuss the importance of the supervised practice and the connections between students’ academic studies and practice. They thus prepare a strategy for introducing a culture of supervision and the EuroPsy Certif- icate standards into academic life. They can discuss how to increase the quality of study programmes (in terms of better complying with the EuroPsy standards), and should reach an agreement on how the promotion of the supervised practice will be included in the study programmes. To achieve this, they also need to discuss differ- ent ways of including the internship into study programmes, the creation of learning centres, the cycling of students through different fields of practice during the period of internship, and other issues. The importance of the supervised practice and EuroPsy standards should be pre- sented to staff at departments of psychology in the relevant country. The aim of this is for these individuals to identify with the goal of developing the competenc - es of novice psychologists, to establish the EuroPsy standards, and to regularly promote the supervised practice among students. This is done to establish a cul- ture of including psychologists in supervision, and so increase the quality of the services they provide. 347 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia Promotion of Supervised Practice among Employers The system administrator regularly informs employers about the tasks and profes- sional roles of psychologists, and about the importance of the supervised practice. The system administrator introduces representatives of employers to the supervised practice, invites them to related conferences (with time set aside to encourage meet- ings with those responsible for implementing the supervised practice), and meets them regularly at annual meetings. The system administrator’s activities in annual meetings with employers include the following: • Presenting a current problem and explaining how psychologists can contribute to its resolution, providing arguments why it is important to support psycholo- gists in their further professional training and participation in supervision. It is vital that employers can feel the benefits of including psychologists into super- vision, and of including novice psychologists into the supervised practice. • Making it clear that employers support quality psychologist work when they include them in the supervised practice, thus enabling their organizations to benefit from the providing of better quality services and developing the human potential of their staff and clients. When annual meetings are attended by more employers, including those whose psychologists have experience of supervision and/or the supervised practice, then they can learn about cases of good practice and the benefits of supporting psycholo- gists in supervision. Promotion of Supervised Practice among the Wider Public The wider public is informed about qualified psychologists, supervisors, and supervisors of supervisors by having access to the database with lists of these individuals and details of their characteristics. The supervised practice should be promoted in the media with the publication of related articles, as well as by public presentations. The contents that are created in these efforts should be added to existing social media networks through the channels used by the system administrator and other relevant organizations. It is vital to inform the competent authorities about the supervised practice, as if they can recognize its value and the fact that psychologists as a profession are tak- ing responsibility to enhance the quality of the services provided, then this may increase the support they offer in this context, as well as in relation to legislation on professional standards and regulation of the profession. Promotion of Supervised Practice among Professionals The professional public should be informed about the supervised practice system in professional meetings. To this end, regular conferences on supervised practice 348 Edited by Anja Podlesek should be organized, and news related to the implementation of the supervised practice, training, and new ideas in this field should be distributed online to mem- bers of the supervised practice system and those of interested professional associ- ations. Videos that introduce the supervised practice should thus be prepared to help in these efforts. The awarding of certificates by the system administrator, and acknowledgement of the achievements of this projects and the individuals involved, are also part of promotion of the supervised practice system. Conferences on the supervised practice The system administrator should organize at least one conference on the supervised practice each year. Every novice psychologist would thus have an opportunity to at- tend three conferences: before the beginning of the supervised practice, during the supervised practice, and after the supervised practice. Each conference has three parallel foci (e.g. parallel sections, where each individual participates in a section that he/she has chosen): • The first focus: psychology students or novice psychologists before starting to provide psychological services. The participants learn about the requirements of the supervised practice, the course of the supervised practice, the compe- tence model (in workshops), and so on. Potential supervisors are introduced, as well as the leaders of the supervised practice and administrative support, while employers can also present their needs at this stage. This part of the conference is very important for enabling first contact of the participants (and in particular the novice psychologists) with the supervised practice and the supervised prac- tice system, and plays a key role in their pre-preparation for inclusion into the supervised practice system. • The second focus: novice psychologists participating in the supervised practice. This part of the conference includes presentations of cases treated during su- pervision, and cases of good practice (cases of the supervised practice, super- visory relationships, and so on). The topics which need to be covered by every supervised practice are also studied here. Round tables are held, and these are intended for discussing what needs to be developed in supervisees, what the needs of supervisors are, and so on. • The third focus: bringing the supervised practice to a conclusion. Special achievements and cases of good practice are presented in this part of the con- ference. The characteristics required for practicing psychology independently are discussed; representative cases of psychological services are presented, as well as interventions in various situations, cases of supervision, and so on. The participants are directed towards considering participation in regular supervi- sion, and the supervision of future novice psychologists. Conference proceedings containing cases of good practice, discussions, and opin- ions by distinguished psychologists are issued for every conference. Promoting 349 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia conference and the results can be carried out by means of online news releases, notes on the web platform, posts on Facebook, and the like. E-newsletters covering the supervised practice Simple, clear, and well-structured electronic newsletters should be issued once per month. These can include cases of good practice, a list of available supervisors, calls for new supervisors, introductions of novice psychologists, information regarding various training programmes within the context of continued professional devel- opment, conferences and other meetings, instructions for implementing the su- pervised practice and any related monthly activities, reminders to supervisors and supervisees with regard to their obligations in a particular period of the supervised practice, as well as specific professional questions and related issues. Such newslet- ters can help both supervisors and supervisors of supervisors to train their skills of reflection and analysis in relation to their own work, presenting certain concepts, topics and ethical questions which are central to their current performance or pro- fessional development. Awarding certificates and acknowledgements The system administrator awards the following certificates: • After the supervised practice has been successfully concluded, a novice psy- chologist is given a certificate of participation in the supervised practice sys- tem, and a record of his/her one-year performance within the framework of the system. • An employer is awarded a certificate for the one-year participation of a novice psychologist in the supervised practice system, with acknowledgment of the employer’s support during this period (these are prepared individually with re- gard to the manner of the employer’s inclusion in the implementation of the supervised practice). • After the training of supervisors has successfully concluded, a psychologist is awarded a certificate showing his/her qualification to serve as a supervisor of novice psychologists. • After the supervision of the supervised practice has successfully conclud- ed, a supervisor is awarded a certificate showing he/she supervised a novice psychologist. • After the successful conclusion of the training for supervisors of supervisors, as implemented under the umbrella of the system administrator, a psycholo- gist is awarded a certificate showing his/her qualification as a supervisor of supervisors. • After the supervision-of-supervision cycle has been successfully concluded, a supervisor of supervisors is awarded a certificate showing that he/she imple- mented this part of the process. 350 Edited by Anja Podlesek Special acknowledgements are awarded by the system administrator to the follow- ing individuals: • Outstanding novice psychologists, as nominated by their supervisors. • Outstanding supervisors, as nominated by their supervisees or their supervisor. • Outstanding supervisors of supervisors, as nominated by their supervisees and/ or other psychologists. • Employers who make significant efforts to encourage and support the super- vised practice of psychologists. • Other relevant persons or organizations who contribute significantly to the de- velopment and maintenance of the supervised practice system. Summary The book The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia pre- sents the importance of mentoring and supervision at the beginning of psychologists’ careers. It describes the attempts of Slovenian psychologists to establish a system that would enable all novice psychologists to be included in supervision during the first year of their practice. This goal was realized in a project called Supervised practice of psychologists: Development of a training program for mentors and a model of super - vised practice – SUPER PSIHOLOG. The project was carried out in the years 2015–2016, within the framework of the Norway Grants 2009–2014 programme. The book is divided into five parts. The first is about mentoring and supervision at the beginning of a psychologist’s career. It presents the current situation in this field in Slovenia, and the background and objectives of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. The second part focuses on the training of supervisors. It describes the components and contents of the training of supervisors developed in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. The third part of the book presents the development of the system of supervised practice of psychologists, and the development of supervision of supervision. It also describes the experiences of the participants in the project. The fourth part de- scribes the evaluation of the system of supervised practice and the overall project, and presents the results of this assessment. The fifth part of the book contains the guidelines for future implementations of supervised practice. The first part of the book discusses the background of the development of the su- pervised practice system in Slovenia, and consists of five chapters. In the first, Vlasta Zabukovec presents the importance of mentoring and supervision at the beginning of a psychologist’s career. She emphasizes that there is a range of definitions of 352 Edited by Anja Podlesek mentoring, and presents the basic characteristics and different models of mentor- ing. She focuses on the mechanisms that connect mentoring with outcomes rele- vant for the career and personal life of the individual, and for the organization. She describes different types of contemporary mentoring, such as multiple mentoring, team mentoring, and e-mentoring. She explains the similarities and differences be- tween mentoring and coaching, and between mentoring and supervision. When comparing mentoring and supervision, she presents a model of the mentoring rela- tionship which considers the features of a transformational mentoring relationship as an advance on the supervisory relationship. Such a relationship develops from the originally structured and formal relationship into a more reciprocal and collegial one. The author introduces the functions of supervision and the competences of supervisors, as defined in the ECVision project. In the second chapter, Maša Žvelc focuses on supervision. She presents its defini - tions and the most important features. Among its purposes and functions she de - scribes the developmental educational function, the supporting function, affect regulation, control function, the development of the capacity for reflection, and the development of professional identity. Among the various supervision mod - els, she presents the seven-eyed model of supervision, the events-based model of supervision, and the second-generation models. She describes the importance of the supervision alliance and attachment in the supervisory relationship, a par- allel process which can be found in supervision, and the conflicts which may harm the alliance. In the third chapter, Vlasta Zabukovec reviews the situation regarding the training of psychologists in Slovenia, with a focus on three fields of practice: health, education, and social welfare. The chapter gives details of various laws, orders, and rules in these fields, which prescribe the conditions for practicing independently, the pro- gramme and the course of traineeship, mentor tasks, and the implementation of professional examinations. In the fourth chapter, Anja Podlesek presents the background of the SUPER PSI- HOLOG project. The purpose of the project was to provide high quality psycholog- ical services with the introduction of one-year supervision at the beginning of the career of psychologists, which is in accordance with the European standards for the education and training of this group of professionals. The chapter introduces the European certificate in psychology, EuroPsy, and the requirements for its acquisi- tion. The supervised practice and the role of supervisors are described, as defined by the EFPA Regulations on EuroPsy. Previous activities relating to the training of supervisors (mentors of supervised practice) in Slovenia are presented, as well as the current need for additional supervisors, to which the SUPER PSIHOLOG project responded with specific activities. These activities are briefly described, so that the reader gets a basic insight into the course of the project. 353 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia The fifth chapter, written by Per A. Straumsheim and colleagues, begins with the presentation of the importance of supervision at the beginning of one’s career, with an emphasis on the importance of supervision for both clients and for a psycholo- gist. This is followed by a review of the situation with regard to supervised practice in Norway, and the education of supervisors. The authors also present details of the beginnings of the cooperation between the Slovenian Psychologists’ Association and the Norwegian Psychological Association, which resulted in the joint proposal of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, and the motives of the Norwegian Psychological Associa- tion for participating in the project. A precondition for establishing the supervised practice system is that there are enough trained supervisors. The second part of the book thus presents a compre- hensive training programme for these individuals. In the sixth chapter, Anja Podlesek first shows why it is important to have supervisors trained for supervision. This is followed by a condensed presentation of the content of the training programme, as it has been developed and implemented within the framework of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. The program consisted of three modules. The first focused on mentoring, development of a mentoring relationship, and the EuroPsy competence model. The second focused on supervision, development of a supervisory relation- ship, and methods and skills of supervision. The third focused on taking care of the mental health of supervisees and the ethical conduct of psychologists. The curricula of the three modules are presented in different chapters related to the contents of the modules, and can be found in special coloured boxes. The seventh and eighth chapters present the contents of the first module of the training programme for supervisors. In the seventh chapter, Anja Podlesek describes the competence-based approach to supervised practice. After the definition of com- petences is provided, the key parts of the EuroPsy competence model are presented. This is not the only model of psychologist competences, but it is currently the most widely used in Europe, and thus the author presents its strengths and describes its use in supervision. In the eighth chapter, Vlasta Zabukovec explains how to develop a mentoring re- lationship. She presents the various stages of mentoring, as identified by different researchers. She discusses the features of transformational learning and adult learn- ing, which need to be taken into account in the mentoring process. In the last part of the chapter she describes the particularities of mentoring when the mentor and mentee come from different cultures or different generations. Chapter nine presents the contents of the second module of training of supervi- sors, with the authors Bjarte Kyte and Mona Duckert focusing on developing the skills needed for supervision. These are based on knowledge about the character- istics of a supervisory relationship and its development, as well as various meth- ods of supervision, such as the use of a reflective team, role play, and analysis of 354 Edited by Anja Podlesek video-recordings of the supervisee’s sessions with clients. The training programme also raises awareness of the different roles of a supervisor and different focuses of supervision, and provides the knowledge and skills needed to solve problems that occur in supervision. The tenth and eleventh chapters present the content of the third module of the su - pervisor training. In the tenth chapter, Vita Poštuvan discusses psychological ethics in supervision, which is a key aspect of a supervisor’s conduct. Many ethical dilemmas can occur in psychological practice, and the same is true in supervision. Such dilemmas need to be monitored, and when they occur need to be discussed and resolved. The author presents a few situations in supervision in which ethical dilemmas can occur, as well as the basic principles and steps to be used in the resolution process. In the eleventh chapter, Vita Poštuvan describes supervision as a way to care for the physical and mental health of the supervisee. Self-care is an ethical imperative for psychologists, because the stressful situations which they face in their work may have a number of negative consequences. Supervision can help supervisees in tack- ling stressful situations, recognising the adverse effects of stress in a timely manner, and using appropriate strategies of self-care. In the third module of the training, su- pervisors deepened their knowledge of a variety of mental health topics and trained their skills in recognizing such difficulties, as well as how to intervene appropriately. They thus learned about how to promote self-care in supervisees. The author pre- sents the key contents of the workshops carried out within the third module, and the competences developed by these. The third part of the book describes the development of the supervised practice sys- tem within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. The first two chapters present the prepa- ration and trial implementation of the supervision of novice psychologists and the supervision of supervision. The next three chapters present personal experiences of participants in the project. In the twelfth chapter, Anja Podlesek and Katarina Kocbek present the development of the supervised practice system. They first describe how the system development plan was prepared. They highlight the importance of informing novice psycholo- gists, qualified psychologists, supervisors, employers and others about supervised practice. On the basis of the experiences gained in the SUPER PSIHOLOG project, they present how the system administrator can maintain the system operation and form supervisory pairs. They present the supervision agreement and a variety of instruments for monitoring and developing a supervisory relationship that were de- veloped in the project, including a web platform for documenting the activities of supervisory pairs. They also describe how the supervisory pairs reported about their work upon the conclusion of supervised practice. In the thirteenth chapter, Julija Pelc shows how supervision of supervision was de- veloped within the SUPER PSIHOLOG project. After an introductory presentation on 355 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia the purpose of supervision of supervision, she describes the groups of supervisors and presents their reports on the benefits of supervision of supervision. She also presents a group of supervisors of supervisors and their functions. She describes the process of working in supervisory groups: the creation of groups and the prepara- tory phase, the first meeting, the process of learning in supervision, methods and techniques used in supervision, giving feedback, reflection and self-reflection, and evaluation of supervision. The chapter also describes the parallel supervision pro- cess in the group of supervisors of supervisors who were trained by two Norwegian colleagues who were experienced supervisors. The fourteenth chapter presents the experience of Mojca Poredoš, who concluded her internship under the supervision of a school psychologist who was trained for supervision within the project. The chapter shows the activities and development of the supervisee during the short time of the internship, and reveals the key ben- efits of supervision offered by a qualified supervisor compared to other mentoring experiences. In the fifteenth chapter, Nastja Salmič Tisovec, Tina Podlogar and Nuša Zadravec Šedivy share their experiences with supervised practice. After an introductory pres- entation of the supervisor and the supervisees, the supervised practice process is described and reflected upon. The authors also define some of the advantages and disadvantages of their supervised practice. In the sixteenth chapter, Julija Pelc presents her experience of being the supervisor of supervisors. She describes the process of work in her supervisory group, what the members of the group discovered and learned during this process, as well as what obstacles they encountered. The descriptions in the form of personal stories reveal the subtle and less evident aspects of the supervision, and the issues that arise in relation to the supervisor’s role and performance. The fourth part of the book is composed of six chapters presenting the results of the evaluation of the individual project activities and project as a whole. In the sev- enteenth chapter, Tina Pirc and her co-workers present an evaluation of the train- ing programme for supervisors. The project participants expressed their opinions about individual modules of the training and their contribution to the competences of mentoring and supervision, as well as to competences of risk assessment and management and of interventions in the field of mental health. In the eighteenth chapter, Simona Painkret and co-workers present the results of an evaluation of a one-month internship carried out within the first module of training of supervisors. The evaluation includes an overview of the students’ competenc- es after completion of the internship, supervisors’ competences of supervision, an overview of the reflections on the internship in the submitted reports, ethical dilem- mas encountered during the internship, and proposals for changes. 356 Edited by Anja Podlesek In the nineteenth chapter, Katarina Kocbek and co-authors present the results of an evaluation of a one-year supervised practice based on a review of the supervisors’ and supervisees’ reports. Supervisory pairs assessed the organisational aspects of supervised practice, the benefits of concluding the supervision agreement, forms and methods of work, the course of supervised practice, and its outcomes. They reported on their satisfaction with the implementation of the supervised practice. They also listed various dilemmas and obstacles encountered during the practice, and gave suggestions for improvements. A review of the assessments of supervi- sees’ competences at the end of supervised practice, and changes in the self-as- sessed supervisors’ competences, showed that appropriate progress was made by both the supervisors and supervisees during supervised practice. In the twentieth chapter, Anja Podlesek and co-authors present the results of a study in which they compared the effectiveness of supervised practice with that of other forms of training provided to novice psychologists. The study focused on the quality of the mentoring/supervisory relationship, satisfaction with the training, and the development of competences during the training. The results indicated that the specific training of supervisors in mentoring and supervision is required in order to achieve the best results for the training of novice psychologists. In the twenty-first chapter, Mateja Štirn and co-authors present an evaluation of su- pervision of supervision. They show that inclusion into supervisory groups has prov- en to be an important aspect of the training of supervisors and the development of their competences of mentoring and supervision. In the twenty-second chapter, Julija Škarabot Plesničar presents an evaluation of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project as a whole, examining the relevance, efficiency, ef- fectiveness, impact, and sustainability of its results. According to the participants of the project, the project developed a good model of supervised practice that will contribute significantly to the development and strengthening of the position of the profession of psychology in Slovenia. The fifth part of the book, including the final chapter, gazes into the future and di- rects attention from the SUPER PSIHOLOG project to the implementation of the su- pervised practice system after project completion. This section includes Guidelines for the Implementation of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists, as developed by the project team. These guidelines are concrete recommendations for the imple- mentation of supervised practice and supervision of supervision, training of nov- ice psychologists, supervisors and supervisors of supervisors, the creation of a web platform for documenting supervised practice, the financing of the system, and the promotion of supervised practice. The guidelines will help supervisory pairs, super- visors of supervisors, educators in supervisor training, and the system administrator in organizing and implementing the supervised practice. Subject index A addiction 138 adult learning 110 APA Guidelines for Clinical Supervision in Health Service Psychology 76 assessment of the supervisee competences 162 attachment 48 B baby boomers 113 burnout 137 C clinical supervision 39 coaching 30 code of ethics 125 competence 95 competence assessment 98, 162 competence model 318, 325 Cube model 95 EuroPsy model 96, 243 competences 95 enabling 244, 269 foundational 281, 293 functional 282, 293 primary 96, 244, 268 conferences on supervised practice 330, 348 conscious competence 111 conscious incompetence 111 coping strategies 140 counter-transference 50 crisis counselling 140 criteria of a successful supervised practice 263 cultural attunement 112 cultural self-awareness 111 D data protection 129, 139 development of mentoring relationship 103 documentation 165 358 Edited by Anja Podlesek E ECTS points 66 ECVision project 30, 36 e-mentoring 29 enabling competences 96 enabling the development 162 establishing rapport 104 ethical dilemmas 125, 218, 251, 262, 317, 325 ethics in psychologist work 139 ethics in supervision 125 European Certificate in Psychology EuroPsy. See EuroPsy certificate European Federation of Psychologists' Associations EFPA 64 EuroPsy certificate 65 register 66 revalidation 65 EuroPsy competence model 68 EuroPsy form B 162 EuroPsy form C 162, 241 evaluation 6, 221, 319, 327 evaluation in supervision 194 evaluation of the supervision session 162 F feeling of being competent 290 focus in supervision 120 functions of mentoring coaching 20, 23 counselling 21 establishing a challenging environment 23 friendship 21 introducing and making recognized 23 protecting 23 psychosocial function 21 role modelling 21, 23 sponsoring 20 functions of supervision 170, 175 affect regulation 41 control 35 development of professional identity 42 educative 35, 41 qualitative 42 reflection 42 supportive 35, 41 G giving feedback 190, 318, 326 Guidelines for the Implementation of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists 313 I information and publicity 149, 151 instruments for supervision 160 intergenerational context 112 internship 62, 88, 197, 237 internship planning 161 K Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning 185 L legislation 317, 325 M mental health 133 mentee model 21 mentoring 19 mentoring relationship 103 mentoring relationship continuum model 31 mentoring skills 114 mentor model 25 methods of supervision 118 mindfulness 141 model of supervised practice 75 model on structured reflection on the supervised practice 240 359 The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia models of supervision common factors models 45 developmental models 43 events-based model 44 process models 43 psychotherapeutic theory-based models 43 second-generation models 43 seven eyed model 43 motivational interview 139 multicultural competence 111 multiple mentoring 29 N negotiations 161 Norway Grants 147 Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2009– 2014 147 novice psychologist 68 O Onion model of core reflection 192 P parallel process 50 personal path 161 personal questions 183 phases of mentoring relationship 107 preparation for supervision 161 problems in supervision 120 professional examination in the field of education 55 in the field of healthcare 52 in the field of social welfare 59 project Establishing a Network of Mentors and Training for the Supervised Practice of Psychologists 72 project evaluation 303 Project Execution Plan 147 project outcomes 149 project partners 147 psychological first aid 140 Psychological Practice Act 155 public tender 156 Q quality of mentoring relationship 20 Questions for the reflection and evaluation of the supervised practice 163 R recordings 119, 321 reflecting team 119 reflection 192, 248, 318, 326 relationship conclusion 105, 320, 327 relationship cultivation 104 relationship initiation 103 relationship redefinition 104 Risk Assessment and Management Self- Efficacy Scale RAMSES 231 role of supervisor 120 role play 119 S self-care 133 self-disclosure 216 self-efficacy 230 self-reflection 138, 192 Slovenian Psychologists Association 155 Social Chamber of Slovenia 56 solving ethical dilemmas 130 study programme in supervision 36 suicidality 139 SUPER PSIHOLOG project 69, 74 supervised practice 63, 67, 203 supervisee competences 163, 268 supervision 30, 33, 67, 79, 169 definition 39 supervision agreement 159, 315, 324 supervision alliance ruptures 49 supervision of supervision 171, 211, 297 360 Edited by Anja Podlesek supervision process 177 supervision skills 117 supervisor 71 supervisor competences 246, 270 supervisor education 86 in Norway 81 supervisors of supervisors 174 supervisory alliance 46 confrontation 49 withdrawal 49 supervisory group 89, 171, 323, 338 supervisory relationship 46, 287, 318, 326 supervisory relationship development 117 Supervisory Relationship Questionnaire SRQ 279 sustainability of project results 149 system administrator 154 T talent pool 23 target groups 148 team mentoring 29 The International Project on Competence in Psychology IPCP 95 traineeship 51 traineeship programme in the field of education 54 in the field of healthcare 52 in the field of social welfare 57 training of mentors of the supervised practice 72 training of supervisors 85, 87, 331 Module 1 87, 90 Module 2 87, 122 Module 3 5, 88, 136 transference 50 transformational learning 108 transformational relationship 31 U unconscious competence 111 unconscious incompetence 111 V verbatim report 321 videoconferencing 260 violations of ethical principles 129 W web platform 75, 164, 260, 340 work packages 148 X X generation 113 Y Y generation 113 References Aasheim, L. 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Slovenska revija za psihoterapijo, 9(1–2), 47–77. The book The Development of the Supervised Practice of Psychologists in Slovenia has been created with- in the framework of the SUPER PSIHOLOG project supported by the Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2009–2014 and national financial resources provided by the Republic of Slovenia. The Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana holds the ultimate responsibility for the content of this document which may or may not express the views of the Norway Grants programme operator. Project title in the Slovenian language: Supervizirana praksa psihologov: Razvoj programa uspos- abljanja mentorjev in modela supervizirane prakse Project title in the English language: Supervised Practice of Psychologists: Development of a Training Programme of Mentors and a Model of the Supervised Practice Project Acronym: SUPER PSIHOLOG Programme: The Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2009–2014 (SI05) Programme topic: Public health initiatives Programme sub-topic: Improvement of mental health services Document number: 4300-326/2014 Project duration: 5 February 2015 – 31 October 2016 Overall eligible expenses of the project: EUR 347,599.80 Amount of the non-repayable financial resources for co-financing the project: EUR 299,926.80 Percentage of the non-repayable financial resources for co-financing the project: 86.29 % Project holder: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts (Project leader: Anja Podlesek) Project partners: Slovenian Psychologists’ Association (Person responsible: Vlasta Zabukovec), Nor- wegian Psychological Association – Norsk Psykologforening (Person responsible: Per A. Straumsheim), University of Primorska, Andrej Marušič Institute (Person responsible: Vita Poštuvan), Institute for psychological counseling and educational developmental projects – ISA Institute (Person responsible: Mateja Štirn) NORWEGIAN FINANCIAL MECHANISM – NORWAY GRANTS Through the Norway Grants and EEA Grants, Norway contributes to reducing social and economic dis- parities and to strengthening bilateral relations with the beneficiary countries in Europe. Norway co- operates closely with the EU through the Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA). For the period 2009–14, Norway’s contribution is €1.7 billion. Grants are available for NGOs, research and academic institutions, and the public and private sectors in the 12 newest EU member states, Greece, Portugal and Spain. There is broad cooperation with Norwegian entities, and activities may be imple- mented until 2016. Key areas of support are environmental protection and climate change, research and scholarships, civil society, health and children, gender equality, justice and cultural heritage. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUPERVISED PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN SLOVENIA Edited by Anja Podlesek THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUPERVISED PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN SLOVENIA THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUPERVISED PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN SLOVENIA Edited by Anja Podlesek The Development of the Supervised Practi ce of Psychologists in Slovenia is supported by: Project partners: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts Slovenian Psychologists' Associati on Norwegian Psychological Associati on – Norsk Psykologforening University of Primorska, Andrej Marušič Insti tute Insti tute for Counseling and Educati onal Developmental Projects – ISA Insti tute The SUPER PSIHOLOG project benefi ted from a €299,927 grant from Iceland, Liech tenstein and Norway through the Norway Grants. The aim of the project was to improve mental health services. NORWEGIAN FINANCIAL MECHANISM – NORWAY GRANTS Through the Norway Grants and EEA Grants, Norway contributes to reducing social and economic dispariti es and to streng- thening bilateral relati ons with the benefi ciary countries in Europe. Norway cooperates closely with the EU through the Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA). For the period 2009–14, Norway’s contributi on is €1.7 billion. Grants are available for NGOs, research and academic insti tuti ons, and the public and private sectors in the 12 newest EU member states, Greece, Por¬tugal and Spain. There is broad cooperati on with Norwegian enti ti es, and acti viti es may be implemented unti l 2016. Key areas of support are environmental protecti on and climate change, research and scholarships, civil society, health and children, gender equality, justi ce and cultural heritage. The Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana holds the ulti mate responsibility for the content of this document which may or may not express the views of the Norway Grants programme operator. www.norwaygrants.si www.eeagrants.org Edited by Anja Podlesek This publicati on was supported by Norway Grants 2009–2014 and nati onal funds of the Republic of Slovenia. Razvojs_sistema_naslovka_FINAL.indd 1 16.6.2017 8:28:41