499
Documenta Praehistorica XLIII (2016)
Function and behaviour>
use-wear evidence from Upper Paleolithic tools
in southern Shanxi Province, North China
Hong Chen 1, Yiren Wang 2 and Chun Chen 3
1 Department of Cultural Heritage and Museology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, CN
2 Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Taiyuan, CN
3 Department of Cultural Heritage and Museology, Fudan University, Shanghai, CN
hollychen@zju.edu.cn
Introduction
Stone tools are widely regarded as good indicators
of the development of intelligence, technique, cog-
nition and adaptability of prehistoric people, because
hunter-gatherers would have developed different
strategies to cope with climate fluctuations, environ-
mental changes and constraints on available resour-
ces in different areas. In accordance with the châine
opératoire concept (Schiffer 1972; Sellet 1993),
stone material, its production, use, repair, and waste,
and every step of its utilisation are closely related to
its function. Research into the function of stone tools
is thus an important way to understand prehistoric
human behaviour and subsistence strategies, and
can also provide a new perspective for interpreting
the development of human adaptations and social
organisation.
Use-wear analysis is a method developed by archa-
eologists to infer the function of a tool on the basis
of microscopic traces of wear left on its edges or sur-
faces. Since the introduction of Sergei Semenov’s
translated English monograph Prehistoric Techno-
logy (1964), use-wear analysis has become a princi-
pal approach for interpreting the function of stone
ABSTRACT – Lithic use-wear analysis has become a principal approach for interpreting the function
of stone tools and inferring human behaviour. This study presents the results of use-wear analysis
on lithic tools excavated from the Upper Paleolithic sites of Xiachuan and Chaisi in the southern part
of Shanxi Province, North China. In this study, microblades and so-called core-like tools from these
two sites were selected for examination by low-power techniques to identify their use patterns. The
results suggest that approx. 30% of microblades might have been used mainly to process animal sub-
stances, and a lower percentage for vegetal substances. Based on the use-wear evidence, items clas-
sified as core-like tools should be regarded as microblade-cores, since they exhibit few traces of util-
isation.
IZVLE∞EK – Analiza sledov uporabe kamnitih orodij je postala osnoven pristop pri razlagi funkcije
kamnitih izdelkov in pri razlagi ≠lovekovih vedenjskih vzorcev. V ∏tudiji predstavljamo rezultate ana-
lize uporabe na kamnitih orodij, ki so bili izkopani na mlaj∏e paleolitskih najdi∏≠ih Xiachuan in
Chaisi v ju∫nem delu province Shanxi na severu Kitajske. Za prepoznavanje sledov uporabe s po-
mo≠jo stereomikroskopa smo izbrali vzorce majhnih rezil in orodij, ki so podobna jedrom. Rezulta-
ti ka∫ejo, da je bilo okoli 30% mikro-rezil uporabljenih pri predelavi ∫ivali; orodja, ki so podobna
jedrom, pa predstavljajo verjetno jedra, iz katerih so lomili in izdelovali rezila, saj ka∫ejo le zelo red-
ke sledove uporabe.
KEY WORDS – Upper Paleolithic; Xiachuan and Chaisi sites; tool function; use-wear analysis
DOI> 10.4312\dp.43.26 
Hong Chen, Yiren Wang and Chun Chen
500
tools in Europe and North America. There are two
major techniques for lithic use-wear analysis. One is
the high-power technique proposed by Larry Keeley
(1980), which concentrates on the formation and
distribution of use polish at relatively high magnifi-
cations (100-400x) under either incident light micro-
scopes or scanning electron microscopes (SEM). The
other is the low-power technique, advocated by Ruth
Tringham et alii (1974) and George Odell (1979)
that focuses on traces of edge-damage, microscopic
fracturing and abrasion visible at relatively low mag-
nifications (5–200x) under reflective-light stereosco-
pic microscopes. After decades of experiment and
practice, it has been shown that each use-wear tech-
nique has its own particular advantages and weak-
ness (Shea 1987), and analysts often use both high-
and low-power techniques in one analysis (Unger-
Hamilton 1989; Grace 1996).
The Xiachuan and Chaisi sites are important Upper
Paleolithic sites in northern China (Fig. 1) with a
microblade-dominated industry. The Xiachuan site
was discovered in 1970 in southern Shanxi Province.
Two cultural layers separated by a sterile layer were
identified. It is reported that more than 1800 stone
artefacts were excavated from the upper cultural
layer in the 1973–1975 excavations (Wang et al.
1978). In addition, 4415 stone artefacts were col-
lected from other localities at Xiachuan between
1990 and 1992 (Chen 1996). Abundant microliths
were found in the upper layer, including end-scrap-
ers, backed-knives, burins, points, microblades and
microblade-cores. According to radiocarbon dating,
the age of the upper layer of Xiachuan site is esti-
mated between 23 000 BP (Tang 2000; Kuzmin
2007) and 13 900 BP (CASS 1991). The Chaisi Site,
also known as Locality 77:01 at Dingcun, was found
in 1977 on the second terrace
of the Fenhe River near Chai-
si in Xiangfen County, Shan-
xi Province. The excavation
in 1978 yielded numerous mi-
croblade remains and a few
large chipping stone tools
(Wang 1986; Wang et al.
1994). There are two radio-
carbon dates for the site: 26
495±590 BP and 40 000 BP
(Li 1993). The excavator of
this site argued that the for-
mer date is reasonable, par-
ticularly for the microblade
remains (Wang 1986). It has
been suggested that the lith-
ic assemblage of Chaisi might have been the pre-
decessor of that at Xiachuan (Wang et al. 1994;
Zhang 2003).
The function of stone tools has been a popular to-
pic for prehistoric archaeologists. However, archae-
ological research on the stone artefacts from Xia-
chuan and Chaisi have so far focused only on their
morphological features or manufacturing techniques.
In this study, some artefacts from the two sites were
selected for use-wear analysis to explore how the
tools might have been employed and what materials
might have been exploited.
Methods and materials
Use-wear analysis has emerged as one of the prin-
cipal methods for interpreting the functions of stone
tools. The low-power technique has been employed
in several studies and in the past two decades has
been proven to be a reliable method for interpreting
uses of stone tools (Shen 2001; Zhang et al. 2010;
Gao, Shen 2008; Chen et al. 2010). The low-power
technique has a number of advantages. First, it is a
reliable means of assessing the use-task of stone
tools by identifying edge damage, as well as detect-
ing polish and striations. Second, since observation
of implements takes less time, this technique is suit-
able for examining a large number of artefacts in a
limited time. Third, it has great potential for study-
ing other material, such as bones and jade (Potts,
Shipman 1981; Bromage, Boyde 1984; Zhang et
al. 2002). Fourth, for most analysts, the equipment
needed for this technique is not expensive.
We thus employed the low-power technique in this
study, using an Olympus SZX12-3131 stereoscopic
Fig. 1. Location of the Xiachuan and Chaisi sites.
Function and behaviour> use-wear evidence from Upper Paleolithic tools in southern Shanxi Province, North China
501
microscope with a magnification between 3.5x– 144x,
to focus on evidence of micro-fractural scarring and
edge rounding through use-wear. Polish and stria-
tion wear patterns were also observed if possible.
After a preliminary examination, some artefacts from
Xiachuan and Chaisi were selected for further ana-
lysis because they showed indications of use-wear.
A total of 93 specimens were observed and analysed
(Fig. 2), including 19 from Xiachuan (11 microblades
and 8 core-like tools) and 74 from Chaisi (63 micro-
blades and 11 core-like tools). The main raw mate-
rials of these specimens are black or yellow chert.
Results
The term ‘functional unit’ (FU) was used to describe
the segment of the working edge, including both use-
wear and hafting or prehensile wear. The analytic
results suggest that 27.96% of specimens show use-
wear (N = 26). Most tools display more than one FU.
Therefore, 32 FUs were found in different locations
on 26 used specimens.
For the Xiachuan specimens, five microblades and
one core-like tool show positive use-wear. Eight FU’s
were identified. Four types of tool motion were in-
ferred: cutting or sawing (up to 62.5%), slicing,
scraping, and gripping (Tab. 1). Contact materials
commonly range from soft to hard animal substances
such as flesh, fresh hide, dried hide, and fresh bone
(Tab. 2). From a cross-tabulation of tool motion and
contact material, the use-tasks comprised cutting or
sawing flesh (N = 2), cutting or sawing hide (N = 3),
slicing flesh (N = 1), and scraping hide (N = 1).
On the Chaisi specimens, 24 FUs were identified on
20 specimens, including 15 certain and 9 uncertain
types of use-wear. Three pieces retain a prehensile
area associated with a working surface on edges.
Use-wear was also identified on a number of micro-
blades, accounting for 31.7%, while no use-wear was
found on the core-like tools. Use-wear on blades or
microblades indicated that these artefacts were used
for cutting/sawing, slicing, scraping, and hafting
(Tab. 1). Most of the use-wear was related to ani-
mal substances of varying hardness, while 8.3% were
associated with vegetal substances (Tab. 2). Animal
butchering, flesh processing and hide processing
might have been the main tasks for the occupants
of Chaisi; for instance, two use-wear FU’s show the
feature as a result of simultaneous contact with both
flesh and bone. Three segments of micro-scars in a
discontinuous distribution on the edges of microb-
lades appear different from the scars caused by pro-
cessing hard substances. It is inferred that these mi-
croblades were inset in a medium-hard material such
as bone or fresh wood, and used as a composite tool
with a hafted shaft, because the identifying features
are similar to those simulated in previous experi-
ments (Zhao et al. 2008).
Fig. 2. A piece of the observed specimens from the
Xiachuan and Chaisi sites.
Tab. 1. Tool motion at the Xiachuan and Chaisi
assemblages.
Tab. 2. Contact materials of the Xiachuan and
Chaisi assemblages.
XIACHUAN CHAISI
Tool Motion N % N %
cut\saw 5 62.5 15 62.5
slice 1 12.5 2 8.3
scrape 1 12.5 4 16.7
prehensive 1 12.5 0 0
hafting 0 0 3 12.5
total FU 8 100 24 100
XIACHUAN CHAISI
Contact Material N % N %
flesh 2 25 4 16.7
fresh hide 3 37.5 2 8.3
dried hide 1 12.5 3 12.5
bone 1 12.5 7 29.2
vegetal 0 0 2 8.3
uncertain 1 12.5 6 25
total FU 8 100 24 100
Hong Chen, Yiren Wang and Chun Chen
502
Discussion and summary
In this study, we applied use-wear analysis to micro-
scopically examine edge-damages and surface-round-
ing of specimens from the Upper Palaeolithic Xia-
chuan and Chaisi sites in order to assess how they
were used. The analytic results reveal direct evidence
of stone tool manufacturing and function. Those
blades or microblades with straight and sharp edges
might have been manufactured to be intentionally
used as composite tools by being inset in a shaft.
According to the evidence of functional analysis, the
core-like tools should be re-classified as microblade
cores rather than tools.
Function of microblades
The analytic results suggest that 5 pieces of microb-
lades from Xiachuan and 20 pieces from Chaisi re-
tain indications of use-wear, including 27 used wear
FUs and 4 hafting wear FUs. Cutting and scraping
are the main motions. Most of the corresponding
contact materials were soft animal substances such
as flesh and hide, and a few are hard animal sub-
stances such as bone. Only 27.8% of the microblades
from Xiachuan had been used, which is lower than
our previous expectations. Tracey Lu (1999) men-
tioned that by using high-power techniques she had
found some use-wear on a few blades at Xiachuan
that was similar to ‘sickle gloss’, a kind of use-wear
often found on microliths in Southwest Asia. How-
ever, it is difficult to understand the features and
details of this ‘sickle gloss’ on Xiachuan tools since
no photographs have been
published. Several microwear
studies using the high-power
technique have confirmed
that the ‘sickle gloss’ might
have been caused by process-
ing cereals or seeds (Unger-
Hamilton 1985; Goodale et
al. 2010). As suggested by
Jian-Zhong Sun et alii (2000),
the climate of the Xiachuan
site was slightly colder than
today, which was suitable for
abundant temperate plants
and animals. The use-wear
evidence also suggests that
the occupants of Xiachuan
might have exploited and pro-
cessed animals as their prin-
cipal food resources (Fig. 3).
It is consistent with some
scholars’ speculation that the
microblades were probably tools for exploiting ani-
mal substances in the particular conditions of the
terminal Pleistocene, and were used by hunter-ga-
therers to respond to changes in the availability of
resources during the Last Glacial Period (Chen 1994).
The percentage of use-wear on microblades from
Chaisi is higher than that from Xiachuan. Since the
upper layer at the Chaisi site was deposited before
the Last Glacial period in MIS 3, the climate was
warm and humid, and plants and animals were rela-
tively abundant. On the basis of the use-wear ana-
lysis, animal-processing (Fig. 4, lower part) would
also have been one of major tasks for people living
at Chaisi. Moreover, a few results indicate vegetable
processing (Fig. 4, right upper part) and might pro-
vide a picture of a dualistic structure of resource
exploitation.
According to archaeological and ethnological re-
search, microblades might be parts of composite
tools which were inset in wooden or bone handles
(Chard 1974; Sun 2003; Cui et al. 2010). At the Xia-
chuan and Chaisi sites, those microblades with a re-
gular shape, appropriate size and suitable sharp
edges might have been selected for use, while pieces
that were too thick or small, and lacking sharp or
straight edges would be discarded. The identifica-
tion of the three hafting-wear FUs on the microb-
lades (Fig. 4, left upper part) provides us with more
reliable evidence for understanding how they were
hafted or inset. The discovery of prehensile wear on
Fig. 3. Use-wear observed on microblades from the Xiachuan site.
Function and behaviour> use-wear evidence from Upper Paleolithic tools in southern Shanxi Province, North China
503
blades is not accidental. In
Xiao Zhang’s dissertation
(2009), she noted this pheno-
menon on one piece of blade
from the Hutouliang site in
the Nihewan Basin of North
China. This tells us that there
may have been an alternative
mode in which some complete
and large blades were direct-
ly used by hand rather than
hafted.
After an overview of the use-
wear analysis on blades, we
realised that the functions or
worked materials in associa-
tion with these kinds of arte-
fact are various and diverse.
Microblades might have been
used for processing not only
soft plants, but also the medium-hard parts of ani-
mals, hard woods or bone. Furthermore, the func-
tions of microblades varied between different sites.
More complex functions and tasks than we have
hitherto understood might have involved microb-
lades, which depends both on internal functional
demands and external environmental conditions
(Chen, Lian 2013).
Function of core-like tools
The group of core-like tools uncovered at both Xia-
chuan and Chaisi was classified as comprising a par-
ticular kind of stone artefacts. These specimens are
made on thick flakes or tabulate cherts, and display
continuously long and narrow scars similar to the
working face of microblade cores. In
terms of the shape of their edges, the
excavators classified them into sever-
al subtypes, including oblique-edge
shaped, flat-edge shaped, round-edge
shaped, pointed, and so on (Wang et
al. 1994). In the excavation report,
the excavators classified these arte-
facts as core-like knives, which means
they were considered as knives (Wang
et al. 1978; 1994). However, our re-
sults demonstrate that only one spec-
imen from the Xiachuan site was used
as a tool, while the other seven spec-
imens show no use-wear. Eleven speci-
mens from the Chaisi site bear no use-
wear in association with usage or haft-
ing.
Specimen SP00971 is a good example to indicate
how this kind of artefact was used. Small scars with
mostly feathered terminations mainly in continuous
distribution appear on the convex edge (pc8-1), re-
duced from the ventral side to the back with heavy
rounding. Both the sheet-shaped gloss and striation
can be clearly seen; moreover, these striations are
vertical to the edge (Fig. 5). This is clearly indicative
of the object being employed for hide scraping. As
a result, we recognised that this specimen was used
as a scraper rather than as a so called core-like knife.
The original researchers classified these artefacts as
tools rather than microblade-cores due to the micro-
flaking scars on their edges, which were obviously
Fig. 4. Use-wear observed on microblades from the Chaisi site.
Fig. 5. Use-wear observed on a core-like tool.
An Z. M. 2000. Hundred years of discovery of Chinese
microblades. Archaeology 5: 45–56. (in Chinese)
Bar-Yosef O. 1999. The big deal about blades: Laminar
technologies and human evolution. American Anthropo-
logist 101(2): 322–338.
Bromage T. G., Boyde A. 1984. Microscopic criteria for the
determination of directionality of cutmarks on bone. Ame-
rican Journal of Physical Anthropology 65(4): 359–366.
Chard C. 1974. Northeast Asia in Prehistory. University
of Wisconsin Press. Wisconsin.
Chen C. 1984. The microlithic in China. Journal of An-
thropological Archaeology 3(2): 79–115.
1994. The paleoenvironment of microblade remains in
East Asia and North America. Quaternary Sciences 4:
369–377. (in Chinese)
Hong Chen, Yiren Wang and Chun Chen
504
produced by the impact with, or friction between,
hard materials. The probable cause seems to trim
the overhangs around the platform for the purpose
of continued flaking. Therefore, we would like to
classify these so called core-like knives as micro-
blade-cores, rather than as a specific type of tool.
Some scholars have suggested that some wedge-shap-
ed microblade-cores (Type I) at Hutouliang might
have served the double functions of both tool and
core (Zhu 2006). Zhang selected 52 microcores from
the Hutouliang assemblage for use-wear analysis.
As a result, it was demonstrated that only 12 speci-
mens retain use-wear (23.1%). On the one hand, the
use-wear patterns found on two specimens within
them might be caused by adhering to somewhere
for flaking rather than being used for processing
other materials. On the other hand, four FUs were
determined to be caused by scraping or cutting,
which is similar to specimen SP0097. Above all, the
microblade cores (Type I) could not be classified as
a kind of tool with an intentional design. These
traces often appear on both edges of the back or
bottom of the specimens, which were considered as
probable locations on the microblade cores for fix-
ing tightly and then for removing microblades later.
Indications of human behaviour
The Upper Paleolithic is identified as blade-domi-
nated (Bar-Yosef 1999), including the technologies
based on microblades in Northeast Asia, Siberia and
North America, as well as geometric microliths in
Europe and West Asia (Taylor 1962; An 2000). The
emergence of microblades might indicate a techno-
logy or strategy adopted to explore animal resour-
ces by people living in extremely diverse and harsh
environments (Chen 1984), which were closely con-
nected with human migrations during the global cli-
mate changes in the Late Pleistocene (Chen 1984).
Based on the use-wear analysis of the lithic artefacts
from the Xiachuan and Chaisi sites, we can gain
some insights into human behaviour. On the one
hand, the microblades with a regular shape, appro-
priate size and sharp edges might have been select-
ed for use. Most of the use-wear could be related to
animal substances, while a few might be associated
with vegetal substances, which reveals a dualistic-
structured strategy for exploiting resources. We sug-
gest that most of the microblades might have been
inserted into handles for use, while some complete
and larger pieces might have been used freehand.
On the other hand, the majority of core-like tools
should be classified as microblade cores, while very
few of them might have been used as tools with
sharp edges from a functional perspective.
In summary, use-wear analysis can be used to con-
nect the static archaeological record with the dyna-
mic cultural context in which people operated in the
past, and therefore it can play an essential role in
linking human behaviour and natural processes to
physical remains in the archaeological record. Use-
wear patterns can provide direct evidence of tool
functions and material exploitation. This method in
archaeological analysis might provide a new way
to understand human activities in prehistory.
This research was supported by the National Social
Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 15CKG003),
the Provincial Science Foundation of Zhejiang (Grant
No. LY16D020001) and Zhijiang Junior Social Sci-
ence Scholars Program of Zhejiang Province. Many
thanks for the map and figures processed by Jun
Wang, who was a student at the Department of Cul-
tural Heritage and Museology at Zhejiang University.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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