UDK 903.25'12/'15 (497.11 )"633/634":594-i Documenta PraehistoricaXXXIII (2006) Spondylus and Glycymeris bracelets: trade reflections at Neolithic Vinča-Belo Brdo Vesna Dimitrijević1, Boban Tripkovic2 1 Institute of Regional Geology and Palaeontology, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Serbia vesnadim@beotel.yu 2 Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Philosophy, Serbia B.Tripkovic@f.bg.ac.yu ABSTRACT - In the provision, production and exchange of prestigious items and materials in prehi- storic Europe, marine shell ornaments play important role. The marine shell collection at the Vinča- Belo Brdo site is the largest in the central and northern Balkans. More than 300 ornament items ma- nufactured from marine shells have been collected since the first excavations in 1908 up until the most recent campaign. The majority of ornaments were made using recent shells that were obtained through trade with contemporaneous Neolithic communities; few ornaments were made of fossil bi- valve shells. Bracelets were the most common type. Two bivalve genera, Spondylus and Glycymeris, were used in their production. These are easily recognizable when complete valves are compared, but dif- ficult to distinguish in highly modified items where shell morphology is obscured. The defining charac- teristics for shell identification are presented, particularly to differentiate ornaments manufactured from the Spondylus and Glycymeris genera, as well as those made of recent and fossil shells. The pos- sible exchange routes for these are discussed, as well as their diachronic distribution at the Vinča site. IZVLEČEK - Okraski iz morskih školjk so igrali pomembno vlogo pri pripravi, izdelavi in menjavi pre- stižnih predmetov in materialov v prazgodovinski Evropi. Zbirka morskih školjk iz najdišča Vinča- Belo Brdo je največja na centralnem in severnem Balkanu. Od prvih izkopavanj leta 1908, do danes so našli več kot 300 okrasnih predmetov, izdelanih iz morskih školjk. Večino okrasnih predmetov so izdelali iz recentnih školjk, ki so jih dobili z menjavo s sočasnimi neolitskimi skupnostmi, nekaj pa so jih izdelali iz fosilnih dvolupinskih školjk. Najpogostejše so bile zapestnice. Za njihovo izdelavo so uporabljali dva rodova školjk, Spondylus in Glycymeris. Te rodova sta lahko prepoznavna, če primer- jamo cele lupine, težko pa ju razločujemo pri močno spremenjenih predmetih, kjer je školjčna mor- fologija nejasna. Predstavljamo ključne elemente, ki omogočajo razpoznavo školjk, iz katerih so iz- delani okrasni predmeti. Analiziramo poti njihove menjave in diahronično distribucijo na najdišču Vinča. KEY WORDS - Archaeomalacology; Spondylus; Glycymeris; Neolithic; Vinča culture Introduction Marine shell ornaments were recorded at the begin- ning of Neolithic research in the Central Balkans, in the early 20th century. The famous Vinca excavator Vasic, in an article published after the first excava- tion season, presented 9 shell bracelets (Vassits 1910). However, in later works, including the four tome Vinca monograph, he never mentioned them again (Vasič 1932; 1936). Similarly, throughout the rest of the century and following the traditional pre- occupation with pottery analysis, these exotic items were largely neglected. Comprehending the importance and role of shell or- naments in the life of prehistoric communities on the European continent, noting especially the indica- tions they offer concerning trade and social contacts, we initiated research into the occurrence of marine shells in the Balkans Neolithic, starting with the Star- čevo and Vinča cultures (Dimitrijevic and Tripkovic 2003). In these respects, certainly the most important collec- tion is from the central and largest site of the Vinča culture - Belo Brdo, in the Vinča village. In the im- pressive 10.5 m thick section, layers with remains from the Starčevo and Vinča cultures were formed in the continuation from approximately 5500 BC to 4300 BC (Garasanin 1979; Chapman 1981; Steva- novic, Jovanovic 1996; Gläser 1996), thus covering the time of maximal distribution of Spondylus and other marine shells across the European continent. Changes in the numbers and composition of shell ornaments at Vinča-Belo Brdo are a reflection of pro- cesses from the wider region, and may disclose im- portant data for understanding prehistoric European contact networks. Shell identification, origin problems and the aims of analysis Our first insight into the marine shell artifacts from Vinča-Belo Brdo was an assemblage from the 1998- 2001 seasons. Previously, we described 14 bracelet fragments made of Spondylus and directed attention to the origin and distribution of shells of this bivalve genus (Dimitrijević and Tripkovic 2003). However, during and after the analysis, in the course of conti- nuing excavations, the more complex content of shell collections was revealed: items were manufactured using not only recent shells, but also fossil mollusks, and not only Spondylus shells. A number of artifacts were made from the shells of another bivalve genus, Glycymeris. Its appearance in the north and central Balkans had not been pre- viously analyzed, nor was its role and distribution within the European continent fully understood. However, its importance in prehistory is shown by an example from the Levant, where it was used, in the course of the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and the Bronze Age, particularly for ornament production, but also for other purposes, such as the substrata foundations of pavements, or as eye applications on the famous statuette of Ur (Bar-Yosef 1991; 2002). Glycymeris occurrences are rather numerous in the coastal region of the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea during the Neolithic and Eneolithic. Together with Spondylus, they are the most important marine shells used as ornaments at the sites of Sitagroi and Servia in Macedonia and Greece, as well as at the Du- rankulak necropolis in eastern Bulgaria (Reese 1987; Karali 1999; Nikolaidou 2003; Todorova 2002). However, the evaluation of its importance is often difficult, since the shells are so greatly modified in the process of the artefact manufacture that identifi- cation of Glycymeris and its differentiation from Spondylus is hindered. At the Durankulak site and necropolis, for example, 1505 shell items are characterized as Spondylus/Gly- cymeris (Avramova 2002), but only 24 bracelets are specified as made of Glycymeris shell (Todorova 2002.177-186). An example of Gura Baiucului is also illustrative. A bracelet is described as made of Pec- tunculus, a synonym for Glycymeris (Vlassa 1976. Fig. 14, 11). In later publications the same item is described as a bracelet of Spondylus (Lazarovici and Maxim 1995.154, Fig. 26.1). At Anza, a Neoli- thic site in Macedonia, all shell bracelets found are described as made of Spondylus (Gimbutas 1976). In fact, at least one specimen is Glycymeris shell, as the distinct morphological features of the Glycyme- ris hinge and adductor muscle scar are recognizable in its illustration (see Gimbutas 1976.Fig. 215.6). Similarly, the attribution of marine shell artifacts as a priori Spondylus items may be oversimplified evi- dence at many European inland sites. If ornament production from marine shells was a unique process in prehistory, with no cultural and chronological differences no matter what species of marine shell is used, than this question of Spondylus/ Glycymeris differentiation could be disregarded. But, there are indications that this is not the case. In this respect the aims of our paper are: • to present Vinča-Belo Brdo shell assemblages from the earliest excavation until the most recent cam- paign; • to define fossil/non-fossil shell origins; • to establish identify characteristics for artifacts from different shell species; • to reconsider the source areas for shell acquisition and probable exchange routes. Raw material for ornament production - fos- sils or recent1 shells? Fossils were collected in the Vinča surroundings and brought to the site. Two fragments of fossil clam Lim- 1 Meaning contemporaneous to the Neolithic, i.e. living broadly in the same time as Vinča inhabitants. nocardium (= Pannonicardium) are present in the material from Vasic's excavations. One is quadrangu- lar in shape (2.5 x 2.5 cm), modified by cutting and scraping (Babović 198.180, catalogue No. 250). It is identified as brackish clam Pannonicardium dumi- čići of Pontian (Upper Miocene) age2. The other, si- milar in shape and size (3.5 x 3.2 cm) is perforated, and thus clearly modified into a pendant (Fig. 1a). A third fragment of similar shape and size (4 x 3.3 cm) was found in the last excavation campaign (Fig. 1b). The question arises that, if fossils were modified into pendants, were other ornament items also made of fossil shells? Certainly for most Spondylus ornaments, we expect this is not the case. We should consider at least one specimen from Vinca doubtlessly recent: the one ana- lyzed for oxygen isotopic composition (Shackelton and Elderfield 1990)3. Should this fact point to the conclusion that all Spondylus items were made of re- cent and not fossil shells? And should, then, other Spondylus, and especially Glycymeris items, differ from Spondylus items according to their origin? So, the questions are posed: did the raw material for making ornament objects originate from recent, fos- sil, or both kinds of shell? The answer is important, because fossil origins indicate acquisition in a near- by region of the site, while recent origins imply long- distance trade relations with contemporaries, as the nearest coastline is more then 500 km from the Vin- ca site. This leads us to the necessity of considering fossiliferous sites with marine shells in the region, Fig. 1. Worked fragments of Miocene clam Limno- cardium: a. perforated specimen excavated by Va- sic; b. specimen excavated in 2003. investigating the appearance of the fossils, their avai- lability and convenience as a raw material, and estab- lishing whether it is possible to distinguish them among ornament items from recent shells. Several sites with exposed marine Miocene deposits rich in fossil mollusk remains are revealed in the sur- roundings of the Vinca village. The best known are the villages of Visnjica and Slanci, at a distance of 5- 7 km northeast of Vinca, and Rakovica, once a vil- lage, but now a part of Belgrade, approximately the same distance to the southeast. Further away, in cen- tral, eastern and western Serbia there are other sites rich in nicely preserved fossils of the same age. In total, four fossil species of Glycymeris and one fos- sil species of Spondylus have been identified in the marine Miocene of Serbia: Glycymeris obtusatus4 and Glycymerispilosus5 are frequent species in the whole region. Spondylus crassicostata6 is also found on many sites, while occurrences of Glycymeris co- robtusata7 and Glycymeris fichteli8 are more rare, and found in eastern Serbia (Stevanović 1977; Pet- ković 1987). Spondylus gaederopus, a species that is mostly used as a raw material at Neolithic sites in Europe, was present in the Miocene. But in the Mio- cene deposits of Serbia its presence is not confirmed, although it is known in an adjacent area in Bulgaria (Kojumdgieva andStrachimirov 1960.75-76). The late Professor Petar Stevanović, who was the most respected authority on Tertiary fossil mollusks in Serbia, identified shells from which two fragmen- ted bracelets from Vinca were made as a fossil Mid- dle Miocene clam Pectunculus pilosus (Babović 1984.127, catalogue No. 235, 237). Pectunculus is the name previously used, but it is now incorpora- ted in the genus Glycymeris (Moore 1969). Likewise, G.pilosus is often treated as the same as G.glycyme- ris, being of similar morphology, although some ta- xonomists regard them as distinct species. The fossil finds of other mollusk species at the site were identified by Stevanovic as Cytherea sp., Tur- ritella turis and the previously mentioned Pannoni- cardium dumičići (1984.128, catalogue No. 251, 250, 253). These finds show that the Vinca inhabi- 2 Identification was performed by P. Stevanovic (Babović 1984.121). 3 The isotopic analyses were performed to establish whether shells for making ornaments in Neolithic originate from Mediterranean or Black Seas. However, if differencies were enough to make distinctions between contemporaneus Mediterranean and Black sea, they would certainly be much greater if a shell originated from much warmer Miocene sea. 4 Cited as Pectunculus obtusatus Partsch in Petković 1987. 5 Cited as Pectunculus pilosus in Stevanović 1977; Petković 1987. 6 Cited as Spondylus crassicostata Lamarck in Stevanović 1977; Petković 1987. 7 Cited as Pectunculus (Axinea) corobtusata (Lartsch.) in Petković 1987. 8 Cited as Pectunculus fichteli Deshayes in Petković 1987. tants visited different fossiliferous sites in the vici- nity to collect fossils, as Pectunculuspilosus, Cythe- rea sp. and Turritella turis originate from the Mid- dle Miocene marine deposits, while Pannonicardium dumičići comes from the brackish Upper Miocene. Also, tube-like shells of the fossil scaphopod known as Dentalium were used at Vinca as beads (Babović 1984, catalogue No. 238). However, collecting fossils and even using some of them as ornaments does not indicate that fossils were suitable for any ornament, namely bracelet, production. We think that Stevanovic was wrong when ascribing shells, from which two fragmented bracelets from Vinca were made from fossils. This mistake is not surprising, as Stevanovic was a paleon- tologist, who was aware that marine animals lived in the region in the Miocene, but not thereafter, as the ancient sea withdrew. So, he was apt to look at marine shells as a priori fossils, especially when dea- ling with species that are represented in regional fos- sil sites, like species of Glycymeris and Spondylus genera. Aware of possible trade relationships that could sup- ply Vinca inhabitants with recent shells, or bracelets made of them, as well as of the availability of fossils in the vicinity, we did not reject fossil or recent ori- gins of shells, but looked through the material with both options as possibilities. We found the following criteria for distinguishing recent shells from fossil shells useful: O Ornament item size. The majority of fossil spe- cies are excluded as possible raw material for the production of bracelets since their shells are too small. At Vinca, this is the case with Glycymeris ob- tusatus, G. corobtusata, and G. fichteli. But shells of some fossil species, like Glycymeris pilosus and Spondylus crassicostata, correspond to the size of shells that are used for ornament manufacture. © Shell morphology. When complete shells are compared it is possible to distinguish species of the same genus, i.e. fossils from recent species. Of course, fragments of broken bracelets, and most complete bracelets as well, are far from having all the charac- teristics of whole shells, and usually offer nothing to distinguish species of the same genus and similar size. An exception may occur when the hinge area is preserved more or less completely, which is some- times the case with bracelets made of Glycymeris (Todorova 2002.179, Abb. 201). No specimen of this kind has been found at Vinca. © Internal shell structure and color. What re- mains recognizable in fragmented items is the inter- nal structure of the shell. Growth lines are often vi- sible either in oblique or cross section, and someti- mes the color of the shell, whether from the outer shell layer, or inner, or internal. Usually, fossils are discolored and the shell's exterior form is eroded. However, coloration is not an ample argument for discounting fossil origin. Some fossils from the sur- roundings of Belgrade, especially those from Rako- vica sands, are extraordinarily preserved. Complete valves are present, including the finest details of the outer and inner shell layers, as well as their color. © Transparency and elasticity. What remains observable in almost every item, including those strongly modified by ornament production and those severely fragmented, is the transparency and elasticity of the shell. These should reflect a 'fresh' and translucent appearance in recent shells, as op- posed to the brittle and opaque appearance in fossil shells, resulting from mineral exchange. Even the best-preserved fossils lack the internal elasticity of recent shells. On the other hand, ornaments made of recent shells may sometimes also be corroded or show some evidence of the process of mineral de- composition. Consequently, it is not always possible to determine whether an item is made of recent or fossil shell. Another question is whether fossil shells were con- venient at all for modifying into ornaments, given their probable lack of elasticity. In an experiment conducted by Miller (2003) to replicate the manufac- ture of Spondylus amulets, even beach-collected re- cent shells were too dry and fragile to withstand the manufacturing process, and they tended to break. Furthermore, it is highly improbable that well-pre- served fossils were available in sufficient numbers for sustained production. We found no items among the fragmented bracelets from Vinca that could be identified positively as a fossil. There were several fragments which we were uncertain about regarding as of recent or fossil origin, but the majority was po- sitively identified as made of recent shells, thus ac- quired by trade or some other kind of contact/ex- change with contemporaneous communities of the wider region. Distinguishing parameters for shell identifica- tion: Spondylus or Glycymeris? Belonging to two very distant families, Spondylus and Glycymeris shells are easily recognizable. It is only because ornament production tends to elimi- nate as much of the original morphology of the shell as possible that differentiation is problematic. Never- theless, it is these obscured morphological characte- ristics we have to address when looking for features which differentiate shells of two genera. To demon- strate the ornaments variability of the two species the particular bracelet fragments found at Vinca have been taken as examples. or sockets remain. However, they often bear rem- nants of umbonal cavity on the inner side of the band (Fig. 2.2, 6). Laterally and toward the ventral side of the valve, the bracelets are much thinner. The purple coloration of the outer shell layer is well preserved in some specimens (Fig. 2.3, 8-10), while in others it is noticeable in traces or is absent. Shell growth lines are also observable on most bracelet fragments both lengthways and in cross-section. Spondylus: description. The shell is massive and consists of two unequal valves. In the hinge area there are large dental sockets and hinge teeth (Fig. 2.1a-b). There are two equal teeth in each valve, po- sitioned symmetrically on either side of a resilium pit where the internal ligament is placed, with two large sockets for receiving corresponding teeth in the other valve. The shell is milk-white, purple or yellowish-brown and with distinct radial ribs and large, irregular spines (Fig. 2.1c). During the lifetime of the animal it is usually attached by its right valve to a solid substrate. Due to the unequal size of the valves and attachment to the ground, the spe- cies exhibits great variability in shape, color and ornamentation. On the inner side a large circular adduc- tor scar is placed posteriorly (Fig. 2.1d). The ventral margin on the in- ner side is scalloped (Fig. 2.1e). Spondylus bracelet: description. The bracelets were made of transver- sal sections of the valve. In the dor- sal half of the valve the bracelet band is parallel to the arm of the wearer (Fig. 2.2, 4-7), while the cen- tral section curves in a spiral (Fig. 2.3, 8) and continues into a vertical position perpendicular to the arm of the wearer (Fig. 2.9-10). The brace- let is thickest in the section made of the dorsal part of the valve, where a hinge arch is incorporated into a bra- celet band. Hinge teeth and dental sockets are prominent on some bra- celet fragments (Fig. 2.4-5, 7), al- though mainly only the teeth bases and socket bottoms are left after ex- tensive rubbing of the shell. Some bracelet fragments are cut below the hinge, or the hinge area is so intensi- vely rubbed that no traces of teeth Glycymeris: description. The shell is circular, and valves are similar in size, shape and convexity. The beak (umbo) (Fig. 3.1a) is in the center, and curved inward. The hinge is made of teeth rows (Fig. 3.1c) arranged in straight lines on both sides. The hinge plate is arched. Above it and below the beak is a flat field of triangular shape called area (Fig. 3.1b). On Fig. 2. Spondylus shell and representative bracelet fragments. 1. Spondylus sp., recent, inner side of the left valve, a. socket, b. car- dinal tooth, c. spine, d. adductor scar, e. ventral margin; 2, 7 and 10. bracelet fragments excavated by Vasic; 3. bracelet fragment ex- cavated in 1982; 8. bracelet fragment excavated in 2001; 4, 5, 6 and 9. bracelet fragments excavated in 2002; 2. the arrow points to the preserved bottom of the umbonal cavity. the inner side of valves, adductor scars (Fig. 3.1d) are circular and po- sitioned near the anterior and pos- terior margins. The inner margin is crenulated (Fig. 3.1e). Fine costate ornamentation and brown mottling characterize the outer shell. Glycymeris: bracelet description. A common type of bracelet is made when a valve is cut along its maxi- mal diameter, including the umbili- cal part. The shape obtained is a bra- celet with a circular outline and a tri- angular bump on one side (Figs. 3.3, 4, 7; Fig. 4). The beak is grounded and the triangular field flattened. Often a perforation is drilled in the middle of this area (Fig. 3.4-5). The umbonal cavity is observable on the inner side of the band (Figs. 3.2, 4-5). Sets of hinge teeth are someti- mes observable, but usually only not- ches remain in their place, since this part of the valve is mostly ground down. The transversal section of the bracelet band changes in relation to the part of the valve from which it is made: the bracelet portion made of the ventral part of the valve is ob- late, i.e. elliptical, with the larger dia- meter perpendicular to the arm of the wearer (Fig. 3.8-10), while to- ward the lateral portion of the valve it changes first in circular outline, then in elliptical, with the larger diameter parallel to the arm (Fig. 3.6). Fragments made of the ventral portion of the valve often bear traces of crenulations of the inner margin. They may be in the shape of clearly outlined connected triangles (Fig. 3.8), when the rubbing of the valve was not very intensive, or in the shape of parallel notches (Fig. 3.9), resulting from grinding away the inner sculpture of the shell. Some fragments preserve the outer shell layer, which is characterized by a light brown, sometimes brown- purple, color, and fine reticule (Fig. 3.10). To distinguish between Spondylus and Glycymeris items, we find recognizable the following natural features: O Valve outline. When complete bracelets are in question it is easy to make a distinction: Glycymeris products have a triangular bump on one side, a cir- Fig. 3. Glycymeris shell and representative bracelet fragments. 1. Glycymeris glycymeris, recent, inner side of the right valve, a. beak, b. area, c. teeth, d. adductor scar, e. crenulated inner margin; 2-10. bracelet fragments excavated by Vasic; 5. the arrow points to the remnant of the umbonal cavity; 2 and 6. mirror view. cular outline and a quite symmetrical and regular form (Figs. 3.7, 4). Spondylus bracelets are usually more massive (Fig. 2.4), oval or elliptical in outline (Fig. 2.2), and often have an asymmetrical and irre- gular form. Fig. 4. Glycymeris bracelet from Vinca, Vasic's ex- cavation, depth 9 m. depth (m) Spondylus Glycymeris 1 o !.5 o o o 2 o o o o o o o o o o o o o 2,5 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 3 o o o o o o 3.5 o o o o o o o o o o o o 4 o 4.5 o o 5 o o o 5.5 o o o o o 6 o o o o o o o o o o o 6.5 o o 7 o o o o 7.5 o o o o 8 o o o o o o 8.5 o o o o o o o 9 o o o o o 9.5 Fig. 5. Spondylus and Glycymeris ornaments from 1908-1934 excavations distributed by depth. © Shell morphology - hinge area. When the hinge, or part of the hinge arch with its teeth is pre- served on the bracelet fragment, it is possible to dis- tinguish small, regular denticules of Glycymeris (Fig. 4), and the large and few teeth and dental sockets of Spondylus (Fig. 2.4-5, 7). In Glycymeris bracelet fragments made of the umbilical part of the valve, there is a recess positioned below this area (Fig. 3.2, 4-5), while Spondylus bracelet fragments made of the umbilical part of the valve are usually of regular circumference and the bracelet lies along the arm by its entire width. A recess positioned below the hinge arch sometimes exists in Spondylus bracelets, too, but its shape is irregular and often appears as a sort of scar on the inner part of the bracelet band (Fig. 2.6). shallower, undifferentiated in outline, and positio- ned away from the hinge area and margin of the valve in Spondylus. Consequently, it is rarely pre- served in bracelet fragments, and more often in amu- lets (Fig. 7.1b). © Shell morphology - ventral valve. Fragments made of the ventral part of a valve, when not overly rubbed, are rather easy to distinguish. In Glycyme- ris bracelet fragments there are characteristic rows of triangles on the valve margin (Fig. 3.8). When the item is polished, only notches remain from the origi- nal triangles (Fig. 3.9), or they disappear completely. Similar notches are found also in the ventral mar- gin of the inner side of the valve in Spondylus frag- ments. In Glycymeris fragments, these notches are evenly distributed, while in Spondylus they are more irregular, but confusion is still possible. © Inner structure. This helps in some instances, but may cause confusion and may be unrecognizable in small and intensively modified fragments. Gene- rally, growth lines are more regular and evenly dis- tributed in Glycymeris, while in Spondylus they are often uneven and sometimes waved, especially near the ventral margin of the valve. © Color. Although it is often looked to first to help differentiation, color may also confuse. An intense purple color indicates Spondylus, but not all Spon- dylus fragments are intensely colored, and some fragments lack such color completely, and are rather milk-white or yellowish. Also, some Glycymeris frag- ments show traces of a brown, reddish, and some- times even purple color. © Shell morphology - middle valve and adductor scars. Glycy- meris bracelet fragments made of the middle part of the valve show an even and regular change of bra- celet band circumference from the vertical to the horizontal, while they are usually of quite irregular circum- ference band change in Spondylus fragments. When the adductor scar is preserved in a bracelet fragment made of a Glycymeris valve it has a regular circular outline, close to the valve margin and below the hinge arch (Fig. 4). The adductor scar is Fig. 6. Inner diameter of bracelets from Vinca. Measurements have been taken of specimens preserved with a length of more than 5 cm. Vinca shell ornaments The number of marine shell artifacts from the Vinca site to be presented here is 307 (Tab. 1)9. Most of these ornaments are made of recent marine bivalves, but there are also four pieces made of fossil shell, all belonging to the Miocene genus Limnocardium. Fossils that are not recognizably modified in order to make an ornament, shells of other marine orga- nisms, like Dentalium, and mollusks of non-marine origin are not presented here. Among recent marine bivalves, two genera are iden- tified: Spondylus and Glycymeris. 169 items were made of Spondylus, and 94 of Glycymeris shells. Identification of the bivalve genus was not possible in 41 cases, due to the high degree of modification obliterating morphological features. There were 19 specimens belonging to a separate bivalve genus of massive valves, but small dimensions (mean 10 x 8 mm); the majority of which (17) are found in the col- lection of the National Museum in Belgrade, strung through a double perforation in each on a single rope, and with a label indicating they were found at a depth of 3.80 m. Spondylus and Glycymeris items are present through- out the duration of the settlement at Belo Brdo, al- though their number varied considerably. This is shown by the distribution of finds collected during the excavation campaigns from 1908 to 1934, when the whole cultural layer to a depth of 9.5 m was ex- plored, from the latest to the earliest horizons. Glycy- meris items are abundant in the lower part of the settlement sequence. Of 46 finds for which depth is known*0, 16 specimens originate from a depth of 9.5-8 m. Above 4 m, there are only 9 Glycymeris items. Conversely, there is only one Spondylus find from the earliest phase of the settlement. They ap- pear in larger numbers only when the number of Glycymeris finds begins to gradually decrease, while they are most numerous above 4 m. In the second and the third phases of research, the upper layers of the sequence were excavated (Vinca D). Among 72 items collected, 60 were made of Spon- dylus shells, 8 of Glycymeris, and 3 items were un- identifiable. It would be important to establish whe- ther chronological differences in the frequency of Spondylus and Glycymeris products simply charac- terize the Vinca site, or if it is indicative of the over- all use of marine goods in the region. On the basis of the current state of published data from the other sites of the Vinca culture, it is not possible to confirm this pattern of chronological change, since these two genera were not differentiated in any of the existing reports. Still, it is highly probable that in the central and northern Balkans, Glycymeris items were pre- sent along with those of Spondylus, as evidenced by bracelet finds from the necropolis at Botos (Petrovič 1997.33) and the settlement of Potporanj-Kremenjak (Rašajski 2002.29).11 At present, one can only compare the frequency of Spondylus and Glycymeris finds from sites in the coastal regions of the Aegean and Black Seas. For example, in Sitagroi (Greece), items of both genera appear in the course of phases I-V of the settlement, but are only numerous in phases II and III (Shack- leton 2003.361-362; Nikolaidou 2003.333).12 The important observation is that items made of both bi- valve genera are approximately equally represented in phase II, while a strong preference for Spondylus became established in phase III (Shackleton 2003. 362). Bracelets are the dominant type of ornament among marine shell finds at the Vinca culture sites; they con- stitute almost 90% of all ornament types. Excavation Spondylus Glycymeris Recent bivalves indet. Fossil Limnocardium 1908-1934 109 86 38 2 1978-1986 6 2 2 0 1998-2003 54 6 1 1 Sum 169 94 41 3 Tab. 1. The number of the marine shell ornaments by taxonomic The identification of annulets as bra- identification. celets needs some explanation. They 9 The analysed finds are stored in the Archaeological collection of the Phylosophical faculty in Belgrade, National museum in Belgrade (1908-1934 excavations), and Museum of Vinca near Belgrade (1978-1986 and 1998-2003 excavations). In addi- tion, a part of the collection from the first research campaigne (1908-1934) is stored at the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery; approximately 30% of artifacts in Birmingham are made of Glycymeris (after Shackleton 2003.364). 10 Depth data are written on the specimens; in few cases number is not readible. 11 They are described as Spondylus bracelets, but distinct features of Glycymeris shell are observable on the illustrations. 12 Phase II is dated 5200-4600 cal. BC, phase III 4600-3500 cal. BC, which means that those two phases correspond roughly to complite Vinca sequence. might have been used not only as bracelets, but also as hair ornaments and on cloth garments, or anklets. Indeed, the diameters of annulets are sometimes so small that they might have been worn by children, or put on the arm in childhood and never taken off (Gaydarska et al. 2004.24). However, their common usage as bracelets is shown through grave goods, mainly in the region of the Black Sea (Todorova 2002; Av- ramova 2002), and indirectly in fi- gurines with bracelet representations (Kalicz and Szenaszky 2001.42, Fig. 14). Some of the latter are also found at Vinca (Vasic 1936.XXVII). Most of the amulets from Vinca have an interior diameter greater than 4 cm (Fig. 6) and were most probably worn around as bracelets. The grea- ter number of Glycymeris bracelets have an interior diameter of 5-6 cm, and only one reaches 8 cm. The bra- celet with the smallest diameter (3.9 cm) is also the only complete example (Fig. 4). Fig. 7. Pendants, garments and beads from Vinca, Vasic's excava- tion: 1. Spondylus pendant, made of the central portion of the valve. Arrows point to openings that remained at the breakage line; 2. Spondylus pendant/garment, an arrow points to a single opening remained at the breakage line; 3- pendant/garment, probably Spon- dylus; 4. button, probably Spondylus, arrows point to openings at the breakage line; 5. biconical Spondylus bead; 6. barrel bead, pro- bably Spondylus; 7. discoid bead. Most Spondylus bracelets have a rather large diame- ter. Only eight items have a reconstructed interior diameter smaller than 5 cm (Fig. 6). In most speci- mens, bracelet bands are of variable volume, some- times very massive, exceeding the width of the band by of almost 2 cm in several items, and thickness of 1 cm in one item. Other Spondylus ornaments were also found: but- tons, beads, and probably garments (Fig. 7). The morphological features of the bivalve genus are not observable in buttons and beads, but the internal texture, as well as the massive volume of the shell, point to Spondylus, and not Glycymeris. In a gar- ment the adductor scar outline and position indicate Spondylus (Fig. 7.1b). The garment is perforated, and it is broken in the line of two marginal ope- nings. The break was lightly rubbed, so it was used, or it was intended to be used after the breakage. Perforations on bracelet fragments show that they were used as pendants, garments, or, possibly, parts of composite bracelets, probably after breakage. There are 41 bracelet fragments with a single perfo- ration, and seven with two or more perforations. In the majority of perforated Glycymeris pieces, the opening is positioned below the umbo (Fig. 3.4), or, when it was broken at the umbo, towards the end of the piece, but still within the umbonal cavity (Fig. 8.3-6, 9, 10). Similarly, fragmented Spondylus items are often perforated at the remnant of the umbonal cavity (Fig. 8.7, 12, 16). More rarely, other parts of bracelet band are also perforated (Fig. 8.8, 11, 13- 15). It is not always certain whether perforations were made before or after breakage, because open- ings for hanging pendants could be made on the bracelets; or annulets of small diameter might be perforated for wearing as pendants or brooches on garments. Examples of such annulets are known from Botos (Petrovič 1997.33). Probably the majo- rity of these openings were made after breakage in order to prolong the use of the ornament. This is in- dicated by their symmetrical (Fig. 8.12-13) or brunt position (Fig. 8.1-11, 14-16), and by attempts at drilling observed on at least four items. Items with two openings also confirm a second modification of broken artifacts, especially when openings are posi- tioned at two opposite ends. In one example, the two openings are on different planes, one parallel to the band of bracelet, and another perpendicular to it (Fig. 8.13a-b). They could be linked by strings to make a composite bracelet, or worn as brooches. Ef- forts to polish breakages were not made on these twice modified artifacts, except in one case (Fig. 8.14). Ornaments made from raw materials other than shell are also found at Vinca, (probably with the intension of imitating shell) and include stone (Vasić 1932.38, Pl. 15, Fig. 62; Antonović 1992.17-18, Pl. 8.5; 2003. 68, Fig. 46.5), bone and pottery (Srejović and Jova- nović 1959). Stone bracelets are made mostly of white stone, resembling the milk-white color of the Fig. 8. Fragments of bracelets with perforations. 1. Spondylus bra- celet fragment, a remnant of the umbilical depression is visible on the inner side, an arrow points to an opening; 2. Glycymeris bra- celetfragment, an arrow points to an opening; 3. Glycymeris bra- celet fragment, opening observable at the breakage; 5, 6,10. Glycy- meris bracelet fragments, arrows point to openings positioned within the umbonal cavity; 7. Spondylus bracelet fragment, open- ing observable at the top of the fragment (7a); 8. Spondylus bra- celet fragment, opening observable at the top of the fragment; 9. Glycymeris bracelet fragment, arrows point to two openings posi- tioned within the umbonal cavity and at the line of breakage, and two lower, unfinished perforations; 11,15. Spondylus bracelet frag- ments, ventral portion of the valve; 12. Spondylus bracelet frag- ment, two symmetrical perforations are observable; 13. Spondylus bracelet fragment, two openings are observable at the opposite ends of the fragment, axes of the openings perpendicular to each other; 14. bracelet fragment with one broken perforation and one unfi- nished perforation on one end, and pointed opposite end; 16. Spondylus bracelet fragments, remnant of the umbilical depres- sion and opening observable. inner side of Spondylus shells. The most important in this respect is a marble item (Vasić 1932.38, Pl. 15, Fig. 62; Antonović 1992.17-18, Pl. 8.5; 2003.68, Fig. 46.5) very similar to the Spondylus garment shown in Fig. 7.1. The traces of red color on its sur- face were possibly left to imitate the Spondylus shell color. A bone bracelet (Fig. 9.2) may be re- garded as a replica of a shell bracelet, since its shape imitates the shape of a Glycymeris bracelet shell, where a bracelet band changes its position in relation to the arm from perpendicu- lar to parallel. It is made from the bone of a large mammal and is high- ly polished. In this same way, ano- ther bone item (Fig. 9.1) is very si- milar to shell annulets modified a se- cond time into pendants. A single fragment of a clay bracelet was found at a depth of 9.2 m (Fig. 9.3). Bracelets of other materials, but similar to shell bracelets, are found at other sites of the Vinca cul- ture: at Anza (Gimbutas 1976), Di- vostin (McPherron 1988.329-330), Botos (Chapman 1981.456-457, Tab. 19-20), Selevac (Tringham and Krstić 1990) and many other sites (see Chapman 1981). Spondylus and Glycymeris ex- change routes European finds of Spondylus shell are traditionally considered to have originated from the Mediterranean Sea (Childe 1927; 1957; Theocharis 1973; Willms 1985; Seferiades 1995; 1995b; 2000; Müller 1997.8; Kalicz and Szenaszky 2001.46; Dimitrije- vić and Tripković 2003). Shells, as well as occasional finds of orna- ments, have been found in the coa- stal areas of the Aegean and Adriatic Seas as early as the end of the 7th millennium Be (Müller, Herrera and Knossalla 1996.84-85; Müller 1997). In addition, strontium isotope ana- lyses of samples of Spondylus shells from several sites (Renfrew and Shackleton 1979; Shackleton and Fig. 9. Bone and clay ornaments: 1. bone pendant perforated at one end; 2. bone bracelet, 3. clay bra- celet. Elderfield 1990) point to the Mediterranean origin of these shells, and are usually taken to confirm their Aegean biotope.13 However, the highest concentration of Spondylus finds is found along the Black Sea coastal zone and upstream of the Danube River in central Europe. This fact, presented for the first time more than 50 years ago (Clark 1952; Vencl 1959), even today sug- gests to some archaeologists the possibility that these shells originate from the Black Sea (Chapman 1981; Todorova 2000; 2002). This explanation is not un- founded, since the strontium isotope analyses previ- ously undertaken can indicate only that the Spon- dylus shell cannot be found in the Black Sea today (Renfrew and Shackleton 1979; Shackleton and Elderfield 1990), while the possibility remains that Spondylus existed here during the Neolithic and Eneolithic periods. In the course of the 6th and 5th millennia, the temperature of the Black Sea was hi- gher than it is today {Todorova 1995.56; 2002; 2000. 416-417), and new strontium isotope analyses of an enlarged sample of finds suggest the existence of at least two biotopes of the Spondylus and Glycyme- ris shells (Todorova 2002.184-185, Abb. 209). One of these biotopes is most definitely in the Mediterra- nean Sea. But, where is the other biotope? The collection of marine shells from Vinca shows that, apart from bracelets, pendants and beads made of Spondylus, large quantities of bracelets made of Glycymeris shells were also imported into the cen- tral and northern Balkans. Are the objects of Glycy- meris and Spondylus shells at the type-site of the 13 One of those samples originates from the site of Vinca. Vinca culture of the same origin? It seems that these genera were used in different periods, and it is pos- sible that they were not part of the same exchange network. The role of Glycymeris shells in European prehistory is not well known, and these finds are not easily distinguished from those made of Spon- dylus. At the same time, the pattern of their distribu- tion corresponds to Spondylus: unworked shells and artifacts can be found in the coastal stretch of the Adriatic and the Aegean Seas, while only artifacts are found in the Black Sea zone. By analyzing finds made of both species, as well as by analyzing other exotic goods, we should be in a position to deter- mine their origin with more certainty. Where is the place of origin of many artifacts made of marine species of shells that one finds at Vinca and other sites of the central and northern Balkans? And is there a noticeable difference in the frequency of Spondylus and Glycymeris finds? At most of the sites in the middle-Danube region, mostly only Spon- dylus finds have been found (Chapman 1981; Willms 1985; Dimitrijevič and Tripkovič 2003). On the other hand, on the basis of the collection of finds from Vinca, Glycymeris jewelry is plentiful, clearly outnumbering single specimens such as those detec- ted at the Neolithic sites of Gura Baiucului, Botos and Potporanj. Detailed future analyses of existing collections from other sites will surely reveal the presence of Glycymeris at many Neolithic sites, which is at the moment hinted by specimens from Anza (Gimbutas 1976.251, Fig. 215.6) and possibly Battonya - Parazstanya (Kalicz and Szenaszky 2001.32, Abb. 4.1, Abb. 8.1, Abb. 9.1). In sum, apart from Spondylus, jewelry (primarily bracelets) made of Glycymeris shells were exported in large quantities into Europe. However, at Vinca one might notice a diachronic change in the use of Spondylus and Glycymeris, which can certainly be expected at other Vinca culture sites in the future. It may come as a surprise that the settlers of Vinca im- ported bracelets made of Glycymeris at the end of the 6th millennium BC, which differs from the avai- lable evidence of the Aegean areas. For instance, in Sitagroi and other Aegean sites, mainly bracelets made of Spondylus were produced at the end of the 6th and through the end of the 5th millennium BC (Nikolaidou 2003; Müller 1997). Hence, in the light of these facts one can question the exclusively Aegean origin of the Vinca finds. What is the solution to this contradiction? A distribution map of goods that are of marine ori- gin in the central and northern Balkans reveals that Spondylus finds are completely absent in the area of the Vinca culture's southern distribution (Fig. 10). The settlement of Anza in Ovce Polje (FYR of Mace- donia), which is connected with northern Greece through the Vardar valley, is currently the northern- most site of the Vinca culture where large quantities of marine shells were found (Gimbutas 1976). In con- trast, very extensive excavations in Valac (Tasič 1960), Žitkovac (Tasič 1958), Predionica (Glišič 1964), Fafos I and II (Jovanovič 1961), Gradac (Sta- lio 1972), Crnokalacka Bara (Tasič and Tomič 1969) and many other sites did not uncover any marine shells (see Fig. 10).14 Other types of exotic goods, such as obsidian, which are frequently found at Vin- ca culture sites in the Danube region, are absent also from the collection of the aforementioned sites (Trip- kovič 2004; Glišič 1968). These facts should not lead to a premature conclusion about the complete seclu- sion of the southern Vinca culture sites from the ex- change networks of the time; it is possible that fu- ture research in these areas may alter this pattern. However, it is certain that most of the artifacts that are of marine origin found at Vinca and other sites in the Danube region were not distributed through this southern route. Not only in the Neolithic, but also in later periods, the areas of southern Serbia and Macedonia, apart from technology and pottery decoration, do not show evidence that there was close communication with the area of the Danube region. Despite previous suggestions about contacts through the Morava-Vardar valleys (Benac, Garaša- nin and Srejovič 1979.22; Garašanin 1998), the ab- sence of exotic goods, including obsidian, shows that some barriers may have existed for the diffusion of exotic goods along this route. An alternative possibility that could explain how this type of supply reached the communities of the Vinca culture in the Danube region might be contact with communities on the eastern Adriatic coast. This con- tact can be traced back to the Early Neolithic, i.e. the Starcevo-Impresso culture (Benac 1973; Perič 1996). Neolithic inhabitants of the Adriatic coast who pos- sibly used prestigious jewelry made of these shells were very likely involved in exporting and distribu- ting these objects into the middle-Danube region. One of these communities was revealed at the site of Obre II in central Bosnia, a settlement of the But- mir culture. Numerous Spondylus objects were found there, from unworked shells to final products (Be- nac 1971). Undeniable archaeological evidence ex- ists which proves that communities from this area had contact with communities of the Vinca culture in the central Balkans and southern Pannonian Ba- sin, as well as with Sopot-Lengyel culture communi- ties between the Sava and the Drava Rivers (Perič 1995; Marijanovič 1980.29; Dimitrijevič 1979.301- 303; Benac 1979.452). Reinforcing this point, one may notice that in the course of the 6th and 5th mil- lennia BC, the northern Balkans, including a large part of the Pannonian Plain, was an area of inten- sive communication, if judged on the basis of the di- stribution of exotic goods. Here, the exchange of exo- tic goods characterizes all of the aforementioned cul- tures (Tripkovič 2004). However, these observations certainly do not solve the problem regarding the origin of Spondylus and Glycymeris finds in the Vinca culture. They point to the differences between southern and northern areas of the Vinca culture, and undermine the hypothesis that these finds came exclusively from the Aegean re- gion. It is already a certainty that the import of these goods was in a large part made possible through con- tacts with Butmir communities in the western re- gions of the Balkans, directly or through intermedia- ries (Dimitrijevič and Tripkovič 2003). However, this can only be a partial solution to the problem. While the existence of two different culture zones with specific types of Spondylus artifacts is positi- vely documented (Müller 1997), there remains the possibility that the old hypothesis, that the origin of at least some of the Spondylus (and Glycymeris) finds was the Black Sea, may be confirmed in the future. Conclusion The marine shell collection at Vinca is the largest in the region of the central and northern Balkans. Al- though fossil shells are locally available, it was con- cluded that the majority of ornaments were made using recent shells obtained through trade with con- temporaneous Neolithic communities. Two bivalve genera, Spondylus and Glycymeris, were identified, revealing an approximate proportion of 60:40. These are easily recognizable when complete valves are compared, but difficult to distinguish in highly mo- 14 At some sites in Velika Morava Valley, Divostin (No. 24 on the map - McPheron 1988.330, Fig. 11.5) and Drenovac (not map- ped - Chapman 1981.380, Fig. 143.18) several shell items were recorded, but neither species nor fossil/recent origin were spe- cified (see Dimitrijevič and Tripkovič 2003.58). Fig. 10. Distribution of Spondylus/Glycymeris artifacts in the Cen- tral and North Balkans: • - Vinca culture sites, Spondylus/Glycyme- ris reported; ■ - Vinca culture sites, Spondylus/Glycymeris not re- ported; ▲ - Non Vinca sites mentioned in the text. 1 - Gura Baciu- lui; 2 - Alba Iulia; 3 - Tartaria; 4 - Novi Knezevac; 5 - Kikinda; 6 - Parta; 7 - Mostonga; 8 - Aradac; 9 - Botos; 10 - Opovo; 11 - Go- molava; 12 - Jakovo; 13 - Vinca; 14 - Vršac, Kozluk; 15 - Vršac, At; 16 - Vršac, Potporanjske granice; 17 - Potporanj; 18 - Gaj, Čolak; 19 - Racasdia; 20 - Liubcova; 21 - Ostrovul Corbului; 22 - Selevac; 23 - Obre II; 24 - Divostin; 25 - Supska; 26 - Crnokalacka Bara; 27 - Naprelje; 28 - Pločnik; 29 - Gradac, Zlokucani; 30 - Žitkovac; 31 - Valac; 32 - Fafos; 33 - Predionica; 34 - Anzabegovo; 35 - Sitagroi; 36 - Durankulak. dified items where shell morphology cannot be de- termined. This fact may be one of the reasons ma- rine shell artifacts were identified as a priori Spon- dylus at many European sites and therefore their ex- change pattern oversimplified. We presented distin- guishing parameters for shell identification, particu- larly to differentiate ornaments manufactured from the Spondylus and Glycymeris genera, as well as those made of recent and fossil shells. The distribution of Spondylus and Glycymeris items at Vinca is diachronic: Glycymeris items are more frequent in the earlier phases, while Spondylus items are more numerous in the later settlement phases. The variance in the types of ornaments is limited: bracelets, beads, pendants and garments were made from Spondylus, while from Glycymeris shell, only bracelets have been found. There are no indications of manufacturing within the settlement. Consequen- tly, marine shell ornaments were probably brought to the settlement as final products. However, secon- dary modification of fragmented ornaments is evi- denced by perforations made on many bracelet fragments. This sec- ondary treatment of the broken or- naments illustrates the value of the raw material from which they were made. The direction from which items made of Spondylus and Glycymeris were brought to Vinca and other sites in the middle Danube is not very clear. There are three possible source areas: the Aegean, the Adria- tic and the Black Sea. Production, intensive usage and exchange is proven by rich ornament assembla- ges at many sites within the Aegean region. In addition, this is the only region where shell ornament work- shops have been identified. How- ever, exchange routes are not well outlined. In the southern part of the distribution area of the Vinca culture, in the Velika and Južna Mo- rava valleys, and in Kosovo, where many sites have been explored, Spondylus and Glycymeris items were not found. Also, diachronic distribution of the two genera evi- denced at Vinca does not seem to appear at Aegean sites. Another pos- sible Mediterranean source area is the Adriatic. Exchange with the Adriatic region is highly probable, according to well established con- nections recognized in general features of the mate- rial cultures between Neolithic communities in that region and the central Balkans. However, few of the sites with marine goods that have been recorded preclude any further evaluation of the development of the exchange network from this direction. Finally, considering the possibility of the Black Sea origin, the important facts are intensive usage of marine goods in this region and well-outlined exchange routes. A large number of sites with recorded marine goods are clustered along the Danube, from the Black Sea coast to Vinca, and further north and west. Workshops, however, have not been evidenced in this region. 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