Drago M e z e KLIMATSKA PROUČEVANJA SLOVENIJE Prve klim atološke proučitve za območje Slovenije so se pojavile pred nekako sto leti. Z n jim i se začenja doba bolj a li m anj sistem atične kli- m atografske obdelave slovenskega ozemlja v stari A vstriji. Odsev dobe, za katero je značilna upravno-terito rialna razdrobljenost slovenskega ozemlja na posamezne dežele, se kaže tud i v klim atografskih obravna­ val). Te se nanašajo le na dežele, m edtem ko klim atskega opisa v celoti za vse slovensko ozemlje iz tega obdobja nimamo; obstajajo le nekateri orisi posam eznih m eteoroloških elementov. Č eprav so se ponekod začela vrem enska opazovanja že zelo zgodaj, so b ila m arsikje pom anjk ljiva in prek in jena, zato je bilo težko dobiti daljši uporaben niz opazovanj za postaje v posam eznih deželah. D unajsk i centraln i meteorološki zavod je sicer določil osnovni niz 1876—1900, k i p a ni bil povsod izvedljiv. P ri­ m erjava klim atografskih štud ij iz tega časa je zato onemogočena. Po­ m anjkljivost starejšega obdobja je tu d i v tem, da je bilo vrem enskih opazovalnic prem alo in še te so bile v večjem delu postavljene v ni­ žinskem svetu. Do leta 1905 je vse uporabno gradivo iz opazovalnic zbrano v »Beiträge zur H ydrographie Österreich«, 1918, Wien. P rva klim atografska razp rav a se pojavi že leta 1872 (P rettner, 28) in obravnava klimo Koroške; 31 let kasneje je bilo podnebje Koroške po­ novno opisano (Conrad, 3). Š tajersko deželo je obdelal K lein (20), av strij­ ski del Istre p a Mazelle (24) in mnogo kasneje, leta 1927, tu d i Biel (2). Posebno mesto zasluži Seidlov opis podnebja K ranjske (46), ki p red ­ stav lja njegovo življenjsko delo na klim atološkem področju. Č eprav sp a­ da v okvir zgoraj im enovanih del, se od n jih bistveno loči. Seidlova raz­ p rav a je klim atološka, druge imenovane p a so predvsem klim atograf- ske. Zajel je vse meteorološke elemente, ki so bili opazovani. Za tiste čase je bilo to izredno delo, še posebej, če vemo. da so bili uporabni po­ d a tk i skromni. Poleg nekdanje K ranjske je deloma zajel v obravnavo tud i sosednje pokrajine. Za osnovo mu je služila opazovalna doba 1851— 1880, ponekod p a je izkoristil podatke do leta 1893. Delo obsega skupaj 725 stran i in je izhajalo skozi 12 let. Izkoristil je izsledke, ki jih je obja­ vil že p re j (42, 43, 44, 45, 47 — in še nekatere manjše). Celotno slovensko ozemlje je bilo v obdobju stare A vstrije zajeto v okviru študij, k i obravnavajo posamezne meteorološke elemente v vsej m onarhiji ali v n jenih večjih regijah. Med temi so najpom em bnejša Han- nova dela o tem peratu ri avstrijsk ih alpskih dežel (17), o padav inah v A vstro-O grski (16) in o zračnem p ritisk u nad Srednjo in Južno Evropo (18). O izoterm ah v stari A vstriji je p isal T rab ert (9,50), Fessler (4) p a je posvetil daljšo razpravo klim i L jubljane, v katero je vk ljučil dolgo dobo opazovanj ljub ljanske meteorološke postaje; p red n jim je intenzivno ob­ delal meteorološke podatke L jubljane že Seidl p ri opisu podnebja K ran j­ ske (46), in sicer za obdobje 1851—1880, veliko kasneje p a je zajel 100- letno opazovalno dobo p ri obravnavi tem peratu r in padav in v L jubljan i M anohin (23; isti je v GV 1948—1949 še posebej obdelal obdobja 1933— 1947). O b nastanku Jugoslavije slovenska klim atologija ni im ela ne iz­ kušenj ne kadrov. O d strokovnjakov je bil med Slovenci Seidl edini, ki bi lahko vodil in organiziral klim atološko službo v Sloveniji, a za to ni bilo možnosti. Mreža vrem enskih opazovalnic je b ila za sistem atič­ no opazovanje preskrom na, izpopolnjevala p a se je le počasi. Seidl, široko razgledan naravoslovec, se je usm eril drugam (geologija, botanika, seizmologija); s klim atologijo se je m anj ukvarja l. V p rv ih letih nove d r­ žave so bile tud i možnosti pub liciran jaslabe. Prelom nica nastopi z ustano­ vitvijo G eografskega d ruštva Slovenije, še posebej z začetkom izhajan ja njegovega glasila (leta 1925), z Geografskim vestnikom . K er prirodoslovne vede ta k ra t še niso imele nobenega svojega glasila, jim je GV na stežaj odprl v ra ta , tako tu d i meteorologiji. Že v p rv i številki GV je A rtu r Ga- vazzi, ki je ta k ra t vodil Meteorološki zavod na univerzi, objavil dve za­ nim ivi deli: »Geografski razpored največje in najm anjše povprečne me­ sečne množine padav in na B alkanskem polotoku«, kam or je vključil tud i 14 slovenskih vrem enskih postaj, in »O meteorološkili postajah v Slove­ niji«, k je r je zajel postaje vseh štirih kategorij in jih tud i kartografsko upodobil. L eta 1928 se p rv ič pojavi v GV z meteorološko razpravo Q skar R eya (29), v obdobju m ed obema vojnam a najplodovitejši pisec meteorološko- klim atoloških del s področja Slovenije. V tem obdobju skoraj n i številke GV brez njegovega prispevka. T udi po drugi vojni se je še dolgo ogla­ šal s teh tn im i klim atološkim i študijam i. O bravnaval je posam ezne m e­ teorološke elemente, žal p a se ni lotil opisa klim e v celoti, z izjemo, ko je p isal o vrem enu T rig lava (41). Zajel je široko področje klim atologi je, še posebej z obm očja p adav in (30, 32, 33, 37, 38, 40), in je izdelal leta 1945 tu d i padavinsko karto Slovenije (39). P isal je tu d i o tem peratu rn ih razm erah (29, 34, 35 in 36), v GV X II—X III o toči v D ravski dolini leta 1936. o vetrovih (31), o učinku nočnika na meteorološke elemente p a po­ sebej v GV XIV. O b jav lja l je tud i k ra jše klim atološke prispevke v raz­ ličnih drugih revijah , tako o vrem enski k atastro fi v Žirovnici na G orenj­ skem, o k rašk i bu rji (kasneje, leta 1957, je obdelal burjo v vsej Sloveniji P aradiž , 27), o zgodnjem snegu leta 1935, o vplivu podnebja in vrem ena na pšenico in koruzo, o neobičajno močni toči v D ravski banovini, o moč­ nih in dolgih deževjih v L jubljan i, itd. Iz m edvojnega obdobja je tu d i za Slovenijo zelo pomembno delo K noch-Reichla (21) o padav inah v A lpah, posebej še priložena p adav in ­ ska karta . Zajema celotno Slovenijo. O bravnava 35-letno razdobje (1876— 1910), ugotovljeno kot »Briicknerjeva perioda klim atskega kolebanja«, ki n aj bi obsegala vlažno-hladni in suho-topli oddelek. Padav inska k arta Slovenije iz tega obdobja se še danes pogosto uporablja. Leta 1935 je Slovencem Melik (25) p rv ič pregledno podal glavne po­ teze celotne klim e na Slovenskem, zajete v širok klim atografsko-klim ato- loški okvir, sestavljen n a osnovi tak ra tn e m oderne klimatologi je. U po­ števano je vse pomembno dotalcratno klimatološko znanje o Sloveniji in o klim atologiji nasploh. Melik je p rikaza l po tek vrem ena v Sloveniji glede na velika vrem enotvorna jed ra v Evropi. Zajel je vse meteorološke elemente in jih podrobno razčlenil, posebej tem peratu re in padavine, p r i­ kazane z mnogimi kartogram i, diagram i in tabelam i. Slovenijo je raz­ delil tud i na glavne klim atske regije. Melikov p rikaz podnebja na Slo­ venskem je še danes najpopolnejše klim atološko delo o naši domovini. L eta 1963 je v p redelan i izdaji Slovenije I dopolnil opis klim e Slovenije z najnovejšim i klim atološkim i deli in spoznanji, leta 1958 p a je p red sta­ vil klimo Slovenije tu d i v okviru zem ljepisnega pregleda Jugoslavije (26); kasneje, leta 1968, je podal zgoščen opis klim e Slovenije F urlan (14), k i p a se je v mnogočem, k ljub m odernejšim klim atološkim p rije ­ mom. naslan ja l na Melika. Pomembno klim atološko delo iz obdobja med obema vojnam a je podroben Seidlov opis dinarskogorskega fena (48), k i se v h ladni polo­ vici leta pogosto jav lja tud i v Sloveniji. D ruga svetovna vojna je zavrla tud i klim atološka proučevanja, a so se zato toliko bolj razm ahnila v povojnem razdobju. K tem u je največ pripom ogla ustanovitev Hidrom eteorološkega zavoda Slovenije v L jub­ ljani, k i je začel sistem atično organizirati tud i meteorološko in z njo povezano klim atološko službo. Osnoval je serijo novih meteoroloških postaj, med njim i več tud i najvišjega reda, ki zbirajo poleg meteoroloških tud i fenološke podatke za potrebe agrarnega gospodarstva. Vzporedno z razširitv ijo hidrom eteorološke službe so se odpirale tudi nove možnosti pub lic iran ja spro tn ih vrem enskih podatkov in njihove analize. Leta 1953 je začela U prava hidrom eteorološke službe LR Slovenije izdaja ti »Letno poročilo«, k je r so v obliki tabel in klim atogram ov objavljeni zgoščeni letn i m eteorološki in fenološki podatk i in eventualne obdelave daljših nizov opazovanj, razen tega p a je v zaključnem delu tud i ru b ­ rika »prispevki in razprave«, ki zajem a številne klim atološke razprave in članke, med katerim i je za večino let posebej p rik azan a k lim atska k a­ rak te ristika in ločeno tud i izredni pojavi v letu. Ob desetletnici obstoja H idrom eteorološkega zavoda so izdali posebni zvezek z naslovom »10 let hidrom eteorološke službe«, v katerem so večidel klim atološka dela. Štiri leta za »Letnim poročilom« je društvo meteorologov Slovenije začelo iz­ d a ja ti svoje glasilo »Meteorološki zbornik«, k i se je s tre tjim zvezkom preim enoval v »Razprave«; v njem so tud i tujejezični povzetki, medtem ko teh v »Letnih poročilih« žal ni. Možnosti za objavljanje klim atoloških razp rav p a so se odprle tud i v novoosnovanem »Geografskem zborniku« in v »Delih«, oboje v okviru Slovenske akadem ije znanosti in umetnosti. M oderne smeri p roučevanja klim atologije, ki so se pojavile v sveta v začetku petdesetih let, so začele p ro d ira ti tud i v slovensko klimatolo- gijo. G lavni zagovornik in realizator teh je m ed Slovenci D anilo F urlan , vodilni povojni slovenski klimatolog, ki se je p rv ič pojav il v »Letnem poročilu« 1954 z obravnavo novejših podatkov padav in v Julijsk ih Al­ pah. Poglede na m oderno klim atologijo je razgrn il v članku »Nova pota klimatologije« v »Letnem poročilu« 1955. Njeno jedro je v ugotavljanju singularitet, ob določenih term inih pogosto nastopajočih določenih v re­ m enskih režimov (sušne dobe, padavinske dobe, zim ski monsun, ob­ dobje zelo nizkih tem peratu r, »kasna zima«, »babje poletje«, »ledeni možje« itd .); za Srednjo Evropo, torej tud i za Slovenijo, je ugotovil F lohn (5) 25 singularitet, o uveljav ljan ju teh v Jugoslaviji p a je pisal F u rlan v GV XXXI/1959. G lavna razlika med klasično in m oderno k li­ matologijo je v tem, da obravnava p rv a posamezne meteorološke ele­ m ente analitično, m oderna p a skuša te med seboj povezati v posamezne vremenske režim e v naslonitvi na velike barične tvorbe in s tem ugoto­ v iti njihovo medsebojno vzročno povezavo. Podnebje torej »ni skup m e­ teoroloških elementov, temveč celokupnost vrem enskih režimov, iz k a ­ terih spoznamo struk tu ro klim e in klimo samo« (str. 4). V m oderni način obravnavanje klim e se je vk ljučil tu d i F rance Bernot z razpravo o glav­ nih srednjeevropskih singularitetah in njihovem uveljav ljan ju v Slo­ veniji v letu 1955, objavljeno v »Letnem poročilu« 1955. Tudi v povojnem razdobju so slovenski klim atologi proučevali n a j­ več posamezne meteorološke elemente. Med najpom em bnejša tovrstna dela sp ad a ta vsekakor Furlanovi razp rav i o padav inah (11) in tem pera­ tu ri (12) v Sloveniji. P ri obravnavanju padav in je zajel obdobje 1925— 1940, ker m u daljše tak ra t ni bilo dosegljivo. U pošteval je vseh 168 upo­ rab ljiv ih postaj, za tabele p a jih je izbral le 50. U porabil je tabelarično in kartografsko metodo. Padavinsko karto 1925—1940 je p rim erja l s k a r­ to 1870—1910. Posebej je obravnaval tud i sušnost in vlažnost s sušnimi in m okrim i dobam i; o teh je pisal tud i že v »Letnem poročilu« 1958. Kasneje, leta 1968, je s padavinskega področja p isal v »Razpravah«, št. X, o zoni m aksim alnih padav in v Julijsk ih A lpah in n jeni utem eljitvi. Z razpravo o tem peratu rah je b ila p rikazana izčrpna osnovna k a rak te ­ ristika tem peratu rn ih razm er za vso Slovenijo, ki naj bi služila tud i za podrobnejše tem peratu rne analize. P ri tem peratu rah se je F u rlan naslo­ nil s številnim i in terpolacijam i v glavnem na obdobje 1925—1960, zaje­ m ajoč podatke 120 tem peratu rn ih postaj, k i so bile postavljene vse v skladu z navodili M ednarodne meteorološke organizacije. P ri obravnavi snovi je skušal ub irati po ta novo nastajajoče, a še ne izoblikovane d in a ­ mične klimatologije. V ta okvir sodi ugotavljanje karak terističn ih odno­ sov med singularitetam i in tem peratu ram i meteorološke postaje v L jub­ ljani, k i naj bi veljale za vso Slovenijo. Novost p ri tem je, da se opira na zaporedje baričn ih singularitet (teh je v letu 39), za n jih karak teristiko p a niso bile uporabljene srednje dnevne tem perature, am pak število dni, ko je b ila dosežena ali presežena izb rana m eja ekstrem nih tem peratur. Zelo zanim ivo je vprašan je, kako vpliva na tem peraturno razpore­ ditev relief. S teoretičnega v id ika in glede na konkretne razm ere v Slo­ veniji te r na osnovi kritičnega p re tresa uveljavljenega načina m erjenja tem peratu r se je tud i tega v p rašan ja lotil F u rlan (9) in prišel do neka­ terih zanim ivih zaključkov. Tako npr. ugotavlja, da nastopa zarad i zim ­ ske kotlinske megle do višine ca. 1400 m pozitivni tem peratu rn i gradient, k i doseže tud i 1° C/100 m. P rav i tudi, da so zimske nočne tem perature tropskega zraka v kotlinah za ca. 10° C večje kot na zračnih m estih; v polarnem zraku se ta razlika podvoji. Veter in oblačnost v toplem delu dneva zm anjšata dnevne m aksim alne am plitude v tropskem in p o lar­ nem zraku anticiklona za 25-30° C ; v ciklonalnem vrem enu se ne glede na lego postaj am plitude zm anjšajo za polovico. M aksim alne opoldanske tem perature so na postajah z najrazličnejšo lego, a z isto absolutno v i­ šino, zarad i pravilom a nastopajočih opoldanskih vetrov zelo podobne. F u rlan je proučeval tud i veter (8), sneženje in snežno odejo (7) v Sloveniji, vse vrste megle pa je obravnaval na osnovi podatkov lju b ­ ljanske meteorološke postaje (6). P ri vetru je zajel prizem eljske in višin­ ske vetrove ter njihovo odvisnost od reliefa. Za sneženje je uporabil po­ datke obdobja 1925—1940, o snežni odeji in njenem tra jan ju p a od 1948— 1953. Megla nastopa ob nekaterih glavnih anticik lonalnih singularitetah (od dvanajstih sovpada megla s petim i). S problem atiko v zvezi z meglo se je u kvarja l tud i Bernot ob študiju tem peraturnega obrata v spodnjem delu L jubljanske kotline, Petkovšek p a je proučil meglo ob slovenski obali; oba sta objavila rezultate v zborniku »10 let hidrom eteorološke službe«. Pom em bna je š tud ija Vere M alovrh o zadnjih spom ladanskih slanah v Sloveniji (22), ki je p rv a tovrstna štud ija za vso Slovenijo in posebej zanim iva s p rak tične stran i za agrarce. Žal so se začela siste­ m atična opazovanja slane šele v povojni dobi, zato je tud i obravnano obdobje (1948—1957) p rek ratko za trdnejše zaključke. Iz podatkov za L jubljano p a je v okviru celotne Jugoslavije obdelal oblačnost v Slove­ n iji F u rlan in objavil izsledke v »Letnem poročilu« 1957. Ob uveljav­ ljan ju srednjeevropskih sekularnih singularitet je ugotavljal singularite- te oblačnosti. Z ustanovitvijo meteorološke postaje na Kredarici, najv išje postaje v slovenskih A lpah (2515 m) in v Jugoslaviji nasploh, je omogočen študij vrem ena na Triglavu. O njem je pisal n a jp re j R eva (41), kasneje p a se V ital M anohin v »Razpravah«, V. (»Deset let opazovanj na visokogorski postaji Kredarici«) in D ušan Košir v »Geografskem zborniku« IX/1965, ko razčlen ju je »Klimatske razm ere na K redarici v dobi od 1. avgusta 1954 do 31. oktobra 1962«. Prvo shemo glavnih klim atskih regij na Slovenskem je postavil že Melik (25, 26). F u rlan (10) jo je preizkusil z »novim in zelo obširnim do- kum entarijem « (podrobna analiza tem peratu r in padavinskega režim a po posam eznih klim atskih pasovih v Sloveniji) in ugotovil, da se n jego \a k lim atska razdelitev ne razlikuje od Melikove. Podrobnejšo shemo kli­ m atskih območij Slovenije je v okviru Jugoslavije na osnovi term ičnega in padavinskega režim a podal Ilešič (19), ki je razdelil Slovenijo na dve glavni k lim atski območji, na jadransko in zmerno kontinentalno panon­ sko. V okviru prvega zajem a Slovenijo severnojadransko klim atsko ob- inočje, v drugem p a v pasu zahodno panonskega kontinentalnega obmoc- ja loči dve podobmočji, pravo panonsko kontinentalno in panonsko-jad­ ransko prehodno območje. Še podrobnejše klim atografske delitve Slove­ nije se je lotil Gams (15) in to »na osnovi razm erja m ed mesečnimi tem ­ pera tu ram i in padav inam i v vegetacijski dobi, višine tem peratu r in dol­ žine vegetacijske dobe«. S tem je hotel »predvsem pojasn iti razlike v ve­ getaciji, zlasti v gojenju k u ltu rn ih rastlin«. Posebno pozornost je posvetil ugotav ljan ju vlažnostnega deficita in suficita. V okviru že znanih glavniii k lim atsk ih območij (prim orsko, osrednje slovensko in subpanonsko) je ločil več k lim atskih provinc, v okviru teh p a klim atske rajone. V obrav­ navo je vk ljučil prirodno, delom a p a tud i ku lturno vegetacijo. V »Razpravah« d ruštva meteorologov Slovenije je izšlo, poleg že om enjenih, tud i nekaj zanim ivih klim atoloških oziroma meteorološko- klim atoloških del. Zaradi pregleda bom pom em bnejše samo citiral: P e t­ kovšek, Z., P adavine ob h ladn ih frontah v Sloveniji. »Razprave«, V ; isti — O blačnost, vetrovi in megla ob h ladnih frontah v Sloveniji. »R azpra­ ve«, V I; isti — Pogostnost megle v n ižinah in kotlinah Slovenije. »Raz­ prave«, X I; Vida, M., N ekatere značilnosti vrem ena v Sloveniji v ciklonih na poti V b. »Razprave«, V III. Posebej om enjam na tem m estu F ranceta Bernota, ki se je posvetil š tud iju m orja ob slovenski obali, o čemer je pisal v »Razpravah« II, V, V II in IX. O b zaključku naj bo omenjeno, da je v vsaki regionalni gospodarsko- geografski m onografiji tud i k lim atografska obdelava. Teh m onografij je veliko, zato jih ne kaže posebej navaja ti. N ekatere od n jih presegajo zgolj opisni okvir in skušajo iskati medsebojne vzročne povezave k li­ m atoloških pojavov. T udi p r i obravnavanju Triglavskega in Skutinega ledenika ter vrem enskih k a tastro f (poplave, usadi, snežni plazovi, po­ zebe), o čemer so v povojni dobi slovenski geografi veliko pisali, so uvo­ doma podrobni k lim atografk i opisi. Deloma p a se dotikajo klimatolo- gije, predvsem aplikacije klim atologije, agrometeorološka proučevanja, k i vsa izhajajo iz povojnega obdobja, ko se je v okviru Hidrom eteorološ­ kega zavoda osnoval tud i fenološki oddelek. Deloma spada v to pod­ ročje tud i F urlanova štud ija o ugotav ljan ju evapotranspiracije s pomoč­ jo norm alnih klim atskih pokazateljev (13), ki jo zarad i obsežnosti in po­ membnosti tud i za klim atologijo navajam posebej. Drago M e z e STUDIES ON THE CLIM ATE O F SLOVENIA The first clim atological studies concerning the area inhabited by Slovenes (the ethnic Slovenia) have appeared about hundred years ago. W illi iliem commenced an area of more or less system atic climatological research on Slovenian territories th a t were — at th a t tim e — included into the A ustro-H ungarian em pire. The m onographs on the clim ate of the provinces w here there was Slovenian population illustra te this situ­ ation well. They deal w ith clim atic characteristics of those provinces, bu t not w ith the en tire area of ethnic Slovenia. A lthough the w eather ob­ servations had been started quite early in some areas the da ta are often scanty and not continuous. As a consequence, it is quite d ifficu lt to get a useful tim e series for w eather stations in p artic id a r provinces. The for­ m er C entra] W eather B ureau in Vienna actually has established the basic statistica l series (1876—1900) but, in practice, it could not have been app lied for all areas. A com parative climatological study for th a t period was thus m ade impossible. A fu rth e r shortcoming of the da ta for tha t period is the th in netw ork of w eater stations and even these were lo­ cated m ostly in the lowlands. All useful climatological inform ation from the w eather stations of the period until the year 1905 is assembled in a publication entitled »Beiträge zur H ydrographie Österreichs«, pub li­ shed in Vienna in 1918. The first clim atological study concerning the ethnic Slovenia, tha t on the clim ate of C arin tliia , appeared as early as in 1872 (P rettner ,28) The clim ate of C arin th ia , however, was dealt w ith again 31 years la ­ ter in another study (Conrad, 3). Monographs were also com piled on Sty ria (Klein, 20), and on Istria , first by Mazelle (24) and, m uch later, by Biel (2). Seidl’s study of the clim ate of C arniola (46), w hich was his life- work in climatology, should be referred to separately. I t was carried out in the general fram ew ork of the above m entioned monographs, bu t is also essentially d ifferent. Seidl’s study is tru ly climatological, w hile the others are largely descriptive. A ll elements of w eather, for w hich the d a ta were available, had been considered. Seidl’s study was a rem arkable achievem ent for th a t time, in particu la r, since the da ta a t his disposal were ra ther meagre. Conditions in the neighbouring provinces were also considered to some extent. The da ta for the 1851—1880 period provided the basis, bu t Seidl also used, when possible, additional data available till 1893. The entire study covers 725 pages and was published during the tw elve year period ending in 1902. In this study he also m ade use of p artia l studies of his own th a t were published earlier (Seidl, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47; and some m inor contributions). Inform ation on the entire ethnic Slovenia for the period prior to W orld W ar I. is also available in studies dealing w ith the old A ustrian em pire as a whole or w ith the larger regions w ith in it. The most impor- 6 G eografski vestn ik 81 tan i contributions are those by H ann on the tem peratures in the A lpine areas of A ustria (17), on p recip ita tion in the A ustro-H ungarian em pire (16), on the air-pressure above C en tra l and Southern Europe (18). The isotherm s for the old em pire were also studied by T rabert (49, 50), while Fessler (4) contributed a longer essay on the clim ate of L jubljana. A long series of w eather d ata collected by the L jub ljana w eather station was used in th a t essay, bu t Seidl also m ade an extensive use of this in for­ m ation for the 1851—1880 period in his m ajor study of the clim ate of C arniola. The tem peratures and the precip ita tion in L jub ljana during the hundred years period (1851—1950) were analysed m uch la ter by M anoliin (25; the same au thor separately trea ted the period 1955—1947 in the GY 1948—1949). W hen Yugoslavia came into existence in 1918, the clim atology in Slovenia lacked both the experience and the trained specialists. Seidl was the only person capable of organizing the w eather observation se r­ vice, bu t opportunities w ere unfavourable. For system atic observations the netw ork of w eather stations was too coarse and was only slowly getting denser. Seidl, who was a natu ra list of w ide knowledge, switched his attention to other phenom ena (geology, botany, seismology). Also, it was d ifficu lt in the firs t years of the new state to get research find ­ ings published. The founding of the G eographical Society in L jubljana )marked a turn ing point, in p articu la r since 1925, w hen its rewiev, the »Geografski vestnik«, began to be published. As the specialists of the •natural sciences have not had •— a t th a t time — a specialized scientific magazine of their own, »Geografski vestnik« also published their contri­ butions. Thus, A. G avazzi, the head of the Meteorological In stitu te at the U niversity of L jub ljana published two interesting essays in the first vo­ lume (1925) of the new m agazine. The first dealt w ith »the geographical d istribu tion of the highest and the lowest m onthly am ounts of p rec ip i­ tation in the Balkans« in w hich observations from the 14 w eather stations in Slovenia were also considered. The second article w as a comment on the »meteorological stations in Slovenia« dealing w ith all four categories of them. O skar Reya, who was the most prolific w riter on meteorology and clim atology in Slovenia in the in ter-w ar period, published — in the 1928 volume of the »Geografski vestnik« — his first essay on meteorology (29). There was h ard ly a volume of the m agazine since w ithout some of his contributions. He continued to publish several im portan t meteorological studies until recently. R eya was concerned w ith various elements of w eather, bu t unfo rtuna te ly he did not a ttem pt a synthesis on tiie cli­ m ate of Slovenia. He did, however, w rite on the clim ate of the T riglav m ountain (41). In clim atology R eya was concerned prim arily w ith p re ­ cip itations (50, 52, 55, 57, 58. 40) and produced the first m ap of p re ­ cip itations of Slovenia (59). He also w rote about the tem peratures (29, 54, 55, 56), about the w inds (51), etc. He contributed an essay on the hail in the D rava valley in 1956 and in the next volume he w rote about the effects of the n igh t w ind on other elements of w eather. Several of his articles were published also in other periodicals. E. g. on the w eather catastrophe in the Žirovnica valley in U pper C arniola, on the early snow in 1935, on the influence of the clim ate on w heat and m aize growing, on long spells of persistent ra in in L jubljana, on severe hail-storm s in Slo­ venia, on the Kras bora winds. (Bora winds were la ter analysed for the whole of Slovenia by P arad iž (27). An im portan t study from the in terw ar period by Knoch-Reichel (21) on the precip ita tion in the A lps should also be mentioned since the total area of Slovenia was also included into the study area. A precip itation m ap is added and is still w idely used. The study deals w ith the »Briick- n er’s period of clim atic fluctuations« w hich includes both a cold-humid and a dry-w arm section. O bservations refer to the time span between 1S76 and 1910. The firs t a ttem p t a t a presentation of the m ain characteristics of the clim ate of Slovenia was m ade in 1935 by Melik (25). I t was conceived in the conceptual fram ew ork of the contem porary climatology and me­ teorology and all existing sources of knowledge were used in com pilation and synthesis. Melik analysed the w eather conditions in Slovenia in ra- lation to m ajor w eather generation nuclei in and around Europe. All ele­ ments of w eather and clim ate were considered and analysed in some de­ tail; in particu la r, tem peratures and precipitation. The tex t is illu stra ­ ted by m any m aps and diagram s. The m ain clim atic regions were also sketched. This overview by Melik is still the most com prehensive clima- tological study of Slovenia. In a new edition (1963) the chapters on cli­ m ate include references to more recent findings and data. Melik also p ro ­ vides an overview of the clim ate of Slovenia in his book on Jugoslavia (26). A more recent characterisation of the clim ate of Slovenia by Furlan (14) draw s largely on the work by Melik, although more up-to-date methods were used. The analysis of the föhn w inds in the D inaric m ountains which are during the w in ter season quite common in Slovenia is an outstanding piece of clim atological research by Seidl (48) and dates back to the p re ­ w ar period. The research on the clim ate of Slovenia came to a still-stand during the w ar bu t was quickly revived and expanded since W orld W ar II. The revival was g reatly enhanced by the creation of an official W eather Bu­ reau, the Hydrom eteorological Institu te of Slovenia, viz. of its clim ato­ logical section. A series of new w eather stations was established and some of them are of the highest order and m ake also phenological observations required by the agriculture. The expansion of the w eather service went hand in hand w ith the new possibilities for publishing the w eather data as well as the analy tical findings. In 1953 the Institu te started to publish its »Letno poročilo« (»Yearly Report«) w hich provided condensed in­ form ation on the meteorological phenom ena in the previous year. Oc­ casionally some data for longer tim e series are also published. In the concluding sections in each report m any studies were also published as well as several short articles dealing wTith general clim atic charac teri­ stics or w ith ex trao rd inary phenom ena observed in each year. In a spe­ cial publication — »Ten years of the Hydrom eteorological Service« — most articles refer to the clim atological research. In 1959 the newly founded Meteorological Society started its own periodical, the »Meteo­ rološki zbornik« w hich was la ter renam ed »Razprave« (»Papers«). Sum­ m aries of the studies published there are in several languages, m ostly in English. A nother opportun ity to get the results of research published was offered by the new series of publications of the Slovenian A cadem y of A rts and Sciences (»Geografski zbornik« and »Dela«). The m odern research orientations in clim atology w hich have ap p e­ ared in the nineteen fifties soon began to show an im pact on the clim a­ tological research in Slovenia, too. The m ain protagonist of the new d i­ rection was D anilo F urlan , now the leading clim atologist in Slovenia. H is firs t study, published in the »Yearly Report« for 1954 dealt w ith p recip ita tion in the Ju lian A lps on the basis of new inform ation tha t became available. In 1955 he outlined the new ideas in an artic le en titl­ ed »the new directions of climatology«. The core of the new approach is seen in the identification and in terp re ta tio n of the singularities, i. e. of the specific types of w heather th a t often occur in certain times of the vear (droughts, w et periods, w in ter monsoon, cold spells, la te w inters, Ind ian summer, etc.). F lohn (5) a lready has identified for C en tral E uro­ pe — and, consequently, for Slovenia — as m any as 25 such singularities. F urlan , however, has analysed more in detail how these singularities are m anifested in Yugoslavia (see: »Geografski vestnik« for 1959). The main difference betw een the classical and modern clim atology is in the shift from the analy tica l trea tm ent of p a rticu la r elem ents of w eather to a more synoptic view of the ty p ica l w eather regimes in their relation to the m ajor cyclones and anticyclones systems in order to establish the causes of their m utual interrelationships. The clim ate, therefore, »is not seen as an aggregation of the elements of w eather bu t ra th e r as the to ­ ta lity of w eather regimes, from w hich the structure of the clim ate and the clim ate itself is recognized« (page 4). F ranc Bernot also joined the m odern orientation in clim atological research w ith his study on the main singularities of C entral Europe and tlieir m anifestations in Slovenia in the year 1955 (published in the 1955 »Yearly Report«). Still, most of the w ork done by the Slovenian climatologists afte r the w ar was on p articu la r elements of w eather and clim ate. Some of the most significant studies were those by F u rlan on precip ita tion (1 1 ) and tem peratures (1 2 ) in Slovenia. The period from 1925 till 1940 was ana lys­ ed since no longer consistent series of da ta was available a t th a t time. A ltogether d a ta for 168 w eather stations were considered, w hile only 30 ap p ear in the attached tables. Both m aps and tables were used as a me­ thod of presentation. F u rlan also com pared his m ap w ith an older m ap for the 1870—1910 period. He was, in his study, in p articu la r concerned w ith d ry and w et periods (see also the »Yearly Report« for 1958). Later, in 1968, he again w rote about the zone of the m axim um precip ita tion in the Ju lian A lps and about its exp lanation (see »Razprave«, vol. X.). In the study of the tem peratures in Slovenia he provided an exhaustive b a­ sic fram ew ork to serve as a starting point for more detailed analyses. The da ta refer to 1 2 0 w eather stations (which were set up by the W ea- tlier Service of Slovenia in accordance w ith the specifications of the W orld Meteorological O rganization) and cover m ainly the period from 1925 till 1960. F u rlan tried to em bark on the new course of the emerging dynam ic climatology w hich was tak ing form gradually . His study of the characteristic relations between the singularities and the tem peratures registered a t tlie L jubljana w eather station, which m ay be taken as re­ presentative for conditions in Slovenia, best expreses such altitudes. The new approach is m anifested in the fact th a t he did not choose the mean daily tem peratures b u t ra th e r the num ber of days when the extrem e tem peratures reached or surpassed a selected lim it for them serving as an indicator for com parison w ith the established w eather singularities ( 3 9 of w hich ap p ear in one year). An interesting problem is the role p layed by the landform s in the vertical distribution of the tem peratures. F u rlan (9) approached this que­ stion both from the theoretical view -point and from the consideration of specific conditions in Slovenia; he also m ade a critica l evaluation of the adopted methods of m easuring tem peratures. He arrived at some in terest­ ing conclusions. F irst, he established th a t a positive tem perature g ra­ d ient of as m uch as 1 ° C per 1 0 0 metres occurs up to the heights of some 1400 m altitude because of the w in ter fog in the basins. Also, he noted th a t the n ight tem peratures of the trop ical a ir masses in the basins are about 1 0 ° C higher than a t w indy places above them ; b u t when polar a ir masses predom inate, the difference is double. The w ind and Ihe cloudi­ ness during the w arm er p a r t of the day tend to lower the m axim um daily am plitudes both in the tropical and the polar anti-cyclone air-mas- ses lo r 25° to 30° C, while the fluctuations — regardless of the site of the w eather stations — are only half as great during the cyclonic w eather spells. M axim um m id-day tem peratures a t the stations in any ty p e of the sites, bu t a t the same altitude, are very sim ilar because of regularly appearing m id-day winds. F u rlan has also studied the winds (8 ), the snow-fall and the snow- cover (7) in Slovenia. Also he analysed all kinds of fog in L jub ljana us­ ing da ta for th a t w eather station (6 ). F u rlan has also analysed winds close to the surface and the high altitude winds and their depen- dance on the landform s. Snow-fall was analysed on the basis of the data from the 1925—1940 period and the analysis of the snow-cover in Slo­ venia referred to the 1948—1953 period. The fog was found to be ap p ea r­ ing m ainly in times of the anticyclone singularities (in five cases out of twelve). Problems related to fog were also studied by Bernot in his study of the tem peratu re inversion in the lower p a r t of the L jub ljana basin, while Petkovšek analysed fog along the coast of Slovenia; both studies were published in the publication »Ten years of the Hydrometeorological Service«. A significant study by Yera M alovrh, the first of this kind, deals w ith late spring frosts in Slovenia (2 2 ) and is of p articu la r im portance lo r the agriculturists. U nfortunately the system atic observations of the frost w ere started only in the post-w ar period and, consequently, the observation period (1948—1957) is too short to perm it any firm er conclu­ sions. F u rlan also used the data on cloudiness for L jub ljana in his study of this phenom enon in the entire \u g o slav ia (published in the 1957 »Yearly report«). W hen dealing w ith secular singularities in C entral Europe he also analysed those related to fog-cloudiness. The establishm ent of a perm anent w eather station a t K redarica on the Triglav m ountain (at the a ltitude of 2515 m) w hich is the highest in Yugoslavia, enabled the study o f 'w ea th e r conditions on th a t m ountain. The first artic le is by R eya (41); later, V ital M anohin w rote about the »ten years of observations a t the w eather station a t K redarica« (in »Raz­ prave«, vol. V.), as well as D ušan Košir (in »Geografski zbornik«, vol. IX.j »The clim atic conditions a t K redarica between A ugust 1 st 1954 and October 31st 1962«), The first schem atic outline of the m ain clim atic regions in Slovenia was provided a lready by Melik (25, 26). This scheme has been later tested by F u rlan (1 0 ) w'ho — in the detailed analysis of the tem peratures and of tem peratu re regimes w ith in p articu la r clim atic areas of the coun­ try — used »new and m uch im proved documentation«. His conclusions about, clim atic areas do not d iffe r essentially from those m ade by Me­ lik. A more detailed model of clim atic areas of Slovenia was la ter w ork­ ed out — on the basis of the therm ic and p recip ita tion regimes — by Ilešič (19) in his characterisation of the clim ate of Yugoslavia. In Slovenia, he discerns two m ain clim atic areas, the A dria tic area and the tem pe­ ra te continental Panuonian area. The form er spreads over w estern Slo­ venia in its northern A dria tic varian t. The la tter, however, includes two sub-areas in its w estern, Pannonian p a r t; i. e. the tru e continental Pan- nonian sub-area and a transitional Panonian-A driatic sub-area. Gants (15) m ade an a ttem p t a t an even more detailed delineation of the clim a­ tic areas of Slovenia »on the basis of the relationships betw een m onth­ ly tem peratures and precip ita tion during the vegetation period«. In us­ ing this approach he »first of all w anted to exp la in the differences in vegetation, in p artic ila r, in the cultivation of domestic plants«. A special a tten tion was paid to the identification of the m oisture defficits or sur- plusses. He distinguished, w ith in the three m ain clim atic areas mentioned above, several clim atic »provinces« and, in each of them, clim atic sub- areas were discerned. This classification refers to na tu ra l vegetation and p a rtly also to domestic plants. Some other interesting studies concerned w ith clim ate were also published in the »Razprave« (»Papers of the Meteorological Society«). The list of the more im portan t papers includes those by: Z. Petkovšek, P rec ip ita tion in connection w ith the cold front in Slovenia (vol. V.); idem: Cloudiness, w inds and fog in connection w ith the cold front in Slovenia (vol. VI.): idem: The frequency of fog in the lowlands and basins of Slovenia (vol. XI.),; M. Vida, Some characteristics of the w ea­ th er in Slovenia wThen cyclones take route V b (vol. VIII.). A special note should be added here on the studies by F. Bernot about the sea along the coast of Slovenia in the southern p a r t of the G ulf of Trieste (see: »Razprave«, vol. II., V., VII. and IX.). I t should also be m entioned th a t all regional m onographs on the eco­ nomic geography contain chapters on clim atology of the respective a re­ as. Some of these are not lim ited to descriptions of the local climates but try to established the causal relationships of the observed phenom ena of w eather and clim ate. In troductory climatological chapters were also in ­ cluded in some other studies (e. g. on the fluctuations of the Triglav and Skuta glaciers, or in those on the w eather catastrophes such as floods, landslides, avalanches, severe frosts, etc. about w hich m uch was w ritten. Some are concerned in p articu la r w ith the app lied climatology. C lim a­ tology for agriculture was started only in the post-w ar period, when a special departm ent for phenological research was established a t the Hydrom eteorological Institute. F u rlan ’s study on the identification of the evapotranspiration by means of norm al indicators of clim ate (13) also belongs into this category, bu t should be singled out because it is the most com prehensive of such studies. / Literatura — Bibliography I. Bernot, F., 1970, Vzroki poplav v Slovenskem p rim o rju (Sum m ary: C auses of flo o d s in the C oastal Region of Slovenia). R azprave, XII, DMS. D ruštvo m eteorologov Slovenije. L ju b ljan a 2. Biel, E., 1927, K lim atographie des ehem aligen österre ich ischen K üsten­ landes. D enkschr. d. Akad. Wiss. W ien. M at.-natur. Kl. 101. W ien 3. C onrad, V., 1913, K lim atographie von K ärn ten . K lim atographie von Ö sterreich , VI. W ien 4. Fessler, A., 1913, D ie k lim atischen V erhältn isse von Laibach. Jahrb . S taa ts-O berrealschu le in Laibach f. d. Schulj. 1912/13. L aibach 5. F lohn, H., 1954, W itte rung und K lim a in M itteleuropa. S tu ttg a rt 6. Furlan, D., 1955, Megla v Ljubljani. Letno poročilo meteorološke služ­ be. Ljubljana 7. F u rlan , D., 1957, N ekaj podatkov o sneženju in snežni odeji v S love­ n iji (Zusam m enfassung: E inige A nm erkung ü b e r den Schneefall und die Schneedecke in Slow enien). 10 le t h idrom eteorološke službe. L ju b lja n a 8. F u rlan , D., 1959, V eter v S loveniji. Letno poročilo m eteorološke službe. L ju b ljan a 9. F u rlan , D., 1959, Vpliv re lie fa na tem pera tu rno razporeditev . Letno poročilo m eteorološke službe. L ju b lja n a 10. F u rlan , D., 1960, K lim atska razm ejitev S lovenije (Zusam m enfassung: D ie k lim atische G liederung Sloweniens). GV XXXII/1960. L ju b ljan a II. F urlan , D., 1961, P adav ine v S loveniji (Sum m ary: P recip ita tions in Slovenia). G eografski zborn ik VI. L ju b ljan a 12. F u rlan , D., 1965, T em pera tu re v S loveniji (Sum m ary: T em peratu res in S lovenia). D ela SAZU 15. L ju b ljan a 13. F u rlan , D., 1966, U gotav ljan je ev ap o tran sp irac ije s pom očjo norm aln ih k lim atsk ih pokazate ljev . Letno poročilo m eteorološke službe. L ju b ljan a . — Tem a p ri SBK. N osilec tem e F u rla n D anilo , sodelavci: B ernot F ranc, Kmecl A lenka, M anohin Vital. 14. F u rlan , D., 1968, K lim a S lovenije. E ncik loped ija Jugoslavije . K n jiga 7. Zagreb 15. Gams, I., 1972, Prispevek h klimatografski delitvi Slovenije. Geografski obzornik XIX/1972. Ljubljana 16. LIann, J., 1879, D ie R egenverhältn isse von Ö sterreich-U ngarn . S itzber. A kad. W issen. W ien 17. H ann, J., 1884, 1885, T em peratu rvehä ltn isse der österre ich ischen-A lpen­ länder. S itzber. A kad. W issen. Bd.: 90, 91, 92. W ien 18. H ann, J., 1887, D ie V erte ilung des L uftd ruckes üb er M ittel und Siid- evropa. Geogr. A bhandl. W ien 19. Ilešič, S., 1970, K lim atska obm očja Jugoslav ije . G eografski obzornik XVII/1970. L ju b lja n a 20. Klein, R., 1909, Klimatographie von Steiermark. Klimatographie von Österreich, II. Wien 21. Knoch, K., — Reichel, E.. 1930, V erte ilung und jä h rl ic h e r G ang der N iedersch läge in den A lpen. V eröffen tlichungen d. P reuss. Met. Inst. N r. 375. A bhandl. Bd. 9. B erlin 22. M alovrh, V., 1957, Zadnje spom ladanske slane v S loveniji (Zusammen­ fassung: D ie le tz ten F rüh lingsfro ste in Slow enien). 10 le t h idrom eteorološke službe. L ju b lja n a 23. Manohin, V., 1952, Kratek pregled temperatur in padavin v Ljubljani v 100-letni opazovalni dobi 1851—1950 (Summary: A Survey of Temperatures and Precipitation in the Town of Ljubljana from 1851—1950). GV XXIV/1952. Ljubljana 24. Mazelle, E., 1908, Klimatographie des österreichischen Küstenlandes. A. Triest. Klimatographie von Österreich, II. Wien 25. M elik, A., 1935, S loven ija I, splošni del. L ju b ljan a ; 1963. druga, p re ­ delana izdaja. 26. Melik. A., 1958, Jugoslavija, zemljepisni pregled. Ljubljana 27. P arad iž , B., 1957, B u rja v S loveniji (Zusam m enfassung: D ie B ora in Slow enien). 10 le t h id rom eteoro loške službe. L ju b lja n a 28. P re ttn e r, J., 1872, D as K lim a von K ärn ten . Jahrb . N aturw iss. Ver. f. K ärn ten . K lagenfurt 29. R eva, O., 1928, D nevna am plituda zračne te m p era tu re n a Slovenskem in n je n le tn i tok (Zusam m enfassung: D er jä h rlich e G ang d er täg lichen A m pli­ tude d er L u fttem p era tu r im slow enischen G ebiet). GV IV/1928. L ju b lja n a 30. R eya, O., 1930, L etni tok padav in na Slovenskem (Zusam m enfassung: D er jä h rlich e G ang d er N iedersch läge im slow enischen G ebiet). GV V-VI/ 1929—1930. L ju b ljan a 31. R eya, O., 1931, Sm eri vetrov n a Slovenskem in n jih le tn i tok (Zusam­ m enfassung: D ie W indrich tungen in Slow enien und ih re Jahresein teilung). GV VII/1931. L ju b lja n a 32. R eya, O., 1932, C ikloni in padav ine n a Slovenskem (Resume: Les re ­ la tions en tre les cyclones et les p rec ip ita tions dans la Slovenie). GV V III/ 1932. L ju b ljan a 33. R eya, O., 1933, O dnošaji m ed padavinam i in cikloni v Jugoslav iji (Resume: Les re la tions en tre les cyklones et les p rec ip ita tions dans la Yougo- slavie). GV IX/1933. L ju b lja n a 34. R eja , O., 1934, N avali h ladnega in top lega z ra k a v D ravsko banovino (Resume: Les invasion d ’a ir fro id et d ’a ir chaud dans le b an a t de la D rave). GV X/1954. L ju b lja n a 35. R eya, O., 1936, V rem enski dogodki ob n a jto p le jšem dnevu, k a r jih je dosle j reg is trira n ih v D ravsk i banovini. P ro teus 1936. L ju b lja n a 36. Reya, O., 1939, N ajv iš je in n a jn iž je te m p era tu re v S loveniji (Resume: Sur les tem p era tu res ex trem es en Slovenie). GV XV/1939. L ju b lja n a 37. Reya, O., 1940, Padavine na Slovenskem v dobi 1919—1939 (Resume: La repartition de la precipitation en Slovenie). GV XVI/1940. Ljubljana 38. R eya, O., 1945, N ajv iš je dnevne padav ine v S loveniji (Resume: Les p lus hau tes p rec ip ita tions d iu rnes en Slovenie). Zavod za m eteorologijo in geodinam iko na U niverzi v L ju b ljan i. L ju b lja n a 39. Reya, O., 1945, Padavinska karta Slovenije (Resume: Carte de pre­ cipitations de la Slovenie). Izdal zavod za meteorologijo in geodinamiko v Ljubljani. Ljubljana 40. R eya, O., 1949, M aksim alne in ten z ite te padavin v S lovenskem P r i­ m orju (Resume: L ’in tensite des p rec ip ita tions dans le L itto ra l Slovene). GV XX-XXI/1948—1949. L ju b lja n a 41. Reya, O., 1951, Vreme Triglava. Planinski vestnik 1951. Ljubljana 42. Seidl, F., 1886, Č rtice o podneb ju v K rškem . F ü n fte r Jah resberich t d e r K naben B ürgerschu le G urkfeld . K rško 43. Seidl, F., 1887, Toplinske razmere Zagreba in Ljubljane. Zagreb 44. Seidl, F., 1889, O m enjav i topline v L ju b ljan i. L ju b ljan sk i zvon 1889. L ju b ljan a 45. Seidl, F., 1890, Über das Klima des Karstes. Mitteilungen des Museal­ vereins für Krain. Laibach 46. Seidl, F., 1891—1902, D as K lim a von K rain. M itteilungen des M useal­ vereins für K rain. Laibach 47. Seidl, F., 1893, Unperiodische Witterungserscheinungen im Gebiete des Karstes und den Karawanken. Meteorologische Zeitschrift. Laibach 48. Seidl, F., 1932—1935, Dinarskogorski fen (Zusammenfassung: Der Föhn des Dinarischen Gebirges). GV VIII/1932, GV X/1934, GV XI/1935. Ljubljana 49. Trabert, W., 1901, Isothermen von Österreich. Denkschr. Wiener Akad. Wiss. Bd. 73. Wien 50. Trabert, W., 1902, Isothermen von Österreich. Jahrb. d. Centralanstalt f. Met. u. Erdmagnet. Wien.