225 S. VIDULIN, M. PLAVŠIĆ • CONTRIBUTION OF COGNITIVE-EMOTIONAL... UDK 78:37:159.932 DOI: 10.4312/mz.56.1.225-241 Sabina Vidulin Glasbena akademija, Univerza Jurja Dobrile v Puli Academy of Music in Pula, Juraj Dobrila University of Pula Marlena Plavšić Fakulteta za humanistiko, Univerza Jurja Dobrile v Puli Faculty of Humanities, Juraj Dobrila University of Pula Contribution of Cognitive- Emotional Approach to Music Listening on Students’ Cognitive and Emotional Experience Prispevek kognitivno-emocionalnega pristopa poslušanja glasbe h kognitivnim in emocionalnim izkušnjam študentov Prejeto: 18. september 2018 Sprejeto: 1. marec 2019 Ključne besede: umetnostna glasba, kognitivno- -emocionalni pristop, izkušnje, večmodalni pristop, poslušanje glasbe IZVLEČEK Pričujoča raziskava je preučevala, ali kognitivno- -emocionalni in standardni pristopi k poslušanju glasbe pri poučevanju glasbe vplivajo na različne kognitivne in emocionalne izkušnje v zvezi s skladbami Maškarada, La battaglia di Wellington, Received: 18th September 2018 Accepted: 1st March 2019 Keywords: art music, cognitive-emotional ap- proach, experience, multi-modal approach, music listening ABSTRACT It was explored whether cognitive-emotional and standard approach to music listening in music teaching contribute to different students’ cognitive and emotional experiences regarding the artworks Masquerade, Wellington’s Victory, Scheherazade, MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 225 24. 06. 2020 12:00:51 226 M U Z I K O L O Š K I Z B O R N I K • M U S I C O L O G I C A L A N N U A L LV I / 1 Introduction Musical art is an integral part of the general culture which contributes to artistic educa- tion and the development of children and young people’s cultural identity. Deriving from the senses, feelings and intuitions, as well as rational-logical relationships, art is a special form of human knowledge and communication. Artworks link past and pre- sent, different musical tradition and cultures, and are the sources of knowledge and experience. This is one of the reasons why arts play an important role in the Nacionalni okvirni kurikulum [Croatian National Curriculum Framework] from 2011,1 in which it is highlighted that the purpose of arts is to enable students to understand arts, but also to actively participate and express their feelings, experiences, ideas and attitudes about it. Since musical art is a constituent of the artistic field, listening, judging and evaluating musical works become one of the music teaching tasks. Rojko2 points out that learning about music is an activity that leads to a multifaceted educated person and that learning about music is one of the circumstances which af- fect the personal culture. To achieve the criterion of culture, greater attention should be given to the process of choosing musical work, to the performance quality as well as to the didactical strategy of music transfer, in order to encourage students to actively listen to music, compare, evaluate and critically think about music. The challenge in achieving cultural attitudes represents a cognitive-emotional stu- dent’s point of view, his/her knowledge, experience and preferences. Vidulin and Rad- ica3 point out that “perception and reception of music is conditioned by the emotional, cognitive and psychophysical features of a child, his/her age, development, musical experience and preferences.” Therefore, it is important to determine to whom the mu- sic work is addressed, what the characteristics of the children’s psychophysical devel- opment are, and which elements determine their personality. In addition to this, the experience and understanding of music differs in relation to whether the musical work is known to children and if they accept it. Children accept music if it is in accordance with their affinities and preferences. There are visible differences in the acceptance of musical works depending on genres, whereby art music becomes closer to students only after its repeated listening and better understanding.4 1 “Nacionalni okvirni kurikulum za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje te opće obvezno i srednjoškolsko obrazovanje,” Ministarstvo znanosti i obrazovanja, accessed October 20, 2018, http://mzos.hr/datoteke/Nacionalni_okvirni_kurikulum.pdf. 2 Pavel Rojko, Metodika nastave glazbe: Teorijsko-tematski aspekti (Osijek: Sveučilište Josipa Jurja Strossmayera, Pedagoški fakultet, 1996). 3 Sabina Vidulin and Davorka Radica, “Spoznajno-emocionalni pristup slušanju glazbe u školi: teorijsko polazište,” in Glazbena pedagogija u svjetlu sadašnjih i budućih promjena 5, ed. Sabina Vidulin (Pula: Sveučilište Jurja Dobrile u Puli, 2017), 56. 4 Antoine Hennion, “Listen!” MAiA – Music and Arts in Action 1, no. 1 (2008): 36–45; Rojko, Metodika nastave glazbe. Šeherezada in Pavana. Rezultati so pokazali, da ima kognitivno-emocionalni pristop prednosti, prav tako so se štiri dotične skladbe izkazale v več pogledih kot ustrezne za učenje poslušanja glasbe. and Pavane. Results reveal advantages of the cognitive-emotional approach, as well different contribution of the four music pieces in fostering music listening. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 226 24. 06. 2020 12:00:51 227 S. VIDULIN, M. PLAVŠIĆ • CONTRIBUTION OF COGNITIVE-EMOTIONAL... Forward-facing, the contemporary music teaching has a difficult task: to bring art music closer to students in only 35 hours per year, per classes, along with other areas, mostly singing and playing which are realised during the lessons. It is necessary to cor- roborate that art music is an opportunity to form the identity of children and young people,5 and it is a significant area of their affirmation.6 Apart from encouraging the development of artistic expression and understanding of art music, it is important to contribute to the creation of the students’ identity and cultural awareness and to in- fluence the formation of their cultural-value system, social worldview, and emotional well-being. Is this feasible in compulsory education without changing the existing pedagogical and didactical paradigms? An Analytical Approach to Listening to Music in Croatian Schools According to the Nastavni plan i program [Teaching Curriculum],7 the aim of music teaching in compulsory school8 is to educate students as knowledgeable and com- petent music listeners. It implies that students will be qualified and able to critically reflect on music they are surrounded with daily. With active listening students learn and analyse music. It means that they observe and distinguish music-expressive constituents, musical forms, types, performers, etc. The emphasis is on the fact that music is analysed, and in that way students acquire basic music knowledge and skills, which leads, in most cases, to the cognitive percep- tion of artwork, but the experience and deeper emotional involvement are not taken into great consideration. In the fifth grade of compulsory school (students are on average 10–11 years old), according to the Teaching Curriculum,9 the following areas are intended: singing, play- ing, musical notation, dance and listening to music. In addition to the list of artworks, the educational achievements are mentioned: “recognition of the pieces (according to the students’ abilities); acquaintance of the composers and works’ names; recognition of the musical instruments, performers’ ensembles, musical forms, signs for tempo and dynamics – at the level of recognition on concrete music works.” There are two topic areas that have been dealt with, the first one being the structure of the musical work (two-part song, sentence, period, three-part song, phrase, motif), while the other one is string instruments. At the end of the fifth grade of compulsory school, according to the Kurikulum za nastavni predmet Glazbene kulture za osnovne škole i Glazbene umjetnosti za gimna- zije u Republici Hrvatskoj [Curriculum for the Subject Music Culture for Compulsory 5 Raymond A. R. MacDonald, David J. Hargreaves, and Dorothy Miell, eds., Musical Identities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). 6 Monica Prendergast, Peter Gouzouasis, Carl Leggo, and Rita L. Irwin, “A Haiku Suite: The Importance of Music Making in the Lives of Secondary School Students,” Music Education Research 11, no. 3 (2009): 303–317, doi:10.1080/14613800903144262. 7 Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i športa, Nastavni plan i program (Zagreb: Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i športa, 2006). 8 Compulsory school in this paper refers to school in Croatia that starts at the age of seven and lasts for eight years. 9 Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i športa, Nastavni plan i program, 73. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 227 24. 06. 2020 12:00:51 228 M U Z I K O L O Š K I Z B O R N I K • M U S I C O L O G I C A L A N N U A L LV I / 1 Schools and Music Art for Gymnasium in the Republic of Croatia] from 2019,10 a stu- dent is expected to know a certain number of songs of different genres, to distinguish singing voices and observe their performance, and to distinguish the types of choirs. Furthermore, it is expected that they differentiate the types of singing voices (female, male, children) and contrasting voices (e.g. high and deep female voice). In addition, it is expected to differentiate the sound and appearance of the instrument, to associate the instruments with the respective groups and observe their performing role (solo, chamber, orchestra). Based on listening to music, students should distinguish between basic musical forms: the two-part and the three-part form, and the music period. Although the proposal is not the final solution, it is a reflection of the practitioners and scientists involved in the creation of the new curriculum. They also point out that the activity of listening and understanding music is still extremely important and have the idea to deal with different kinds of genres to support it. At this stage, the introduction of a more contemporary didactical approaches and the shifting of the focus from the music work to the student have not been taken into consideration yet. Cognitive-emotional Approach to Music Listening and Music Understanding With the change of the pedagogical and didactical paradigms of listening and learning music at school, it is obvious that, in this case, the purpose and tasks of listening need to be revised and updated. Vidulin and Radica point out that the aim of listening to music at school is: to shape the students’ cultural and artistic worldview and contribute to their aes- thetic education. This can be achieved by listening to quality and aesthetic valuable art music. On the other hand, the task of listening in compulsory school is to develop and enhance the students’ musical competences. With a carefully chosen music rep- ertoire, it is expected that students develop their knowledge and skills, encouraging their independence, responsibility and desire to participate in artistic events of the society. The purpose of music listening can be observed through the final result: stu- dents’ perception, understanding and acceptance of (artistic) music.11 Although the contents of music teaching in compulsory school include: familiaris- ing with instruments, voices, solo, chamber and group modes of performing music, musical forms, instrumental, vocal and vocal-instrumental types as well as musical- stylistic periods, the content itself is, above all, a unique artwork that helps students in generating their general and musical culture. The examples of music listening should be carefully chosen, which means that a teacher ought to have a high level of theoreti- cal and musicological knowledge and distinctive listening competences which would 10 “Kurikulum za nastavni predmet Glazbene kulture za osnovne škole i Glazbene umjetnosti za gimnazije u Republici Hrvatskoj,” Ministarstvo znanosti i obrazovanja, accessed May 14, 2020, https://narodne-novine.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeni/2019_01_7_151.html. 11 Vidulin and Radica, “Spoznajno-emocionalni pristup slušanju glazbe,” 62. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 228 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 229 S. VIDULIN, M. PLAVŠIĆ • CONTRIBUTION OF COGNITIVE-EMOTIONAL... support him/her in recognising the particularity of each work. It is essential to create a didactically creative context with multi-modal patterns that will enable the students’ cognitive-emotional development. Jewitt and Kress12 under multi-modal expression or multi-modal communication mean different forms of expression, such as images, mo- tion, music, speech, etc. It is achieved by a combination of expressions that affect the individual’s most successful and creative expression. The use of different multi-modal patterns enables students to perceive music in musical and non-musical context with the intention for artwork to enter into the child’s deeper level as a listener, and finds a place in his/her life. The rationale builds upon the dual coding theoretical approach that describes human experience and behaviour resulting from processes based on abundant network of modality specific verbal and nonverbal representations.13 In the literature different classifications of music listening can be found: sen- sory, sensory-motor, emotional, aesthetic, imaginative;14 or: sensory, perceptive, imaginative,15 as a part of different theoretical points of view and through fields as mu- sicology, psychology, sociology, aesthetics, etc. The common things regarding listening to music are that it should be perceived from its sociocultural context16 and that joining of affective and analytical parts leads to the music understanding and appreciation. In the cognitive-emotional approach, besides the recognition and analyses of structural musical constituents, music experience is very important because it leads to the emo- tional reception of music. The work on listening to music, according to Cvetković and Đurđanović,17 implies the cognitive and emotional parts which are distinguished as analytical and aesthetics ones. Radoš18 points out, that only through cognitive and emotional issues the educa- tional goals may be achieved and make the difference regarding music understand- ing, experiencing music and reacting to it. Požgaj emphasises the following: “Active listening and emotional reaction are primary functions of experiencing a music piece. Understanding an art product means, above all, experiencing it emotionally through lifetime. Emotional and cognitive activities cannot be time-separated in the process of music listening. They take place parallel, and the stronger of the two could be empha- sised; it depends on the tendency and focus of the listeners.”19 Before listening to music it is necessary to set up simple tasks: from defining the composer and title of the selected work, tempo, dynamics, character, performers, mu- sical forms and types to finding melodic and rhythmic specifics of each piece. It is 12 Carey Jewitt and Gunther Kress, Multimodal Literacy (New York: Peter Lang, 2003). 13 James M. Clark and Allan Paivio, “Dual Coding Theory and Education,” Educational Psychology Review 3, no. 3 (1991): 149–210, doi:10.1007/BF01320076; Allan Paivio, Mind and Its Evolution: A Dual Coding Theoretical Approach (New York: Psychology Press, 2014), doi:10.4324/9781315785233. 14 Alt. in: Rojko, Metodika nastave glazbe. 15 Otto Ortmann, “Types of Listeners: Genetic Consideration,” in The Effects of Music: A Series of Essays, ed. Max Schoen (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.), 38–77, quoted in Rojko, Metodika nastave glazbe, 143–144. 16 Hauke Egermann et al., “Does music listening in a social context alter experience? A physiological and psychological perspec- tive on emotion,” Musicae Scientiae 15, no. 3 (2011): 307–323, doi:10.1177/1029864911399497; Sabina Vidulin, “Propitivanje ostvarenja cilja nastave glazbe u kontekstu vremena glazbene hiperprodukcije,” Arti Musices 44, no. 2 (2013): 201–226. 17 Jelena D. Cvetković and Miomira M. Đurđanović, “Slušanje savremene muzike kao izazov muzičkog obrazovanja danas,” Teme 38, no. 1 (2014): 317–329. 18 Ksenija Radoš, Psihologija muzike (Beograd: Zavod za udžbenike, 2010). 19 Joža Požgaj, Metodika nastave glazbene kulture u osnovnoj školi (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1988), 138. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 229 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 230 M U Z I K O L O Š K I Z B O R N I K • M U S I C O L O G I C A L A N N U A L LV I / 1 appropriate to listen to it several times, with different tasks, because listening to the work several times and considering it from various aspects will result in better music understanding.20 Tasks do not only need to be analytical, the ones that lead completely to cognizance. As an introduction to listening, it is desirable to sing/play the theme, to reproduce a characteristic rhythm on rhythmic instruments, to follow the structure of artwork by playing or dancing. In this way students will be actively involved in the music flow and experience music as well. Additional activity before or during listening is important because it creates a relationship with the piece: it affects the students’ concentration, increases the attention to music parts, stimulates interest in music, points to the specifics patterns that are expressed in the work, enables active partici- pation and students’ musicianship.21 With multi-modal ways of creative expression the authors22 propose the accom- plishment of cognitive and emotional tasks that lead to one goal – the overall students’ development. For this reason, listening to art music needs to be enriched with other activities such as singing, playing, dancing, drama games, multimedia supplements to get to know the musical components, understand and accept the music better. The results from the research conducted by Martinović and Vidulin23 show that the most noticeable composer in the Teaching Curriculum24 is W. A. Mozart. It is obvious that his works describe the musical phenomena presented to students in an appropri- ate way, and it is close to the contents of music teaching in compulsory school such as: learning about various instruments, voices, musical forms, genres, musical and stylistic periods of Classicism. However, considering these and other artworks, it can be seen that some of them are not representative examples a young person must know, that some of them are not the most suitable for demonstration and emotional reception, and that the play list is limited. That is why one of the authors of this paper proposed to add-on the proposals for listening and understanding music in compulsory school through the cognitive-emotional approach, as a possibility of the complete students’ development, fostering their cultural-artistic experience. This idea led to the research with the objective to explore whether cognitive-emo- tional and standard (conventional) approach in music teaching contribute to different students’ cognitive and emotional experiences of art music, depending on different music pieces. 20 Vera Martinović and Sabina Vidulin, “Umjetnička glazba i oblikovanje kulturnoga identiteta učenika,” Školski vjesnik: Časopis za pedagogijsku teoriju i praksu 64, no. 4 (2015): 573–588. 21 Vidulin and Radica, “Spoznajno-emocionalni pristup slušanju glazbe,” 66. 22 Ibid. 23 Martinović and Vidulin, “Umjetnička glazba i oblikovanje kulturnoga identiteta učenika.” 24 Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i športa, Nastavni plan i program. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 230 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 231 S. VIDULIN, M. PLAVŠIĆ • CONTRIBUTION OF COGNITIVE-EMOTIONAL... Method Participants The research took place in 16 compulsory schools in 12 Croatian towns. Thirty classes were included, comprising 557 students from the 5th grade. Their average age was 10.6 years (SD = 0.54). Half of them were boys (48%), half were girls (52%). Variables Basic demographic variables (age, gender, class, school) were asked with open type questions. In order to address the research objective, students’ experience of art music was tackled with: • four music artworks (four teaching units): Masquerade, Wellington’s Victory, Scheherazade and Pavane; • two approaches to music teaching: standard and cognitive-emotional; and • three open questions: What did teacher’s instruction and guidance encourage you to? What were you thinking about while you were listening to music? And: What will you remember this music piece by? Procedure This study was a part of a larger survey related to cognitive-emotional approach to mu- sic listening.25 Fifteen classes had lectures (45 minutes) on four themes/teaching units delivered in the cognitive-emotional approach (experimental groups), while other fif- teen classes had the same themes elaborated in the standard approach (control groups). The standard (conventional) lectures mostly emphasised cognitive elements con- nected to music.26 The most common tasks were regarding: performers, tempo, dy- namics, measure, character, type of work, melody, and rhythm. The cognitive-emotion- al approach, designed by the first author of this research, provided more musicological elaboration, use of multimedia as well as non-musical elements (historical, social and geographical background, values, personality traits etc.).27 All students filled in ques- tionnaire about music listening three times: after the first listening, second and third in the same lecture. The lectures were delivered once or twice a month, from Septem- ber through December 2018. In the meantime, all students had their standard weekly music lectures. When the first theme was on schedule 557 students were present, 435 students attended the second, 498 joined the third and 409 students took part when the fourth theme was elaborated. According to the cognitive-emotional approach to listening to music and music understanding in the fifth grade of compulsory school, four instrumental artworks were planned: Aram Khachaturian: Masquerade; Ludwig van Beethoven: Wellington’s 25 Sabina Vidulin, Marlena Plavšić, and Valnea Žauhar, “Usporedba spoznajnog i emocionalnog aspekta slušanja glazbe u glazbeno- pedagoškom kontekstu osnovne škole,” Metodički ogledi 26, no. 2 (2019): 9–32, doi:10.21464/mo.26.2.4. 26 The author collected and analysed lesson plans of the control group. The lesson plans for the control group were sent to the researcher a week prior to the research in class, and before the researcher sent a lesson plan for the experimental group. 27 This is explained in details further below in the text. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 231 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 232 M U Z I K O L O Š K I Z B O R N I K • M U S I C O L O G I C A L A N N U A L LV I / 1 Victory (Battle in Vittoria); Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade: The Sea and Sind- bad’s Ship; and Gabriel Fauré: Pavane. The teachers who participated in the research received detailed lesson plans and teaching aids prepared by the first author for the realisation of each unit (artwork). The whole lesson was programmed. In experimental groups (cognitive-emotional approach) each artwork was listened to three times during the same lesson. For the first time, listening was not related to any assignments. After the listening, the teacher started a dialogue to find out whether students had heard music piece earlier, what they first noticed and liked in the work. From the second listening with proper tasks, students recognised the tempo, dynam- ics, character, instruments, repetitions, and other theoretical and musicological issues which lead to the emotional experience. The third listening went parallel with drawing and with the questions about being fond of the work after analysing it. All the artworks have been set into the musicological and musical-theoretical context with the intent to learn about the composer and the work, about the musical components and to expand everything outlined through social context, respecting the humanistic paradigm and affecting their emotional and aesthetic upbringing. The musicological context was accompanied by specific issues that the teachers placed during the conversation with students, appealing to their emotional engage- ment, encouraging positive and human values, feelings for their social well-being, etc. Thus, in the Masquerade, composed by Aram Khachaturian (1903–1978), the com- poser’s data were not only historically mentioned, but useful part of argumentation. Given the fact that the composer is from Georgia, that he attended the music school, the questions were focused on the parts of the biography and its connection to the real life. After that, students were introduced to the music piece, the name of the masquer- ade was explained (a set of masks that form part of Carnival customs), and their experi- ences were discussed. The Khachaturian’s Masquerade, set up on a drama in lyrics and written by Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814–1841), exposed the tragedy of a woman poisoned by her husband and it is based on a misunderstanding of that situation. It was an additional motive for discussion using the following questions: Have you ever misunderstood something? What happened then? When someone puts the blame on you without reason, what should you do? After very intense motivation, the teachers retold the whole story. Elaborating Beethoven, the teachers referred to his life with a rough father who forced him to practice, a mild and sick mother, then about the fact that he was a con- temporary of Mozart and Haydn, that he lost his hearing, but also, taken from his life, the recommendation that the results should be achieved with patience, courage, per- severance, and faith in own strengths and capabilities. Motivating students continued through questions regarding Wellington’s Victory: Do you know who Wellington was? According to his surname, which country does he originate from? What do you think they were fighting against? The historical aspect on which the artwork is based was a great motive for building a successful lesson. The conversation continued with an- ticipating the atmosphere and character of the artwork, and a particular attention was paid to the war. The teachers emphasised the need to strengthen the ideal of peace among all nations and people. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 232 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 233 S. VIDULIN, M. PLAVŠIĆ • CONTRIBUTION OF COGNITIVE-EMOTIONAL... In the lesson unit regarding Scheherazade: The Sea and Sindbad’s Ship, the em- phasis was on reading the prepared text about Scheherazade which was supported by music and questions to involve students more. The lesson did not start with an insight into the composer’s life, but with the narrative part. During the narrative, students were asked to describe the character of Scheherazade and Sultan on the basis of their two themes. Students got acquainted with Scheherazade, with her beauty, boasting cour- age, wisdom and sympathy, the Sultan as steep and rigorous man, and the story Sea and Sindbad’s Ship which is about a very wise and wealthy trader who succeeded in life after great misery and much effort. On that basis the students expressed their views and the moral. In the unit Pavane, the emphasis was on the multimedia approach. The same art- work was viewed in various forms, with various performing ensembles and even dif- ferent genres. Regarding the composer’s biography, students discussed what inspired them and whether they had a place where they felt well. It was interesting that Fauré dedicated Pavane to his patron, Countesse Elisabeth Greffulhe. Students were asked the following questions: What area would you support? Which person do you consider a role model and what are your reasons for that? Do you think you should have the money to help someone or could you do it without it? After different performances being presented to students, the teachers pointed out the relationship between Fauré, Pavane and the Countess. Namely, she invited Fauré into her palace and entrusted him with the organisation of music evenings, after which Fauré dedicated to her the work Pavane. The patron liked the work, but suggested adding a choral part. The French text was written by Robert de Montesquiou (1855–1921). Students were also referred to the television show Prodiges, a contest of talented children aged 7 to 16 in classical music, and teachers also stated that Pavane was used in films and series, and accompanied BBC’s broadcast during the 1998 World Cup. The question that followed was: Which event would you choose Pavane for? In addition to musicological point of view, musical works were also placed in the musical-theoretical context, which was in direct connection with the emotional experience. The musical-theoretical context of the Masquerade tangled on analysing and un- derstanding the theoretical elements by which the artwork was built. Special attention was given to the musical form that was realised by listening to music all together with singing and playing of the introductory part and the masked choreography along with the drama play. The consideration of certain parts was fixed by choreography as: du- ration, length of phrase and expressiveness of the interpretation (accents). Likewise, in the introduction, a phrase was sung and another played with the rhythmical instru- ments. In a non-choreographed part, the waltz was danced, after which the attention was given to the parts that were repeated. Students learnt about tempo, dynamics, char- acter and musical forms. Singing, playing and dancing intended to affect the emotional reception of the presented artwork. Although in the presentation of the Wellington’s Victory a rhythmic component had the main role, in the lecture the attention was paid to the songs For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow and God Save the Queen, which Beethoven used for composing the artwork. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 233 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 234 M U Z I K O L O Š K I Z B O R N I K • M U S I C O L O G I C A L A N N U A L LV I / 1 With listening to and playing the rhythmic phrase from the beginning of the work, students distinguished rhythm from melody, crescendo and decrescendo parts, recog- nised the instruments, whether the instruments played solo or in the group, whether the trumpet player played the similar or different tones, and discussed how the com- poser increased the impression of a battle. Through this artwork, students repeated and defined the terms: rhythm, melody, dynamics, crescendo, decrescendo, solo trum- pet, tutti, pitch of tones. They also learned to listen and perform the song For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow. Singing, playing and the specific character of the work were used to contribute to the students’ emotional involvement. At the beginning of the part Sea and Sindbad’s Ship by Rimsky-Korsakov the music described the characters of Sultan and Scheherazade, so the questions for students were focused to the first appearance of the characters’ themes. Furthermore, the ques- tions were pointed on details: melodies on higher initial notes, melodies going up and down at the same time, various characters of artwork, etc. Throughout this teaching unit students noticed different theme characters, distinguished upper and lower notes, longer and shorter notes, ascending and descending melodies and simultaneous mov- ing of melodies; they compared graphic images and music they listened to, determin- ing the instruments. The story of Scheherazade realised by the teachers in a specially prepared environment, with musical background, was implemented to influence the emotional students’ experience. While listening to Pavane, tasks were related to the recognition of instruments, ensembles, voices, way of singing, dancing, genres and character. Particular questions expanded from the cognitive component to the emotional one: Why did the composer choose these instruments? Fauré described his Pavane as elegant. How would you de- scribe it? Does Pavane have a dance character? Where (in which space) can Pavane be danced? What has been achieved by adding the singing excerpts to the instrumental Pavane? Which version do you prefer: instrumental or vocal-instrumental? What do you notice when Pavane is performed in other genres? Through listening to Pavane played on different instruments, by different ensem- bles (piano, guitar, accordion quintet, flute and guitar, cello quartet) and in other gen- res (by performers such as Jethro Tull, Regina Carter, Joolz Gianni, Caecilie Norby and Barbra Streisand), students repeated and identified the instruments, character, singing, playing and dancing parts as well as the characteristics of the genres. Results In order to explore whether cognitive-emotional and standard approach in music teaching, as well as different music pieces contribute to different students’ cognitive and emotional experience of art music, firstly quantity of answers to the three ques- tions was analysed. Number of answers were compared between the two groups with different didactical approaches for each of the four music pieces. Results of chi-square test presented in Table 1 show some differences. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 234 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 235 S. VIDULIN, M. PLAVŠIĆ • CONTRIBUTION OF COGNITIVE-EMOTIONAL... Table 1: Number of students’ answers in the four music themes Frequences Masquerade Wellington’s Victory Scheherazade Pavane Standard approach Cognitive- emotional approach Standard approach Cognitive- emotional approach Standard approach Cognitive- emotional approach Standard approach Cognitive- emotional approach What did teacher’s instruction and guidance encourage you to? Observed 124 222 89 151 82 169 85 131 Expected 155 191 132 108 117 134 101 115 χ2 = 11.23 df = 1 p < 0.001 χ2 = 31.13 df = 1 p < 0.001 χ2 = 19.61 df = 1 p < 0.001 χ2 = 4.76 df = 1 p < 0.05 What were you thinking about while you were listening to music? Observed 154 180 147 165 102 251 141 150 Expected 150 184 171 141 164 189 136 155 χ2 = 0.19 df = 1 p > 0.05 χ2 = 7.45 df = 1 p < 0.01 χ2 = 43.78 df = 1 p < 0.001 χ2 = 0.35 df = 1 p > 0.05 What will you remember this music piece by? Observed 297 460 197 231 172 194 172 194 Expected 340 417 235 193 171 195 172 194 χ2 = 9.82 df = 1 p < 0.01 χ2 = 13.63 df = 1 p < 0.001 χ2 = 0.01 df = 1 p > 0.05 χ2 = 0 df = 1 p > 0.05 Results (Table 1) show that groups that were exposed to cognitive-emotional teach- ing approach, compared with their peers exposed to the standard teaching approach, often provided more answers to the questions related to their cognitive and emotion- al experience of art music. Students’ answers also discover that Wellington’s Victory yielded more answers between the two groups, while for Pavane the groups provided about the same amount of answers. In the next step answers to all three questions were distributed into five categories and then compared between the two groups. Categories are: 1) answers related to the music elements of the music piece (e.g. tempo, rhythm, dynamics, etc.) or the com- poser; 2) answers related to emotions and thoughts and (dis)liking of the music piece; 3) answers related to the content of the music piece; 4) answers related to the articula- tion of the lecture; and 5) answers that were out of music or lecture context. Results are presented in Table 2. When it comes to the qualitative aspect of cognitive and emotional experience of music listening, again differences appeared between the groups exposed to different didactical approaches (Table 2). Students in classes with the cognitive-emotional ap- proach gave more answers related to thoughts and emotions as well as answers related to the didactical articulation of the lecture than students with the standard approach. When compositions are compared, students’ answers between the two groups mostly differed in the Masquerade and Scheherazade and less so in Wellington’s Victory and Pavane. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 235 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 236 M U Z I K O L O Š K I Z B O R N I K • M U S I C O L O G I C A L A N N U A L LV I / 1 Table 2: Five categories of students’ answers in the four music themes Category Masquerade Wellington’s Victory Scheherazade Pavane Standard approach Cognitive- emotional approach Standard approach Cognitive- emotional approach Standard approach Cognitive- emotional approach Standard approach Cognitive- emotional approach What did teacher’s instruction and guidance encourage you to? Music 9 22 3 17 63 91 73 89 Cog.-emot. 17 73 13 37 7 57 11 25 Content 26 23 9 5 8 15 0 2 Articulation 68 77 63 23 3 1 1 9 Out of context 4 5 2 1 1 4 1 7 χ2 = 22.41 df = 4 p < 0.001 χ2 = 37.22 df = 4 p < 0.001 χ2 = 18.76 df = 4 p < 0.001 χ2 = 6.87 df = 4 p > 0.05 What were you thinking about while you were listening to music? Music 99 52 43 54 31 134 60 53 Cog.-emot. 6 14 2 0 3 9 9 12 Content 22 70 87 89 36 76 18 32 Articula- tion 1 22 2 2 1 22 2 12 Out of context 29 21 14 20 26 10 56 41 χ2 = 57.78 df = 4 p < 0.001 χ2 = 1.54 df = 4 p > 0.05 χ2 = 45.42 df = 4 p < 0.001 χ2 = 11.65 df = 4 p < 0.05 What will you remember this music piece by? Music 255 216 135 169 112 95 124 131 Cog.-emot. 11 121 7 12 14 19 16 3 Content 9 32 48 36 30 24 5 9 Articula- tion 21 75 5 11 1 50 18 46 Out of context 8 2 2 1 3 6 8 3 χ2 = 119.16 df = 4 p < 0.001 χ2 = 5.20 df = 4 p > 0.05 χ2 = 48.08 df = 4 p < 0.001 χ2 = 20.05 df = 4 p < 0.001 Discussion Although music with its diverse and numerous features and elements by itself influenc- es a person’s experiences on cognitive, emotional as well as behavioural levels, adding context to it can have amplifying or changing effects. The combination of both, the mu- sic itself and didactical approach in listening to music was the theme of this research. Quantitative as well as qualitative analysis show some advantages of the cogni- tive-emotional approach in music listening compared to the standard music lecture approach. Quantitative data (Table 1) reveal that cognitive-emotional approach en- couraged students to generate more answers to the questions regarding teacher’s instruction and guidance, about their thoughts while listening to music and about what they will remember related to the music piece. Such findings likely resulted from MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 236 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 237 S. VIDULIN, M. PLAVŠIĆ • CONTRIBUTION OF COGNITIVE-EMOTIONAL... multi-modal stimulation pursued in the cognitive-emotional approach. Namely, being exposed to various activities (e.g. singing, dancing, playing) as well as presentations (verbal and non-verbal), students were inspired with a broader range of stimuli that provoked a multitude of associations and responses. Somewhat similar experiment done by Yu, Lai, Tsai and Chang28 explored multi-modal presentation in music teaching with students of comparable age. They provided twelve 40-minute music lectures over eight weeks. Their findings confirmed advantages of multi-modal approach compared to the conventional in learning achievement and motivation. Using of more sources allows more information to be presented (quantitative rationale) and they can be com- plementary (qualitative rationale) which helped students construct more responses and create more referential connections of their experiences.29 When music pieces are compared (Table 1), students’ answers point to Welling- ton’s Victory as the piece that yielded more answers in the groups with the cognitive- emotional approach. Masquerade and Scheherazade follow, and Pavane inspired both experimental and control groups to deliver about the same number of answers. The inspiration for so many answers in the Wellington’s Victory probably results from students’ very active involvement, especially in the playing of rhythmical instruments and dynamical interpretation and by singing For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow. Pavane was articulated in the least dynamic manner: students were neither moving, dancing nor singing. The question related to teacher’s instruction and guidance yielded the largest dif- ferences between the standard and the cognitive-emotional group, in favour of the latter. This is in line with previous findings. Namely, there is evidence that live voice narration in a less formal style and in the form of dialogue contributes to more effi- cient learning atmosphere.30 The emphasise in teacher’s guidance for the Wellington’s Victory was related to the dynamical story of the war, while Pavane had a more relax- ing than exciting story. For students of that age, the action-related stories may be more stimulating for providing answers than emotion-related ones. So teacher’s introduction plays a significant role in preparing and motivating students to create more associa- tions related to music listening. When students’ answers were analysed in the qualitative manner, regarding their content, again differences were noticeable (Table 2). Students exposed to the cogni- tive-emotional approach provided more answers related to thoughts (e.g. “it encour- aged me to believe in myself,” “about importance of peace,” “about history,” “about not giving up,” etc.) and emotions (e.g. “it was sad,” “it was joyful,” “it was beautiful,” “it was boring,” etc.), as well as answers related to the didactical articulation of the lecture (e.g. “the lecture was entertaining,” “the lecture was interesting,” “I was expecting to hear if what teacher said was going to happen,” etc.) than students with the standard approach. The cognitive-emotional approach tackles the artwork from different angles 28 Pao-Ta Yu et al., “Using a Multimodal Learning System to Support Music Instruction,” Journal of Educational Technology & Society 13, no. 3 (2010): 151–162. 29 Richard E. Mayer, Multimedia Learning (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). 30 Ibid.; Roxana Moreno and Richard Mayer, “Interactive Multimodal Learning Environments,” Educational Psychology Review 19, no. 3 (2007): 309–326, doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9047-2. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 237 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 238 M U Z I K O L O Š K I Z B O R N I K • M U S I C O L O G I C A L A N N U A L LV I / 1 and in various ways. Having such a multi-modal articulation of the lecture, it reaches to diverse students’ needs and preferences for information acquisition and processing, giving them the opportunity to try and learn in other ways as well.31 Previous research proved that students recognised the variety of learning resources with additional rep- resentations of content as helpful to their comprehension and retaining, and to be more exciting and amusing to use.32 Cognitive-emotional approach includes a higher level of interactivity – among stu- dents as well as between teacher and students. Teacher guides the process, provides the introduction, tells stories, asks questions, asks for students’ experiences and opin- ions. Such approach sensitises students more regarding the music piece they are listen- ing to and involves them in a more active approach to music listening. Such didactical articulation of the lecture encourages students to construct knowledge or meaningful learning.33 They make sense of the content, combine information, impressions and experience, mixing thoughts and emotions, which is visible in their responses to the three open questions. Associations in their answers reach beyond music-related theme and content; they spread to a larger field of (self-)reflections. When artworks are compared, students’ answers between the two groups mostly differed in the Masquerade and Scheherazade and less so in Wellington’s Victory and Pavane. These differences could be ascribed to different teacher’s guidance. In the cases of Masquerade and Scheherazade teachers guided students in a more intriguing manner, encouraging them to reflect upon human characteristics, values, ways of cre- ating and solving problems. Masquerade is about a tragedy of a woman who was poi- soned by her husband due to a misinterpretation: he thought that she was unfaithful to him. This was an additional motive for discussion with students based on questions: Have you ever misunderstood something and what happened then? What should be done when the true facts are known? The teacher paraphrased the whole story in which he/she mentioned the characters and the course of the event. Scheherazade tells the story about a woman that was wise enough to save her life when the Sultan, convinced of the duplicity and infidelity of all women, decided to execute them after the first night. Scheherazade counted on Sultan’s curiosity and successfully kept telling him tales over a period of one thousand and one nights. During the narrative, students were asked to describe the characters of Scheherazade and Sultan. In the cases of the Wellington’s Victory and Pavane, the story content was more explicit and less transfer- rable to everyday life situations. Guided activities stimulate students to more actively engage in the acquisition of new information, though processes of selection, organisation and integration. These processes lead to deeper understanding than just pure exposure to instructional 31 Ibid.; Anthony G. Picciano, “Blending with Purpose: The Multimodal Model,” Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 13, no. 1 (2009): 7–18, doi:10.24059/olj.v13i1.1673. 32 Michael Sankey, Dawn Birch, and Michael Gardiner, “Engaging Students through Multimodal Learning Environments: The Journey Continues,” in Proceedings ASCILITE 2010: 27th Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education; Curriculum, Technology and Transformation for an Unknown Future (University of Queensland, 2010), 852–863. 33 Moreno and Mayer, “Interactive Multimodal Learning Environments,” 309–326. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 238 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 239 S. VIDULIN, M. PLAVŠIĆ • CONTRIBUTION OF COGNITIVE-EMOTIONAL... materials34 or leaving it on students to discover everything by themselves.35 Asking stu- dents to reflect which was exactly the purpose of the three open questions proved to be an efficient practice.36 Conclusion When compared with the standard (conventional) music lecture related to music lis- tening, a more interactive and multi-modal cognitive-emotional approach showed some advantages. Students that were exposed to the cognitive-emotional approach provided more answers to questions related to their experience of art music. Looking at the contents of their answers, their responses were more related to the cognitive and emotional experience and to the didactical articulation of the lecture that left a good impression on them. Four music pieces that were chosen for this research differed in many elements and aspects, so that contributed as well to diverse answers. Teachers’ guidance as well as the level of students’ (inter)activity during the lecture seemed to be crucial for their experience of music listening. However, the methodological constraint of the research is different didactical approach for a different music piece, so it is impossible to separate their influences on students’ experience. Recommendation for further investigation would be to ex- plore various didactical articulations on the same music piece. Suggestion for further research would also be to explore which students benefit more from the cognitive- emotional approach in the music context, because there is some evidence that lower achievers benefit more from multi-media usage.37 Cognitive-emotional approach shows advantages in the classroom, and the quan- titative and qualitative analyses reveal that lesson units should be carefully planned and implemented. Lectures that include multi-media can improve the learning environ- ment, but the articulation of the lecture should take into consideration not to overload students, as cognitive capacities are not unlimited. It is important to design the lecture to maximise students’ motivation to engage in generative cognitive and emotional processing.38 Bibliography Clark, James M., and Allan Paivio. “Dual Coding Theory and Education.” Educational Psychology Review 3, no. 3 (1991): 149–210. doi:10.1007/BF01320076. 34 Richard E. Mayer and Roxana Moreno, “Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning,” Educational Psychologist 38, no. 1 (2003): 43–52, doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6. 35 Richard E. Mayer, “Should There be a Three-Strikes Rule against Pure Discovery Learning?” American Psychologist 59, no. 1 (2004): 14–19, doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.14. 36 Moreno and Mayer, “Interactive Multimodal Learning Environments,” 309–326. 37 Ibid. 38 Mayer and Moreno, “Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning,” 43–52; Moreno and Mayer, “Interactive Multimodal Learning Environments,” 309–326. MZ_2020_1_FINAL.indd 239 24. 06. 2020 12:00:52 240 M U Z I K O L O Š K I Z B O R N I K • M U S I C O L O G I C A L A N N U A L LV I / 1 Cvetković, Jelena D., and Miomira M. Đurđanović. “Slušanje savremene muzike kao izazov muzičkog obrazovanja danas.” [“Listening to Contemporary Music as a Chal- lenge of Modern Music Education.”] Teme 38, no. 1 (2014): 317–329. Egermann, Hauke, Mary Elizabeth Sutherland, Oliver Grewe, Frederik Nagel, Reinhard Kopiez, and Eckart Altenmüller. “Does Music Listening in a Social Context Alter Experience? 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Yu, Pao-Ta, Yen-Shou Lai, Hung-Hsu Tsai, and Yuan-Hou Chang. “Using a Multimodal Learning System to Support Music Instruction.” Journal of Educational Technology & Society 13, no. 3 (2010): 151–162. POVZETEK Spremembe pedagoških in didaktičnih paradigem pri poslušanju in učenju glasbe v šoli so bile povod za ponovno presojo in prilagoditev potreb. Od učiteljev se ob visoki stopnji teoretskega in muzi- kološkega znanja pričakuje, da znajo na kreativen način gojiti didaktično bolj raznolik in navdahnjen učni kontekst, ki bo učencem omogočil kognitiv- no-emocionalni razvoj. Ena od predlaganih metod za doseganje tega cilja je kognitivno-emocionalni pristop, ki vključuje večmodalno in interaktivno učno okolje. Namen študije je bil ugotoviti, ali kognitivno-emocionalni in standardni pristop v poučevanju prispevata k različnim kognitivnim in emocionalnim izkušnjam učencev pri poslušanju klasične zahodne glasbe. Raziskava je potekala v 30 razredih na 16 osnovnih šolah. V prvi polovici razredov je bil pouk standarden (konvencionalen), v drugi je bilo poučevanje usmerjeno kognitivno- -emocionalno. Skupno je 557 učencev 5. razreda odgovarjalo na vprašanja odprtega tipa in poslušalo iste štiri skladbe: Hačaturjanovo Maškarado, Beet- hovnovo La battaglia di Wellington, Šeherezado Rimskega-Korsakova in Fauréjevo Pavano. Rezultati so pokazali, da je kognitivno-emocionalni pristop učence spodbudil k več odgovorom na vprašanja o učiteljskih navodilih in spodbudah, lastnih mis- lih med poslušanjem glasbe in o tem, kar si bodo zapomnili v povezavi z določeno skladbo. Njihovi odgovori so bili prav tako bolj povezani z mislimi, čustvi in didaktičnimi artikulacijami učne ure. Tudi izbrane štiri skladbe so prispevale k raznolikosti odgovorov. Tako vodenje pouka učiteljic in učiteljev kot tudi stopnja (inter)aktivnosti učenk in učencev med poukom sta bila ključna za prednosti kogni- tivno-emocionalnega pristopa pri spodbujanju poslušanja glasbe. 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