Origin of planation surfaces in the hinterland of Šumljak 
sedimentary bodies in Rebrnice  
(Upper Vipava Valley, SW Slovenia)
Nastanek reliefnih izravnav v zaledju sedimentnih teles Šumljak na Rebrnicah  
(Zgornja Vipavska dolina, SW Slovenija)
Tomislav POPIT
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Department of Geology, Privoz 11, SI-
1000 Ljubljana; e-mail: tomi.popit@geo.ntf.uni-lj.si
Prejeto / Received 28. 9. 2017; Sprejeto / Accepted 30. 11. 2017; Objavljeno na spletu / Published online 22. 12. 2017
Key words: planation surface, steep scarp, slope deposit, scree deposit, fossil landslide
Ključne besede: reliefna izravnava, strmi robovi, pobočni sediment, melišče, fosilni plaz
Abstract
The Rebrnice area forms the north eastern slopes of the Upper Vipava Valley and is located between Karst 
plateau to the southwest and the Nanos plateau to the northeast. The Rebrnice slopes are geomorphologically 
defined by a thrust front of Mesozoic carbonates over Tertiary flysch deposits and are characterised by a variety 
of polygenetic landslides (being the most prominent geomorphological features). Among them, the three Šumljak 
sedimentary bodies of fossil landslides (approximately 0.56 km² in area) comprise carbonate gravels and breccia. 
The most distinctive geomorphological element is the planation surface of the carbonate breccia blocks positioned 
in the hinterland of the Šumljak sedimentary bodies. Another feature is the presence of local escarpments (steep 
scarps) defining the border between the planation surface in the hinterland and sedimentary bodies. 
Our research suggests that the whole area in the hinterland of the Šumljak sedimentary bodies form part of a 
deep-seated rotational landslide formed of carbonate breccia. On the basis of the dipping of the breccia beds, in 
particular parts of the rotational blocks, the rotation can reach up to 60°. Planation surfaces developed above the 
curved, sliding plane in the central part and/or slightly outer part of the landslide. Steep scarps on the external 
parts of the planation surface represent the main scarps of the Šumljak sedimentary bodies. We propose that 
these bodies originated from the remobilization of material accumulated in outer parts of large-scale rotational 
slides and its transportation further downslope, mostly by rock avalanches.
Izvleček 
Območje Rebrnic predstavlja severnovzhodna pobočja Zgornje Vipavske doline, ki se nahajajo med kraško 
planoto na jugozahodu in Nanosom na severovzhodu. Topografijo območja Rebrnic opredeljuje čelo narivnega 
robu mezozojskih karbonatov, ki so narinjeni na terciarne kamnine fliša, kontakt pa prekrivajo kvartarni pobočni 
sedimenti, med katerimi so najpomembnejši fosilni in recentni poligenetski plazovi. Med fosilnimi plazovi 
izstopajo tudi tri sedimentna telesa Šumljak (velikosti 0,56 km²), sestavljena iz karbonatnega grušča in breče 
in imajo specifične geomorfološke značilnosti. Najbolj značilen geomorfološki element so planarne (izravnane) 
površine blokov karbonatnih breč v zaledju sedimentnih teles Šumljak in prisotnost lokalnih morfoloških stopenj 
v obliki strmih robov, ki opredeljujejo mejo med izravnano površino v zaledju in sedimentnim telesom.
Raziskave kažejo, da je celotno območje v zaledju sedimentnih teles Šumljak lahko del globokih rotacijskih 
plazov karbonatnih breč. Na podlagi plastnatosti breče na posameznih delih rotacijskih blokov, ugotavljamo, 
da so bloki rotirali do 60°. Izravnana površina je razvita predvsem v osrednjem delu planarnih površin, na 
zunanjih delih izravnav pa se pojavljajo strmi robovi, ki predstavljajo glavne odlomne robove sedimentnih teles 
Šumljak. Menimo, da so telesa, predvsem v zgornjem delu pobočja nastala kot posledica remobilizacije materiala 
z zunanjih delov velikih rotacijskih palzov, kjer se je material nato v obliki kamninskih plazov transportiral 
nižje po pobočju.
© Author(s) 2017. CC Atribution 4.0 LicenseGEOLOGIJA 60/2, 297-307, Ljubljana 2017
https://doi.org/10.5474/geologija.2017.021
298 Tomislav POPIT
Introduction
A large accumulation of carbonate gravel, 
that formed by different transport mechanisms 
and deposition processes, is positioned under the 
head of the thrust contact in the Rebrnice area. 
The spatial distribution of sedimentary bodies 
within the quaternary slope deposit and the type 
of deposition processes can be directly influenced 
by the regional structural, lithological, hydrolog-
ical and geochemical conditions. Studies of these 
elements are supplementing our understanding 
of the gravitational events that were triggered 
throughout the north and north-eastern parts of 
Vipava Valley (kočevar & riBičič, 2002; loGar et 
al., 2005; FiFer BizjaK & ZuPančič-valant, 2007; 
2009; Placer,  2007; jeŽ, 2007; Placer et al., 2008; 
MiKoš et al., 2009; lenart & FiFer BizjaK, 2010; 
PetKovšeK et al., 2011; PoPit & verBovŠek, 2013; 
MiKoš et al., 2014; PulKo et al., 2014; Košir et al., 
2015; Martín Pérez et al., 2016; PoPit et al., 2017; 
verBovšeK et al., 2017a; 2017b). The structure and 
composition of the sedimentary bodies are ex-
tremely complex but this is not visible at ground 
level, where carbonate gravels prevail. This sur-
face feature is still useful for distinguishing the 
mass-movement, sedimentary bodies from the 
primary flysch base rock (PoPit et al., 2013, PoPit 
et al., 2016; PoPit, 2016).
The present work deals with the form and 
structure of a planation surface in the hinterland 
of the three Šumljak sedimentary bodies (SB1, 
SB2 and SB3) in the Rebrnice slope area. These 
approximately horizontal, planar surfaces are 
well-expressed and unusual for this area which is 
why there is interest in researching their origin.
General geological setting
In tectonic terms, the investigated area is part 
of a south west verging, Eocene to Oligocene fold-
and-thrust structure in the External Dinarids 
(Placer, 1981; 1998). The Šumljak sedimentary 
bodies are located in the upper part of the Vipava 
Valley, which belongs to three different nappes 
(from structurally lowest to highest): The Komen 
Thrust Sheet, the Snežnik Thrust Sheet and the 
Hrušica Nappe (Fig. 2). The Topography of the 
studied area is defined by the Hrušica Nappe, 
which comprises Mesozoic (Cretaceous and Ju-
rassic) limestone that has been thrusted over 
the Paleocene and Eocene flysch deposits of the 
Snežnik and Komen thrust sheets (Fig. 2); these 
have also been folded and fractured. The over-
lying carbonate rocks are intensively fractured 
along the thrust contacts and within wide zones 
of NW–SE trending strike-slip faults (the Pred-
jama, Vipava and Raša faults) that cut the thrust 
contact (Placer, 1981; 1998; 2008; čar & GosPo-
darič, 1988; janeŽ et al., 1997). 
The upper part of the slope of the Vipava Val-
ley is marked by steep carbonate cliffs, while the 
lower parts of the slope are more gently sloping 
and are composed of flysch bedrock covered by 
Quaternary slope deposits. The latter represent 
an array of composite, fan-shaped, sedimentary 
bodies with diverse composition, internal struc-
tures and textures, which indicate a complex 
depositional history and polyphase genesis (PoPit 
and Košir, 2010; PoPit et al., 2013; PoPit, 2016, no-
vaK et al., 2017).
Methods
The mapping of the sedimentary bodies and 
their hinterland is based on geological field map-
ping and analysis of shaded digital terrain mod-
els (DTMs) that were obtained by airborne laser 
scanning with a resolution of 1 × 1 m. The basic 
elements used for the visual interpretation of the 
shaded digital terrain model (Fig. 1) were tex-
ture, shape and tint (cf. PoDoBniKar, 2003; 2005; 
oštir, 2006). An additional aid was a map of sur-
face roughness, made using the Height Variabil-
ity Method (rusZkicZaY-rüdiger et al., 2009) and 
this proved to be the most useful of all the meth-
ods used for the quantification and visualisation 
of deposits with different sedimentary composi-
tion and genesis (PoPit & verBovšeK, 2013; PoPit 
et al., 2016).
The results of the Height Variability Method 
are presented in Fig. 5B and Fig. 7B, and they 
represent the difference between the highest and 
the lowest elevations. The casts of colours were 
divided roughly into three levels: low, medium 
and high variability of slopes. Areas marked in 
light to dark pink correspond to smooth surfaces 
(e.g. the bottom of the Upper Vipava Valley), the 
blue-green areas correspond to intermediate val-
ues (between smooth and rough surfaces), and the 
yellow-brown areas correspond to rough surfaces 
(e.g. Nanos cliff) (Figs. 5 and 7). Colour visualis-
ation was found to be a useful way of illustrating 
the areas with low and/or high slope variability 
(PoPit & verBovšeK, 2013; PoPit et al., 2016). Based 
on both methods (geological mapping and surface 
roughness analyses), specific geomorphological 
and geological features were interpreted.
299Origin of planation surfaces in the hinterland of Šumljak sedimentary bodies in Rebrnice...
Šumljak sedimentary bodies and geology of 
their hinterland
Over the entire Rebrnice area, there are 11 iso-
lated sedimentary bodies (of very complex gene-
sis and composition), covering areas of between 
0.09 km2 and 0.50 km2. The total surface area of 
the bodies in the Rebrnice area is approximate-
ly 2.8 km2 (PoPit, 2016; jeMec auFlič et al., 2017). 
In total, the surface of the Šumljak sedimentary 
bodies is approximately 0.58 km² and this rep-
resents 21 % of the surface area of all sedimenta-
ry bodies in the Rebrnice area. 
The surface area of SB1 is 0.095 km². The dif-
ference between the height of the lowest and the 
highest edge of the sedimentary body is more 
than 160 m (Fig. 3). The surface area of SB2 is 
0.332 km². The height difference between the 
lowest edge of the sedimentary body in Dolenje 
Žvanuti village, near Lozice, and the upper edge 
of the body is more than 230 m (Fig. 3). The sur-
face area of SB3 is 0.156 km² and the difference 
between the lowest and the highest edge of the 
sedimentary body is 165 m.
Just above the scarps of the direct hinterland 
of the Šumljak sedimentary bodies, the morphol-
ogy flattens out to planation surfaces. The base-
rock of these surfaces is composed of carbonate 
breccia (Figs. 6A and B), which occurs in bedding 
or in lenses (usually up to 1 m thick). It originat-
ed from the partial lithification of scree material. 
The dip direction and dip angle of the beds are 
different, depending on their position on the slope 
(see below). Near the carbonate cliff in the upper 
part of the slope, the dip angles of breccia beds 
are parallel or nearly parallel to the directions of 
the slope. In the middle part of the slope, the dip 
angles of the beds are sub-horizontal and in the 
lower parts of the slope the carbonate breccia beds 
dip towards the slope (Fig. 6). In the upper part of 
the slope (on the north-eastern side), the planation 
surface is bounded by recent scree aprons which 
follow the line of the carbonate Nanos cliff.
Fig. 1. (A) Shaded digital elevation model of the Šumljak sedimentary bodies (SB1, SB2 and SB3) and locations of planation 
surfaces in the hinterland and scree deposits. (B) View to Šumljak 2 sedimentary body (SB2) and its planation surface in the 
hinterland.
Fig. 2. Simplified geological map and cross-section of the Upper Vipava Valley and the Nanos Plateau. Compiled from Buser, 
(1973; 1986), Placer (1981; 2008), janeŽ et al. (1997) and others.
300 Tomislav POPIT
Fig. 3. The longitudinal profiles across Šumljak sedimentary bodies (SB1, SB2 and SB3) and location of the study area.
Geomorphometric analysis in the hinterland of 
Šumljak sedimentary bodies
By visual analysis of the DTMs and height 
variability map (Figs. 4, 5A and 5B) it can be 
identified that the Šumljak sedimentary bod-
ies and their immediate surroundings represent 
areas with different surface roughness. It was 
found that carbonate gravels (which, in most 
cases, cover the individual sedimentary body 
surfaces) have a height variability and conse-
quently represents an area with a high degree of 
surface roughness. By contrast, the hinterland of 
the Šumljak sedimentary bodies shows a low de-
gree of height variability and the surface in this 
part is smooth. The transition from sedimentary 
bodies to hinterland is marked by steep scarps. 
Along the slope in the hinterland of the Šumljak 
sedimentary bodies, we distinguished three dif-
ferent areas with diverse morphology; from the 
bottom of the slope to the top, these are: steep 
scarps, planation surfaces and scree deposits.
301Origin of planation surfaces in the hinterland of Šumljak sedimentary bodies in Rebrnice...
Steep scarps
In the upper edge of the sedimentary bodies, 
on the boundary with the planation surfaces, we 
recognized steep, convex and strait scarps formed 
of carbonate breccia. The values of the surface 
roughness of the steep, convex scarps on the top 
of SB2 are very high. The convexity of the scarps 
also occurs in the upper part of SB1, whereas in 
the hinterland of SB3 they only appear as a few 
straight lines (Fig. 4). The strait lines of the SB3 
hinterland is also recognized on the height var-
iability map (Figs. 4 and 5), where approximate-
ly parallel, narrow bands extend over the upper 
part of SB3 and resemble a stepped feature in the 
hinterland of the sedimentary body.
Planation surface
In the hinterland of the Šumljak sedimenta-
ry bodies, above the Nanos cliff and below the 
steep scarps, there are large areas of carbonate 
breccia with extremely low roughness, named 
planation surfaces (Fig. 4). The largest uniform 
planation surface, named “Zatrep”, is in the hin-
terland of SB2 and extends for approximately 
0.03 km2. SB1 is the smallest of the sedimenta-
ry bodies (Fig. 2) and, therefore, the planation 
surface in the hinterland of this body is also the 
smallest in area. The hinterland of SB3 is more 
complex. The shaded digital terrain model and 
the height variability map indicate the location 
of levelled edges (at the boundary between height 
and low surface roughness) (Fig. 5). Belts of high 
surface roughness can be easily recognized in 
the straight scarps mentioned above. Individual 
smooth surfaces between the scarps, represent 
three separated planation surfaces in the hinter-
land of SB3, forming a stepped structure. 
The largest planation surface in the hinter-
land of SB3 is also the highest and extends to ap-
proximately 0.005 km2 while the planation sur-
faces in the lower part of the slope are smaller, 
elongate and parallel to the steep scarps. In some 
parts in the hinterland of SB3, it was possible to 
recognize the dip direction and dip angle of the 
carbonate breccia strata. Measurable outcrops 
were mainly located close to, or just above, the 
steep scarps (Figs. 6A and 6B). The dip direction 
of the carbonate breccia strata, outcropping at 
the highest altitude closest to the Nanos cliff, is 
230/30 (Fig. 6C, steep scarp 1). The next outcrop 
of carbonate breccia, detected lower down the 
slope on the secondary steep scarp, has a dip di-
rection 210/20 (Fig. 6C, steep scarp 2), while the 
lowest lying breccia is dipping to the northeast 
(azimuth = 50°) with a relatively large dip angle 
of 25° (Fig. 6C, steep scarp 3). 
Scree deposits
Scree deposits are located below the carbonate 
cliffs present in the uppermost part of the slope. 
Depending on the specific lithological and struc-
tural predisposition of the Nanos cliff, the de-
posits are deposited in talus cone shapes or scree 
Fig. 4. (A) Shaded, digital terrain models (DTMs) with a resolution of 1 × 1 m, obtained by airborne laser scanning in the areas 
of SB1, SB2 and SB3 indicating the location of the convex and straight scarps. (B) A height variability map with the convex 
and straight scarps marked on SB1, SB2 and SB3. The upper arrows indicate an individual area with a very low surface rou-
ghness attributed to planation surfaces and the lower arrows indicate areas with high surface roughness, which are bound to 
individual convex scarps.
302 Tomislav POPIT
sheets (PoPit et al., 2014a). On the basis of their 
spatial distribution, we were able to separate two 
levels of scree deposit, separated by the prima-
ry outcrop of Mesozoic limestone. The upper lev-
el scree deposits are smaller and accumulate on 
individual primary outcrops at their lower edg-
es, while the scree deposits in the lower level are 
larger and distinctly cone-shaped (Fig. 7). The 
slope angles of the scree deposits appear to be 
between 33° and 45°. 
Discussion
In the hinterland of the steep scarps of the 
SB1 and SB2 planation surfaces, carbonate brec-
cia is observed, continuing almost to the foothills 
of the Nanos cliff (Fig. 8). We interpret the for-
mation of these planation surfaces as being the 
Fig. 5. (A) Shaded digital terrain model of the broad area of SB3 and indicated location of levelled edges (boundary between 
height and low surface roughness). (B) On the height variability map, belts with a high height variability are well recognized 
showing the steep scarps, forming a stepped structure in the hinterland of the Šumljak 3 sedimentary bodies. The scarps and 
individual rupture surfaces that were recorded in the field are shown on the right. 
result of a deep-seated rotational slide, where 
the carbonate breccia block and poorly lithified 
scree deposits rotated along the sliding surface 
that originated on the contact with the underly-
ing weathered flysch base rocks and/or muddy 
mass-flow deposits.
Downslope, the planation surfaces pass 
through the steep scarps into the Šumljak sedi-
mentary bodies. The Šumljak sedimentary body 
SB2 is characterised by a recognisable convex 
edge that is incised in carbonate breccia. We in-
terpreted it as being the main scarp of the rock 
avalanche in SB2 (Fig. 4), that was triggered in 
the accumulated material at the outer margin 
of a large-scale, deep-seated rotational slide. 
Today, remobilized material forms the cover of 
SB2 in the upper part of the sedimentary feature. 
303Origin of planation surfaces in the hinterland of Šumljak sedimentary bodies in Rebrnice...
Fig. 6. Examples of planation surfaces and steep scarps which are connected to SB3. (A and B) Bedding of slope breccia in 
the upper parts of the steep scarps 1 and 3. (C) The slope breccia at scarp 1 (in the highest altitude and the nearest to Nanos 
cliff) has a bedding orientation of 230/30; at scarp 2, the orientation of beddings is 210/20 and the orientation of bedding of the 
breccia of the lowest-lying scarp (scarp 3) is 50/25. (D) The dashed line indicates the upper steep scarp 1 and (E) steep scarp 3.
Fig. 7. Two positions of the scree deposits (talus cone and scree sheets) in the Rebrnice area. The photograph of the scree de-
posit (left figure) was taken in the upper part of the Nanos cliff. 
304 Tomislav POPIT
The same observations are reported from deep- 
seated landslides, where a steep scarp often 
forms at the outer part of the sliding mass (aMuD-
sen et al., 2010). The main direction of extension 
of the convex edge at SB2 is approximately per-
pendicular to the direction of transport (i.e. the 
direction of the lateral edges of the sediment 
body) but with a smaller deviation in the case of 
SB2 (8.2°) and a slightly larger one in the case of 
SB1 (20.5°). This is one of the typical properties 
of steep scarps (van Den eecKhaut et al., 2012a; 
2012b) and can be identified in the Rebrnice area.
In the case of SB3, the overall architecture 
and depositional evolution is more complex. It 
was possible to identify at least three scarps that 
are approximately parallel to each other and lat-
erally ‘wedge out’ (Figs. 5 and 6). By our interpre-
tation, this step-like sequence is formed by the 
same large-scale mechanism that operated in the 
case of SB1 and SB2, i.e. a deep-seated rotational 
landslide, which developed into a rock avalanche 
in the lower slopes. Additionally, above the steep 
scarp, two parallel scarps occur which signify 
multiple, rotational landsliding that successively 
developed at the outer part of the large-scale, ro-
tational landslide. The architecture of these land-
slides corresponds well to so-called ‘diminish-
ing’ landslides, where the volume of the moving 
mass gradually decreases (cf. cruDen & varnes, 
1996). The planation surfaces between the indi-
vidual scarps can be attributed to the different 
rotation of individual carbonate breccia blocks. 
Individual breccia blocks slipped down the slope 
and, at the same time, rotated towards the slope. 
Stairstepped patterns of displaced backward-ro-
tated blocks, also called reverse slopes (van Den 
eecKhaut, 2011).
A deep-seated rotational slide is further indi-
cated by the variation of dips within the brec-
cia beds. The dip direction and dip angle of the 
breccia beds, which forms the base-rock of the 
planation surface, depends on their spatial po-
sition. Upward, near the Nanos carbonate cliff, 
the slope and the dip angles of breccia beds are 
parallel or nearly parallel to the directions of the 
slope. In the middle section, the dip angles of the 
bedding are subhorizontal and, in the lower parts 
of the planation area just above the lowest scarp, 
the carbonate breccia beds dip towards the slope 
(Fig. 6). If the dip angle in the lower part of the 
rotary block (50/25°) is reversed back to its pri-
mary orientation of between 210/35° and 230/35° 
(i.e. the inclination of the recent scree and brec-
cia layers in the highest part of the slope) then 
the total rotation is approximately 60° (25° + 35°). 
Conclusion
The planation surface in the hinterland of the 
Šumljak sedimentary bodies is a morphological 
expression of a deep-seated rotational landslide 
that developed along a line of transect from the 
Nanos carbonate cliffs to the less-steep, lower 
Rebrnice slopes and it is marked by flysch base 
rocks. The rotational slides are composed mostly 
of a well-stratified, carbonate breccia, originat-
Fig. 8. (A) The example of the “Zatrep” planation surface and main scarp behind SB2. The dashed lines indicate the upper 
scarp. (B) The white arrow shows the direction of transport of material and is at right angles to the scarp. (C) Schematic lon-
gitudinal profiles through SB2 and (D) Flat surface resulting from the rotating block of carbonate breccia. A new steep scarp 
was formed in the toe of the rotational block, due to deep rotational movements along the sliding surface of the block in SB2. 
305Origin of planation surfaces in the hinterland of Šumljak sedimentary bodies in Rebrnice...
ing from the partial lithification of scree depos-
its. Dipping of the breccia beds in particular seg-
ments of the rotational blocks in SB3, indicates 
that the overall rotation can reach up to 60°. The 
planation surfaces occur in the lower parts of the 
landslides, where the dipping of the breccia beds 
is rotated from being 35° parallel to the slope to 
becoming subhorizontal (or even up to 25°) to-
wards the slope. The lower margin of the plana-
tion surface is defined by steep scarps that are 
the result of the subsequent debris and/or rock 
avalanches. The material that accumulated in 
the lower parts of the rotational landslide, was 
remobilised and transported further downslope, 
where it also covered older mass-movement de-
posits, created by a variety of previous trans-
port mechanisms and depositional processes. All 
of the mass-movement deposits below the steep 
scarps now comprise the internally complex 
Šumljak sedimentary bodies.
Acknowledgements
The fieldwork in the study area was performed 
through an “Innovative scheme for co-funding docto-
ral study by encouraging cooperation in order to ad-
dress current economic and social challenges – gene-
ration 2010 University of Ljubljana (European Social 
Fund and Republic of Slovenia, Ministry of Higher 
Education, Science and Technology)”. The fieldwork 
in the Rebrnice area was also performed by the Ivan 
Rakovec Institute of Palaeontology ZRC SAZU in the 
framework of the Project of Geological Monitoring 
of the Razdrto-Vipava Motorway Section, funded by 
DARS Motorway Company in the Republic of Slovenia. 
The author acknowledges financial support from the 
Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding 
No. P1-0195(B)). I would like to thank both reviewers 
for their insightful comments on the paper, as these 
comments led me to an improvement of the work. 
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