c e p s Journal Editorial The Contexts and Processes of Shaping Teacher Identity — Blerim Saqipi and Janez Vogrinc Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Vol.11 | No3 | 2021 http://cepsj.si VAR IA The Understanding of Inclusive Education in Kosovo: Legal and Empirical Argumentation Razumevanje inkluzivnega izobraževanja na Kosovu: pravna in empirična utemeljitev — Naser Zabeli, Blerta Perolli Shehu and Jeffrey Anderson Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Based on Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Primary School Pupils Samoučinkovitost učiteljev pri obravnavi učencev s simptomi motnje pozornosti s hiperaktivnostjo — Nataša Vlah, Tena Velki and Emina Kovačić Translation and Validation of the Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale on a Croatian Sample of Early Childhood and Preschool Education Students Prenos in potrditev Kaufmanove lestvice ustvarjalnih področij na hrvaškem vzorcu učencev v zgodnjem otroštvu in predšolskih otrok — Marijana Županić Benić B O OK R EVI EW Milena Valenčič Zuljan and Jana Kalin, Instructional Methods and the Teacher’s Methodical Competence (In Slovene: Učne metode in razvoj učiteljeve metodične kompetence), Pedagoška fakulteta UL: 2020; 232 pp.: ISBN: 9789612532628 — Romina Plešec Gasparič Vesna Leskovšek, Tadeja Kodele and Nina Mešl (Eds.), Child Protection from Violence and Neglect in Slovenia (In Slovene: Zaščita otrok pred nasiljem in zanemarjanjem v Sloveniji), Fakulteta za socialno delo UL: 2019; 278 pp.: ISBN: 9789616569712 — Mija Marija Klemenčič Rozman issn 1855-97 19 c e p s Journal c e p s Journal Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 c o n t e n t s F O C US Teacher Educators’ Professional Identity in English-Medium Instruction at a Finnish University Poklicna identiteta izobraževalcev učiteljev pri pouku v angleškem jeziku na finski univerzi — Sotiria Pappa and Josephine Moate Building professional identity during pre-service teacher education Oblikovanje poklicnih identitet v okviru izobraževanja učiteljev — Gemma Torres-Cladera, Núria Simó-Gil, Laura Domingo-Peñafiel, and Vanesa Amat-Castells The Impact of External Contextual Factors on Teaching Candidates Vpliv zunanjih kontekstualnih dejavnikov na študente, ki se izobražujejo za učitelje — Alexander S. Butler The Conceptual and Methodological Construction of a ‘Global’ Teacher Identity through TALIS Konceptualno in metodološko oblikovanje »globalne« identitete učitelja s pomočjo TALIS — Armend Tahirsylaj, William C. Smith, Gulab Khan and Wieland Wermke Music Teachers’ Perception of Music Teaching at the Stage of Early Adolescence Stališča učiteljev glasbe do glasbenega poučevanja v obdobju zgodnje adolescence — Petra Brdnik Juhart and Barbara Sicherl Kafol Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Editor in Chief / Glavni in odgovorni urednik Iztok Devetak – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Associate Editors / Področni uredniki in urednice Slavko Gaber – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Janez Krek – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Karmen Pižorn – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Veronika Tašner – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Editorial Board / Uredniški odbor Michael W. Apple – Department of Educational Policy Studies, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, usa Branka Baranović – Institute for Social Research in Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia Cesar Birzea – Faculty of Philosophy, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Vlatka Domović – Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia Grozdanka Gojkov – Serbian Academy of Education Belgrade, Serbia Jan De Groof – College of Europe, Bruges, Belgium and University of Tilburg, the Netherlands Andy Hargreaves – Lynch School of Education, Boston College, Boston, usa Tatjana Hodnik – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Georgeta Ion – Department of Applied Pedagogy, University Autonoma Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Milena Košak Babuder – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Mojca Kovač Šebart – Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Bruno Losito – Department for Educational Sciences, University Studi Roma Tre, Rome, Italy Lisbeth Lundhal – Department of Applied Educational Science, Umea University, Umea, Sweden Sunčica Macura – Faculty of Education, University of Kragujevac, Serbia Ljubica Marjanovič Umek – Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Silvija Markić – Ludwigsburg University of Education, Institute for Science and Technology, Germany Mariana Moynova – University of Veliko Turnovo, Veliko Turnovo, Bulgaria Hannele Niemi – Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Jerneja Pavlin – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Mojca Peček Čuk – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Аnа Pešikan-Аvramović – Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Tina Pirc – Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Igor Radeka – Departmenet of Pedagogy, University of Zadar, Zadar, Croatia Špela Razpotnik – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Pasi Sahlberg – Harvard Graduate School of Education, Boston, usa Igor Saksida – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Mitja Sardoč – Educational Research Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia Blerim Saqipi – Faculty of Education, University of Prishtina, Kosovo Michael Schratz – School of Education, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria Jurij Selan – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Darija Skubic – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Vasileios Symeonidis – Institute of Education Research and Teacher Education, University of Graz, Austria Marjan Šimenc – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Keith S. Taber – Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Shunji Tanabe – Kanazawa Gakuin University, Kanazawa, Japan Jón Torfi Jónasson – School of Education, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland Gregor Torkar – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Zoran Velkovski – Faculty of Philosophy, SS. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Janez Vogrinc – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Robert Wagenaar – Faculty of Arts, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands Pavel Zgaga – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Focus issue editors: Vol.11, No3, Year 2021 / Urednika številke: Blerim Saqipi and Janez Vogrinc Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal issn 2232-2647 (online edition / spletna verzija) issn 1855-9719 (printed edition / tiskana verzija) Publication frequency: 4 issues per year Subject: Teacher Education, Educational Science Published by / Založila: University of Ljubljana Press / Založba Univere v Ljubljani / For the publisher: Gregor Majdič, The Rector of the University of / rektor Univerze v LjubljaniLjubljana / Issued by: Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana / For the issuer: Janez Vogrinc, The dean of Faculty of Education / dekan Technical editor: Lea Vrečko / English language editor: Terry T. 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Naklada tiskane izdaja: 150 izvodov Več informacij lahko preberete na spletni strani http://cepsj.si/. c e p s Journal Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij The CEPS Journal is an open-access, peer- national educational system during the period of so- reviewed journal devoted to publishing research cial transition in the 1990s, to upgrade expertise and papers in different fields of education, including sci- to strengthen international cooperation. CEPS has entific. established a number of fruitful contacts, both in the region – particularly with similar institutions in the Aims & Scope The CEPS Journal is an international peer-re- countries of the Western Balkans – and with interested partners in EU member states and worldwide. • viewed journal with an international board. It publishes original empirical and theoretical studies from Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij a wide variety of academic disciplines related to the je mednarodno recenzirana revija z mednarodnim field of Teacher Education and Educational Sciences; uredniškim odborom in s prostim dostopom. Na- in particular, it will support comparative studies in menjena je objavljanju člankov s področja izobra- the field. Regional context is stressed but the journal ževanja učiteljev in edukacijskih ved. remains open to researchers and contributors across all European countries and worldwide. There are Cilji in namen four issues per year. Issues are focused on specific Revija je namenjena obravnavanju naslednjih areas but there is also space for non-focused articles področij: poučevanje, učenje, vzgoja in izobraže- and book reviews. vanje, socialna pedagogika, specialna in rehabilitacijska pedagogika, predšolska pedagogika, edukacijske About the Publisher politike, supervizija, poučevanje slovenskega jezika in The University of Ljubljana is one of the larg- književnosti, poučevanje matematike, računalništva, est universities in the region (see www.uni-lj.si) naravoslovja in tehnike, poučevanje družboslovja and its Faculty of Education (see www.pef.uni-lj.si), in humanistike, poučevanje na področju umetnosti, established in 1947, has the leading role in teacher visokošolsko izobraževanje in izobraževanje odra- education and education sciences in Slovenia. It is slih. Poseben poudarek bo namenjen izobraževanju well positioned in regional and European coopera- učiteljev in spodbujanju njihovega profesionalnega tion programmes in teaching and research. A pub- razvoja. lishing unit oversees the dissemination of research V reviji so objavljeni znanstveni prispevki, in results and informs the interested public about new sicer teoretični prispevki in prispevki, v katerih so trends in the broad area of teacher education and predstavljeni rezultati kvantitavnih in kvalitativnih education sciences; to date, numerous monographs empiričnih raziskav. Še posebej poudarjen je pomen and publications have been published, not just in komparativnih raziskav. Slovenian but also in English. Revija izide štirikrat letno. Številke so tematsko In 2001, the Centre for Educational Policy opredeljene, v njih pa je prostor tudi za netematske Studies (CEPS; see http://ceps.pef.uni-lj.si) was es- prispevke in predstavitve ter recenzije novih pu- tablished within the Faculty of Education to build blikacij. upon experience acquired in the broad reform of the 2 c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Contents 5 Editorial The Contexts and Processes of Shaping Teacher Identity — Blerim Saqipi and Janez Vogrinc Focus 9 Teacher Educators’ Professional Identity in EnglishMedium Instruction at a Finnish University Poklicna identiteta izobraževalcev učiteljev pri pouku v angleškem jeziku na finski univerzi — Sotiria Pappa and Josephine Moate 35 Building Professional Identity During Pre-Service Teacher Education Oblikovanje poklicnih identitet v okviru izobraževanja učiteljev — Gemma Torres-Cladera, Núria Simó-Gil, Laura Domingo-Peñafiel, and Vanesa Amat-Castells The Impact of External Contextual Factors on 55 Teaching Candidates Vpliv zunanjih kontekstualnih dejavnikov na študente, ki se izobražujejo za učitelje — Alexander S. Butler The Conceptual and Methodological Construction of 75 a ‘Global’ Teacher Identity through TALIS Konceptualno in metodološko oblikovanje »globalne« identitete učitelja s pomočjo TALIS — Armend Tahirsylaj, William C. Smith, Gulab Khan, and Wieland Wermke Music Teachers’ Perception of Music Teaching at the 97 Stage of Early Adolescence Stališča učiteljev glasbe do glasbenega poučevanja v obdobju zgodnje adolescence — Petra Brdnik Juhart and Barbara Sicherl Kafol 3 4 contents Varia 119 The Understanding of Inclusive Education in Kosovo: Legal and Empirical Argumentation Razumevanje inkluzivnega izobraževanja na Kosovu: pravna in empirična utemeljitev — Naser Zabeli, Blerta Perolli Shehu and Jeffrey Anderson 141 Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Based on Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Primary School Pupils Samoučinkovitost učiteljev pri obravnavi učencev s simptomi motnje pozornosti s hiperaktivnostjo — Nataša Vlah, Tena Velki and Emina Kovačić 163 Translation and Validation of the Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale on a Croatian Sample of Early Childhood and Preschool Education Students Prenos in potrditev Kaufmanove lestvice ustvarjalnih področij na hrvaškem vzorcu učencev v zgodnjem otroštvu in predšolskih otrok — Marijana Županić Benić Reviews 181 Milena Valenčič Zuljan and Jana Kalin, Instructional Methods and the Teacher’s Methodical Competence (In Slovene: Učne metode in razvoj učiteljeve metodične kompetence), Pedagoška fakulteta UL: 2020; 232 pp.: ISBN: 9789612532628 — Romina Plešec Gasparič 187 Vesna Leskovšek, Tadeja Kodele and Nina Mešl (Eds.), Child Protection from Violence and Neglect in Slovenia (In Slovene: Zaščita otrok pred nasiljem in zanemarjanjem v Sloveniji), Fakulteta za socialno delo UL: 2019; 278 pp.: ISBN: 9789616569712 — Mija Marija Klemenčič Rozman c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 doi: 10.26529/cepsj.1274 Editorial The Contexts and Processes of Shaping Teacher Identity The importance of studying teachers’ personal and professional identities has gained significant attention in recent decades, given the need to understand better the rationale behind teachers’ behaviour in their tasks. In light of this, research has aimed to examine the meaning of the professional identity of teachers and recognising the importance of various professional circumstances. We know that teachers’ professional identity is understood as an active and changing process influenced by individual personality and internal factors, as well as external factors (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009; Beijaard et al., 2004; Schepens et al., 2009). However, research has yet to provide insights in greater depth on the meaning of system variables and professional factors related to the development of teacher identity as they occur in the ever-changing education system and schools. Two notions will be important for the present and future research on teacher identity development. First is the concept of stability and relativity. Though research has come to a common understanding of what teacher identity is and how it is formed, it is still an evolving concept and needs further research to provide policymakers and practitioners with a clear view of how to deal with such a changing situation. In addition, we have also arrived at the point at which it is important to note that shaping teacher identity is closely linked to the debate on evolving teacher professionalism. Teacher identity is nowadays also influenced by how expectations regarding teacher behaviour and expectations on the profession of teaching have continually increased. Therefore, it is unavoidable that the debate on post-modern professionalism (See Hargreaves, 2000) is directly correlated with the need to reshape the professional identity of teachers in light of the new professionalism as it continues to evolve. However, it is school context variables such as school culture and accountability mechanisms in place that determine the dynamics and processes of shaping teacher practices and professional behaviours. This focus issue has attempted to emphasise the need for adopting this much broader view on teacher professional identity development. This focus issue includes five articles that directly relate to the topic of this issue. The ordering of articles is also linked to the simple logic of framework variables that can serve future research agendas. This new framework of understanding teacher identity is composed of dimensions of the identity and practices of teacher educators; the practical side of training new teachers in campus and school; the importance of context and experiences 5 6 editorial in enriching teacher identity; the ways global policymaking and benchmarking processes influence the policy design in teacher education and practice; and a view of the practical side of curriculum planning and implementation as a way of demonstrating professional identity in practice. The first article in this focus issue is centred on the notion of who teacher educators are and the importance of their approach to tasks in relation to training prospective teachers. In other words, noting the importance of the role teacher educators play in shaping the identity of prospective teachers. Sotiria Pappa and Josephine Moate, in their article “Teacher Educators’ Professional Identity in English-Medium Instruction at a Finnish University” emphasises the importance of pedagogical being, pedagogical doing, and pedagogical relating as three key dimensions of understanding teacher educator practice in relation to preparing new teachers. The focus issue continues with the article from Gemma Torres-Cladera, Núria Simó-Gil, Laura Domingo-Peñafiel, and Vanesa Amat-Castells, titled “Building Professional Identity During Pre-Service Teacher Education” by emphasising the role pre-service teacher education (including school placement experience) has in shaping teacher identity. The article emphasises relationship building and reflection as important dimensions and the need to empower university-based training and school placement experience connections, as well as how university tutors can support a coherent approach. The third article continues examining the identity formation of student teachers and how student teachers take up temporary identities in given contexts in relation to the contextual factors in which they are embedded. It is written by Alexander S. Butler and is titled “The Impact of External Contextual Factors on Teaching Candidates”. It raises an important question for future research as to how these temporary identities shape and are internalised as part of the core identity features. The fourth article brings a new perspective and approach to examining the development of teacher identity at the policy and global levels. It is authored by Armend Tahirsylaj, William C. Smith, Gulab Khan, and Wieland Wermke and is titled “The Conceptual and Methodological Construction of a ‘Global’ Teacher Identity through TALIS”. This article examines how major education policy players, such as the OECD, through various assessment and benchmarking processes, such as TALIS, contribute to the development of global teacher identity or, in other words, shape the meaning of teacher effectiveness. Finally, the last focus issue article written by Petra Brdnik Juhart and Barbara Sicherl Kafol examines the personal and professional competencies of music education teachers in the use of authentic situations. It demonstrates c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 how teacher identity is also shaped by not only competencies but also by engaging in the practical side of curriculum planning and enacting. This focus issue also includes three articles in the Varia section. The first article is authored by Naser Zabeli, Blerta Perolli-Shehu, and Jeffrey A. Anderson titled “The Understanding of Inclusive Education in Kosovo: Legal and Empirical Argumentation”. It describes the experience of Kosovo in transitioning towards inclusive education and how this experience has influenced teacher understanding of inclusive education. The second Varia section article “Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Based on Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Primary School Pupils” authored by Nataša Vlah, Tena Velki and Emina Kovačić examines teacher self-assessment of efficacy in relation to working with pupils with learning difficulties and, more specifically, students who have ADHD. The third and final Varia article is titled “Translation and Validation of the Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale on a Croatian Sample of Early Childhood and Preschool Education Students” and is authored by Marijana Županić Benić. It reports on the validation of the Kaufman Domain of Creativity Scale in the Croatian context and identifies next steps in determining the validity of the adapted questionnaire. This Varia section also includes two book reviews. The first was written by Romina Plešec Gašparič on the book ‘Instructional methods and the teacher’s methodical competence’ authored by Milena Valenčič-Zuljan and Jana Kalin (In Slovene language: Učne metode in razvoj učiteljeve metodične competence; Pedagoška fakulteta UL). The second book review was written by Mija M. Klemenčič-Rozman and was related to the book ‘Child Protection from violence and neglect in Slovenia’, authored by Vesna Leskovšek, Tadeja Kodele and Nina Mešl (Eds.) (In Slovene language: Zaščita otrok pred nasiljem in zanemarjanjem v Sloveniji; Fakulteta za socialno delo UL). Blerim Saqipi and Janez Vogrinc References Beauchamp, C., & Thomas, L. (2009). Understanding teacher identity: An overview of issues in the literature and implications for teacher education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 39(2), 175–189. Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. C., & Verloop, N. (2004). Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 107–128. Hargreaves, A. (2000). Four ages of professionalism and professional learning. Teachers and Teaching: History and Practice. 6(2), 151–182. Schepens, A., Aelterman, A., & Vlerick, P. (2009). Student teachers’ professional identity formation: between being born as a teacher and becoming one. Educational Studies, 35, 361–378. 7 8 c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 focus doi: 10.26529/cepsj.1053 Teacher Educators’ Professional Identity in EnglishMedium Instruction at a Finnish University Sotiria Pappa*1 and Josephine Moate2 • Although different forms of English-medium instruction (EMI) are being recognised, the different ways in which EMI can impact the pedagogical activities and expertise of higher education educators have received less attention. Using face-to-face and written interviews with nine teacher educators at a Finnish university, this study examines the most important aspects teacher educators perceive in their work through EMI and how these aspects connect to the understanding of their professional identity. The study is theoretically premised on the interconnected concepts of pedagogical doing, pedagogical being, pedagogical relating, and pedagogical language awareness. The thematically analysed data highlighted the ways in which pedagogical being, doing, and relating revolve around the presence and role of the foreign language in EMI, as well as the concurrent disjunctures and opportunities EMI creates. Pedagogical being informed EMI teacher educators’ orientation to their work and the different ways language impinges on the sense of self as the teacher educators share how they try to understand and respond to the disjunctures of EMI. In terms of pedagogical doing, EMI impinges on how teacher educators enact their practice and the relationships developed with students. However, the focus of pedagogical relating addresses the relationship between the EMI teacher educators and their workplace. The findings from this study will hopefully contribute to the development of EMI teacher preparation and support critical discussions on the ‘Englishisation’ of higher education. Keywords: English-medium instruction, EMI, Finland, higher education, role of language 1 2 * Corresponding Author. Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland; sotiria.s.pappa@helsinki.fi. Department of Teacher Education, University of Jyväskylä, Finland. 9 10 teacher educators’ professional identity in english-medium instruction ... Poklicna identiteta izobraževalcev učiteljev pri pouku v angleškem jeziku na finski univerzi Sotiria Pappa in Josephine Moate • Čeprav obstajajo različne oblike poučevanja v angleškem jeziku (ang. English-medium instruction – EMI), so različni načini, kako lahko EMI vpliva na pedagoške dejavnosti in strokovno znanje visokošolskih učiteljev, deležni manj pozornosti. Ta študija z osebnimi in s pisnimi intervjuji z devetimi izobraževalci učiteljev na finski univerzi preučuje najpomembnejše vidike, ki jih ti zaznavajo pri svojem delu z EMI, in kako so ti vidiki povezani z razumevanjem njihove poklicne identitete. Študija teoretično temelji na medsebojno povezanih konceptih pedagoškega delovanja, pedagoškega bivanja, pedagoškega odnosa in pedagoškega jezikovnega zavedanja. Tematsko analizirani podatki so poudarili načine, na katere se pedagoško bivanje, delovanje in odnos vrtijo okrog prisotnosti in vloge tujega jezika v EMI, pa tudi sočasna razhajanja in priložnosti, ki jih EMI ustvarja. Pedagoško bivanje je bilo podlaga za usmeritev izobraževalcev učiteljev EMI v njihovo delo in različne načine, kako jezik vpliva na občutek sebe, saj so izobraževalci učitelji delili, kako poskušajo razumeti disjunkcije EMI in se nanje odzvati. V smislu pedagoškega delovanja EMI vpliva na to, kako izobraževalci učiteljev izvajajo svojo prakso in odnose, ki jih razvijajo s študenti, vendar pa je v ospredju pedagoškega odnosa odnos med EMI-izobraževalci učiteljev in njihovim delovnim mestom. Upamo, da bodo ugotovitve te študije prispevale k razvoju priprave učiteljev za EMI in podprle kritične razprave o »anglizaciji« visokega šolstva. Ključne besede: poučevanje v angleškem jeziku, EMI, Finska, visokošolsko izobraževanje, vloga jezika c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Introduction Since the 1990s, an increasing number of higher education institutions (HEIs) have offered courses and programmes with English as the medium of instruction. While internationalisation is used as a measure of academic excellence (Lasagabaster, 2018), the proliferation of English-medium instruction (EMI) has brought significant challenges with ‘large numbers of students from different cultural, educational and linguistic backgrounds’ (Jenkins & Wingate, 2015, p. 48), and staff are rarely given formal training to meet these challenges (O’Dowd, 2018). HEI educators, however, play a crucial role in sharing expert knowledge, engaging students in academic tasks and conventions, and guiding knowledge creation and critical thinking. Although different forms of EMI are recognised (Schmidt-Unterberger, 2018), the different ways in which EMI can impact the pedagogical activities and expertise of HEI educators have received less attention (Dafouz, 2018). The qualitative study reported here aims to better understand how EMI can affect HEI teachers’ pedagogical being, doing, and relating, as well as the role language plays within this complex setting. ‘EMI’ is a frequently used term and most often applied to higher education (HE). In this paper, we define EMI as ‘[t]he use of the English language to teach academic subjects (other than English itself) in countries or jurisdictions where the first language of the majority of the population is not English’ (Macaro et al., 2018, p. 37). Schmidt-Unterberger (2018) has identified five different forms of EMI (see Figure 1). These forms range from courses in English for Special Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP), which focus on language learning, to EMI courses that focus on content with language as the tool for instruction and study. An integrated approach to content and language can also be adopted in HE in which a complementary, dual focus on content and language integrated learning (CLIL) is promoted. Identifying these different forms is useful because it recognises the range of different emphases in EMI (language, content, or both) and the different organisational formats HEIs can adopt. Pre-sessional courses, as the name implies, support language development prior to formal engagement with content. In ESP and EAP courses, academic content contextualises and informs language development, whereas in EMI the academic content is the focus of activities and evaluation. 11 12 teacher educators’ professional identity in english-medium instruction ... Figure 1 Five forms of EMI Note. Adpated from Schmidt-Unterberge, 2018. Some HEI educators are experienced teachers before they begin EMI teaching, with established repertoires honed within the culturally, historically, and socially shaped context of HEIs (Hökkä et al., 2012). While some HEI educators who are less experienced in EMI might see it as an opportunity for professional development (Dafouz, 2018), others might feel they have little right or opportunity to say no to EMI (Wilkinson, 2018). For more experienced HEI educators, EMI requires a renegotiation of established pedagogical repertoires, as favourite examples, humour, and sensitivity to students are more difficult to realise (Moate, 2011). Moreover, HEI educators in EMI can face the challenge of taking on new responsibilities with which their colleagues are unfamiliar. Dafouz’s (2018) case study indicates that some, but not all, HEI educators are required to have a high level of language proficiency. Whatever the HEI educators’ background, however, EMI expands the responsibilities of educators with the significant shift in the availability of their pedagogical resources and an often-increased gap between students’ existing and required study skills. Although some initiatives support HEI educators to understand the intercultural and linguistic considerations of EMI better, the haphazard provision of formal support for educators and students, and little recognition of disciplinary differences at the level of policy (see Khalyapina, 2020), plus the lack of research on the professional identity implications of EMI, significantly limits what kind of support can be offered. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 In this qualitative study, our specific interest is in HEI educators involved in teacher education (i.e., HEI teacher educators). The study focuses on the professional identity development of HEI teacher educators as they work through a foreign or additional language and the ways EMI requires teacher educators to renegotiate their professional identity in terms of who they are as educators, how they act as educators and the relationships that influence their work. The following section outlines the theoretical framework of the study in more detail and is followed by the research questions addressed in this study. The findings from this study will hopefully contribute to the development of EMI in teacher education and support critical discussions on the ‘Englishisation’ of HE. Theoretical Framework Professional identity Identity has been defined as ‘the way a person understands his or her relationship to the world, how that relationship is structured across time and space, and how the person understands possibilities for the future’ (Norton, 2013 cited in Norton, 2016, p. 476). Recent literature further argues for (language) teachers’ identity as dynamically and discursively shaped processes of ‘being and doing, feeling and imagining’ with ‘cognitive, social, emotional, ideological and historical’ aspects (Barkhuizen, 2017, n.a.). As educators face change within their professional environment, however, conflicts can arise between teachers’ existing sense of identity and the designated identity that is anticipated with the change. Such conflicts can require significant renegotiation in the reformation of ‘work history-based constellation of teachers’ perceptions of themselves as a professional actor’ (Vähäsantanen, 2015, p. 3). Professional identity development can be understood as a process that draws on the agency of educators and the conditions, or social resources, of the work environment. On the one hand, professional identities are broadly formed by the culturally, historically, and socially shaped context of an HEI; on the other hand, individual interests, views on teaching and learning, prospects as educators and relationships with disciplinary knowledge critically inform the ongoing process of professional identity development (Vähäsantanen, 2015). To date, research on the professional and personal development of HEI educators in EMI has received little attention (Trent, 2017). Dafouz’s (2018) study examines HEI educators’ developing language ideologies in EMI. The participants were required to demonstrate a high level of English proficiency and attend a staff development programme as part of EMI development. 13 14 teacher educators’ professional identity in english-medium instruction ... Dafouz’s findings indicate that educators resituate their identities through EMI, strengthening their competence in the English language, extending their awareness of their linguistic resources, and potentially contributing to the multilingual development of HEI. These findings point to the significance of language as part of teachers’ professional identity, although this area has received little attention even in research specifically focusing on the professional development of language educators (Ruohotie-Lyhty, 2019). This study is theoretically premised on the Bakhtinian notions of I-forself, I-for-others and others-for-me (Bakhtin, 1993). These interconnected relations have been developed by Moate (2013) to offer a dialogic conceptualisation of teacherhood. The conceptualisation strengthens the notion of professional identity by highlighting key aspects of what it means to be an educator. These aspects include pedagogical being, doing and relating, which are explained in more detail in the following sections. Moreover, this conceptualisation recognises the crucial role of language as a critical mediator of self, action, understanding, and relationships. Figure 2 presents this conceptualisation in relation to teacher educators in EMI. Pedagogical being Pedagogical being refers to a teacher’s sense of their professional self drawn on to form and enact pedagogical relationships with learners and other professionals. Pedagogical being goes beyond professional identity to encompass the values teachers act on to evaluate new possibilities. Pedagogical being also points to the vulnerability of relating to others and stepping beyond one’s comfort zone, and the need to reflect from different perspectives. Conceptually, pedagogical being encapsulates teachers’ understanding of their own philosophical orientation to the profession and their learners, informing their sensitivity and inclination to shoulder responsibilities in their teaching practices (Moate, 2013). This orientation informs approaches to educating student-teachers and highlights dilemmas regarding teacher educators’ choices, strategies, and actual teaching practices (Tillema & Kremer-Hayon, 2005). For instance, teacher educators in Finland deem their work important and value a research-based approach to their students’ training, a sense of community, collaboration with other teacher educators, and specialisation (Maaranen et al., 2019). Pedagogical being is dynamic, requiring teacher educators to be open to the possibility of becoming, and has affective dimensions, requiring teacher educators to invest in student-teachers’ development and choice-making, yet accept their reservations and blunders (Danielewicz, 2001). Teachers’ pedagogical being serves as an organisational framework for teachers’ pedagogical doing. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Pedagogical doing Pedagogical doing refers to teachers’ practice enacted through words and actions in relation to students. For teacher educators, pedagogical doing involves knowingly and purposefully rendering teaching a site of inquiry for student-teachers to enable them to understand and value education in practice (Russell & Loughran, 2007). Pedagogical doing is evident in teachers’ decisions and preparations concerning resource management (e.g., classroom layout, classroom values, instructional time, teaching materials, learner assignments), use of learners’ learning repertoires (e.g., learner’s productive and receptive classroom activity), and use of talk to support learner development (Moate, 2013). Moate (2013) suggests that talk in education is ‘the most fundamental instantiation of pedagogical doing’ (p. 40) and highlights the need for teachers to recognise their responsibility for using talk well in foreign-language-mediated education. Talk presents instructions and subject-specific concepts, as well as create the space to unpack complex disciplinary knowledge and generate dialogue between teacher, student, and subject (Moate, 2013). Dialogic relations can be seen in their voluntary assistance of student-teachers, the reciprocity of teaching and the increase in learner-led activities in the EMI class (Hahl et al., 2016). Moreover, teacher educators’ focus on talk might propel student-teachers to experience classroom interactive practices as important, thus developing deeper understandings of effective pedagogy and teacher development (Edwards-Groves & Hoare, 2012). The centrality of talk should be reflected in university policies promoting EMI programmes, for example, policies about discipline-specific literacy goals and language-learning outcomes (Airey et al., 2017) or policies about appropriate staff training (Dubow & Gundermann, 2017; Lasagabaster, 2018). Pedagogical relating Similar to pedagogical doing, pedagogical relating is derived from pedagogical being. Pedagogical relating involves the ways in which teachers engage with the aims and conventions of educational institutions. Importantly, pedagogical relating involves forming mutually beneficial pedagogical connections with colleagues by sharing knowledge-in-practice, critically discussing differences, and adopting a longitudinal approach to professional development as a shared, rather than individual, phenomenon (Moate, 2013; Van Manen, 2008). Pedagogical relating supported by developmentally-oriented activities helps pedagogical communities to develop mutual understanding and shared practices, potentially (re)constructing the conditions of educational workplaces (Clavert et al., 15 16 teacher educators’ professional identity in english-medium instruction ... 2015; Vähäsantanen et al., 2020). This sense-making and joint inquiry have been proposed as teacher educators’ tools to counter overly directive approaches by regulatory authorities and to become disciplinary experts rather than technicians (Bourke et al., 2018). Pedagogical relating supports the enactment of pedagogical being as responsive sensitivity and dialogue with others, rather than instrumental practice determined by institutional demands (Moate, 2013). Research suggests that teachers can mature through relationships enabling their agency and subsequently create liberatory pedagogical spaces limiting external regulatory control or demands (Simpson et al., 2018). Indeed, teacher educators’ collaboration in implementing EMI over 25 years has been seen to tackle curricular and course design challenges, strive to ensure quality and set the example for other faculties to include EMI programmes (Wilkinson, 2013). Pedagogical language awareness Pedagogical language is significant as the material realisation of pedagogical being, doing, and relating. The importance of language is highlighted in Coyle’s (2015) language triptych, which indicates (i) the need for specialised language to engage with disciplinary knowledge, (ii) how language becomes meaningful in use, and (iii) how students’ language develops through language use. Figure 2 depicts pedagogical language awareness as an extension of pedagogical doing. Figure 2 Professional identity in EMI with pedagogical language awareness as an extension of pedagogical doing c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Although current conceptualisations emphasise the practical use and development of language, in EMI, the importance of language in education (Edwards-Groves & Hoare, 2012) arguably goes beyond how and why language is used in a discipline. The extra sensitivity is understood here as pedagogical language awareness. In EMI, the extra challenge of working through a foreign language requires teachers and students to consider their responses, assumptions, and ongoing development carefully. In these processes, teachers are ‘responsible for self-authorship as a pedagogue and fundamentally responsible for the other-authorship of learners,’ which raises the question of how to do so ‘with integrity if [teachers’] relationship with the language is different’ (Moate, 2013, p. 47). In other words, teachers are expected to develop their professional identity and help learners to develop their own identity, yet trying to meet such expectations might be a compromised process when undertaken through a foreign or additional language. As content experts, teacher educators in EMI are responsible for developing student understanding of subject matter and disciplinary pedagogy, including subject-specific language (Wilkinson, 2013). Moreover, in EMI, teacher educators have to negotiate the co-presence of first and foreign languages and to help student-teachers author a more international professional identity (Dafouz, 2018). While pedagogical language awareness is important for any teacher’s professional development, it is of greater significance for teachers working through altered linguistic resources (Moate, 2013). Research questions In this study, we use the notions of pedagogical being, doing and relating to examine the professional identity development of EMI teacher educators. We are particularly interested in how the use of a foreign or additional language mediates a teacher’s sense of self, the active implementation of pedagogy and the relationships that affect identity development. The research questions this study addresses are: 1. How does the change in language affect HEI teacher educators’ perceptions of their work in EMI? 2. How does EMI affect teacher educators’ professional identity development? 17 18 teacher educators’ professional identity in english-medium instruction ... Method Participants Nine EMI teacher educators (EMITEds) from a Finnish university participated in the study (two men and seven women). One participant has retired, and two are employed elsewhere. At the time of the interviews, all participants worked in teacher education and had EMI teaching duties. Most participants had different subject backgrounds (e.g., biology, art, ICT, technology) and varying teaching preparation for EMI, ranging from informal self-study to university courses (see Table 1). All prospective participants were invited through online communication based on their EMI teaching responsibilities. Table 1 Participants and data collection Participants Data collection Spoken interview Written interview Participants Training Month Pages EMITEd1 University course on EMI November 2015 • 22 EMITEd2 - November 2015 • 19 EMITEd3 University seminar on EMI, University course on EMI November 2015 • 23 EMITEd4 University seminar on EMI November 2015 • 20 EMITEd5 University seminar on EMI September 2019 • 2,5 EMITEd6 Self-study September 2019 • 2,5 EMITEd7 - September 2019 • 3 EMITEd8 University course on EMI, University pedagogy course, smaller courses September 2019 • 3,5 EMITEd9 - October 2019 • 1,5 Data collection The data consists of face-to-face and written interviews. The four faceto-face interviews were conducted on university premises in November 2015 and subsequently transcribed (average 59 minutes; 21 pages, Times New Roman, font 12, single spacing). The five written responses were collected through a Webropol form distributed to prospective participants in August-September 2019 (average 2.6 pages). The Webropol form was distributed to personnel c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 involved in EMI in the Departments of Education, Teacher Education and Education Leadership (N = 29); however, the response rate was low. Both types of interviews were premised on open-ended questions about the experience of being a teacher educator through a foreign language so that the participants could share their thoughts and what they deem important. The interviews followed protocols of ethical conduct of research (e.g., voluntary consent, participant anonymisation, storage and handling of data). The early interview data were complemented with further data four years later due to the increased departmental interest in EMI. Participants’ responses in English might have compromised the correctness of expression but not content. The written interviews gave participants the advantage of time to formulate their thoughts, while the spoken interviews helped to contextualise the meaning, mode of expression, and accompanying gestures. Data analysis The data were analysed in two phases. In phase one, the data were coded using Thematic Analysis, by which a theme was understood as an internally consistent unit that locates meaning in the data and comprises patterns of smaller, semantically bounded components (Guest et al., 2012). In phase two, each subtheme developed in the first phase was internally coded and reorganised in a theory-driven manner, i.e. according to whether codes manifested pedagogical being, doing, or relating (see Table 2). Since pedagogical language awareness was not conceptualised as a distinct aspect of EMI teacher educators’ professional identity development, we indicated which codes were connected to pedagogical language awareness within the pedagogical concept to which they belonged. The integrity of the analytical process was maintained by ensuring coded extracts corresponded with the participants’ perspectives, careful documentation of each phase and ongoing discussion between the two researchers involved in the study regarding the interpretation of the themes. 19 20 teacher educators’ professional identity in english-medium instruction ... Table 2 Example of theme analysis for the two phases of analysis Theme information Theme 1 Orientation to one’s work in EMI Subtheme b Teaching using a foreign or additional language in practice Concepts Code Code name Participants Excerpts 72 Subject-related beliefs 6 12 3 Pedagogical being Pedagogical doing 76 Teacher as advisor 3 77 Teacher as discussant 2 3 78 Teacher as expert 5 6 79 Teacher as guide to reasoning 5 5 80 Teacher as support 2 2 82 Teaching goals in CLIL 2 2 83 Teaching goals 9 23 3 An international perspective 2 6 13 Dialogic teaching 8 14 81 Teacher-student relationships through English 6 10 PLA 15 Difficulty of the content 1 1 PLA 19 English language proficiency – students 4 7 PLA 20 English language proficiency - teacher educators 7 11 PLA 51 International students 8 22 PLA 56 Need for… 8 36 PLA 71 Students’ subjectrelated knowledge 2 2 PLA 86 Teaching through English… 6 19 PLA 88 Using body language 1 1 Excerpt Being able to engage my student into meaningful learning, constructing knowledge and exploring. Supporting their pedagogical know-how as well as their knowledge on their main subject. Improving my own skills in teaching in higher education. (EMITEd7) It would be good to demolish some walls between the language groups. At least in teacher education, which is a very national and very Finnish-medium business, English is for “the internationals” who are in their own bubbles. At the same time, Finns shout the “we’re a small nation, we need to be international” mantra. Well, apparently there are some tensions here. (EMITEd8) Note. PLA indicates pedagogical language awareness. Results The analysis highlighted the ways in which pedagogical being, doing, and relating revolve around the presence and role of the foreign language in EMI, as well as the concurrent disjunctures and opportunities EMI creates. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 The following sections outline how pedagogical being, doing and relating each inform EMI teacher educators’ (EMITEd) orientation to their work and the different ways language impinges on the sense of self as the teacher educators share how they try to understand and respond to the disjunctures of EMI. Pedagogical being An important aspect for the EMITEds was the reorientation to their work required by EMI. Although few participants reported that the challenge of EMI changed their sense of self, a qualitative difference seemed to exist between the established teacher-self and the EMI teaching self. As EMITEd8 poignantly notes, ‘I’m not the same person. Sometimes I feel I’m the funniest and wittiest and most sophisticated in [native language], and I can never give my best side (language-wise) to the students at this university.’ The EMITEds noted a wide range of emotions ranging from enjoyment and enthusiasm, pleasant surprise, happiness or contentment, annoyance and frustration, comfort or discomfort, insecurity and regret in relation to EMI, suggesting that teaching through a foreign language is a deeply felt experience. The most notable emotion was confidence in one’s decent EMI language skills and a concomitant feeling of tolerance with the ‘EMI teacher education self ’ (5/9). For instance, EMITEd3 describes the inward panic when searching for a relevant word and stopping mid-sentence, observing that ‘of course, I’m working in a foreign language, I can’t know every word, and I have a promise to forgot [sic]. […] but, of course, now I have seen that I will survive,’ which points to the self-awareness needed to maintain a healthy sense of self. The participants’ perception of themselves as weak or imperfect users of English as teacher educators and their merciful stance towards themselves are noteworthy. Most participants believed it was understandable that, because they were foreign language speakers, they should not expect perfection when comparing themselves to students’ or colleagues’ fluency. In addition, they shared a shift in focus, moving from EMITEd1, who comments ‘that I don’t care anymore. I just try to talk,’ EMITEd2 who enjoys ‘winning the challenge’ and EMITEd3’s belief that ‘you can manage with your English’ to EMITEd8’s observation that overcoming challenges should encourage others to try and even enables you ‘to build and continuously build a new self.’ The EMI experience seems to become less stressful over time as one gets used to teaching in a foreign language (EMITEd1, EMITEd3, EMITEd4) and begins to integrate subject-related terminology in English in their research work (EMITEd3). However, the participants were aware of simplifying language for 21 22 teacher educators’ professional identity in english-medium instruction ... communication (EMITEd6) and the need to be more careful (EMITEd4). Many of the aforementioned emotions were language-based, relating to vocabulary knowledge and fluency as well as what the participants could give to students. Although EMITEd2 stated she felt the same regardless of the language, she seemed to be negotiating whether she was both a subject and a language (English) teacher: you… have to, kind of, teach, both the language and the content, so- I’m kind of only teaching content now through the language. […] I don’t, don’t really see that where I find it as tool to explain what we are doing, so, yeah. But I’m not a deep CLIL teacher. I know I teacher things in English. […] But I don’t know… do I teach really language through the, and that’s that, and that that, that they can read also from dictionary? […] and we all teach in English, so we, in this sense, we are all English teachers. In this extract, EMITEd2 seems to use pedagogical understanding as a subject expert to negotiate the role of language in EMI. Pedagogical language awareness can be seen in this negotiation as well as in the EMITEds’ acknowledgement of their need to improve and adjust to EMI and improve their competence in the language of instruction. Indeed, for most participants (8/9), the relationship between subject and language appears as a central consideration for renegotiating pedagogical responsibilities, whether by shifting from competence to ‘how well [students] can […] learn some subject through English’ whilst ‘[t]he (subject) specific practices are the same’ (EMITEd5), or by using the ‘same criteria of good teaching’ (EMITEd6). It is at this juncture that pedagogical being arguably transforms into pedagogical doing. Pedagogical doing Another aspect in EMITEds’ work was the way in which pedagogical convictions were realised in practice. The participants appeared to clearly understand their professional values as teacher educators (7/9), the goals they set for themselves as researchers (3/9; EMITEd1, EMITEd2, EMITEd 8), and their teaching philosophy (9/9). In general, they seemed aware of themselves as individuals and professionals (9/9), and the way in which EMI requires a change in practice. As EMITEd4 notes, ‘I have changed lot of teaching and maybe some good thing I have left, I should maybe take more care, [laughs] care what I’m, not change a lot, change so much.’ Nevertheless, as EMITEd7 shares, language affects thinking and thus, it somewhat changes my teacherhood as well. But I see it as a positive thing. It necessitates me to try more and I think I have learnt a great deal from teaching in English […] it sort of c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 makes me better as a teacher as well, because I have to be more aware of the whole teaching situation. The participants described how EMI changes their practice with the need to prepare more carefully, give clear instructions, pay attention to students’ expression, encourage student participation, provide vocabulary in more than one language, and be sensitive to culture. Pedagogical language awareness was primarily evident as teacher educators identified the shortcomings and benefits of EMI (8/9) and noted the international dimension of the different, language-mediated context (8/9). It was further evident in acknowledging the importance of knowing students’ subject-related knowledge (2/9) and the difficulty of the content (1/9), as it affected how teacher educators would present the content. A significant change mentioned by nearly all participants (8/9) was the presence of international students, highlighting the point that in addition to the foreign language, the different repertoires and cultural experiences of the student cohort require consideration. Moreover, many courses offered to international students are only short-term, stressing the need to meet and collaborate through effective communication, a challenge exacerbated by the EMI setting. Several EMITEds recognised that even for students competent in English, studying through a foreign language can be challenging, especially when the content is unfamiliar. The participants addressed this dilemma in different ways, for example, by recognising the value of having to ‘“suffer” a bit, so make big efforts, to understand something in another language’ (EMITEd4). The relationship readjustments required when working through a foreign language were frustrating at times, but also something that they constantly developed and not necessarily considered a disadvantage. As one participant observes in EMI classes: And there we have possibility to discuss really, and I don’t have right answers. Usually the students don’t have right answers, but we try to think, everybody, and, and I learn. Many times I think more than they learn. […] when you are a teacher, you have to be able to discuss about these things with your students. (EMITEd3) Arguably, the EMI setting afforded unexpected space for co-constructing understanding through the closer teacher-student proximity (EMITEd1, EMITEd2; cf. EMITEd7). As EMITEd8 shared, ‘[t]he uncertainty in my skills made me rely much more on students’ input,’ creating a space and acknowledging resources that may not be considered when teachers are working within 23 24 teacher educators’ professional identity in english-medium instruction ... their comfort zones. For the participants, the international students’ diversity in cultural and educational background infused the shared learning environment with an international outlook, a plurality of subject-related perspectives, higher student attention and more eagerness to participate in class. These observations point to the greater resources EMITEds can draw on in their pedagogical doing. Moreover, these observations prompted the participants to reflect on the importance of Finnish values in academic settings, like less formality, increased freedom in students’ learning paths and evaluation practices, pointing to the relationship with the wider HE community. Pedagogical relating Whereas pedagogical being focuses more on the sense of self and pedagogical doing addresses the realisation of pedagogical expertise, pedagogical relating acknowledges the multiplicity of relationships that inform the work and person of an educator. In this study, participants drew attention to the multifaceted nature of pedagogical relating, including the relationship with the institutional HEI community, collegial relationships and the wider vision for the provision of teacher education. For example, EMITEd3 points out: I’m doing inpope [sic] important job, and I know that teaching and, andthat our students will have their Master’s degrees- we will have money about that and we will have money about when our students have 50 credits a year, and that kinds of things. And I can make my own share, so that we can be sure that we will have that, that, and that. By agreeing to provide EMI, EMITEd3 sees benefits for herself and the wider community. Recognising that EMI can be a ‘[m]eaningful part of [one’s] everyday work’ (EMITEd5) also indicates how teacher educators orient to the demands of HE today: ‘that EMI and internationalisation should be part of our and our students daily life’ (EMITEd6). These views point to EMI as a dimension integrated into EMITEds’ professional life, encompassing students, the provision of teacher education, the wider university culture, and EMI at the university. Participants’ responses implied how an individual sense of responsibility for engagement and development, principally towards and for students, informs their practice. Many participants welcomed opportunities for development presented by students or colleagues (6/9), and all described situations in which they sought opportunities to develop professionally. These opportunities included international teacher exchanges, independent or unofficial EMI c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 training, publishing in English, contacting and collaborating with or seeking advice from foreign colleagues, developing EMI courses with Finnish colleagues, and trying to renew and evaluate one’s teaching (e.g., by ‘experimenting […] with “custom-designed sessions” that I prepare based on students’ answers to a questionnaire’ – EMITEd8). These insights underline the conscientious way in which these EMITEds develop their work and the need for the community to provide development opportunities. Collegial and wider university networks were only briefly mentioned as contexts for learning from and collaborating with Finnish and international colleagues. Whilst the participants recognised the value of exchanging expertise, engaging in dialogue and enjoying a degree of collegial proximity, the lack of an EMI community and the absence of university recognition for their EMI teaching in their salary or work plan provoked feelings of loneliness, anger, and worry. For these participants, the relationships that most directly supported their development were feedback on one’s teaching (5/9) and professional development programmes for EMI (8/9). Participants’ descriptions of feedback were connected to students and to peers (e.g., having their class observed, coteaching), strengthened their sense of competence in EMI or their abilities as teacher educators, provided advice and support for EMI, and promoted professional development. For example, EMITEd2 explains that: after every group we ask feedback and what we could do differently and what would help them to see things better and, that’s the only way you can really get something […] then the feedback questionnaire is the one you can read more and try to move it to a direction to something. Regarding professional development programmes for EMI, participants were aware of the importance and availability of such programmes but, despite their benefits, considered them time-consuming and demanding. Participants noted how encouragement and confidence, improved language, theory-based insights and sensitivity to students’ cultural diversity or inquiry-based teaching models could benefit EMI. However, when developmental opportunities were limited to informal meetings or without the university adequately accounting for employees’ commitment to a workload of 15 European study credits, the participants felt that EMI teacher education was ‘not [taken] so seriously’ (EMITEd4) or deemed ‘too heavy’ (EMITEd2). For many participants, their experience seems to have been as EMITEd7’s summarises: Back then, in 2014, it was not so common to teach in English, so we had to “seek” from the department for those teachers, who would be willing to take up this challenge. For me, it was not a scary thing, although I 25 26 teacher educators’ professional identity in english-medium instruction ... recognise that my language skills are somewhat limited, and I lack more formal training. Of course, the first times teaching in English were especially good opportunities for practicing my oral skills of English, but also reflecting the differences between English and Finnish teaching. Discussion Teacher education is an important topic to the journal where this special issue contribution appears, although teacher education research there has largely focused on student-teachers, policies, practices and reforms (e.g., Pantić, 2012; Raiker, 2020; Smith, 2016). This study complements these foci with teacher educators’ perceptions of EMI in higher education and the implications for their professional identity development. EMI is absent from the journal’s ongoing discussion about the internationalisation of higher education (e.g., Kassaye Alemu, 2014), which suggests that academic staff have favourable attitudes towards internationalisation yet report little preference for conducting courses in foreign languages (Flander & Klem, 2014). This interview study focuses on how teacher educators at a Finnish university experienced EMI, and the findings highlight the crucial role language plays as teacher educators renegotiate their pedagogical being, doing and relating in EMI contexts. The orientation EMITEds had towards EMI highlighted the personal and affective experience of EMI. Participants’ pedagogical being was directed by a sense of familiarity or disjuncture when teaching EMI classes and negotiating the role of language as the mediator of self, pedagogical expertise and disciplinary expertise. As language proficiency is a primary concern for HEI educators in EMI (Lasagabaster, 2018), the participants’ perceived competence as foreign language speakers has implications for their confidence and beliefs as teachers and content experts. Because beliefs direct behaviour, perspectives, choices and teaching style (Maaranen et al., 2019), making beliefs about competence explicit is critical in supporting teacher educators’ further development. The findings also underlined participants’ concern about what they could offer student-teachers while upholding pedagogical principles in their teaching and adequately adjusting language so as not to compromise communication and content delivery. A core strategy for teacher educators is to focus on their role as guides and mentors to resolve tension in their work, focusing on reconceptualising teaching strategies rather than restructuring external conditions (Tillema & Kremer-Hayon, 2005). Teacher educators’ inward orientation towards the improvement of practice might suggest that professional identity development is a personal matter (Maaranen et al., 2019). However, in an EMI setting, trying c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 to maintain the integrity of practice while trying to navigate different perspectives and unanticipated experiences suggests that these challenges cannot be overcome merely through mandated policies. Pedagogical doing and pedagogical relating highlight EMITEds as professional actors who respond to the complex global trend of EMI encompassing English as the language of academia and educational revenues (see also Saarinen & Nikula, 2013). Participants’ pedagogical doing underlined the need for temporal resources, communication with students and more dialogic teaching with a diverse cohort. As Lo and Macaro (2015) note, EMI instruction requires time to transition from monologic to dialogic teacher-student interaction, and teacher educators need skills to support student-teachers’ extended verbal exchanges on the subject matter. Most importantly, EMITEds recognised certain parameters necessary for more effective teaching and advocated the international perspective that international students afford EMI classes. Some of these parameters have been reported elsewhere, with EMITEds still being able to perceive the personal, academic and added benefits of EMI (Dimova et al., 2015; Doiz et al., 2011). Pedagogical relating could be seen in how participants joined the practice of EMI teaching and were deliberately open to or pursued opportunities for professional development that others presented. In doing so, receiving feedback on one’s teaching and professional development programmes for EMI were very important, indicating the need for support for EMI teaching practices from more experienced colleagues or teacher trainers. Participants’ pedagogical relating contrasted with other European lecturers’ low motivation to organise and deliver EMI (Doiz et al., 2011; Lasagabaster, 2018), and supported the view of Finnish teaching staff as able to work according to their teaching ambitions, professional interests and values (Vähäsantanen et al., 2020). However, participants’ regard of EMI teacher education as positive, yet demanding, in conjunction with a lack of recognition of EMI teaching on the part of the institution (e.g., organised EMI communities, financial reward, allocated working hours), further validated Finnish teaching staff ’s need for sufficient time to engage in research as well as teaching activities (see Vähäsantanen et al., 2020). Although more training is needed for the challenge of EMI at universities (Lasagabaster, 2018), with more structured and focused language and language-mediated methodology (O’Dowd, 2018), universities should offer incentives for teachers beyond the appeal of EMI as an opportunity to advance one’s professional career (Doiz et al., 2011). Finally, teacher educators’ core deliberations in EMI should not be resolved as personally experienced problems (Tillema & Kremer-Hayon, 2005), but as (EMI) community challenges. This is important considering participants’ orientation 27 28 teacher educators’ professional identity in english-medium instruction ... to their work aimed at benefiting student-teachers’ learning and not necessarily their own professional development. Teacher education communities need to be supported by a shared vision in EMI and, knowing what is expected of them, develop EMI syllabi meeting contemporary societal and academic needs (Maaranen et al., 2019). Figure 3 Depicting the significant presence of language in EMI professional identity development The significant presence of language within the professional identity development of EMI teacher educators is illustrated in Figure 3, in which pedagogical language awareness is defined in relation to the three different aspects of professional identity development rather than enacted as part of pedagogical doing alone. Thus, while pedagogical language awareness remains an important part of pedagogical doing, the findings from this study indicate the way in which language is also deeply felt and affects an educator’s sense of self. Moreover, opportunities for the development of pedagogical language awareness are connected to the wider community and the willingness of an institution to invest in EMI. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Conclusions This study illustrated how Finnish teacher educators’ professional identity development is infused with language in EMI settings. Pedagogical language awareness was not considered an additional aspect in the analysis but as inherent to EMITEds’ professional identity development. Pedagogical language awareness connected with EMITEds’ becoming used to or feeling uncomfortable in EMI (pedagogical being) was prominent in pedagogical doing (e.g., the needs and advantages they identify in their EMI teaching, the difficulty of content, the internationality of the student population, being able to teach terminology in one’s area of expertise in both languages), and a potential meeting point for collegial development. Recognising the fundamental presence of language suggests that pedagogical language awareness is a critical area for further research and development in EMI. Despite the small number of participants, similarities with other studies on teacher educators suggest that the issues raised by the participants reflect shared concerns faced by teacher educators. However, a larger number of participants could have revealed more group-based threads and variation in the interview data (Joffe, 2012). While code saturation was reached, future research could aim at meaning saturation for a more nuanced understanding of the EMITEds’ pedagogical understanding (Hennink et al., 2017). The amount and nature of the data is another notable limitation. The written interview data consisted of concise answers, whereas face-to-face interviews made it easier for participants to respond in greater detail. The latter might be more suited to the study of professional identity development in EMI, because it affords more spontaneous and detailed data in a conversational setting. Since professional development programmes were an important aspect of participants’ experiences in EMI, future research could include EMI teacher training programme coordinators’ perspectives, while EMITEds’ teaching can be observed before and after EMI training. 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Pedagogical sensitivity and teachers' practical knowing-in-action. Peking University Education Review, 1–23. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1198/87d5abee4067b278954f5183 e0bb8f925b45.pdf Wilkinson, R. (2013). English-medium instruction at a Dutch university: Challenges and pitfalls. In A. Doiz, D. Lsagabaster, & J. M. Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities: Global challenges (pp. 3–25). Multilingual Matters. Wilkinson, R. (2018). Content and language integration at universities? Collaborative reflections. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 21(5), 607–615. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13670050.2018.1491948 Biographical note Sotiria Pappa, PhD, is a postdoctoral researcher at the Faculty of Educational Sciences at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research focuses on pre- and in-service teachers’ agency, identity development, and emotions at the workplace. Josephine Moate, PhD, is a senior lecturer in bi- and multilingual pedagogy in the Department of Teacher Education at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland. Her research interests include pre- and in-service teacher development as well as the role of language in education. 33 34 c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 doi: 10.26529/cepsj.1070 Building Professional Identity During Pre-Service Teacher Education Gemma Torres-Cladera1, Núria Simó-Gil1, Laura Domingo-Peñafiel*2, and Vanesa Amat-Castells1 • This article explores how university learning and the period of school placement can contribute to identity development understood as a dynamic and evolving process. From this perspective, we understand the teacher’s professional identity as an ongoing process of interpretation and re-interpretation of experiences that are shaped in professional spaces of relationship with others, where each person makes different processes of identification, representations, and attributions, creating a spiral of continuous construction or reconstruction. It is thus a phenomenon of social interaction. Data collection involved eight students, their school tutors, and university teachers within the framework of 4th-year school placements. Data analysis was organised around three dimensions of the research project: the teacher him/herself, the bond between students and the educational community, and the relationship between the school and the university. The results highlighted the need to improve the practicum, especially at the university level. Both school and university tutors are crucial in promoting and guiding dialogical processes of knowledge construction with oneself, others, and the world. However, the university has an added responsibility in this key relational process; university tutors must improve their role as mediators between students and school tutors to contribute to the development of the teaching identity in a complex and dynamic way. Keywords: initial training, practicum, teacher identity, tutoring, university 1 2 Faculty of Education, Translation and Human Sciences, University of Vic - Central University of Catalonia, Spain. * Corresponding Author. Faculty of Education, Translation and Human Sciences, University of Vic - Central University of Catalonia, Spain; laura.domingo@uvic.cat. 35 36 building professional identities from university in pre-service teacher education Oblikovanje poklicnih identitet v okviru izobraževanja učiteljev Gemma Torres-Cladera, Núria Simó-Gil, Laura Domingo-Peñafiel in Vanesa Amat-Castells • Članek preučuje, kako lahko univerzitetno učenje in obdobje šolske prakse prispevata k razvoju identitete, ki jo razumemo kot dinamičen in razvijajoč se proces. S tega vidika učiteljevo poklicno identiteto razumemo kot stalen proces interpretacije in reinterpretacije izkušenj, ki se oblikujejo v profesionalnih prostorih odnosov z drugimi, pri čemer vsaka oseba izvaja različne procese identifikacije, reprezentacij in atribucij, kar ustvarja spiralo nenehne konstrukcije ali rekonstrukcije. Gre torej za pojav družbene interakcije. Pri zbiranju podatkov je sodelovalo osem študentov, njihovi šolski mentorji in univerzitetni učitelji v okviru šolske prakse 4. letnika. Analiza podatkov je bila organizirana okrog treh razsežnosti raziskovalnega projekta: učitelj sam, vez med učenci in izobraževalno skupnostjo ter odnos med šolo in univerzo. Rezultati so poudarili potrebo po izboljšanju prakse, zlasti na univerzitetni ravni. Šolski in univerzitetni učitelji so ključni pri spodbujanju in vodenju dialoških procesov konstrukcije znanja o sebi, drugih in o svetu, vendar ima univerza v tem ključnem odnosnem procesu dodatno odgovornost; univerzitetni tutorji morajo izboljšati svojo vlogo posrednikov med študenti in šolskimi tutorji, da bi na kompleksen in dinamičen način prispevali k razvoju pedagoške identitete. Ključne besede: začetno usposabljanje, praksa, identiteta učitelja, tutorstvo, univerza c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Introduction This article stems from the results of a competitive research project that took place during the 2016/7 and 2017/8 school years in the Faculty of Education, Translation, and Human Sciences (Facultad de Educación, Traducción y Ciencias Humanas, FETCH) at The University of Vic–Central University of Catalonia in Spain. The UVic-UCC is a university with public vocation and private management located in Vic (Spain) and has a current total of 8,353 students. The research objective is to study how the university learning process and the work placement assignments at schools may contribute to the development of the teaching identity. This article is centred on the practicum, specifically within the training contexts of Physical Education and Inclusive Education and the more global and general perspective of the Bachelor’s Degree in Primary Education. Eight students, eight school tutors, and eight university tutors took part in the research. During seminars, tutoring sessions, and school visits, data were collected using work placement memoirs, individual interviews, written observations, field notes, meeting records, and a discussion group. The theoretical framework around the development of teacher identities will be presented in the next section, along with the rest of the research. The methodological perspective, the analysis, and the fieldwork discussion will follow. The ensuing section highlights the project results and proposals for improvement to consider during the practicum of the teachers’ initial training. Finally, we will point out the most relevant conclusions regarding the construction of the teaching identity during the work placement programme. Teacher Identities: between the University and the School Learning how to be a teacher is a complex process that is nurtured throughout one’s professional life. A general agreement exists that states that the teacher’s job requires specific knowledge, skills, and mindsets and that the paths towards learning how to teach are varied (Ping et al., 2018). Being a teacher implies rethinking one’s actions within the scholastic and social context and performing a continuing renovation of the educational undertaking. Talking about teacher identity implies bearing in mind the biographical development that each teacher uses to develop a feeling of belonging to their organisation, the degree of commitment, and the values that dictate their actions at the school (Beijaard et al., 2004; Day, 2012). For this reason, the conducted research poses the challenge of studying how the university learning process and the work placement at schools may 37 38 building professional identities from university in pre-service teacher education contribute to the development of teacher identities for future faculty members, understanding said concept as a dynamic, non-cumulative process in which reinterpreting and giving meaning to one’s beliefs, values, and experiences become a priority (Flores & Day, 2006). The complexity of identity as a construct lies in the use of subjectivity as a way of seeing, living, and feeling oneself (Day, 2004). Thus, the construction of the teacher identity becomes an organising principle in teachers’ lives, developed from the multiplicity, the lack of continuity, and the social nature of identity (Akkerman & Meijer, 2011). Vidović & Domović (2019) have found that the personal beliefs of primary education teachers-to-be may hinder the development of their professional beliefs. Therefore, they have expressed their need to rely on teacher support during initial training to understand and address the conflict between personal and professional beliefs during the practicum in initial teacher training (Domović et al., 2016). In this context, it is essential that ‘initial teacher educators should leave more space for reflective approaches toward academic experiences of student teachers in order to address directly intuitive beliefs about teaching and learning and transform them into intended professional attitudes and values’ (Vidović & Domović, 2019 p. 135). As a consequence, the research we present regarding the construction of the teaching identity aims at promoting reflection on the educational practice from an early stage—initial teacher training—to contribute to the development of thoughtful teachers, in line with the idea expressed by Vujicić et al. (2015, p. 144): ‘the teacher as a reflective practitioner is viewed as an initiator of change, an impetus for learning that also takes care of his/her own personal and professional development’. We understand that contributing to the development of teacher identities means offering interpretation and re-interpretation processes of their own experiences, in addition to promoting environments that consider learning, in the vein of Hernández et al. (2020, p. 26), as ‘a weft of relationships where the biographical and the corporeal are linked together, as well as the cognitive’, in which each individual can perform their own processes of identification, representation and attribution, creating a spiral of continuous reconstruction (Branda & Porta, 2012). This means that we propose investigating the development of teacher identity as a phenomenon of social interaction and one that is necessary to learn. From this perspective, university tutoring becomes relevant during this process. Therefore, we explore the term identity learning (Geijsel & Meijers, 2005) as a construct that contributes to making sense of the formative processes of work placement (Beck & Kosnik, 2000; Mule, 2006; Sorensen, 2014). Along with Gairín-Sallán et al. (2019), we share the notion that the practicum helps the development of competences and teacher identities. Given c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 the fact that experience in and of itself is not necessarily educational, the quality of the practitioner’s interactions with school and university tutors is key to the learning processes of the soon-to-be teacher (Bullough et al., 2002; DarlingHammond, 2006; Novella, 2011; Solís et al., 2011). Staying in touch with professional reality is essential to guarantee a quality link between the teacher’s work placement and the academic knowledge in the teacher’s degree, but it is not enough. Transforming the practicum into a unifying bridge between school and university implies ensuring the students’ accompaniment and their reflective practice, both individual and collective (Cebrián de la Serna, 2011; Rodríguez et al., 2011; Susinos-Rada & Saiz-Linares, 2016). Likewise, the individual dimensions linked to a reflective practice are more easily acquired than the collaborative skills related to institutional participation, as shown by several researchers (Mendoza & Covarrubias, 2014; Sancho-Gil et al., 2017). Group seminars and individual tutoring sessions are the gathering spaces shared by the student and the university tutor. The seminar is understood as a stable, in-person, supervised interaction where referential contents are shared, and work placement experiences are exchanged. Seminars are known for being collective spaces for theoretical reflection upon practical matters, where the students are in constant dialogue with themselves, with others, and with the immersed context (Zabalza, 2002). University tutoring aims at providing quality and innovation to the support process. Tutoring eases the classroom access conditions, reinforces transition processes, improves permanence conditions, and contributes to the development of professional and life projects (Martínez Clares et al., 2014). The actual challenge is developing tutoring as a systematic, planned, integrated, intentional, continuous, dynamic process, and—above all—one recognised by academic qualifications and inside the institution. In this context, the university tutor is responsible for driving a dialogical process between institutions and students and reflecting upon the ‘teacher self ’ of the student, the curriculum, and the teaching strategies to aid the learning process of the student body. The Work Placement Model in the Faculty of Education at UVic-UCC in Spain The practicum or work placement allows students to see a school environment in an experiential fashion and observe, analyse, and reflect on possible actual experiences of their future profession. It also serves the purpose of helping the student teacher’s academic and professional training through a guided initiation of the teacher’s exercise. In the Faculty of Education, the practicum is 39 40 building professional identities from university in pre-service teacher education distributed in three of the four years of the Bachelor’s Degree in Primary Education. Within the context of this research, the fourth-year practicum (Work Placement III) is a learning space where the student participates in school activities. The work placement course has a distinctive structure that differs from all the other courses and has the following characteristics: responsible teaching staff, group seminars, individual tutoring, and its completion schedule. The school teachers and the university professors tutor the student teachers. As its main objective, the Work Placement III course has to carry out an autonomous intervention connected to one of the specialisation options that each student has chosen (music, English, physical education, and inclusive education). During this period, the student analyses the context, the educational work carried out at schools, the teacher’s roles and practices alongside the rest of the school staff, and the specialisation curriculum. The student must also reflect critically upon the methodologies and conceptions of the teaching and learning processes, the planning, development, and evaluation of an educational intervention aimed at primary school students—agreed upon by both tutors—and the relationship between academic knowledge and work placement. There is an explicit emphasis on student teachers’ reflection centred around their work placement and learning process experiences. Each of these purposes is carried out at school and university, accompanied respectively by each tutor. The organisation of the Work Placement III course considers eight group seminar sessions held at the university, before and after the practicum. Moreover, individual tutoring is agreed on for each student, be it at the school or at the university. The practicum model developed in the UVic-UCC Faculty is substantiated by what Novella (2011) defines as a participative, reflective, and dialogical process. It is intended that the students build a framework out of their work placement assignments—drawing from theoretical-practical elements to analyse and establish benchmarks—so as to consolidate contents and experiences that arise from their fieldwork. In this model, the work contents, which are gathered in a curriculum proposal, originate in the student’s actions: actions that occur both at the schools and in the academic spaces of the university. In this approach, we understand reflection as a process that is far from being prescriptive (Mansvelder-Longayroux et al., 2007). The concern of improving the practicum from an institutional standpoint motivates us to take on research as a faculty, such as the one hereby presented, to address a complex subject that requires constant reviewing. Below, we detail the methodological decisions implemented in our research. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Methodological Decisions The research question that guided the study, focused on the fourth schoolyear work placement assignments, has been stated as follows: what inherent elements to the development of teacher identities are manifested during the practicum, and how can the role of university tutors benefit their advancement? In order to answer it, we have selected an interpretative and critical paradigm (Cohen et al., 2007; Lincoln et al., 2011), since it focuses on how the participants understand and comprehend their actions in a social context. Just as Moral stated (2016, p. 165), the compiled evidence is registered in a social context, and ‘the arguments are built around the suppositions, criteria, beliefs, ideals, rules, etc., of the research participants, in an interactive process between the context, the investigated subjects, the method, the scenery, and the actors’. From this perspective, we intend to understand and interpret the actions that university tutors carry out during the work placement assignments to accompany the complex social processes of the school. In this spirit, the study objectives presented in this article are: 1. To identify the elements that contribute to the learning process of teacher identity during a work placement, as told by the involved agents: students, school teachers, and university tutors. 2. To propose guidelines that improve the role of university tutors in work placement and the links between university and school in the development of teacher identities. The research team, made up of eight university tutors, was organised through a continuous training seminar and evaluation of the teacher’s practice. Each of the eight researchers tutored a student during the 2016-17 school year. In addition, a public call was launched for the degree students who specialised in physical education and attention to diversity to select the participants. In the end, eight students agreed to participate in the study while complying with all agreed commitments. Regarding ethical aspects, it is worth mentioning that all involved parties were previously informed about the project and had the chance to participate while knowing that their confidentiality was to be safeguarded during the entire process. Table 1 details the sample, while Table 2 shows the research instruments used for the task. 41 42 building professional identities from university in pre-service teacher education Table 1 The sample Student (S) School Tutor (ST) University Tutor (UT) S1: Inclusive Education focus ST1: Attention to diversity specialisation. Previous experience in work placement tutoring (5–10 years) UT1: Pedagogue. 20 years of experience in work placement tutoring S2: Inclusive Education focus ST2: Attention to diversity specialisation. Previous experience in work placement tutoring (5–10 years) UT2: Sociologist with over 10 years of experience in work placement tutoring S3: Inclusive Education focus ST3: Attention to diversity specialisation. Previous experience in work placement tutoring (5–10 years) UT3: Educational psychologist. Teacher with 5 years of experience. 8 years of experience in work placement tutoring S4: Physical Education focus ST4: Physical education specialist. Previous experience in work placement tutoring (10–15 years) UT4: Pedagogue. 25 years of experience in work placement tutoring S5: Physical Education focus ST5: Physical education specialist. Previous experience in work placement tutoring (2–5 years) UT5: Pedagogue. 20 years of experience in work placement tutoring S6: Physical Education focus ST6: Physical education specialist. Previous experience in work placement tutoring (10–15 years) UT6: Physical Education teacher. Previous experience in work placement tutoring (5–10 years) S7: Physical Education focus ST7: Physical education specialist. Previous experience in work placement tutoring (2–5 years) UT7: Physical Education teacher. Previous experience in work placement tutoring (10–15 years) S8: Inclusive Education focus ST8: Attention to diversity specialisation. Previous experience in tutoring practices (5–10 years) UT8: Language Didactics professor. 7 years of experience in school teaching. 9 years of experience in work placement tutoring Table 2 Data collection techniques Participants Data Collecting Instruments 8 Students in the 4th school year of the Degree (S) Work placement memoir: individual assignment written after school work placement was over (M) Written observations during follow-up seminar (WO) 8 Teachers, school tutors (ST) Individual interviews (II) Discussion group (DG) 8 Professors, university tutors (UT) Field notes collected after tutoring sessions with students (FN) Research project meeting records (MR) c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Data analysis has been structured around three axes, all related to the development of teacher identity: the ‘teacher self ’, the relationship and practical intervention of the students and the educational community, and the link between school and university knowledge. Each axis of analysis is configured according to the description and dimensions specified in Table 3, which have also guided the codification of the students’, school tutors’, and university tutors’ collected data. The dimensions emerged inductively from the data. The participants expressed their perspectives, points of view, and meanings regarding the analysed dimensions. Codified fragments have been interpreted in the light of the theoretical references that enable comprehending the complexity of the formative process and the educational actions carried out by the university tutors. The outcome of this analysis and discussion is presented in the next section of this study, and after the results section, proposals for improvement focused on the university tutors within the context of the group seminars and the individual tutoring sessions are detailed. Table 3 Axes of analysis: description and dimensions Axis of Analysis Description Dimensions The teacher self Aspects related to how teachers learn, adapt, rebel, or react to educational situations • Significance of the teacher identity • The impact of initial training on the teacher’s practice • The teacher’s craft To live and be a part of the educational community: feeling part of the institution’s reality and the practical intervention in the classroom Aspects that relate the work placement assignments to a wider institutional context in order to allow a deeper interpretation of the practical context • Personal management of emotions • Learning process, performance, and life management at the school and in the classroom Student reflections that interpret their own experiences and decipher, reference, value, and integrate them into their cognitive schemes, and link them to the work of the teaching staff • Analysis, reflection, and improvement of the educational praxis • Use of instruments for the reflective practice • Reflections linked to the key elements of professional teaching knowledge Relationship between the school and the university Processes and knowledge learned during the practicum that link academic university knowledge with practical school knowledge • Relationships between students, school tutor, and university tutor • Boundaries and opportunities in the relationship between the 3 agents • School-university coordination • Adjustments and lack thereof between academic university knowledge and practical school knowledge 43 44 building professional identities from university in pre-service teacher education Analysis and Discussion In this section, we will present the fieldwork evidence, drawing from the three axes of analysis to exemplify the key elements that contribute to the learning process of identity through the statements of the three involved agents: students (S), school tutors (ST) and university tutors (UT). The Teacher Self: The School Tutor as a Role Model One of the key ideas emerging from the student subjects is the preoccupation over knowing and acting as good teachers in practical contexts. Said preoccupation, experienced as vulnerability (Flores & Day, 2006), justifies the need to acquire organisational and educational strategies as a crucial component for the development of professional skills. Fieldwork shows how the expectations of the three implied agents vary; the technical aspects are the most relevant for the students, while the school tutors and the university tutors value the collaborative and the reflective aspects, respectively. Most of the students collect in their memoirs the insecurities experienced during their work placements. They convey that confidence is gained thanks to the trustful attitude of their school tutor. Along the lines of what has been said before, the teacher’s viewpoint of the classroom is also fundamental in the following sense: ‘My classroom tutor let me participate actively, and that has allowed me to feel increasingly confident of myself and of the work I’ve done’ (S1_M). The questioning of educational practices by the tutors, the schools, and the university helps the students to adjust their learning processes of the teacher identity through the consideration of dynamic and open situations where making unfinished and uncertain educational decisions is valued (Flores, 2001; Flores & Day, 2006; Hauge, 2000). The research has allowed us to explore how the different agents experience the same process. We have found that students need to realise that educational actions carried out at the schools are not endgoals in and of themselves but rather complex, interpretable situations that lie beyond the limits of what is experienced in the school and classroom contexts. Another identified element in the learning process of teacher identity is that, for most of the students, the teacher’s model is by far the safest from an educational point of view. In this sense, they reveal how they integrate these performances when in session: ‘I used some of the resources that the teacher used as routines inside the classroom, so the children already knew what they had to do at any given time’ (S7_M). Thus, the students experience their university training—centred mostly on reflection upon educational models that substantiate the practical principles—but distanced from the schools themselves. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Certainly, the university’s proposals are not adequately connected to the subjective experience that each student goes through in the classroom and to what happens to them as apprentices from an emotional standpoint. Therefore, the complexity of identity as a construct lies in the use of subjectivity as a way of seeing, living, and feeling oneself (Day, 2004). Furthermore, learning is often associated with the relevant experiences that affect our lives (Carrasco & Herraiz, 2020). Accordingly, evaluating the complexity involved in a learning process that stems from emotional and corporeal components, not just a cognitive one (Hernández et al., 2020), is a challenge for the university tutors. Within this context, the students find significance in what they are able to successfully reproduce from the teacher models in the practical environment of the classroom. To Live and Be a Part of Practical Experiences Inside the Classroom During the classroom practice, the students face their limitations in the face of the actions implemented, which is why reinterpreting and making sense of their own beliefs, values, and experiences (Flores & Day, 2006) long after their final evaluations have been conducted, is what is truly valuable to their learning processes. Implementing both dialogue processes and exchanges of experiences in work placement students is relevant when shared learning processes between peers are encouraged. This means that spaces such as small group seminars with work placement students are necessary to share reflections, emotions, doubts, uncertainties, and actions among the students, while they distance themselves from the work placement context and thus from the emotional component of the moment of action. It is about offering an environment where the students can develop processes of interpretation and reinterpretation of their experiences (Beijaard et al., 2004). Relationships: Agreements and Disagreements between the School and the University During the research, a distance between the work placement school context and the academic university context emerged. On the one hand, the students believe that the schools are where true knowledge is acquired, as shown in varying degrees by their analysed written memoirs. On the other hand, for some, the university classes during the practicum were far from their experienced reality, while for others, the school is where the university’s theoretical contents become meaningful and help their professional development. ‘This shows a lack of connection between the students’ theory and practice’ (ST4_DG). 45 46 building professional identities from university in pre-service teacher education Another key aspect that arises from the collected data is the need for a joint effort between the school and the university that clearly establishes which actions favour the students’ being welcomed into the school’s context, which part they are granted, how they are supported so that they can observe and act in different moments and adopt different roles in the educational context. In this regard, it is relevant to define daily or weekly spaces of dialogue between the school teacher, the student, and—in some cases—the university tutor, so that they can share stances and inquiries about the experienced educational actions, enable continuous processes of construction and reconstruction, and gradually configure the teacher identity from teacher to student (Branda & Porta, 2012). The teacher identity is (re)shaped, at university and school, at different moments of the teacher’s professional path. Listening to all agents involved in this process, based on their experiences and reflections, enables improving the students’ accompaniment during their training, promote more explicit links between theory and practice, and offer tools that generate a more reflective view of the educational practices that take place in the classroom on a daily basis. Likewise, we should not forget the limits of the learning process of teacher identity, keeping in mind that the initial training is just the beginning of a professional journey that will last the entirety of the teacher’s career. Results Regarding the key elements identified in the analysed data, we would like to highlight three results that contribute to the teacher identity learning process: a) Supporting the learning of the ‘teacher self ’ during the work placement. The university tutor should encourage the students’ development of reflexive strategies that can shed light on educational events from different points of view: first, the sense a student makes of their intuition; second, the sense the school teachers have given them from their performances; and finally, what they have been able to share from the educational experiences that have presented them with challenges, conflict, uncertainty, surprise or even joy. In this manner, the learning process of the teacher identity, as stated by Geijsel & Meijers (2005), requires a two-fold dialogue between the viewpoints and the objectives of the students and the conditions of the schools, which often come from the beliefs and actions of the school tutor. It is necessary to promote a dialogue that allows the sharing of different perspectives in dealing with a particular educational c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 b) c) situation (Mule, 2006). This is a complex and uncertain process that cannot be solved by merely substituting the educational interventions of the student by those of the teacher. A rich and complex development process of teacher identity will be possible, in as much as the modelling—to which the student aspires—is understood as a path of inquiry. The seminar should be a keystone for sharing reflections at university; it is a space where students can share their emotions regarding the educational experience and develop reflective processes. It is necessary that, out of the classroom experience, a global and deep reflection emerges intending to promote a more multifaceted view among students regarding their teacher role and the link between their profession’s theoretical and practical aspects. This also implies fostering exchange processes between school and university tutors and the student, in addition to considering reflection as a process (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009; Geijsel & Meijers, 2005). Research shows that, during the process, the spaces designated for joint reflection between all three agents (S, ST, UT) are scarce (limited exclusively to the initial and to the end-of-work-placement evaluations), although they are more common separately, be it in the school or in the university contexts. Strengthening relationships between schools and the university. The cooperative relationship between the three agents intends to overcome— not without great effort—the institutional conditions (Gairín-Sellán et al., 2019; Zabalza, 2011) that often make the work possibilities between schools and universities more difficult. Thus, it is necessary that the legal, managerial, and labour factors enable a space where the three agents may negotiate professional, didactic, and personal factors. Proposals for Improvement Having concluded the research, the authors of this article—work placement university tutors who were fully involved in the accompaniment of students during their practicum—propose certain actions that will help university tutors both to contribute to the learning process of the teacher identity during work placement programmes and to enhance the links between university and schools. With no intention to generalise the results, this proposal presents elements of reflection that can improve the educational assignment of university tutors in the practicum. In the university context, the seminar is the educational space that accompanies the students at three points: when the seminar is being conducted, 47 48 building professional identities from university in pre-service teacher education on the follow-up of the work placement assignments, and in the final presentation of the written memoirs. The seminar is a space shared among tutors and students, sustained through time, allowing moments of joint reflection about the complexity of teacher professional development. From this perspective, we suggest acts of intervention that the university tutors can perform in order to address situations that are approached from the three analysis axes (the teacher self, the educational community and the intervention in the classroom, and the relationship between school knowledge and university knowledge). The improvement actions regarding the seminar, work placement tutoring, and the written memoirs that are detailed hereunder are based on the results of our research. The Seminar’s Initial Time Frame During the seminar, the students (S) share the educational situations that worry them the most with a group of peers: the context, the intervention, the didactic planning, or the school tutor (ST). The university tutor (UT) has the opportunity to address the students’ misalignments, misunderstandings, surprises, concerns, or uncertainties through actions that enable additional spaces of reflection and exchange between the three agents, such as: • Observation spaces for the UT at the schools so that the student can fit in better in the school’s educational community. • Exchange of experiences with the ST so as to understand the complexity of life at the school and in the classroom. This will lead to dealing with management and learning process aspects within the institutional and classroom contexts. • Analysis of situations that can be discussed with other university professors from other areas of knowledge in order to address the continuities and discontinuities the student may experience between the academic university knowledge and the practical school knowledge. • Exchange of educational proposals among the seminar students to improve the initial training of the teacher’s practice. Work Placement Follow-up During this period, the proposed actions strive to improve the relationship between the university and school tutors. • Improving communication during the work placement assignments through different methods eliminates any obstacles between the three agents and strengthens the bond between the university’s academic knowledge and the school’s practical knowledge; c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 • • • Recovering and agreeing on the work plan before the work placement begins in order to organise the student’s objectives, interventions, and evaluations. This coordination between agents and institutions will provide a more stable environment for the initial training of the student; Agreeing on the joint evaluation of the student and doing so in front of all three agents in order to improve the coordination of the student’s training process; Arranging the delivery of the student’s written memoirs to the school to formalise the commitment between the institutions involved. In terms of the relationship between the three agents: student (S), school tutor (ST) & university tutor (UT), the UT has the following responsibilities: • Promoting deliberation around the didactic proposal the student will carry out in the school’s classroom so that flexibility and (re)planning are posed as key aspects of the learning process of the student’s teacher identity. • Exchanging the student’s work placement reflections (field diary, meaningful events, tutoring sessions, etc.) so that they may become instruments that are used habitually and on a daily basis during the work placement. In addition, the UT must share and propose literature that may help the student during his/her training process. Final Presentation of the Written Memoirs The memoirs are written documents that the students present after finishing their practicum. In their creation process, the university tutors (UT) can: • Propose a more open document that includes a wide array of languages, such as narrative, biographical, artistic, among others. For example, through the compilation of evidence in a learning process folder, agreed upon by the teaching staff of the different areas that are part of the Bachelor’s Degree in Primary Education, and linked to the educational communities of the work placement schools. Thus, more direct relationships can be established between academic university references and school practices. • Review the responsibilities of the involved agents during the practicum. It is a challenge for the Faculty to explore the different encounter possibilities with the work placement schools so as to chart joint work lines and to identify and agree on shared commitments and projects that may contribute to the learning process of the teacher identity of the students during their initial training. 49 50 building professional identities from university in pre-service teacher education To summarise, we would like to underscore the need to rethink certain issues present in the practicum of the Bachelor’s Degree in Primary Education, to contribute to the enhancement of the key aspects related to the development of the teacher identity from the university and the work placement schools, with an emphasis on the UT’s responsibilities and actions. Conclusions The results have allowed us to identify the elements that contribute to the development of teacher identity and, based on these, to rethink various aspects of the practicum, making proposals for improvement. The role of the university tutor is highlighted as a key element in the mediation between students and school contexts and communities. We agree with Sancho-Gil et al. (2017, p. 322) in their assessment that, in recent decades, initial training in Spain has improved: ‘It has moved from a rather traditional, craft-oriented, and ideological model towards a more academic and professional one, reaching the status of a bachelor’s degree with the implementation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA)’. Furthermore, the tasks performed by the university tutors need to be strengthened in order to improve the students’ learning process of their identity (Geijsel & Meijers, 2005). Shaping future teachers within the complex context of the profession implies outgrowing the boundaries of technical and organisational knowledge and integrating elements of reflection and re-interpretation of the classroom and school experiences, as well as making collective sense of the practical experiences through processes of collaboration based on student-tutor trust. Furthermore, the difficulty in coordinating the educational schedules of the schools and the university is added to the organisational complexity of all the involved agents. However, this research has shown the importance of improving university training spaces and specifically the practicum period to demonstrate the importance of integrating reflective learning, understood as an emotional, bodily, and cognitive process (Hernández et al., 2020) that develops processes of self-knowledge as well as knowledge of others and the world (Akkerman & Meijer, 2011; Charlot, 2007). Lastly, we would like to highlight the improvement proposals specified above, which are based on the results of our research, as they may positively impact the field training of university tutors. Offering tools that encourage students’ reflection, negotiation, and decisionmaking when confronted with the tensions of the teaching profession is crucial to the complex and dynamic development of the teaching identity through the practicum. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Acknowledgements This paper is part of the project ‘Building Teacher Identity from Practice and Research in the Classroom: the Role of the Practicum and Final Degree Assignment (FDA) in Teacher Education’. Ref: 2015ARMIF00040. The project is funded by the Catalan Government. References Akkerman, S. F., & Meijer, P. C. (2011). A dialogical approach to conceptualizing teacher identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(2), 308–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2010.08.013 Beauchamp, C., & Thomas, L. (2009). 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La enseñanza universitaria: el escenario y sus protagonistas [University education: The stage and its protagonists]. Narcea. Zabalza, M. A. (2011). El prácticum en la formación universitaria: Estado de la cuestión[Practicum in university education: State of the art]. Revista de Educación, 354, 21–43. http://hdl.handle. net/11162/80892 53 54 building professional identities from university in pre-service teacher education Biographical note Gemma Torres-Cladera, PhD, is a lecturer in the area of Physical Education in the Faculty of Education, Translation and Human Sciences at the University of Vic - Central University of Catalonia (UVic-UCC). She is also a researcher at GREF - Physical Education Research Group at UVic-UCC. Her research interests include initial and in-service teacher training in different educational contexts. She is involved in research methodologies and also in participatory and inclusive evaluation to do research with people. Núria Simó-Gil, PhD, is a senior lecturer in the field of Pedagogy on the Faculty of Education, Translation and Human Sciences at the University of Vic - Central University of Catalonia. She is also researcher of the GREUV Educational Research Group at the UVic-UCC. Her research interests include training of social educators and teachers, democratic schools, and processes of social and educational inclusion with young people. She is involved in participatory research methodologies to do research with people and not about people. Laura Domingo-Peñafiel, PhD, is a lecturer in the field of Pedagogy on the Faculty of Education, Translation and Human Sciences at the University of Vic - Central University of Catalonia. She is also researcher of the GREUV - Educational Research Group at the UVic-UCC. Her main areas of research interests are: training teachers, inclusion, democratic and rural schools. It is focused on multigrade and place-based teaching in a rural education framework. Vanesa Amat-Castells, PhD, is a lecturer in the field of Didactics of Language and Literature on the Faculty of Education, Translation and Human Sciences at the University of Vic - Central University of Catalonia. Her research interests include teaching and learning language and literature in the early years of education, developing the training of literary readers and as well teacher education and their professional development. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 doi: 10.26529/cepsj.1072 The Impact of External Contextual Factors on Teaching Candidates Alexander S. Butler1 • The formation of a teacher’s identity is considered a dynamic process influenced by internal and external contextual factors. This article explores the impact that external contextual factors have on teacher candidates’ identities by presenting the findings of an empirical qualitative study that investigated the relationship between teacher candidates’ beliefs and their demonstrations and representations of teaching and learning on a nationally standardised portfolio assessment. Metaphor analysis and stimulated recall were used to explore this relationship. The study found that teacher candidates’ teaching demonstrations while student teaching and representations of teaching found in a nationally standardised portfolio assessment were severely constrained by cooperating teachers and scripted curriculums. However, the study also found that candidates could articulate the differences between their beliefs about teaching and learning and their demonstrations and representations of teaching and learning. Candidates routinely made suggestions in the portfolio assessment to align their future teaching more closely to their metaphors for teaching. The study concluded that candidates did not change their beliefs but took up temporary teaching identities based on these findings. They found ways to navigate the assessment and their (teaching) context while remaining committed to their teaching identity and beliefs about good teaching. This article suggests how education system contexts impact the formation of teacher candidates’ identities and what teacher education programmes need to do to strengthen candidates’ identities in the face of negative external influences. Keywords: beliefs about teaching and learning, student teachers, student teaching, teacher education, teacher identity 1 Teaching and Learning Department, Florida International University, United States of America; albutler@fiu.edu. 55 56 the impact of external contextual factors on teaching candidates Vpliv zunanjih kontekstualnih dejavnikov na študente, ki se izobražujejo za učitelje Alexander S. Butler • Oblikovanje učiteljeve identitete je dinamičen proces, na katerega vplivajo notranji in zunanji kontekstualni dejavniki. Ta članek preučuje vpliv zunanjih kontekstualnih dejavnikov na identiteto študentov, ki se izobražujejo za učitelje. Predstavljene so ugotovitve empirične kvalitativne študije, izvedene na nacionalno standardizirani oceni portfolia, ki je raziskovala odnos med prepričanji študentov ter njihovimi prikazi in predstavitvami poučevanja in učenja. Za raziskovanje tega odnosa sta bila uporabljena analiza metafor in spodbujeno spominjanje. Študija je pokazala, da so študente pri demonstracijah poučevanja med študentskim poučevanjem in predstavitvah poučevanja, ki jih najdemo na nacionalno standardiziranem portfeljskem ocenjevanju, močno omejevali sodelujoči učitelji in predpisani učni načrti, vendar pa je študija pokazala tudi, da so študentje znali izraziti razlike med svojimi prepričanji o poučevanju in učenju ter svojimi demonstracijami/prikazi in predstavitvami poučevanja in učenja. Študentje so pri ocenjevanju portfolia redno podajali predloge, da bi svoje prihodnje poučevanje bolj uskladili s svojimi prispodobami poučevanja. V raziskavi je bilo ugotovljeno, da študentje niso spremenili svojih prepričanj, ampak so na podlagi teh ugotovitev prevzeli začasne identitete poučevanja. Našli so načine, kako usmerjati ocenjevanje in svoj (učiteljski) kontekst, hkrati pa so ostali zavezani svoji učiteljski identiteti in prepričanjem o dobrem poučevanju. Članek predlaga, kako konteksti izobraževalnega sistema vplivajo na oblikovanje identitet študentov in kaj mora biti storjeno na ravni programov za izobraževanje učiteljev, da bi okrepili identitete študentov zaradi negativnih zunanjih vplivov. Ključne besede: prepričanja o poučevanju in učenju, študentje učitelji, študentsko poučevanje, izobraževanje učiteljev, identiteta učitelja c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Introduction I was highly discouraged to do it because my teacher had a say on that. She said she didn’t think it would benefit me because they don’t do them … Because she didn’t do them, that was the biggest thing. I kept saying that this would be so much easier if everything was a small group, and she just saying, ‘It’s the end of the day. They barely focus. We don’t always get to math enough.’ It was her thing. I didn’t agree with it … that was the hardest thing about the edTPA [a nationally standardised portfolio assessment]. Your teacher is not on board … makes your life miserable. I had all these ideas for what I wanted to do, and kind of got shot down … she was like, ‘We don’t do that.’ She didn’t want me to mess up her plans. Meredith Meredith said these things while reflecting on her student-teaching experience and how it related to her beliefs about teaching. It is clear that she felt constrained from enacting the teaching style she thought best because of her cooperating teacher. Her statements reveal a disjunction between the teacher she wanted to be and the one she was allowed to be. Alternatively, in other words, it revealed a dissonance between her beliefs about teaching and her practice in a particular context. It has often been suggested that cooperating teachers significantly impact the quality of teacher candidates’ student teaching experience (e.g., Clarke et al., 2014; Cuenca, 2011). While this may be true, what is sometimes assumed is that cooperating teachers significantly impact teacher candidates’ beliefs about teaching and their teaching identity. It may be that teacher candidates have beliefs that shape their teaching identities, yet they cannot enact or display this identity in their student teaching setting. In order to navigate these constraints, student teachers may assume temporary identities without changing their core beliefs to meet certain standards or expectations while also recognising how their actions within the temporary identity do not align with their beliefs about teaching and learning. This article analyses how educational contexts shaped preservice teachers’ identities by investigating the relationship between student teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning and their evaluation of their representations of teaching and learning in their edTPA (Teacher Performance Assessment) portfolio, a nationally standardised licensure assessment for preservice teachers in the United States. Teacher identity was considered a significant, if not vital, aspect of becoming a teacher (e.g., Britzman, 2003; Hammerness, 2006; Thomas & Beauchamp, 2011) because it was considered to be closely linked to a teacher’s 57 58 the impact of external contextual factors on teaching candidates practice (Wenger, 1998) and had the potential to reveal whether the values about teaching and learning the individual holds align with the goals of their teacher education programmes (Smagorinsky et al., 2004). Investigating teachers and preservice teachers’ beliefs has been an important lens for studying teachers’ identities because it has been considered either integral or related to a teacher’s identity (Thomas & Beauchamp, 2011; Smagorinsky et al., 2004) and has been found to have a similar impact on teachers’ classroom decisions and behaviours (Fives & Buehl, 2012; Nespor, 1987; Pajares, 1992). However, while the literature is clear that beliefs and actions are related (e.g., Richardson & Placier, 2001), the literature also suggested beliefs have a complex and reciprocal relationship with one’s practices (Buehl & Beck, 2014). This complexity might exist because internal and external factors may cause incongruencies between beliefs and practices. To better identify these internal and external variables and the role they played in shaping participants’ student teaching, the researcher relied on Burke’s (1945) theory of human action and motivation. Most importantly, Burke’s pentad helped identify who or what has the power to influence student teachers’ practices and why they hold that power. Burke (1945) introduced five elements for investigating human action and motives. These five elements included Act (what was done), Scene (where it was done), Agent (who did it), Agency (how it was done), and Purpose (why it was done). He organised the pentad as a heuristic in the shape of a star (see Figure 1). The heuristic explains the relation of the elements of the pentad to one another. In particular, Burke points out that the Scene is a container of sorts. It contains both the Act and the Agent. Though it impacts each of the components of the pentad, it directly impacts the Agent and the Act. He argued that because the Agent is contained by the Scene, the Agent takes on the attributes of the Scene. Regarding the relation between the Scene and the Act, Burke suggested, ‘there is implicit in the quality of a scene the quality of the action that is to take place within it’ (pp. 6–7). The uptake of Burke’s theory is that the Act will be consistent with the Scene because the Scene contains any potential Act. Therefore, the Scene limits or affords what the Agent can do and the Act can be. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Figure 1 Burke’s pentad showing the components impacting candidates’ representations of teaching during student teaching For example, Burke’s theory helps explain why external factors, such as mentors, in this case cooperating teachers, are widely considered to influence (Cohen & Galbraith, 1995), if not have the largest impact on teacher candidates’ student teaching experiences and learning (e.g., Clarke et al., 2014; Cuenca, 2011). The candidates not only rely on the cooperating teacher because they have more experience, but because cooperating teachers have (Barrows, 1979, as cited in Veal & Rikard, 1998, p. 108), or student teachers often presume (Smith, 2007) the cooperating teacher has, the power to shape what Burke labelled as the Scene. Similarly, when the cooperating teacher’s Scenes are determined by prescribed curriculums, their Acts then are constrained, and it follows that a student teachers’ Act would also be defined by the prescribed curriculum. While there may be cases where it is a good thing for the student teacher’s Acts to be constrained by a Scene (e.g., when a student teacher enacts or plans methods not appropriate for their students), a Scene that does not allow an Agent to shape the Scene is particularly concerning considering Grossman et al.’s (1999) suggestion that the social practices within the student teacher’s context and the possible actions student teachers were able to choose from promoted a particular ideal and impacted a teacher’s construction of a teaching identity. Thus, the possibilities a Scene affords student teachers as the Agent needs to be closely examined. Given the potential of beliefs to shape student teachers’ identities and actions and Burke’s recognition of the role the Scene plays in shaping the Act and the Agent, the research questions below were investigated. 59 60 the impact of external contextual factors on teaching candidates 1. 2. 3. 4. What were student teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning? How were student teachers’ beliefs related to their representations and demonstrations of teaching in the edTPA? Why were student teachers’ beliefs and their representations and demonstrations of teaching aligned or misaligned in their representations and demonstrations of teaching in the edTPA? How were student teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning impacted by their student teaching experience, including the edTPA? Methods and Analysis Data for this study were collected through two semi-structured interviews and participants’ submission of their edTPA portfolio. The study had nine participants who were student teachers during the spring of 2019. The participants student taught in various K–12 settings and content subjects in the midwestern United States. Three participants taught 6–12 grade. The other six participants taught elementary school (K–5). All participants were in their early twenties, had graduated from the same large research university teacher education programme, were white or white-passing, and had passed the edTPA on their first submission. Participants were selected through convenience and snowball sampling methods due to federal regulations restricting access to possible participants’ contact information. The first interview used metaphor analysis to uncover and explore participants’ beliefs about teaching and learning using an adapted protocol from Munby (1984) and Fives and Buehl (2008). It occurred the summer after they completed their student teaching and had graduated from their teacher education programme. Metaphors are useful for exploring one’s understanding of the world (Gurney, 1995), are often the most verbal and explicit expression of tacit beliefs, can act as evidence of preservice teachers’ understanding of teaching and learning (Saban & Saban, 2006), and can reveal teachers’ construction of their professional reality (Munby, 1986, 1987). Participants were asked to create metaphors about teaching and were then asked questions about teaching and learning. The questions were used to help the researcher determine if participants’ implicit beliefs about teaching and learning, as evidenced in the metaphors, were aligned with their explicit statements about teaching and learning. At the end of the interview, participants were asked to categorise their metaphor within one of Alger’s (2009) six overarching metaphors. After the initial interview, the data was transcribed and inductively coded (Saldaña, 2014) to allow the data to speak for itself (Thomas, 2006). Analysis was an iterative process c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 that identified inductive themes within the interview transcripts that were then compared to the participants’ created metaphors and Alger’s (2009) overarching metaphors. This, alongside the clustering of the inductive codes, helped determine the participant’s prevalent beliefs about teaching and learning. After the first interview, candidates emailed digital copies of their edTPA portfolio to the researcher that had been submitted to the university for assessment. It can be evaluated by Pearson or by licensed higher education institutions. The edTPA website describes the assessment as a ‘performance-based, subject-specific assessment and support system … [used] to emphasise, measure, and support the skills and knowledge that all teachers need from Day 1 in the classroom’ (edTPA, n.d.). While edTPA does not claim to measure everything a candidate needs to be able to do competently before they enter the classroom, nor ask candidates to express everything they believe about teaching, it does ask candidates to represent in a snapshot what they can and will do in the classroom. The term ‘representations’ is used to identify how candidates depict teaching on the edTPA. Representations make visible the practices of a profession (Grossman et al., 2009). In the edTPA, these representations include their written responses and reflections to prompts provided by the edTPA (context for learning and commentaries), video clips giving visual evidence of the student teacher’s teaching, and the artefacts from their lessons (including plans, worksheets, presentations, assessments, and feedback) submitted in their edTPA portfolio. In preparation for the stimulated recall during the second interview, the researcher analysed participants’ edTPA portfolios. The researcher marked a copy of participants’ edTPA with specific questions or thoughts about the portfolio and looked for statements and ideas that seemed related to the themes found in participants’ first interview. For example, the researcher looked for alignment or misalignment between candidates’ beliefs and representations. Whether misalignment or alignment was identified, four excerpts were pulled from their edTPA portfolio for participants to read through. These excerpts were identified as places that the participants clearly discussed their teaching. During the second interview, participants were asked to participate in a stimulated recall, which Dempsey (2010) has suggested brought participants closer to the moment of when the action was produced; Marland and Osborne (1990) suggested could reveal the implicit theories and tacit beliefs of teachers and their principles, tactics, and role conceptions. Eight of the nine participants were former students who had strong rapport with the researcher. O’Brien (1993) and Tuckwell (1980) suggested that an elicitation technique like stimulated recall required strong rapport with participants so that they did not feel as if they were performing for the researcher. The more comfortable candidates felt, the more likely it was that 61 62 the impact of external contextual factors on teaching candidates they would be forthright in their interviews. The second interview adapted Tuckwell’s (1980) stimulated recall protocol to discuss whether the excerpt was aligned or misaligned with their beliefs about teaching. When participants identified misalignment, they were asked how they would align their teaching and what it would require to align it with their beliefs. When coding and analysing the second interview, the same process was used as with the first interview. Through iterative readings, inductive codes were created and thematised. Eventually, codes were categorised into three to eight themes. Once the coding of the second interview was finished, comparisons were drawn between participants’ metaphors and beliefs about teaching and learning from the first interview with their stimulated recall in the second interview. Although this study cannot be used to make statistical generalisations because it did not use a more randomised sampling method, it has performed an in-depth analysis of the relationship between candidates’ beliefs of teaching and learning, their representations on the edTPA, and their student teaching experience. Results Analysis of the data from the initial study demonstrated that participants experienced significant constraints when attempting to enact their beliefs in their student teaching contexts. The initial study investigated how the edTPA shaped participants’ demonstrations and representations of teaching. However, in that investigation, the researcher found data suggesting participants faced significant constraints to practising their beliefs that the edTPA helped reveal. Furthermore, participants who experienced constraints external to the edTPA repeatedly stated they faced these throughout their student teaching. This article focuses on the participants who experienced external to the edTPA constraints throughout their student teaching and how this impacted their beliefs about who they were as teachers. In what follows, the researcher presents the findings to the research questions through participants’ statements as they discussed their beliefs and their ability to demonstrate those beliefs in their student teaching. Participants’ Beliefs After the first interview, the researcher found that participants had various beliefs about teaching and learning. Several participants identified more than one of Alger’s (2009) overarching metaphors as being related to their created metaphor. For example, Gwen said she was torn between Teaching c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 is Guiding and Teaching is Nurturing. At the beginning of the first interview, Gwen described the teacher as a compass. She defined a compass as an object a person uses ‘to guide you in the right direction. It doesn’t give you the exact coordinates. It just gives you a direction to go into.’ The idea of nurturing was a central component of guiding because it was a supportive posture rather than a paternalistic posture. She emphasised that teachers were compasses that gave students direction but did not tell them their destination. Eventually, she decided her metaphor of a compass best fit Teaching is Nurturing, describing herself as ‘watering it [students]. I am giving them the guidance and helping them grow into what they want to become.’ While it was clear she liked aspects of Alger’s Teaching is Guiding metaphor, she was concerned that the Teaching is Guiding metaphor expected the teacher to control where students went. Since Gwen felt that students needed to determine the direction of their growth, she chose the metaphor Teaching is Nurturing. The ability of participants, like Gwen, to nuance their beliefs and justify their choice of Alger’s metaphor provided evidence that candidates knew what they believed about teaching and learning because they were able to identify and explain nuances in their metaphors. Identifying Alignment and Misalignment in their edTPAs In the second interview, when participants performed the stimulated recall with excerpts from their edTPA portfolios, participants consistently identified representations or demonstrations that did or did not align with their beliefs. For example, in the first interview Eliza, who student taught 7th grade English, identified Teaching is Guiding as the overarching metaphor that her created metaphor fit. When she spoke in the first interview about teaching, she described herself as a guide because I don’t feel that I can ever tell someone something, and they’re going to be like, ‘Yes, absolutely.’ I think people need to create their own meaning. In my classroom, they’re trying to create meaning from the books I present to them, the articles we read, the writing assignments I have them do. In my classroom, I think I can facilitate that creating of meaning for both themselves and the world. I can incorporate books and articles that I think will be meaningful for my students themselves based on their interests or their place in life. However, when Eliza was performing the stimulated recall in the second interview, she consistently pointed out that her representations and demonstrations in the edTPA and throughout her student teaching rarely guided students, nor was she able to ‘incorporate books and articles that I think will 63 64 the impact of external contextual factors on teaching candidates be meaningful for my students.’ For example, she pointed out during the stimulated recall that she did not have the time to help her student make ‘connections between their own experiences and the history of America’ because the prescribed curriculum moved too quickly. Although she did identify other places during the stimulated recall procedure where her representation aligned with her belief that Teaching is Guiding, these occurrences were found in representations in which she described herself as having more autonomy. For example, when reading through her writing about the feedback given to students in Task 3, she described her demonstration of feedback as aligned with her belief that Teaching is Guiding and that giving feedback was one of the spaces she could represent her beliefs. I tried to provide feedback that would guide them in their thinking. Go a little further in their thought process … even if we didn’t have as much time to do so, I tried to do it with their feedback. Eliza’s ability to identify her beliefs and where she did or did not incorporate them in the edTPA is representative of all of the participants in this study. Participants were able to identify their beliefs when asked to reflect on their practices, either by reading through their lesson plans, reading through reflections of their teaching, or examining artefacts from their teaching. In addition, they were asked whether they sought to enact their beliefs when given the opportunity. Constraints Eliza’s thoughts above on the feedback she gave students alluded to her not having much time to guide them in their thinking. When asked why she did not have the time to guide students, Eliza described a prescribed curriculum provided by the school that significantly constrained her demonstration of teaching. Two other participants in the study identified prescribed or scripted curriculums as constraining their demonstrations of teaching; two more described their cooperating teacher as negatively constraining their demonstrations of teaching (See Table 1). One participant (Nick) specifically mentioned both cooperating teachers and the curriculum as not constraining to him. He not only had full control of his curriculum but felt supported by his cooperating teachers. He described feeling free to demonstrate and represent teaching as he saw best. His experience provided a powerful counterexample to the other participants of how a student-teacher was given space to attempt to enact their beliefs and their impact on their evaluation of their teaching demonstrations in the edTPA. The depth of cooperating teachers and prescribed or scripted c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 curriculums as constraints was particularly noticeable in the sections of the edTPA where candidates were asked to propose changes to their teaching. Table 1 Candidates’ constraints in representing their beliefs Participants Cooperating Teachers Eliza Gwen X X Lucy X Maria Meredith Prescribed or Scripted Curriculum X X Nick Making Adjustments The edTPA asked student teachers to analyse and suggest changes to their teaching in several sections. In these sections, participants routinely suggested adjustments to their teaching to bring their demonstrations and representations of teaching in the edTPA into alignment with their beliefs. For example, Meredith, who student taught in kindergarten, spoke about teaching in the first interview as juggling. When constructing her metaphor, she said, ‘everyone is coming in so many different ways. So many different levels. … you have to think in twenty-one or up to thirty different ways. So, you can reach all these kids.’ Later in the first interview, she reemphasised the idea of differentiation by saying part of juggling ‘is knowing how to reach all learners.’ Despite her belief in being a teacher who recognised students’ different needs and levels, it was clear from the introductory quote to this article that Meredith felt constrained to enact her beliefs in her student teaching context. When asked by the edTPA in Task 2: Instruction Commentary Part 5: Analysing Teaching about changes she would make to her teaching demonstrations included in the edTPA, she wrote specifically about incorporating centres as a pedagogical tool because it allowed for small group instruction and the individualisation of instruction for each student. When the researcher asked why she did not include centres in her lessons if she believed they would have been effective in promoting students’ learning, she described how her cooperating teacher would not let her use centres (See the introductory quote to this article). When prompted by the edTPA to suggest changes to her teaching, Meredith clearly realigned her desired practices with her beliefs expressed in the first interview about teaching and learning. 65 66 the impact of external contextual factors on teaching candidates Maria made a similar move to realign her future practices with her beliefs in her writing for the edTPA. In the first interview, Maria had described herself as a guide who worked alongside students to help them grow and learn. She specifically identified the PACE Model (Adair-Hauck & Donato, 2002) and Krashen’s (1992) comprehensible input hypothesis as representative methods of her beliefs. However, as the researcher analysed her edTPA portfolio, it was clear that her representations and demonstrations of teaching did not align with her beliefs. It was not until reading through Task 2: Instruction Commentary Part 5, the section in which student teachers were asked to analyse their teaching and suggested changes, that her beliefs from the first interview reappeared. In this section of the edTPA, Maria suggested she should have used Krashen’s comprehensible input hypothesis as the framework for her lessons because students ‘would be able to grow in their interpretive and communicative abilities without relying on English.’ When asked why she had not incorporated Krashen’s idea in her initial teaching, she described not being able to enact Krashen’s hypothesis because, ‘I had to make sure it [my teaching] fits into their [the school’s] curriculum’ and ‘there were times when I could not use my style of teaching because I had to make sure students were still learning what they needed to in order to keep up with the curriculum.’ There is a clear sense that Maria thought her students needed to move at a slower pace and needed a greater and different form of scaffolding than the curriculum provided to more effectively develop their language skills. Her recognition of the need for this change and her statement suggested a change that would not only bring her into closer alignment with Krashen’s comprehensible input theory, which deemphasises memorisation of rules and grammatical correctness and emphasises a more natural language learning environment but also aligned her teaching with the beliefs about teaching she expressed in the first interview. As Meredith, Maria, and Eliza’s examples demonstrate, their cooperating teachers or curriculums impacted their entire portfolios and their entire student teaching experience. Even Nick mentioned these two shapers of the student teaching context. However, he mentioned them in positive ways because he had control over the curriculum and he had supportive cooperating teachers (he had two cooperating teachers). When asked about the changes he suggested to his teaching, he commented that he had ‘missed an opportunity’ to support student learning better and that ‘nothing was preventing me from doing that,’ implementing the changes in his student teaching context. In fact, he said that ‘If I had a concern while I was teaching or I needed to reflect on what went well or didn’t go well, they were pretty open to talking and critiquing or telling me what did or didn’t go well.’ In the instance where he felt he had c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 ‘missed an opportunity,’ he sat down with his cooperating teachers right after the lesson to ask them what he could have done better because he felt he had not supported the students’ learning well. He described their feedback as helpful and supportive. The study found a clear difference between participants’ who had the autonomy to shape their student teaching and those who did not when explaining why their edTPA was aligned or not aligned with their beliefs about teaching. This study found that: 1. Nine out of nine participants were able to identify when their demonstrations and representations of teaching were not aligned to their beliefs expressed in the first interview. 2. Nine out of nine participants realigned their representations to their beliefs in the edTPA sections, asking them to reflect on their teaching and suggest adjustments. 3. Cooperating teachers or prescribed curriculums significantly impacted participants’ ability to enact their beliefs because they constrained their entire student teaching experience. 4. Participants’ beliefs did not seem to be impacted by their student teaching experience because they consistently suggested changes to their teaching that would realign their representations of their teaching in their edTPA portfolio to their beliefs expressed in the first interview. Discussion At first blush, the incongruence between what the participants believed and what they demonstrated during their student teaching might lead some to suggest that beliefs do not strongly correlate with teachers’ practices. However, the findings in this study should not discount the value of studying beliefs. Rather, it reiterates Fives and Buehl’s (2012) exhortation to investigate why the incongruence existed. This study found that an incongruence existed because participants were placed in contexts that constrained their teaching in ways that prevented them from aligning their practices with their beliefs. Candidates did not change their beliefs but took up temporary teaching identities. They conformed to their (teaching) context while remaining committed to their teaching identity and beliefs about good teaching. For example, Meredith did not use centres as a method for differentiation in her classroom because the cooperating teacher told her she could not use centres. Meredith followed the cooperating teacher’s desires despite believing centres would have helped her be a more effective teacher. These constraints did not allow participants 67 68 the impact of external contextual factors on teaching candidates to shape their teaching as the research on the relationship between beliefs and teacher practices expected. Burke’s (1945) pentad helps identify the cause of the disconnect between participants’ beliefs and their actions. While it may have been possible for participants to pushback against the Scene by using the edTPA (e.g., Ahmed, 2019), it is not likely that a student teacher, who is already attempting to navigate a stressful experience (DarlingHammond, 2006), has the skills to subvert their context or motivation to take a risk that might make their student teaching more difficult (Smith, 2007) without significant support and training from teacher educators (Anderson & Stillman, 2013). In instances in which participants did not have a more flexible or supportive Scene, they could not perform actions or embody beliefs outside of what the Scene allowed. Evidence for this conclusion is based on the stimulated recall in which participants explained suggested changes in their edTPA representations that would have realigned their teaching with their beliefs. Burke’s (1945) theory helped explain participants’ actions. The Scenes caused the Agents and the Acts to take on the attributes of the Scenes. As Burke suggested, and this study found, participants made pedagogical and content decisions consistent with the Scene rather than with their beliefs. For example, Gwen suggested that when discussing the difference between herself and her cooperating teacher when teaching visualisation strategies to their students, ‘the theatre in me would say for visualising, ok, you create it with your own body.’ She identified as a teacher who has ‘theatre’ within her, and it is something she planned on using in her classroom but could not use during her student teaching. In fact, when the researcher followed up with Gwen during the fall of her first year of in-service teaching, she shared a story about how she had incorporated Reader’s Theatre in her classroom. I was the only class that did it, and my kids love it. Now they want to do it at the end of every unit. My principal was really excited about it because that’s a tough thing for kids to do, to speak in front of other classes. I had multiple classes come in and watch the performance. There were a lot of mistakes, but that’s something they need to learn from. It’s reading, it’s comprehending what the story is about. It’s the practising, the teamwork. There’s so many things within it that I really enjoy doing with them, and they liked it. Her inability to use the ‘theatre in [her]’ during her student teaching clearly did not impact her beliefs about what it meant to be a good teacher when she had control over her classroom. Gwen’s experience during her firstyear highlights Grossman et al.’s (1999) suggestion that student teachers often c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 struggle to develop or enact their own identities until they are set free from their contextual constraints, which often does not happen until their first year of teaching. The researcher agrees with Treadwell et al.’s (2017) suggestion that candidates need to be placed in supportive student teaching contexts in which they can practice the skills learned and dispositions acquired during college. Programmes cannot ignore the important role student teachers’ contexts play in their ability to practice and reveal who they are as teachers. Student teachers like Nick, who had supportive cooperating teachers and were given freedom over their curriculum, provide an example of how student teachers can grow into and reflect upon their practices and their ability to implement their beliefs and identities when placed in positive settings. These results are important for teacher educators and programmes to consider because constraining contexts forced candidates to make compromises in ways that were not aligned with their beliefs about teaching. Rather, participants took up temporary teaching identities in order to navigate their student teaching experience. When participants who had been placed in constraining contexts had the opportunity to critique and make suggestions to change their teaching in the edTPA, they took the opportunity to suggest practices and theories that were aligned with their beliefs about teaching and learning. Participants’ representations of teaching in the edTPA were not aligned with their beliefs about teaching and learning when they were student teaching in constraining contexts. This study seeks to compel teacher education programmes to re-evaluate the student teaching experience and the importance of assessing preservice teachers’ beliefs and their identities. Doing so might give programmes a better understanding of the teachers they produce and how to better support student teachers. Conclusion Recognising the distinction between who student teachers want to be and who they are given space to be in the classroom is an important consideration for understanding teacher candidates’ identities. It is also important for teacher education programmes as they consider how to evaluate preservice teachers’ preparedness to enter the classroom. The study reminds teacher education programmes that one of the roles of teacher education, including the student teaching experience, is to give teacher candidates space to try different methods and experiments (Grossman et al., 1999). During her first interview, Eliza also pointed this out when she said, ‘Well, that’s what teaching is. You try something; next time you visit it, you tweak it, and keep tweaking it.’ Student 69 70 the impact of external contextual factors on teaching candidates teachers need to be in settings where they can practice enacting their beliefs in supportive student teaching contexts. This means ensuring student teachers are not constrained by prescribed or scripted curriculums and have supportive cooperating teachers who are aligned with the university’s teacher education identity. To do otherwise might cause student teachers to assume temporary identities that do not allow them to practice how to be the teacher they want to be nor for the university and cooperating teacher to truly know if the studentteacher is ready for the classroom. One way to address this concern is by making cooperating teachers a larger part of the teacher educator community (Anderson & Stillman, 2013). This might include having the triad (cooperating teacher, university supervisor, and teacher candidate) sit down together and build common goals and objectives for the student teaching experience. These meetings could include eliciting the student teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning and how they would like to incorporate them into their student teaching practice. Additionally, universities could do a better job placing students in supportive contexts by interviewing districts, schools, and cooperating teachers to ensure prescribed scripted curriculums are not being used. Teacher education programmes could also move to provide better training for cooperating teachers on how to mentor student teachers and build relationships that help the student-teacher develop their own teacher identity (Walkington, 2005). Finally, incorporating cooperating teachers, schools, and districts into the university’s community might help align the Scenes candidates’ experiences in the classroom and the field. Since beliefs can filter, frame, and guide action, programmes seeking to assess their effectiveness in preparing candidates to enter the field might want to investigate candidates’ beliefs rather than merely their student teaching demonstrations because, as this study found, participants’ student teaching was likely to mirror their context rather than their beliefs. This investigation by teacher educators and programmes will not only help them understand if they are producing candidates who embody the programme’s beliefs about effective teaching and teaching identities, but it will also give a baseline to evaluate student teachers’ ability to enact those beliefs. If misalignment exists among the programme’s beliefs, the candidate’s beliefs, or/and the candidate’s representation of teaching, then programmes can help candidates recognise the gaps between their beliefs and practices to promote the cognitive dissonance that can stimulate teacher change (Borg, 2018). In addition, Tillema (2000) found that candidates who partook in reflective practices after their student teaching experience were less likely to revert to their initial beliefs about teaching. This suggests that teacher education programmes should consider implementing c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 purposeful debriefing sessions with candidates after their student teaching experience. Similar to the triad meetings at the beginning of candidates’ student teaching experiences mentioned above, these debriefing sessions would further develop the relational and collective agency Ahmed (2019) suggested candidates needed to resist or subvert problematic constraints. Besides recognising the individual’s constraining factors, finding misalignment should also lead programmes to evaluate themselves. Are programmes incubators for external factors constraining candidates’ ability to enact their beliefs? One limitation of this study is that the findings cannot inform the reader if the beliefs and the connected actions were or would have been considered best practices. Although each of the participants passed their edTPA on their first attempt and most constructed a metaphor that was aligned with their responses to questions asking them about their explicit beliefs about teaching and learning, this only suggests that participants knew their own beliefs well. It does not provide information that informs teacher educators whether these beliefs were best practices. The results provided evidence that participants’ beliefs were consistent with what they suggested they should have done, but not whether teacher educator programmes would have approved of these practices. Based on these findings, the study concluded that candidates did not change their beliefs but took up temporary teaching identities. They found ways to navigate their teaching context while remaining committed to their teaching identity and beliefs about good teaching. 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Butler, PhD, is a Visiting Assistant Professor of social studies education in the Teaching and Learning Department at Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States. His research interests include pre-service teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning, the way k-12 students’ identities are shaped by certain social studies discourses, and how cartographic representations shape students’ perceptions about the world. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 doi: 10.26529/cepsj.1090 The Conceptual and Methodological Construction of a ‘Global’ Teacher Identity through TALIS Armend Tahirsylaj*1, William C. Smith2, Gulab Khan3, and Wieland Wermke4 • The present article investigates the construction of a ‘global’ teacher identity by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) since the introduction of the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) in 2008. We critically examine TALIS-related conceptual frameworks, survey questionnaires and statistically driven scales of teachers’ professional attitudes internationally. A theoretical, education-based framing of didaktik and curriculum pedagogical traditions is used to discuss conceptual bias in TALIS conceptual frameworks as well as the sociologically based idea of TALIS as a pedagogic device used as a technology to gain symbolic power for making the teachers of tomorrow. Methodologically relying on document analysis, we examine TALIS 2008, 2013 and 2018 background documents to highlight the ideologically driven construction of a certain model of effective teachers, and refer to associated TALIS technical reports to examine validity issues in scales that are methodologically and statistically driven in order to increase the robustness of the results. The article identifies biases in the OECD’s construction of a ‘global’ teacher identity that are reflected in TALIS conceptual frameworks and survey questions and statistically justified through associated scales. Keywords: curriculum theory, didaktik, global teacher identity, pedagogic device, TALIS 1 2 3 4 * Corresponding Author. Department of Teacher Education, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway; armend.tahirsylaj@ntnu.no. Moray House School of Education and Sport, University of Edinburgh, UK. School of Education, Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS), Pakistan. Department of Special Education, Stockholm University, Sweden. 75 76 the conceptual and methodological construction of a ‘global’ teacher ... Konceptualno in metodološko oblikovanje »globalne« identitete učitelja s pomočjo TALIS Armend Tahirsylaj, William C. Smith, Gulab Khan in Wieland Wermke • Ta članek raziskuje oblikovanje »globalne« identitete učiteljev Organizacije za gospodarsko sodelovanje in razvoj (OECD) od uvedbe mednarodne raziskave o poučevanju in učenju (TALIS) leta 2008. Kritično preučujemo konceptualne okvire, povezane s TALIS, anketne vprašalnike in statistično podprte lestvice poklicnega odnosa učiteljev na mednarodni ravni. S teoretičnim, na izobraževanju temelječim uokvirjanjem didaktike in kurikularne pedagoške tradicije razpravljamo o konceptualni pristranskosti v konceptualnih okvirih TALIS in sociološko utemeljeni ideji TALIS kot pedagoškem pripomočku, ki se uporablja kot tehnologija za pridobivanje simbolne moči za oblikovanje učiteljev prihodnosti. Metodološko se opiramo na analizo dokumentov, preučujemo temeljne dokumente TALIS 2008, 2013 in 2018, da bi poudarili ideološko pogojeno konstrukcijo določenega modela učinkovitih učiteljev, in se sklicujemo na povezana tehnična poročila TALIS, da bi preučili vprašanja veljavnosti lestvic, ki so metodološko in statistično pogojena, da bi povečali robustnost rezultatov. V članku so opredeljene pristranskosti v OECD-jevi konstrukciji »globalne« identitete učitelja, ki se odražajo v konceptualnih okvirih in anketnih vprašanjih TALIS, ter so statistično utemeljene s povezanimi lestvicami. Ključne besede: kurikularna teorija, didaktika, globalna identiteta učitelja, pedagoški pripomoček, TALIS c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Introduction The present article investigates how a ‘global’ teacher identity has been under construction by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) since the introduction of the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) in 2008. This ‘global’ teacher identity is constructed and promoted externally from teachers’ experience, hence the conceptual and methodological construction of a ‘global’ teacher identity in the title. In order to demonstrate how this has occurred, the article critically examines the OECD’s TALIS-related conceptual frameworks, survey questionnaires and statistically driven scales of teachers’ professional attitudes internationally. The article’s contribution pertains to the construction of a ‘global’ teacher identity that stems, in turn, from conceptual bias in the structuring of the conceptual frameworks and survey questionnaires, as well as validity limitations related to the methodological construction of TALIS 2008, 2013 and 2018 scales. The construction and promotion of a ‘global’ teacher identity through the OECD is no different from other OECD work in education, most notably through the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), in that PISA contributes to the shift towards a universally applicable curriculum based on key competences that has affected governance and policies of national education systems (Grek, 2009). In this way, TALIS serves as a pedagogic device that is applied and used as a technology to gain symbolic control over making the teachers of ‘tomorrow’ (Robertson & Sorensen, 2018). As a result, TALIS offers a ‘desirable’ alternative regarding what teachers need to be and do, constructed at a supra-national level and intended as a solution to perceived or assumed problems with teacher quality at the national level. However, such construction of a ‘global’ teacher identity is not without problems. We turn to the education-based theoretical framing of didaktik and curriculum pedagogical traditions (Hopmann, 2007) to discuss conceptual bias in TALIS conceptual frameworks and survey questionnaires. In this regard, the main goal of the present article is to examine the conceptual and methodological approaches that TALIS uses to construct the ‘global’ teacher identity it promotes. This is done by shedding light on the theoretical and empirical sources on which TALIS relies, as well as other views of teachers that it ignores. The article is structured as follows: the next section provides a succinct literature review, followed by theoretical framing, and then methodological considerations and data sources. Next, results are presented, followed by discussion, conclusions and implications. 77 78 the conceptual and methodological construction of a ‘global’ teacher ... Global teacher identities Teachers constantly construct and reconstruct their identities amid various forces and interactions in the social and cultural contexts within which schools and communities exist. These constructions and identities are determined by various factors, such as teachers’ perceived competence, fulfilment of psychological needs, commitment and self-esteem (Canrinus et al., 2011; Granjo et al., 2020). This section reviews relevant literature on the local and global factors and influences that shape and drive teacher identities in cross-national settings, as well as recent literature addressing TALIS-related topics. Since the 1960s, the world has seen a steady stream of studies and surveys on what teachers do and how they perceive themselves in different contexts. Along with the increasing connectivity, this has led to the creation of classrooms that are immersed in policy scenarios cutting across geographic and ideological boundaries. As a result, expectations of teachers have dramatically changed from mere disseminators of knowledge to enabling students to thrive in an ever-changing, multipolar, multicultural world. Spurred by international organisations such as the OECD, frameworks of global competence have come to the fore (e.g., Tichnor-Wagner et al., 2019). Among other topics, these frameworks include knowledge of global issues, empathy towards multiple perspectives, intercultural communication and collaboration as attributes of teachers in the twenty-first century. Cross-national surveys such as the Teacher Education and Development Study in Mathematics (TEDS-M) and TALIS are a significant manifestation of how global actors and processes influence teachers’ perceptions of self in the delivery chain of educational services in different contexts. By way of illustration, analyses of TALIS documentation and the discourse therein have shown that the OECD’s TALIS “uses a discourse of fear to market teacher quality in light of global changes, implicitly framing teachers as ‘bad teachers’” (Berkovich & Benoliel, 2020a, p. 496) and that TALIS discourse on teacher professionalism is individualist and anti-collectivist in its orientation (Berkovich & Benoliel, 2020b). Studies on TEDS-M (e.g., Blömeke et al., 2013) have revealed a complicated relationship between teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge in mathematics, suggesting how this, in turn, leads to peculiar ‘identities’ that teachers assume in their respective contexts. Other studies emphasise emotions, ideology and culture as the dominant factors driving teacher identities in such a way that teachers find themselves at the receiving end of policy construction and implementation (e.g., Halai & Durrani, 2018; Wermke & Salokangas, 2021). Although ideology and culture may be more local forces that shape teacher c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 identities, studies also suggest the existence of ‘neoliberal’ tendencies in school systems, whereby teachers assume ‘entrepreneurial’ identities and are ready to adopt teaching practices suitable for promising careers in the education system and tuition industry (Gupta, 2019). Our review suggests that teacher identity is iterative, as teachers continuously shape and reshape their role and place in their professional contexts. The iterations of identity formation are mediated and influenced by teachers’ intercultural capabilities and their positionality. At the same time, their identities are also driven, and quite powerfully so, by actors and processes that have a global stature and presence, such as the OECD through TALIS. Theoretical framework: Educational and sociological lenses In order to better understand TALIS, both as content and as a process, we draw on educational and sociological perspectives. First, the educationbased theoretical framing of didaktik and curriculum pedagogical traditions (Hopmann, 2007) is applied to discuss conceptual bias in TALIS conceptual frameworks and survey questionnaires. Next, we draw on Robertson and Sorensen’s (2018) sociological idea of TALIS as a ‘pedagogic device’ (Bernstein, 2000) that is used by the OECD as a technology to gain symbolic power within the field of making the teachers of tomorrow. From an education perspective, the traditions of Anglo-American curriculum theory and Continental/Nordic European didaktik theory have dominated education in the Western context (Deng & Luke, 2008; Hopmann, 2007). Within the curriculum tradition, four main ideologies of academic rationalism, humanism, social reconstruction and social efficiency have been influential (Schiro, 2013; Tahirsylaj, 2017), each promoting specific goals for education. Academic rationalism primarily relies on the transmission of disciplinary knowledge; humanism, sometimes referred to as a learner-centred ideology, prioritises the development of individual learners, who pursue personal development, self-actualisation, innovation and creativity; social reconstruction promotes the use of education for social reform, with an emphasis on sociocultural contexts rather than on the individual needs of learners; and social efficiency supports the preparation of future citizens with the requisite skills, knowledge and capital for economic and social productivity (Deng & Luke, 2008). Of these four ideologies, social efficiency has been the most dominant in education policy in Anglo-American contexts (Tahirsylaj, 2017), and, as will be demonstrated below, it is the one that dominates the OECD’s work in education, including TALIS. 79 80 the conceptual and methodological construction of a ‘global’ teacher ... Continental/Nordic didaktik, on the other hand, focuses on teachers’ work in designing teaching and learning directed by the concept of Bildung and by the selection of content that has significance for the present and future of students through didaktik analysis (Deng & Luke, 2008; Klafki, 2000; Tahirsylaj, 2019). Although the German concept Bildung does not have a direct translation in English, it is often referred to in the sense of ‘being educated’, while in other cases it is referred to as ‘self-formation’, ‘cultivation’, ‘self-development’ and ‘cultural process’ (Siljander & Sutinen, 2012). Didaktik rests on three core elements: Bildung, matter and meaning, and teacher professional autonomy (Hopmann, 2007). From a comparative perspective, curriculum and didaktik traditions differ regarding the role of content/disciplinary knowledge and its primacy in teaching and learning. Under didaktik, the focus is on Bildung and professional teacher autonomy, while the curriculum tradition focuses on instructional methods and the primacy of (often external) assessments and is thus evaluation-intensive (Tahirsylaj et al., 2015; Westbury et al., 2000). The two traditions and ideologies within them also promote varied roles for teachers: under didaktik, teachers enjoy higher professional autonomy, while under the curriculum tradition, teachers are agents of the education system and serve to deliver what is asked of them by the system (Westbury et al., 2000). This comparative position is relevant for the present study in order to identify which concepts TALIS draws on in defining the teacher’s role and responsibilities, and in turn, the type of teacher identity it promotes. Lastly, the sociologically based idea of ‘pedagogic device’ originates from the work of British sociologist Basil Bernstein (2000). Here we follow Robertson and Sorensen (2018) in using Bernstein’s concept of pedagogic device for analysing TALIS as an OECD device. Bernstein defined a pedagogic device as having “[…] internal rules which regulate the pedagogic communication which the device makes possible. Such pedagogic communication acts selectively on the meaning potential. By meaning potential we simply mean the potential discourse that is available to be pedagogised” (Bernstein, 2000, p. 27). Furthermore, Bernstein’s pedagogic device is described as “the ensembles of rules or procedures via which knowledge is converted into classroom talk, curricula and online communication” (Singh, 2002, p. 571). Bernstein’s work has focused primarily on the national level, and he consequently makes the case for the conversion of knowledge within national boundaries (Robertson & Sorensen, 2018). With TALIS, however, we have a case of an international organisation such as the OECD applying TALIS as a pedagogic device that aims to convert specific knowledge about teachers across various national contexts. More specifically related to our study, TALIS serves as a pedagogic device with regard to c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 what is to be transferred to the national context (the global twenty-first century teacher) and is the transponder itself (TALIS). In Bernstein’s terms, the global teacher is “the carried” (or what is relayed) and TALIS is “the carrier” (or relay) (Bernstein, 2000, p. 27). However, TALIS is just one of the many pedagogic devices on which the OECD works; others include PISA and ‘Education at a Glance’ reports, for example (Robertson & Sorensen, 2018). TALIS functions as a pedagogic device by learning through comparing, development and competition with other countries; by providing robust international indicators for policy-relevant analyses of teachers and teaching; and through cross-country analyses of countries facing similar challenges. A pedagogic device operates through three inter-related rules: distributive, recontextualising and evaluative (Bernstein, 2000). Distributive rules function as rules and processes to regulate relationships between power, social groups and forms of consciousness and practice, and to distribute different forms of knowledge; recontextualising rules regulate the formation of specific pedagogic discourse; and evaluative rules constitute specific pedagogic practices and function as processes of acquisition (Bernstein, 2000; Robertson & Sorensen, 2018; Singh, 2002). In discussing results through this sociological lens, we will show how TALIS operates as a pedagogic device through distributive, recontextualising and evaluative rules. Methodology and data materials In order to achieve the primary goal of the study, that is, to show how the OECD’s TALIS works to construct a certain type of ‘global’ teacher identity conceptually and methodologically, we apply document analysis of TALIS-related documentation produced by the OECD. TALIS has grown in its international reach from one wave to another. In 2008, 24 national and sub-national systems participated in the survey; in 2013, the number of participants increased to 38; and in 2018, the total was 49 (NCES, n.d.). TALIS collects data primarily from lower secondary education teachers (International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) Level 2) and school principals of their schools, but participating education systems can also use optional surveys of teachers and school principals in ISCED Level 1 and/or ISCED Level 3 (OECD, 2010). TALIS surveys teachers’ and principals’ attitudes regarding six main aspects – Learning environment; Appraisal and feedback; Teaching practices and classroom environment; Development and support; School leadership; Self-efficacy and job satisfaction – and aims to address five main policy issues – Attracting teachers to the profession; Developing teachers within the profession; Retaining teachers in the profession; School policies and effectiveness; Quality teachers and 81 82 the conceptual and methodological construction of a ‘global’ teacher ... teaching – which are further operationalised into specific indicators (OECD, 2010). TALIS applies stratified two-stage probability sampling, where schools are first randomly selected, followed by the random selection of teachers within those schools. A total of 200 schools and 20 teachers within each participating school is established as a minimum sample size, meaning that a sample of at least 4,000 teachers participates in the survey from each participating education system (OECD, 2010). As shown in the lists of contributors in any of the TALIS documents,5 the OECD engages a large number of national government representatives and policymakers in the development and validation of TALIS assessment frameworks, data collection and analysis, as well as in the production of follow-up synthesis reports. In order to capture the full breadth of TALIS and any evolution in its construction of a ‘global’ teacher identity, we review conceptual frameworks, survey questionnaires, technical reports and results reports from all three waves of TALIS administered to date: 2008, 2013 and 2018. In addition, we include the OECD’s (2005) report Teachers Matter: Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers, a key document that was used in the conceptualisation of TALIS prior to its first administration in 2008. All of the documents qualitatively examined here are in the public domain and are freely accessible online. Due to the abundance of TALIS documentation and to space limitations, we can only present snippets of these documents under the results section below in forms of evidence extracted to support our main claim that TALIS promotes a specific ‘global’ teacher identity around the idea of ‘effective teachers’ (OECD, 2005). For example, to show the construction of TALIS complex scale indices, we only present data covering two of these indices – Constructivist Beliefs about Instruction, and Need for Teacher Professional Development in Subject Matter and Pedagogy – to highlight validity issues related to such constructions, which are methodologically and statistically driven to support the narratives presented by the OECD and to lend strength to their arguments by augmenting qualitative reporting with statistically robust results. Results: The conceptual and methodological construction of global teachers through TALIS In this section, we present the findings in two subsections: first, we focus on definitions and conceptions of ‘the teacher’ and ‘the teacher’s role and responsibilities’ in TALIS conceptual frameworks and how these conceptualisations 5 See for example p. 2 of OECD (2013). c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 are ‘translated’ into specific indicators and survey questions; and, second, we present two examples of complex scale indices to show how TALIS’s theoretical conceptualisations of ‘global’ teacher identity are backed up by methodological and statistical constructions. The conceptual construction of global teachers in TALIS Our analyses of TALIS-related documentation show that the OECD’s (2005) Teachers Matter report provided the foundation for the TALIS survey regarding the target teacher population.6 Therefore, in order to understand and capture the conceptual construction of teachers in TALIS, we had to track down and examine connections between the OECD’s Teachers Matter (2005) and the subsequent TALIS reports. The OECD (2005) report was based on an OECD study of teacher policy conducted in the period 2002–2004 involving 25 countries around the world, and it was concerned with policies that contribute to attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers in schools. While the OECD’s (2005) Teachers Matter report does not specifically define ‘effective teachers’, we find that ‘effective teachers’ was presented as the main goal for the OECD and participating countries that collaborated with the OECD on the study. Furthermore, we find that the notion of ‘effective teachers’ is a consistent theme in all TALIS surveys, and that it is conceptually elaborated when referring to definitions of teachers and teachers’ roles and responsibilities. Table 1 captures the associated definitions in the OECD and TALIS documents of focus. 6 In all of its waves, the TALIS survey expanded the net of target populations to include school leaders (school principals), a population that is not the focus of the present article. 83 84 the conceptual and methodological construction of a ‘global’ teacher ... Table 1 Conceptualisations of teachers and teachers’ roles and responsibilities in the OECD’s TALIS Definitions of teachers Definitions of teachers’ roles and responsibilities OECD’s (2005) Teachers Matter report The teacher profiles need to encompass strong subject matter knowledge, pedagogical skills, the capacity to work effectively with a wide range of students and colleagues, to contribute to the school and the profession, and the capacity to continue developing (OECD, 2005, p. 10). At the individual student level - Initiating and managing learning processes. - Responding effectively to the learning needs of individual learners. - Integrating formative and summative assessment. At the classroom level - Teaching in multi-cultural classrooms. - New cross-curricular emphases. - Integrating students with special needs. At the school level - Working and planning in teams. - Evaluation and systematic improvement planning. - ICT use in teaching and administration. - Management and shared leadership. At the level of parents and the wider community - Providing professional advice to parents. - Building community partnerships for learning (OECD, 2005, p. 3). TALIS 2008 “[…] the formal definition of a classroom teacher is a person whose professional activity involves the planning, organising and conducting of group activities whereby students’ knowledge, skills and attitudes develop as stipulated by educational programmes. In short, it is one whose main activity is teaching” (OECD, 2010, p. 56, referencing OECD (2004). Definition missing TALIS 2013 A teacher is defined as a person whose professional activity involves the transmission of knowledge, attitudes and skills that are stipulated to students enrolled in an educational program. (OECD, 2013, p. 20). Identical text to OECD (2005) (see Box 2: Responsibilities of today’s teachers in OECD, 2013, pp. 21–22). TALIS 2018 Identical to the definition in TALIS 2013 (Ainley & Carstens, 2018, p. 73). Definition missing Extrapolating from the definitions in Table 1, in the OECD’s view, an ‘effective teacher’ is one who possesses the subject matter knowledge and pedagogical skills to be in the service of students in the classroom, the profession c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 and the community, and who engages in lifelong learning for personal professional development in order to ensure student learning. The hypothetical ‘effective teacher’ is projected internationally as a required teacher profile, presenting their preferred version of ‘global’ teacher identity and overriding national contexts, while at the same time ensuring that countries buy into what the OECD does towards and through TALIS. In order to ensure consistency in its conceptualisation, the OECD serves as a self-referential source in which future conceptual development is based on prior OECD publications, as shown with the repetitions of the definitions in Table 1 from OECD (2005) to future TALIS reports. The intentional conceptual bias towards OECD-produced knowledge and visions of teachers is also exemplified in policy objectives highlighted in OECD (2005) and policy issues in TALIS 2008, as shown in Table 2. Table 2 Policy objectives (PO) in OECD (2005) and policy issues (PI) in TALIS 2008 OECD’s (2005) Teachers Matter report PO 1 PO 2 PO 3 PO 4 PO 5 Making teaching an attractive career choice Developing teachers’ knowledge and skills Recruiting, selecting and employing teachers Retaining effective teachers in schools Developing and implementing teacher policy (OECD, 2005, p. 7) TALIS 2008 Technical Report PI 1 PI 2 PI 3 PI 4 PI 5 Attracting teachers to the profession Developing teachers within the profession Retaining teachers in the profession School policies and effectiveness Quality teachers and teaching (OECD, 2010, p. 26) The almost mirror replication of the policy objectives noted in the OECD’s (2005) Teachers Matter report in the policy issues in TALIS 2008 indicates the OECD’s focus on creating a pipeline of ‘effective teachers’ to the teaching profession. Only Policy Issue 4, which concerns school leadership, is new in TALIS 2008, due to the inclusion of school leaders as a target population. Furthermore, fifteen indicators were developed to address the five policy issues in TALIS 2008. For example, for Policy Issue 2 on Developing teachers within the profession, three indicators were constructed: 1. Profile of teachers’ education and training; 2. Frequency and distribution of education and training; and 3. Satisfaction and effectiveness of education and training (OECD, 2010, p. 26). Again, it appears to be important to highlight the notion of ‘effectiveness’. Next, data was required to construct the desired indicators. Consequently, specific language had to be used in the teacher survey questionnaires that matched the conceptions of teachers from the OECD’s perspective. For 85 86 the conceptual and methodological construction of a ‘global’ teacher ... example, in the TALIS 2013 Teacher Questionnaire, one of the questions under Teacher Professional Development reads as follows: During the last 12 months, did you participate in any of the following professional development activities, and if yes, for how many days did they last? Teachers could respond with Yes or No, and indicate the duration in days if they had participated in: a) Courses/workshops; b) Education conferences or seminars; c) Observation visits to other schools; d) Observation visits to business premises, public organisations, non-governmental organisations; and e) In-service training courses in business premises, public organisations, non-governmental organisations (OECD, n.d., p. 10). This question, as well as others focusing on teacher professional development, are in line with the ‘effective teacher’ ideology incorporated in TALIS conceptual frameworks. Still, as we will argue next, TALIS surveys adopt a deficit mindset in the view of teachers, who are to be blamed for lacking ‘effectiveness’ and thus always in ‘need’ of more professional development. In this sense, TALIS serves as an OECD pedagogic device to identify the problem (teachers are ineffective) and also to construct the solution (lifelong learning through teacher professional development). The methodological construction of global teachers in TALIS Next, we present the methodological and statistical construction of two complex scale indices pertaining to Constructivist Beliefs about Instruction, and Need for Teacher Professional Development in Subject Matter and Pedagogy. Constructivism has prominence in TALIS as a preferred pedagogy (Robertson & Sorensen, 2018), and a teacher with constructivist beliefs is one who facilitates the student’s own inquiry. As shown in the components that the index is constructed from in Table 3, a constructivist teacher is one who teaches less but facilitates students’ self-inquiry, and one who holds the belief that curriculum content is less important than thinking and reasoning processes. In the OECD’s view, a constructivist teacher is a ‘good’ and ‘effective’ teacher. Table 4 shows the reliability and model fit test results for the index in TALIS 2013 for a select ten participating countries.7 As indicated in the notes to Table 4, reliability and good model fit values were acceptable for most countries. However, the index was dropped in TALIS 2018 precisely due to measurement issues, as noted in the TALIS 2018 Technical Report: “Eventually, the TALIS 2018 main survey instruments did not cover ‘beliefs’ about teaching, given sub-par measurement characteristics in the field trial (and originally in TALIS 2013)” (OECD, 2019, p. 7 Due to word limitation, the ten countries in Table 4 and Table 6 are selected alphabetically for demonstration purposes and do not include all of the countries that participated in TALIS 2013. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 79). This demonstrates that the OECD is bounded by statistical reasoning and believes in the power of statistical measures to accurately ‘tell the story’. Table 3 Construction of Constructivist Beliefs about Instruction Index TALIS 2008: Constructivist Beliefs about Instruction TALIS 2013: Constructivist Beliefs about Instruction Factor Component Loading Component Factor Loading My role as a teacher is to facilitate student’s own inquiry 1.001 My role as a teacher is to facilitate student’s own inquiry .916 Students learn best by finding solutions to problems on their own 1.462 Students learn best by finding solutions to problems on their own 1.383 Students should be allowed to think of solutions to practical problems themselves before the teacher shows them how they are solved 1.427 Students should be allowed to think of solutions to practical problems themselves before the teacher shows them how they are solved 1.000 Thinking and reasoning processes are more important than specific curriculum content Thinking and reasoning processes are more important than specific curriculum content TALIS 2018: Constructivist Beliefs about Instruction Component Factor Loading No Index 1.226 1.000 Note. Adapted from OECD, 2014a, Tables 10.62 & 10.66; OECD, 2010, Tables 11.74 & 11.80. Table 4 TALIS 2013 Reliability and Model Fit for Constructivist Beliefs about Instruction Index Countries Coefficient Alpha CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR Australia .705 .998 .994 .018 .009 Brazil .685 .957 .871 .054 .029 Bulgaria .621 .992 .976 .030 .015 Denmark .669 .998 .994 .018 .009 Estonia .647 .999 .998 .010 .007 Iceland .778 .960 .880 .122 .027 Italy .659 .953 .859 .089 .031 Korea .843 .996 .987 .040 .010 Mexico .681 .999 .997 .014 .009 Norway .541 .992 .975 .022 .013 Note. Sample of countries that participated in all three rounds of TALIS (2008, 2013, 2018) included. ISCED 2 results provided. Model fit indices based on confirmatory factor analysis and include Compara- 87 88 the conceptual and methodological construction of a ‘global’ teacher ... tive Fit Index (CFI), Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), Root Mean Square of Error Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). Reliability is considered acceptable if Coefficient Alpha is ≥ .70. Good model fit is indicated by CFI ≥ .90, TLI ≥ .95, RMSEA < .08, and SRMS < .08. Adapted from Hooper et al., 2008; OECD, 2014a, Tables 10.63 & 10.64; OECD, 2010, Tables 11.77 & 11.84; Taber, 2018. Tables 5 and 6 show the construction and the statistical measures of the index on Need for Professional Development in Subject Matter and Pedagogy, which was computed in TALIS 2013 and 2018 (not in TALIS 2008). Here we again observe the ‘deficit mindset’, as the index ‘constructs’ the ‘need’ for professional development. Lacking the requisite attributes, the onus seems to be placed on teachers to gain skills, with little regard for systemic and structural deficits that may hamper teachers’ ability to participate, including adequate resources and opportunities. The index reflects the conceptual constructions of the need for professional development as noted in conceptual frameworks and teacher survey questionnaires, but here it is given the added value of the ‘statistical power’ of factor loadings, reliability and good model fit test values. Furthermore, the index itself does not communicate much information of use (other than a deficit), and the general statements/components that make up the index are so broad that most teachers might be expected to respond that some level of professional development is needed. Indeed, the general statements/ components themselves do little to identify which areas of professional development should be invested in to meet teacher needs. Table 6 shows reliability and model fit test results of the index in 2013. Table 5 Construction of Need for Professional Development in Subject Matter and Pedagogy Index 2008 TALIS: Need for Professional Development in Subject Matter and Pedagogy Component No Index Factor Loading 2013 TALIS: Need for Professional Development in Subject Matter and Pedagogy Component Knowledge and understanding of my subject field(s) Pedagogical competencies in teaching my subject field(s) Knowledge of the curriculum Student evaluation and assessment practice Student behavior and classroom management Factor Loading 1.000 1.050 .929 .933 .823 2018 TALIS: Need for Professional Development in Subject Matter and Pedagogy Component Knowledge and understanding of my subject field(s) Pedagogical competencies in teaching my subject field(s) Knowledge of the curriculum Student assessment practice Student behavior and classroom management Factor Loading .651 .684 .707 .688 .622 c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Note. Adapted from OECD, 2019, Tables 11.41 & 11.51; OECD,2014a, Tables 10.81 & 10.85. Table 6 TALIS 2013 Reliability and Model Fit for Need for Professional Development in Subject Matter and Pedagogy Index Countries Coefficient Alpha CFI TLI RMSEA Australia .849 .972 .930 .077 SRMR .024 Brazil .850 .987 .967 .039 .020 Bulgaria .897 .935 .837 .149 .039 Denmark .803 .957 .892 .101 .030 Estonia .837 .942 .854 .138 .035 Iceland .788 .933 .832 .138 .058 Italy .864 .981 .953 .076 .020 Korea .910 .981 .953 .076 .020 Mexico .853 .975 .937 .096 .027 Norway .787 .995 .988 .025 .012 Note. Sample of countries that participated in all three rounds of TALIS (2008, 2013, 2018) included. ISCED 2 results provided. Model fit indices based on confirmatory factor analysis and include Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), Root Mean Square of Error Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). Reliability is considered acceptable if Coefficient Alpha is ≥ .70. Good model fit is indicated by CFI ≥ .90, TLI ≥ .95, RMSEA < .08, and SRMS < .08. Adapted from Hooper et al., 2008; OECD, 2019, Tables 11.42 & 11.44; OECD, 2014a, Tables 10.81 & 10.85; Taber, 2018. Discussion: Educational and sociological perspectives on TALIS construction of ‘global’ teachers The results reveal the conceptual bias of TALIS towards curriculum ideologies, primarily social efficiency and learner-centred ideologies, as exemplified in the notions dominating the definitions of teachers and teachers’ roles, as well as those constituting components of Constructivist Beliefs about Instruction, and Need for Professional Development in Subject Matter and Pedagogy. Specifically, the definitions and construction of indices are dominated by language focusing on learning and assessment, language dubbed as ‘learnification’ (Biesta, 2010), which pushes content and teaching into the margins, stripping teachers of any substantial decision making in their professional activity. For example, the fourth component of Constructivist Beliefs about Instruction index reads “Thinking and reasoning processes are more important than specific 89 90 the conceptual and methodological construction of a ‘global’ teacher ... curriculum content” (see entry in Table 3 above), thus implying a diminutive role of content in teaching and learning, which, from the didaktik perspective, is the cornerstone of the educational experience, as it contributes towards students’ Bildung and the tight relationship between content and meaning making (Hopmann, 2007; Tahirsylaj, 2019). Similarly, ‘the deficit mindset’ observed in the Need for Professional Development in Subject Matter and Pedagogy index is also conceptually aligned with the curriculum tradition, exemplified by the use of the term ‘competencies’ and ‘student assessment’ in its components. In particular, the term ‘competencies’ is closely aligned with the social efficiency ideology (Tahirsylaj & Wahlström, 2019), while student evaluation and assessment is actively and intensively pursued within the curriculum tradition (Tahirsylaj et al., 2015; Westbury et al., 2000). Two visions of teachers become apparent when examining the TALIS definition of teachers and teachers’ roles by focusing on ‘effective teachers’ through the two educational perspectives. On one hand, the vision of the curriculum tradition, from which TALIS borrows, constructs ‘good and effective’ teachers as ones who are fully trained to deliver whatever curriculum is promoted by government authorities by staying true and loyal to the given curriculum expectations. On the other hand, as discussed earlier in the theoretical framework section, the vision of the didaktik tradition projects ‘good and effective’ teachers as ones who unpack the curriculum based on their professional autonomy, not necessarily blindly following authorities’ curriculum guidelines, but relying on their professional judgement instead. Furthermore, the results reveal how the OECD uses TALIS as a pedagogic device to regulate the pedagogic discourse around ‘effective’ teachers internationally. TALIS serves as a pedagogic device built on specific conceptual and methodological constructions that in turn produce ‘valid’ knowledge relying on a set of policy issues and indicators to be converted into teacher policies at the national level. The OECD achieves this through the buy-in of national governments and policymakers to TALIS work, and also through the recurring administration of TALIS every five years. Moreover, the OECD’s technical and financial prowess enables the collection of large data points from teachers and school leaders in participating countries, which are then converted into ‘robust’ statistically driven indices and ‘evidence-based’ indicators and policies for national governments to adopt. In this sense, the sociological position we adopt here describes how TALIS operates as a process and as a pedagogic device to construct a ‘global’ teacher identity construed from the curriculum’s social efficiency-based idea of ‘teacher effectiveness’ for developing certain skills and competencies among students. Since the actual decision-making power in education rests with national c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 governments, the OECD’s TALIS as a pedagogic device is aimed at gaining and maintaining symbolic power over the making of twenty-first century teachers (Robertson & Sorensen, 2018). In order to achieve this, and in light of Bernstein’s notion of a pedagogic device operating through a set of distributive, recontextualising and evaluative rules, the OECD’s TALIS functions as a distributive rule through the conceptual construction of indicators and policy issues (see Table 2 above) for attracting, developing and retaining ‘good and effective’ teachers. Next, TALIS as a pedagogic device operates through the recontextualising rule by regulating the formation of specific pedagogic discourse on ‘effective teachers’, which is executed through numerous publications prior to and following each administration of the TALIS survey. Through recontextualisation, the indicators and policy issues are transmitted to national contexts. Lastly, through evaluative rules, TALIS as a pedagogic device ensures the acquisition of indicators based on the specific pedagogic practices for which TALIS as a survey instrument collects data. The acquisition of indicators is particularly enforced through the process of statistically developing complex scale indices. Conclusions, implications and further research Surprisingly, TALIS indices do not produce much variance across countries, as would be expected considering the wide range of national contexts of the countries participating in TALIS surveys. This may be due, in part, to the selection and statistical validation process of index creation. Indices that perform poorly in multiple countries are dropped, and index components are selectively chosen to reflect a broad but normative conceptualisation of an effective teacher. Furthermore, the lack of variance may be explained by the lack of interest in the voices of teachers. The focus is instead on the distribution and recontextualisation of values in relation to the longstanding reform agenda on teacher effectiveness that we refer to as a ‘global’ teacher identity. Conceptually, a ‘global’ teacher identity is constructed by relying on a specific vision of teachers as agents of the system who need to implement whatever authorities put in front of them in the form of curriculum guidelines and school reform initiatives, as discussed under the theoretical framework referring to Westbury et al. (2000). Through its work, TALIS attempts to override national contexts by reaching out directly to teachers internationally, as demonstrated in A Teachers’ Guide to TALIS 2013 (OECD, 2014b). TALIS produces ‘validity’ by the incorporation of education policymakers in the countries and by the use of tremendous financial resources in the production of large statistical power through sample size. The use of reliability and model fit tests 91 92 the conceptual and methodological construction of a ‘global’ teacher ... are additional statistical tools to increase the robustness of scale indices. The construction of a specific ‘global’ teacher identity around teacher effectiveness has direct implications for national teacher education policy and indirectly for teachers’ professional identity and practices. Specifically, this study has implications for pre-service teacher education and in-service teacher professional development, as it reveals two different visions of how ‘good’ or ‘effective’ teachers are construed in the twenty-first century: one rooted in the curriculum tradition towards which TALIS is biased, and the other rooted in the didaktik tradition. Such contrasting visions impact the design of pre-service teacher education programmes and in-service professional development offerings. In turn, these programmes and offerings potentially affect participating teachers’ teaching practices in their classroom work. The decision regarding which vision is pursued ultimately determines whether teaching force is viewed as a delivery mechanism of curriculum guidelines (the curriculum vision), or a professional teaching force that translates curriculum guidelines into educational teaching and learning activities based on the unique meetings of a given teacher with specific students in a given context, pursuing Bildung and meaning making (the didaktik vision). Lastly, different research avenues could be pursued based on the findings and limitations of the present study. For example, we have applied an educational and sociological framework to examine TALIS documentation that limits the perspectives on TALIS reports, while future research could expand the theoretical net towards historical, philosophical or psychological perspectives. 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Nordic Journal of Studies in Education Policy, 5(3), 180–190. Tahirsylaj, A., & Wahlström, N. (2019). Role of transnational and national education policies in realisation of critical thinking: the cases of Sweden and Kosovo. The Curriculum Journal, 30(4), 484–503. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2019.1615523 Tahirsylaj, A. (2017). Curriculum field in the making: Influences that led to social efficiency as dominant curriculum ideology in progressive era in the U.S. European Journal of Curriculum Studies, 4(1), 618–628. Tahirsylaj, A., Niebert, K., & Duschl, R. (2015). Curriculum and didaktik in 21st century: Still divergent or converging? European Journal of Curriculum Studies, 2(2), 262–281. Tichnor-Wagner, A., Parkhouse, H., Glazier, J., & Cain, J. M. (2019). Becoming a globally competent teacher. ASCD. Wermke, W., & Salokangas, M. (2021). The autonomy paradox. Teachers’ self-governance across Europe. Springer. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Biographical note Armend Tahirsylaj, PhD, is Associate Professor of Education at the Department of Teacher Education, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway. His teaching and research focus on curriculum theory, Didaktik/Bildung, education policy, teacher education, international large-scale assessments, and international comparative education from AngloAmerican and Continental/Nordic Europe angles. William C. Smith, PhD, is Senior Lecturer in Education and International Development and Academic Lead for the Data for Children Collaborative with UNICEF at the University of Edinburgh. His research focuses on education access and barriers to education for the most marginalized, and issues around testing, teachers, and accountability. He previously worked at UNESCO’s Global Education Monitoring Report and as a TJA Fellow with the OECD. Gulab Khan, PhD, is Assistant Professor at Syed Ahsan Ali and Syed Maratib Ali School of Education, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Pakistan. His research interests lie at the intersection of education policy and practice with a focus on school improvement, educational change, teacher quality and status, and teacher evaluation. Wieland Wermke, PhD, is Associate Professor in Special Education at Stockholm University, Sweden. His research interest is on comparative education methodology, and educational professionals in the tension field between policy and practice. His latest publication is together with Maija Salokangas: “Autonomy Paradox. Teachers’ perceptions on self-governance across Europe” (2021 at Springer). 95 96 c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 doi: 10.26529/cepsj.1092 Music Teachers’ Perception of Music Teaching at the Stage of Early Adolescence Petra Brdnik Juhart*1 and Barbara Sicherl Kafol2 • Based on the descriptive method of qualitative educational research, the present study explores music teaching at the stage of early adolescence in terms of general-school music teachers’ viewpoints on factors defining the planning and implementation of music teaching. The study was based on qualitative analysis of data gathered in interviews with 18 teachers from nine countries (Slovenia, Argentina, Australia, USA, Turkey, Poland, Russia, Italy and Germany). The research found that music teaching based on authentic musical communication through the activities of playing, creating and listening to music was favoured by the interviewees. Among the factors affecting the presentation of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence, the quality of curricular bases and the professional competence of music teachers were emphasised. In this context, the research findings showed that music curricula in the international context do not provide a suitable curricular base for the implementation of music teaching. The problem becomes especially salient when the competences of music teachers are insufficient for the transference of the curricular platform to musical praxis through authentic ways of musical teaching. The research findings provide an insight into the complexity of the factors involved, including authentic music teaching, the music curriculum and teachers’ competences, which determine the planning and implementation of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence. In addition, the findings provide a basis for further research in a broader context and for the development of guidelines for curricular updates and the modernisation of music education in general schools. Keywords: early adolescence, music education, authentic music teaching, music curriculum, teachers’ competences 1 2 *Corresponding Author. Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; petra.brdnik@pef.uni-lj.si. Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. 97 98 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence Stališča učiteljev glasbe do glasbenega poučevanja v obdobju zgodnje adolescence Petra Brdnik Juhart in Barbara Sicherl Kafol • V prispevku predstavljamo izsledke deskriptivne metode kvalitativne raziskave, v kateri smo preučevali stanje glasbenega poučevanja v obdobju zgodnje adolescence z vidika stališč osnovnošolskih učiteljev glasbe do dejavnikov, ki vplivajo na načrtovanje in izvajanje glasbenega poučevanja. Raziskava je temeljila na kvalitativni analizi podatkov, ki smo jih pridobili s pomočjo intervjujev z 18 učitelji glasbe iz devetih držav (Slovenije, Argentine, Avstralije, Združenih držav Amerike, Turčije, Poljske, Rusije, Italije in Nemčije). Izsledki raziskave so pokazali, da so intervjuvanci prevladujoče naklonjeni glasbenemu poučevanju, ki temelji na avtentični glasbeni komunikaciji prek dejavnosti izvajanja, ustvarjanja in poslušanja glasbe. Med dejavniki, ki vplivajo na zastopanost glasbenega poučevanja v obdobju zgodnje adolescence, so učitelji poudarili kakovost kurikularnih podlag in ustrezno strokovno usposobljenost učiteljev. V tem okviru so izsledki raziskave pokazali, da učni načrti za glasbo v slovenskem in mednarodnem kontekstu ne dajejo zadostnih kurikularnih podlag za uresničevanje glasbenega poučevanja. Problematika je izstopajoča zlasti ob pomanjkljivi strokovni usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvajanje kurikularnih izhodišč v praksi glasbenega poučevanja z avtentičnimi načini glasbene komunikacije. Ugotovitve raziskave nudijo vpogled v kompleksnost dejavnikov, kot so avtentično glasbeno poučevanje, učni načrt za glasbo in kompetence učiteljev, ki pogojujejo načrtovanje in izvajanje avtentičnega glasbenega poučevanja v obdobju zgodnje adolescence. Izsledki predstavljajo tudi izhodišča za nadaljnje raziskave v širšem kontekstu ter oblikovanje smernic za kurikularne posodobitve in posodobitve glasbenega poučevanja v splošnem šolstvu. Ključne besede: zgodnja adolescenca, glasbeno izobraževanje, avtentično glasbeno poučevanje, učni načrt za glasbo, kompetence učiteljev c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Introduction Key competences for lifelong learning involve the development of knowledge, skills and relationships that contribute to the quality of life in modern society (Council Recommendation, 2018). Lifelong competences are defined by common indicators, such as “critical thinking, problem solving, team work, communication and negotiation skills, analytical skills, creativity, and intercultural skills” (ibid., p. 1). Within this framework, documents substantiating the importance of arts and cultural education (Arts and Cultural Education, 2010; Eurydice, 2009; The Road Map for Arts Education, 2006) highlight creative expression through the arts as a means of fulfilling goals in the cultural, aesthetic and social domains of learning development. In line with international strategies of development of arts and cultural education (ibid.), the findings of a study by Bamford (2006), carried out on a sample of more than 40 countries, showed that a quality arts and cultural education influences students’ holistic development by strengthening their self-confidence, self-awareness, sense of responsibility and respect for others, and improves their inclusion in the society. In this context, the present article focuses on the artistic area of music education in the period of early adolescence. Starting at around the age of 12 years, adolescence is the process of gradual psychophysical maturing into an adult person (Zupančič, 2020b). In delimiting individual developmental periods, the present study follows Braconnier (2001, p. 32), who divides adolescence into three stages, starting with puberty: early adolescence (ages 10 to 14), middle adolescence (ages 15 to 19) and late adolescence (ages 20 to 24). During adolescence, connections between various parts of the brain are established and changes occur especially in the cerebral cortex responsible for conceptual and abstract thinking, new approaches to problem solving and expansion of our consciousness (Siegel, 2014; Thomas, 2016). Furthermore, changes in cognitive development cause an increase in emotionality and mood swings (Zupančič, 2020a), which, in a teenager, trigger the development of identity and developmental shifts in thinking about who they are and who they can become (McClellan, 2017; Siegel, 2014). Music has an important place in this context, often serving as a regulator of a teenager’s emotional states, and is linked to the formation of self-image (Campbell et al., 2007; North et al., 2000). Research findings (Sangiorgio, 2016, 2020) also show that engaging in music in a group contributes to the development of positive interaction and the level of organisational abilities. Engaging in music enables acceptance and communication of ideas among the members of a group, which contributes to the development of social interaction. Moreover, it encourages the development of thinking strategies, such 99 100 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence as memorisation, comprehension, use, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (ibid.), all of which contribute to the development of the competence of lifelong learning. In the international general education environment, music education is implemented through a variety of curricular models with various starting points for planning didactic elements. The present study is based on Bernstein’s theory of the pedagogic device (2003), which defines formal education through three message systems: curriculum, pedagogy and evaluation, where “curriculum defines what counts as valid knowledge, pedagogy defines what counts as a valid transmission of knowledge, and evaluation defines what counts as a valid realization of this knowledge on the part of the taught” (Bernestin, 2003, p. 77). This theoretical basis was applied to music education in the period of adolescence (age 12 to 18) by Philpott and Wright (2018), who defined it with elements of pedagogical discourse at the level of “strong/weak/mixed” curricula. In the “strong” curricular basis model, didactic elements are defined rather in detail and guide the teacher in the implementation of the learning process, over which the teacher has stronger control. In the forefront, there is a teacher-centred approach in which “the contents are clearly defined, chosen, and controlled by the teacher, who imposes strong boundaries on what ‘counts’ as musical learning and teaching. The teacher also strongly frames the organization of pupils, the teaching strategies employed, and the materials chosen” (Philpott & Wright, 2018, p. 230). In contrast, “weak” curricular bases enable a more open planning of didactic elements for creative and activity-based implementation of the learning process, as “the contents are not clearly defined, chosen, and controlled by the teacher, and no strong boundaries as to what ‘counts’ as musical learning and teaching are imposed. /… / pedagogy is similarly weakly framed in that the teaching strategies employed and the materials chosen are negotiated with pupils. /… / they are also encouraged to assess and evaluate their own work based on their interpretation of the stimulus” (ibid., p. 229). There are also strong links with students’ music-making outside school. Thus, “weak” curricular bases include a student-centred approach in which the teacher and the student are co-creators of the learning process and co-makers of the curriculum, emphasising the “values of self-expression, pupil-centredness, discovery, creativity, imagination, and relevance” (ibid., p. 237). The two approaches can also be combined in a so-called “mixed” model, which establishes a flexible relationship between the aforementioned elements of the learning process. In this context, the present paper deals with the use of curricular bases of the “strong/weak/mixed” models (ibid.) to plan music education in the period of early adolescence. Based on the above theoretical starting points for music education planning, we can conclude that music teaching and learning (including) in early c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 adolescence is influenced by a number of factors. Among them, we would like to highlight the worrying research results that show that teaching arts-related subjects represents a great personal and professional challenge to teachers who lack self-confidence and professional competence in the area (Arts and Cultural Education, 2010; Bamford, 2006; Eurydice, 2009; Sicherl Kafol, 2015). Primary education teachers in particular lack the professional competence to implement various teaching and learning methods and adjust arts education (including music education) to the different needs and capabilities of children (Dobovičnik, 2016; Elliott & Silverman, 2015). The findings of international and Slovenian research also show that approaches to teaching music are often incompatible with the needs of students, who consequently often express negative attitudes towards music education in general schools (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; North et al., 2000) and indicate a desire for more authentic musical experience (singing and instrument playing) and less emphasis on a theoretical approach with prevailing verbal explanation (Habe & Tandler, 2013). Conversely, research (Bucura, 2019) shows that active music making in the formal school setting produces anxiety and low self-efficacy in students who “initially look for an escape route toward the familiarity of notetaking and sitting at the desk” (ibid., p. 6). Therefore, music teacher planning should be more attentive to learners’ psychosocial wellbeing (ibid.). In order to understand the needs of adolescents, music teachers should develop their own personal competencies to foster “the development of learners’ emotions, empathy, attitudes and values based on personal experience of musical-artistic activity” (Davidova, 2019, p. 105). Music education that enables personal experience of musical activities is also the first step towards overcoming the low status that music education seems to have in comparison with other school subjects (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010), despite the fact that music plays an important role in the lives of adolescents (Campbell et al., 2007). In line with the identified problem, the research objectives are oriented towards studying the state of music education of early adolescents in terms of general-school music teachers’ viewpoints about factors that define the planning and implementation of music education. In accordance with the research objectives, we posed the following research questions: 1. What are general-school music teachers’ viewpoints about factors determining the planning of music education at the stage of early adolescence? 2. What are general-school music teachers’ viewpoints about factors defining the implementation of music education at the stage of early adolescence? 101 102 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence Method In conducting our research, we applied the descriptive method used in qualitative educational research. The study involved 18 music teachers from nine different countries. Most of the interviewees were female (of the 18 participants, 13 were female and 5 male). The participants’ ages ranged from 26 to 60 years, with a median age of 43 years (IQR = 13.25). All of the participants were formally qualified music teachers. Their teaching experience ranged from 2 to 40 years, with a median teaching experience of 14.5 years (IQR = 14). For data collecting, we used semi-structured group interviews conducted at international music conferences in Slovenia (1st group) and Austria (2nd and 3rd groups) in July 2019. The participants accepted the invitation to participate randomly. The interviews, which were conducted face-to-face and lasted approximately 60 minutes, were recorded on video and audio. The first group consisted of four music teachers from Slovenia, the second was made up of six teachers from Australia, Italy, Argentina and the USA, and the third one comprised eight music teachers from Turkey, Australia, Poland, Russia, Italy and Germany. The recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim, and the transcriptions checked and approved by the interviewees. Between them, the interviewees made a total of 315 statements. In the following sections, each statement is marked with the group number (group one: I; group two: II; group three: III), followed by the number of the statement (e.g., S1), the name of the interviewee’s country (e.g., Slovenia) and the consecutive number of the interviewee within his or her group (e.g., 1). The analysis of the transcripts was performed with open coding. The parts of the text that were relevant in terms of achieving research objectives were used. The text was marked with a system of codes that were later combined into categories devised on the basis of criteria related to factors determining the planning and implementation of music education in early adolescence. Results In the interviews, the participating teachers expressed their viewpoints on the factors determining the planning of authentic music education in early adolescence, herein defined with the categories of weak and strong curricular bases. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Weak Curriculum The participating teachers’ attitudes to the curriculum express their inclination towards open planning of music education that should enable creative and active realisations of the learning process. According to them, the curriculum should allow for autonomous planning of learning content, processes and other didactic elements, and focus on defining learning skills. With a “weak” curriculum, students would have the possibility of actively engaging in music education, providing initiatives and suggestions, and co-shaping the learning process. “We have curriculum standards, but they don’t have anything to do with content. They prescribe certain skills.” (II / S39 / USA-1) /…/ “In Germany we changed a curriculum. We have to transport more competences to the students. The lessons should be changed in more working process, not working frontal. Pupils should experience, construct situations in which students can do it by themselves.” (III / S74 / Germany) According to the interviewees, the planning of musical activities and learning strategies should be left to the autonomous decision of teachers, which indicates that they are in favour of an open, “weak” curriculum. The curriculum should allow for creative and active realisations of music education with the prevalence of musical and motor communication and the use of modern technology. “I try not to speak but to start the class with singing, games.” (II / S20 / Argentina) /…/ “There is always some singing. There is always an instrumental piece that they can do. There will always be something that involves technology.” (II / S12 / Australia-1) /…/ “Percussion, clapping game, traditional song of south or north Italy.” (III / S25 / Italy-3) /…/ “I use a lot of games, a lot of competition as a way as like assessment. In order for me to be able to tell if they understood a rhythm concept, I am gonna have them play rhythm baseball where they have to compete to have the rhythm right”. (II / S6/ USA-1) /…/ “Whether there’ll be structure showed through choreography that they devise, or even pitch through movement, there’s always movement.” (III / S22 / Australia) The presence of “weak” curricular bases is also reflected in the interviewees’ attitudes towards planning learning content, which should take into account students’ interests. In their opinion, including musical content suggested by students is not a deviation from quality music teaching, but rather a bridge to dealing with a variety of genres and styles, as defined in the curriculum. As an example, they mentioned film music, which students know from 103 104 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence informal environments and which enables a connection with the musical content of various genres within the framework of a formal learning environment. “I use pop music when the boys bring it in.” (III / S30 / Australia) /…/ “Children love to play melodies they know.” (I / S143 / Slovenia-4) /…/ “So taking stuff that they knew and are able to then extract the concept from and applying it to some other music so they could see “Oh, cool, this music doesn’t just exist in a vacuum, everything is influencing everything”. (II / S59 / USA-1) “It proved efficient to mention a film this music was in – that attracted them even more.” (I / S104 / Slovenia-4) /…/ “It is not true that students are not able to listen classical music. If you say: “Listen to the music!” and in 20 minutes they say “No, I am boring…please stop the music!” But if you do it with movement, with activities they will appreciate it a lot.” (III / S32 / Italy-2) The interviewees also highlighted the advantages of “weak” curricular bases in terms of learning forms that should foster group work, giving students an opportunity to cooperate on their own accord and develop mutual relationships. “If possible, they prepare a group presentation with a projection.” (I / S97 / Slovenia-3) /…/ “I do lots of whole class stuff at the beginning, and if it’s group work, I use random choice. I want to foster that everybody has a value to add to everything that we do.” (II / S79 / Australia-2) Strong Curriculum The participating teachers expressed prevailingly negative attitudes towards “strong” curricular bases that direct them towards planning the didactic elements of music education, claiming that this made it difficult for them to enactive music teaching. “For me, curriculum is the problem. Because Ministerium decided we have to follow this structure.” (III / S63 / Poland) /…/ “For me, this is a great dilemma. What the curriculum imposes on me drags me into a kind of narrowness.” (I / S72 / Slovenia-2) Within this framework, the teachers were also critical of the standards of knowledge, which, according to them, should define the achievements of authentic musical activities to a greater extent, particularly achievements in the area of musical literacy. “We mostly focus on playing and reading notes.” (II / S14 / USA-2) /…/ “This year I’ve put more emphasis on the use of notation and reading from it. I think this could be given more weight.” (I / S89 / Slovenia-2) c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 /…/ “A written record of a musical language – I find this very operative, something a primary school child could carry on into his or her life.” (I / S91 / Slovenia-3) The interviewees from Slovenia also pointed out the problem of the national examination, which, in their opinion, does not include authentic methods of examination and assessment of musical achievements. “In the year of preparation [for the national examination – authors’ note] we spent less time singing and playing instruments.” (I / S81 / Slovenia-1) /…/ “At the last one [i.e., national examination – authors’ note] it was necessary to add some rhythmic patterns to a folk song. This would make sense if students could actually imagine what they write and if they had instruments to play it, but it’s just a transcription, then this is not creating at all.” (I / S110 / Slovenia-3) The participating teachers were prevailingly in favour of regular examination of musical abilities and knowledge, pointing out that the teacher should focus on steering the learning process with timely and quality feedback on attainment of the learning goals. “At this point the teacher intervenes and says you are doing this well; this needs a bit more attention, let’s try this and that. But theoretically every child should be able to meet the standard.” (II / S66 / Australia-2) The above categories of curricular bases for planning music education at the stage of early adolescence connect with the advantages of implementing authentic music education as well as the conditions for doing so. Advantages of Authentic Music Teaching at the Stage of Early Adolescence In the context of authentic music teaching, the interviewees identified the advantages of a stimulating learning environment that offers students quality stimuli for their musical and personal development. In a stimulating learning environment, with the prevalence of musical communication, students have an opportunity for creative and active musical expression, which enables the development of their musical abilities, skills and knowledge. “Music teaching requires a change of a child or a student from the beginning of a process to the end of the process. It’s changing their understanding; it’s changing their level of expression as well as changing their level of knowledge.” (II / S16 / Australia-2) /.../ “It’s a fact that they learn 105 106 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence more if they move while singing or creating on instruments than if they copy a text from a slide”. (I / S88 / Slovenia-3) According to the interviewees, a stimulating learning environment is particularly important in early adolescence, which is a period of intense psychophysical maturing. In this period, students tend to express feelings of shame and unease during musical and motor activities. “Psychical development is not the same – especially girls start to develop physically. It is the reason to be in shame, not to be opened for movement or anything.” (III / S16 / Russia) /…/ “It is a body that is going to transform. And they feel very strong energy inside. And maybe they are not very conscious.” (III / S14 / Italy) /…/ “I have a feeling that students are quite closed regarding feelings”. (I / S57 / Slovenia-4) /…/ “They struggle with emotions in the very short time and they can’t handle it.” (III / S15 / Poland) /…/ “They might not want to show that they are good at something in a big group, but they still get a lot of satisfaction from doing something well. (II / S3 / Australia-1) /…/ “They do not feel safe to express something. (I / S59 / Slovenia-4) /…/ “This is the period of puberty when they are embarrassed to talk about emotions.” (I / S58 / Slovenia-3) With the increased emotional sensitivity of students, a stimulating learning environment is important, as it provides support for an exchange of opinions, views and ideas, as well as ensuring plenty of opportunities to establish mutual relationships in which they feel safe and accepted. “They like to feel safe in their hood”. (II / S3 / Australia-1) /…/ “At that age group they start to change their opinion of you as an authority figure. And connecting with them on a valuable level can help with that.” (II / S10 / Australia-2) /…/ “I think that they want to know that you are on their team that you are paying attention to who they are because they also have very strong ideas of what they are interested in or what they like doing.” (II / S11 / USA-1) The interviewees also recognised the advantages of authentic music education in early adolescence with regard to students’ interest in this type of music teaching. Students’ gladly participate in musical activities and particularly like vocal and instrumental performing, creating and listening to music, and learning through play using various learning aids. “Everybody likes to play, regardless of the instruments we give them, whether it is claves or a triangle.” (I / S140 / Slovenia-3) /…/ “They adore c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 clapping games. (III / S23 / Russia)” /…/ “And they like material like sticks and balls.” (III / S23 / Russia) /…/ “The games, the movement, different kind of movement.” (III / S35 / Poland) The participating teachers also expressed interest in authentic music teaching that is implemented through various realisations of the Orff and Kodaly concepts, both of which emphasise musical communication as the prevailing approach. They were critical of non-authentic approaches to music education in which verbal communication and verbal teaching methods prevail. According to the teachers, these traditional music education models are still very common in practice, resulting in authentic music teaching often being regarded as a novelty and an experiment. “Normally children don’t create music.” (III / S75 / Germany) /…/ “Believe me if you come to Italy to some schools, they don’t do anything.” (III / S39 / Italy-3) / …/ “There is huge variety of how music is taught. You have Orff people, and you have Kodaly people and people who are mostly Orff but also do a little Kodaly. You have people who do entirely their own thing. You have schools that have general music and other schools with no music.” (II / S38 / USA-1) /…/ “If they saw my class, they would see certainly not a traditional thing. They would see that as an experimental thing, quite different to perhaps what traditionally has been done.” (III / S45/ Australia) It is difficult to provide a clear-cut definition of traditional and authentic approaches. Nevertheless, the interviewees saw advantages in the sensible combination of the two approaches in which verbal methods should complement previously acquired authentic learning experience. “For me this [i.e., verbal methods – authors’ note ] is not a negative part. If before you explore, create, it is a logical consequence. Because they are satisfied with what you did with the body, phrasing, the movement, and so on. And then you arrive at the theory. Fantastic! Why not?” (III / S47 / Italy-2) Conditions for Implementing Authentic Music Teaching at the Stage of Early Adolescence Among the conditions necessary for implementing authentic music teaching and learning, the interviewees emphasised the importance of appropriate spatial conditions that enable unhindered musical and motor expression. The classroom should be big enough, with appropriate acoustics, and without unnecessary additional equipment, such as desks. 107 108 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence “I have a classroom with excessive echo.” (I / S127 / Slovenia-4) /…/ “I have no material. I have no space in my school.” (III / S63 / Turkey-2) /…/ “I think it is more and more privilege to have space to do something. For everything. To have a room for movement. I think it is a paradise.” (III /S65 / Germany) The participating teachers also underlined the importance of appropriate time-related working conditions and the number of students in the class. They pointed out that the number of hours allocated to music education is insufficient for the realisation of creative and activity-based teaching and learning approaches. Within this framework, they also presented several options for the authentic examination and assessment of musical achievements in numerous classes. “An hour a week is not nearly enough time to create an atmosphere in which we could communicate our feelings to each other, so that they could then share this with their parents and transmit the experience.” (I / S54 / Slovenia-1) “We create a composition and play it. Then the students play in quartets or octets. This way I manage to assess the entire class in one lesson, and the students also listen to each other and assess each other.” (I / S154 / Slovenia-2) The advantages of and conditions for implementing authentic music education connect with the categories of the personal and professional competences of music teachers. Personal Competences of Music Teachers In their views of music teaching of early adolescents, the interviewees expressed their personal interest and motivation regarding implementing authentic music education. The descriptions of their experience of the learning process were often accompanied with humour. “I can feel more comfortable.” (III / S24 / Turkey-1). “I use the voice. For me is so funny.” (III / S25 / Italy-3) /…/ “Whenever I talk to other people [about teaching teenagers – authors’ note] they always go ‘Oh, ok…’ and I say ‘No, no, actually it’s a lot of fun!’” (II / S5 / USA-2) Their statements also reveal an empathy towards students and a feeling for their needs. “They really want to have fun, to be free.” (III / S35 / Poland) /…/ “Music time for children is sometimes paradise.” (III / S74 / Germany) /…/ “They adore clapping games. (III / S23 / Russia)” /…/ “A good way that c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 I do that is that I make a couple of mistakes early on so that they can see that I am fallible.” (II / S10 / Australia-2) Professional Competences of Music Teachers Among the professional competences that influence the implementation of music education in adolescence, the interviewees pointed out teaching and musical skills, particularly in the field of music arrangements and the organisation of musical events at school. “I say bring me your favourite song and I’ll arrange it.” (III / S29 / Italy) /…/ “I take music from movies and arrange it for my children.” (III / S35 / Poland) Besides positive examples of professional competences, they also mentioned the problem of inadequate professional competence, especially with regard to primary education teachers. “Curriculum is being designed to be delivered by teachers who know nothing about music. So it is being simplified and simplified until there is basically nothing, which is great for me because I can pretty much do what I like, but in terms of an overall picture of music education in Australia is shocking. You can actually tick the box saying that you’ve taught music without the kids ever playing any music, without being involved physically in any music at all. And I think that’s ridiculous.” (III / S67 / Australia) /…/ “It depends on the teacher’s affinity. [referring to activitybased music teaching at primary education level – authors’ note]” (I/ S121 / Slovenia-3) / …/ “If we [music teachers – authors’ note] could teach music earlier [at the lower level – authors’ note], then there would be continuity and we wouldn’t have any problems.” (I / S108 / Slovenia-2) Furthermore, the participating teachers highlighted the inappropriate status of the subject, especially in cases where music education at school is implemented deficiently or not at all. “You have schools that have general music and other schools with no music.” (II / S38 / USA-2) /…/ “And it’s very unfortunate that in some school systems there are no music teachers, so there is no music education for some students. So, the reality is they do nothing, they have no music education.” (III / S45 / Australia) They were also critical about their own professional competence for implementing differentiation and individualisation of lessons (e.g., teaching students with special needs or foreign students), examination, assessment and 109 110 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence working with parents. “When I studied, we didn’t even talk about special needs yet. Individualisation of lessons – you do something with a group and something else with individuals.” (I / S41 / Slovenia-3) /…/ “The psychology we did have was more or less general. I learn the most from our school counsellor.” (I / S42 / Slovenia-4) /…/ “I started learning when I started working – that’s my experience.” (I / S46 / Slovenia-1) The categories of personal and professional competences indicate a connection with the previously mentioned categories of curricular bases and the advantages of and conditions for authentic music education implementation. Factors of Music Teaching to Students in Early Adolescence Summarising the findings of the study, we can emphasise that the factors of teaching music to students in early adolescence, including the music curriculum, teachers’ competences and authentic music teaching, are intertwined in a complex way and are mutually dependent, as shown in the diagram below (Figure 1). Thus, the implementation of “weak”, “mixed” and “strong” curricular bases, which determine the nature of the pedagogical interaction and didactic elements of music education (Philpott & Wright, 2018), depends on the music teacher’s personal and professional competences, which influence the teaching through authentic approaches to music education and vice versa. Figure 1 Factors of Music Teaching at the Stage of Early Adolescence c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Discussion The research results demonstrate the complexity of the factors determining the planning and implementation of music education at the stage of early adolescence. In line with research question 1, which concerns general-school music teachers’ viewpoints on planning music education at the stage of early adolescence, the music curriculum factor can be determined on the basis of categories of curricular models. Music Curriculum In their viewpoints on the curricular bases of music education at the stage of early adolescence, the participating music teachers identified advantages and disadvantages of the prevailing “weak”, “strong” and “mixed” models. The research findings show prevailingly positive attitudes to open curricular bases that, in accordance with the “weak” model, enable the teacher to autonomously and creatively plan the didactic elements of music education. In line with Young (2013, p. 106), the participating teachers evaluated the relevance of curricular models from the following points of view: “Is this curriculum meaningful to my students? […] What are the meanings that this curriculum gives my students access to? […] Does this curriculum take my students beyond their experience and enable to envisage alternatives that have some basis in the real world?” Weak curricular bases of authentic music education enable the implementation of musical activities and content that adolescent students deem personally important and are aligned with their interests, needs and motivation. However, besides the indicated advantages of “weak” curricular bases, the research findings also reveal the disadvantages of such a model in terms of the professional competences of music teachers, who are often not up to the task of the quality implementation of music education, and are therefore more comfortable with “strong” models that provide more precise guidelines for planning the didactic elements of music education. The participating teachers were critical of the closed “strong” model, which “reduces the power of the pupil over what, when and how he receives knowledge, and increases the teacher’s power in the pedagogical relationship” (Bernstein, 2003, p. 81), also in terms of the examination and assessment of knowledge. As they pointed out, the curricular bases of “strong” models do not include authentic achievements of performing, listening to and creating music, neither in the segment of planning the modes of examination and assessment of knowledge, nor in the segment of standards of knowledge. 111 112 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence The identified advantages and disadvantages of “weak” and “strong” models suggest the relevance of “mixed” curricular bases that can contribute to the quality of music education (including) in early adolescence. When considering the balance of open and closed models, it is necessary to take into account the fact that “students’ everyday knowledge should not form the basis for the curriculum, but it may be useful as a pedagogic tool for bridging the gap between informal and formal knowledge” (Pountney & McPhail, 2019, p. 489). Based on the advantages and disadvantages of “weak” and “strong” models, we can conclude that music education should provide authentic learning experience to make relevant connections between informal and formal knowledge through the implementation of didactic elements of a “mixed” curricular model. In line with research question 2, which examined the music teachers’ viewpoints on the factors determining the implementation of music education in early adolescence, the authentic music teaching factor can be determined on the basis of the categories of the conditions for and advantages of teaching through musical communication. Authentic Music Teaching The participating music teachers’ viewpoints on teaching early adolescents highlighted the advantages of authentic music teaching and the conditions for its implementation. Among the advantages of authentic music teaching in early adolescence, which includes performing, listening and creating musical activities, as well as “composition and music appreciation (in the critical sense)” (Eurydice, 2009, p. 12), the research findings highlighted the importance of a stimulating learning environment that offers students support in expressing their feelings, views and ideas, and provides a sense of safety and acceptance. In line with other research findings that identified the advantages of enactive music teaching (Habe & Tandler, 2013), we conclude that authentic music teaching can be realised in a stimulating learning environment in which the teacher responds to the initiatives of the students, takes into account their suggestions, and enables them varied and creative ways of musical communication. In accordance with Bernstein’s pedagogic discourse of pedagogic relationship and the concept of frame, which, as explained by the author, “refers to the degree of control teacher and pupil possess over the selection, organization, pacing and timing of the knowledge transmitted and received in the pedagogical relationship” (Bernstein, 2003, p. 80), we can speak of a prevailingly open “weak” model. Within such a model, “the pupils have some control over their organization and the teaching strategies, and open interaction is encouraged in the creative process” (Philpott & c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Wright, 2018, p. 229). In this model, the teacher takes into account the students’ initiatives in the implementation of music education and acts as a facilitator and enabler of the learning process. In the pedagogical relationship of the “weak” model, students’ and teachers’ interest in authentic music education is also established. In line with the findings of other studies (Habe & Tandler, 2013; North et al., 2000), we conclude that students in the period of adolescence want authentic musical experience in which they can use musical communication to express their identity and connect the learning experience of formal education with musical experience acquired outside school. In this way, a bridge between the formal and informal learning environments is also formed. We have noted that students in early adolescence are disinclined to the traditional, i.e., non-authentic, approach to music teaching, which prevailingly includes verbal communication and often leads to a decline in their interest and a negative attitude towards music education (North et al., 2000). The importance of authentic music education is therefore not just in the promotion of musical development, but also in its contribution to the formation of personal and musical self-image (ibid.) and thinking strategies (Sangiorgio, 2016, 2020), and to balancing emotional and social processes (ibid). Among the conditions necessary for implementing authentic music education, space, time and the number of students were pointed out, parameters that should also be more appropriately defined in the curricular bases. The research findings show that spatial conditions, together with arranging the necessary equipment and aids, are often left to the initiative of the music teacher. Furthermore, if we take into account the opinion of Philpott and Wright (2018), who emphasise that authentic music teaching can only take place in a properly equipped music classroom, it is clear that more attention needs to be devoted to these issues in the curriculum. The participating teachers also noted the problem of time-related working conditions, underlining the fact that the hours allotted to music education are insufficient. As suggested by numerous studies (Bamford, 2006; Eurydice, 2009; McPherson & O’Neill, 2010), we can therefore conclude that artistic subjects have a weaker position in comparison with other subjects (e.g., mathematics and science) that are considered important for economic or academic success. Thus, the problems of space- and time-related working conditions require more appropriate solutions in the curricular bases. In line with research question 2, which examined music teachers’ viewpoints on the factors determining the implementation of music education in early adolescence, the music teachers’ competences factor can be determined on the basis of categories of personal and professional competences. 113 114 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence Music Teachers’ Competences In their views on the music education of students in early adolescence, the participating teachers also talked about personal and professional competences. With regard to the participating teachers’ personal competences, the findings highlighted their motivation to teach music to students in early adolescence through authentic musical activities, in which the students’ expressed personal interest and satisfaction. In authentic music education, teachers establish an empathetic relationship towards the students, encouraging interaction with and between them, and thus facilitating an exchange of different views and ideas, all of which meet the students’ personal needs and interests, and enhance their motivation. In the process of authentic music teaching, teachers experience confidence in their own self-efficacy and autonomy, which enables them to adapt to various working conditions (including unfavourable conditions). They experience the music teaching process as having an intrinsic value that helps to shape their personal identity as well as their identity as music teachers. For teachers, the directions of “strong” curricular bases, especially standards of knowledge and time- and space-related working conditions, represent obstacles to the autonomous realisation of authentic music education. Despite the well-known deficiencies of “strong” curricular bases, the participants believe that such guidelines can still be of help, especially to teachers with lower levels of professional competence. In their views on their own professional competences, the teachers expressed the areas of teaching skills and music skills, including the ability to arrange compositions and prepare school musical events. They also critically highlighted inadequate professional competence in the field of planning the differentiation and individualisation of lessons and in teaching students with special needs. Moreover, they addressed the problem of the insufficient professional competence of primary education teachers. In line with other research findings (e.g. Habe, 2017; Jank & Meyer, 2006; Sangiorgio, 2016, 2020; Sicherl Kafol, 2015; Zalar, 2014), this indicates that the implementation of authentic music education requires a professionally competent teacher. Conclusion The research findings revealed the complexity of the factors that determine the planning and implementation of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence. In terms of music education planning, the advantages and disadvantages of “weak” and “strong” curricular bases were identified. Among the c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 identified advantages, we would like to point out that “weak” models enable open communication between all of the participants in the learning process and allow teachers to autonomously and creatively plan the didactic elements of music education, while “strong” models provide the necessary professional basis, especially for teachers with a lower level of self-esteem and professional competence. The advantages of both models indicate the need for a flexible combination of both approaches in a so-called “mixed” model. The research results also highlighted the fact that, in an international context, music curricula do not provide a suitable curricular basis for the planning and implementation of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence, thus posing the challenge of seeking alternative curricular solutions. Furthermore, the implementation factors of music education in early adolescence revealed the advantages of authentic music education that enables active engagement in music through the prevalence of musical communication and connects the learning experience of formal education with musical experiences acquired outside school. In an active music teaching and learning process, the participating teachers and students fulfil their personal needs, interest and motivation, which suggests a connection with the factor of the teacher’s personal and professional competences that form the music teacher’s identity. The dynamic of the relationships between the three factors – music curriculum, authentic music teaching, and the teacher’s personal and professional competences – influences the complexity of music education planning and implementation (also) in early adolescence and prevents clear-cut definitions. Thus, the activities of authentic music education that can be implemented in a more or less open curricular approach, following either a “weak”, “mixed” or “strong” model, depend on the level of the teacher’s personal and professional competences, which in turn influence the quality of music teaching and the implementation of the curricular bases. This highlights the need for the flexible harmonisation of the music teacher’s personal and professional competences with curriculum planning in order to implement authentic music education (also) at the stage of early adolescence. Further research should therefore investigate the following questions: Which segments of “strong”, “mixed” and “weak” curricular models can represent the basis for further planning of authentic music education (also) in adolescence? How can we establish connections between teenage students’ formal and informal musical environments? How can we improve the possibilities of the formal and continuous training of music teachers? The research findings provide a starting point for further research in a broader context, and for developing guidelines for curricular updates and the modernisation of music education in primary schools. 115 116 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence References Arts and cultural education [Kulturno-umetnostna vzgoja]. (2011). 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Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. 117 118 music teachers’ perception of music teaching at the stage of early adolescence Biographical note Petra Brdnik Juhart is a teaching assistant in Music Didactics at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Her research interests include the holistic approach to music education at all stages, especially the development of experience and understanding of music in the early years of education. She participates in congresses and seminars in Slovenia and abroad and publishes professional and artistic articles. Barbara Sicherl-Kafol, PhD, is Professor of Music Didactic at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana. Her main research areas concern the field of music education within holistic educational planning, the assessment of musical achievements, strategies and skills of lifelong learning and modern learning methods especially for primary schools. She is the author and co-author of numerous scientific and professional articles and monographs. varia c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 doi: 10.26529/cepsj.692 The Understanding of Inclusive Education in Kosovo: Legal and Empirical Argumentation Naser Zabeli1, Blerta Perolli Shehu*2 and Jeffrey A. Anderson3 • The article looks at conceptualisations of inclusive education in the international and Kosovo context, including the factual argumentation and legal representation of the term. The study explores the attitudes of teachers and their understanding of inclusive education, including arguments for and against it, implementation challenges, and perspectives. Interviews were used as a tool to generate information from key informants. The study is qualitative and based on an analysis of the experiences of six in-service teachers. The findings suggest that teachers have a wide knowledge of inclusive education and believe it has only positive effects for children with special needs. They believe that children can achieve more in terms of socialisation and modelling of good behaviours from their peers, but that success in academic achievements is lower because of the limited knowledge of teachers about individualised planning and differentiated teaching, and a lack of institutional support and proper evaluation of each teacher’s work. Keywords: children with special needs, inclusive education, international contexts, Kosovo context, teacher perspectives 1 2 3 Faculty of Education, University of Pristina. *Corresponding Author. Faculty of Education, University of Prishtina, Kosovo; blerta.perolli-shehu@uni-pr.edu. Indiana University School of Education, USA. 119 120 the understanding of inclusive education in kosovo Razumevanje inkluzivnega izobraževanja na Kosovu: pravna in empirična utemeljitev Naser Zabeli, Blerta Perolli Shehu in Jeffrey A. Anderson • Članek obravnava konceptualizacije inkluzivnega izobraževanja v mednarodnem okolju in na Kosovem ter dejansko in pravno utemeljuje koncept. Raziskava preučuje odnos učiteljev do inkluzivnega izobraževanja in njihovo razumevanje tega področja ter navaja argumente za inkluzivno izobraževanje in proti njemu, izzive pri njegovem izvajanju in obete za prihodnost. Podatke smo pridobili z intervjuji ključnih oseb. Kvalitativna raziskava je temeljila na analizi izkušenj šestih učiteljev. Ugotovitve so pokazale, da učitelji veliko vedo o inkluzivnem izobraževanju, za katero verjamejo, da v celoti pozitivno učinkuje na otroke s posebnimi potrebami. Po njihovem mnenju so lahko otroci tako uspešnejši od njihovih vrstnikov na področju socializacije in usvojitve primernega vedenja, vendar pa je njihov učni uspeh slabši zaradi omejenega znanja učiteljev o individualiziranem načrtovanju in diferenciranem poučevanju ter zaradi pomanjkanja institucionalne podpore in ustrezne evalvacije dela posameznega učitelja. Ključne besede: otroci s posebnimi potrebami, inkluzivno izobraževanje, mednarodni konteksti, kosovski kontekst, perspektive učiteljev c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Introduction Inclusion is considered to be “a complex and contested concept, and its manifestations in practice are many and varied” (Lindsay, 2003, p. 3). It is multi-dimensional and difficult to define, as it depends on the context of different countries and is, by its very nature, fluid (Dikeledi, 2013). Inclusion is a multi-dimensional concept that incorporates the assessment of differences and diversities, as well as considerations of human rights, social justice and equal opportunities (Shmid & Vrhovnik, 2015). The concept for inclusive education originates from the field of special education, which is historically based on a medical model of categorising children and segregating education based on disability, and on the separation of children into special classes (Florian, 2014). The present paper outlines the definition and legal framework of inclusive education, reports on some empirical studies on inclusive education, both internationally and in the Kosovo context, and presents the results of a qualitative study looking at perspectives of Kosovo in-service teachers in understanding inclusive education and its effects. Theoretical Background Inclusive education defined in the international context There are a variety of different definitions and conceptualisations of inclusive education in the international context, reflecting the differences in different parts of the world (Florian, 2014). “Inclusive education can be defined as a process, philosophy, and educational practice” (Florian, 2005, p. 96). Similarly, Vislie (2003) defined inclusive education as “a process (rather than state), by which a school attempts to respond to all pupils as individuals” (p. 21). UNESCO (2009) defined inclusive education more as a philosophy built on the issue of basic human rights and the belief that all people are equal and should be respected and valued. Braunsteiner and Lapidus (2015) saw inclusive education as “a fundamental right of all children and adults to fully participate, and contribute in all aspects of life and culture, without restriction or threat of marginalization” (p. 32). The definitions provided above make it clear that inclusive education is a complex concept defined somewhat differently by different stakeholders. Some refer to education for all, while others refer to respecting diversities or the right to education. Some refer to treating disability, while others acknowledge the challenges of discrimination and categories of marginalisation. Nonetheless, most of the definitions are focused on children with disabilities and 121 122 the understanding of inclusive education in kosovo have a common denominator of human rights and the right to an education (Braunsteiner, 2014; Volpe, 2016). Most of the definitions have limitations, as they are based on one or two predefined elements, mainly “child difficulties” and “child rights”, or “values” and “communities” (Winter & O’Raw, 2010). Ultimately, however, when considering the definition of inclusive education, it is important not to confuse it with “special education” (Stubbs, 2008), particularly as it is implemented in practice. The definition used in the present article includes elements found in the definition of inclusive education by Booth and Ainscow (2002): inclusive education involves processes of increasing the participation of students in, and reducing their exclusion from, cultures, curricula and communities of local schools (as reported in the Index for Inclusion). Booth and Ainscow (2002) pointed out that inclusive education goes beyond a reference to children with disabilities or special educational needs, encompassing not only respecting children, but also respecting staff; reducing exclusion from culture, curricula and the local community; restructuring school cultures, policies and practices; reducing barriers to learning for all students; active and full participation of everyone, according to their given potential; the establishment of relationships between schools and communities; and overall movement towards an inclusive society through inclusive education. Inclusive education defined in the Kosovo context Looking at the definitions of inclusive education among Kosovar scholars, it is evident that inclusive education has stemmed from special education. As in many other countries, this may explain why Kosovo appears to follow three approaches: special education, education for special needs, and inclusive education (Holst, 2008). Inclusive education underlines support for all children regardless of race, gender, ethnicity, disability or any other difference. While there are very few articles about inclusive education in Kosovo, several definitions have been published. Zabeli (2010) defined inclusive education as education for all, an issue of accepting differences, cooperating and socialising among all children. Zabeli (2010) further stated that inclusive education means more than passive participation: it entails increasing student participation in the curriculum, the school and the community; avoiding exclusion; assessing students without bias; mitigating barriers to the learning process; ensuring the full participation of all students; and ensuring that students are educated in their home school and community (pp. 9–10). Other definitions found in the Kosovo literature indicate that inclusive education is a philosophy such that “all students with disabilities have the right c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 to participate in the education, social, recreational and professional activities of their community together with their peers” (OECD, 2006, p. 175). According to Seba and Ainscow (1996), inclusive education is understood to be the “process by which schools attempt to respond to all pupils as individuals by restructuring curricular organization and provision, and allocating resources to enhance equality of opportunity and access” (p. 9). Definitions of inclusive education in Kosovo are also based on the definition of UNESCO (2009), which states that inclusive education can be viewed as one aspect of inclusion in society. It is “a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all children, youth, and adults through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing and eliminating exclusion” (UNESCO, 2009, pp. 8–9). In order to obtain a more comprehensive view of the conceptualisation of inclusive education, both internationally and in the context of Kosovo, one must review the legal definitions and argumentations, as well. The next section focuses on the view of inclusive education from factual arguments and in legal frameworks. Legal Framework International context Inclusive education was initially focused mainly on people with disabilities and learning difficulties (Winter & O’Raw, 2010). In a study related to supporting or countering inclusive educational ideals for children with disabilities, Cole (1999) identified several arguments. First, the consequentialist argument is based on the view that demonstrated outcomes determine the worth of activity. This promotes an empirical approach focusing on efforts to measure the positive and negative outcomes of inclusion policies. Second, the justice argument is linked to equality and the obligation to provide services for people with disabilities. Third, the rights argument recognises the right of people with disabilities for special services. Finally, the needs argument is based on how the needs of people with disabilities should drive the specialisation goals of educational programmes (Cole, 1999). Mitchell (2014) described three factors of basic arguments for the idea of inclusive education: (1) students with special educational needs benefit more in the academic and social perspective, (2) students with special educational needs have the same right to education as all other students, and (3) inclusive education is more cost effective, i.e., it is easier to accommodate children in general education settings than to operate special schools and all that this entails, such as transporting children to school. Similarly, LimbachReich (2015) highlighted three reasons to support inclusive education. “First, 123 124 the understanding of inclusive education in kosovo there is an educational justification, which holds that the requirement for inclusive schools to educate all children together means that schools have to develop ways of teaching that respond to individual differences that benefit all children. Second, was social justification, which holds that inclusive schools are able to change attitudes toward diversity by educating all children together, and form a basis for a just and non-discriminatory society. Third, there is an economic justification, stating that it is less costly to establish and maintain schools that educate all children than to set up a complex system of different types of schools specialising in different groups of children” (UNESCO, 2009, p. 9). Garcia and Fernandez (2016) hold that “all the European countries promote inclusive education via their legislation” (p. 386), while a number of international United Nations declarations and legal frameworks also support inclusive education. Often based on these international documents, different countries have developed similar legislation and education policies. Therefore, inclusive education is not just an issue of aspirations, but is an obligation of countries to build education systems that include all children regardless of their differences. Indeed, countries today are implementing inclusion policies, moving away from approaches based more on medical-type models, and orienting themselves towards social model frameworks. Kosovo context Inclusive education policies in Kosovo were developed on the basis of special education, and the legal documents drafted by the Kosovo Ministry of Education (MEST) are based on international efforts. Specifically, based on a review of the Kosovo legislation, the principle of inclusive education is incorporated in all of the relevant laws, strategies and curricula governing the functioning of institutions and different educational centres. The MEST policy is aimed at promoting inclusive education, thus ensuring equal education conditions for all. This is also evidenced by the evolution of legislation and other documents, which have transformed previous segregation policies governing special education towards inclusive education (Zabeli, 2014). One of the central documents, the Kosovo Curriculum Framework, promotes inclusive education as the first of its five fundamental principles. Special schools and classes in Kosovo were operational for decades until 2000, when they were transformed into resource centres and classes with the mission of promoting inclusive education. MEST developed corresponding services in municipalities in an effort to support inclusive education by supporting teachers, itinerant (visiting) teachers, assistants and psycho-pedagogical staff, as well as by providing supportive pedagogical policies and ongoing capacity building activities. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Empirical Studies on Inclusive Education International context Internationally, debates continue about the effectiveness of inclusive education for children with disabilities who are participating in general education classes. Empirical studies on the achievements of children with special needs who are included in general education point out numerous factors that may influence achievement. Broadly, the literature suggests positive outcomes, but findings are not unequivocal. A literature review by Lindsay (2003) indicated that there are no indications that growing up in segregated and non-segregated settings could lead to better educational outcomes. This finding is not surprising considering the challenges of implementing inclusive education. Lindsay (2007) noted that the literature before the 2000s did not provide clear patterns. In a review of the literature about the effects of inclusion, Ruijs and Peetsma (2009) focused on the positive, negative and mixed effects on academic achievements and socio-emotional status. In terms of the academic achievements of children with special educational needs, the literature review by Ruijs and Peetsma (2009) found: • Positive findings (Cole et al., 2004; Jepma, 2003; Karsten et al., 2001; Markussen, 2004; Marston, 1996; Myklebust, 2007; Salend & Duhaney, 1999). • Negative findings (Rogers & Thiery, 2003). • Mixed and indecisive effects (Huber et al., 2004). In terms of the socio-emotional development of children with special educational needs, the literature indicated: • Positive findings (Wiener & Tadif, 2004) • Negative findings (Bakker & Bosman, 2003) • Mixed and indecisive findings (Jepma, 2003; Mand, 2007; Peetsma, 2001). These studies were quantitative and longitudinal, although many of them did not use control groups. According to Ruijs and Peetsma (2009), “the effect of inclusive education on the academic achievement of children with special educational needs seem to be positive. Very few studies reported negative effects of inclusive education on the achievement of children with mild to moderate special educational needs. The studies about socio-emotional effects of inclusive education suggested that children with special educational needs tend to be in less favourable social positions as compared to children without disabilities” (p. 77). 125 126 the understanding of inclusive education in kosovo In addition, studies about the effects of inclusive education on the academic achievement of children without special educational needs found mainly positive results. “Studies on children with more severe special educational needs indicated that children without special educational needs in inclusive classes had fewer prejudices about children with special educational needs” (Ruijs & Peetsma, 2009, p. 78). These students were found to be more willing to play with students with significant needs and hold a more positive attitude towards this group of young people. Begeny and Martens (2007) concluded that “study participants tended to view inclusive education practices favourably” (p. 89); on the other hand, findings from “experimental studies suggested that educating students either fully or partly outside the general classroom had a positive impact on these students across the majority of dependent measures evaluated” (p. 369). Some findings from German-speaking countries concluded that, through inclusive education, children with learning difficulties showed better academic performance. Nonetheless, existing research has not confirmed that inclusive education “has a dominant and mainly positive effect for all children with disabilities, with positive effects on both academic outcomes and socio-emotional dimensions, or without negative effects on classmates without disabilities” (LimbachReich, 2015, p. 371); and further, that in order to be successful, inclusive education requires changes in school systems and society. One important conclusion is that policy should not include students first and then hope that the system will change later (Limbach-Reich, 2015). It is possible that the similarities and differences between studies on the effects of inclusive education are more contextual than methodological in nature, and are dependent on education policies, the education system, inclusive education practices, teacher preparation, partnership with the community, leadership, and functional cooperation between all of these aspects and stakeholders (European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, 2013). Kosovo context In Kosovo, there is no sound research on inclusive education and the few studies that exist were not conducted rigorously. This is a result of several factors, including a lack of funding at all levels, poor working conditions, insufficient access to libraries and international journals, lack of research skills, and lack of good preparation of professionals to conduct individual and group design studies (Leskinen, 2008). On the other hand, many capacity building activities have been undertaken to prepare in-service teachers, and these efforts have contributed to a better understanding of inclusive education and improved c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 skill building aimed at working with children with special educational needs. According to Forlin (2013), “to ensure that inclusive educational approaches actually address the needs of learners and that implementation ideas through policy development are manageable and practicable, a proactive systemic approach is needed that is supplemented by local input and involvement” (p. 27). “Policy needs to be firmly embedded in and informed by local research that addresses the specific needs of a region by considering city and rural situations, fiscal constraints, support structures, and the capabilities of those who are to implement it. Indeed, to fully enact an effective inclusive education approach requires appropriate preparation and participation of all stakeholders. This particularly applies to the training of staff at all levels, from system to classroom” (Forlin, 2013, p. 28) The purpose of the present study was to explore the perspectives of teachers, specifically their understanding of the definition of inclusion, arguments for and against it, implementation challenges, and views about inclusive education. The research was guided by the following research questions: 1. How is inclusive education conceptualised by in-service teachers? How do teachers understand “inclusive education” in the process of transition from special education as a segregated practice? 2. What are the legal/empirical arguments for inclusive education? 3. How do teachers assess the effects of inclusive education? 4. What are the challenges in implementing inclusive education? Method This section describes the methods used to examine the issue, including a description of the sample, the design of the study, and the approaches to data collection and analysis. Research methodology literature suggests using qualitative approaches in order to better grasp the understanding, experiences and contextual factors of a given situation. Through qualitative approaches, one is able to analyse the perspectives and understanding of teachers, bearing in mind the contextual factors and the uniqueness of the situations being studies (Gay et al., 2006). Moreover, while statistical data may be more reliable, analysing understandings or attitudes can be challenging (Silverman, 2001). As such, the present study aimed to gain a better picture of the situation and deepen the understanding of subjective experiences, rather than testing hypotheses. The findings were extracted from data collected through document analysis and by exploring teacher understanding. In-depth interviews were 127 128 the understanding of inclusive education in kosovo used to obtain the data, with the aim of gaining a better quality of description and more detailed opinions about the subject matter. The in-depth interviews were analysed using content analysis (Kolbe & Burnett, 1991). Studies conducted in the past using similar methods were examined in order to support the qualitative design of the present study. Thus, the methodology and instruments in this study can be considered ‘typical’ when compared other such studies. Participants Due to time restrictions regarding interviewing and data analysis, the use of in-depth interviewing was limited to six teachers. Using a convenient approach to sampling, the study targeted teachers with diverse work experience and professional preparation, and from diverse locations. The sample consisted of teachers from all levels of the “pre-university education system” who were working in general education schools and in resource centres. All of the teachers chosen for the study had considerable experience working with children with special needs. They had a good knowledge of the area of special education and inclusive education, and had attended formal education and numerous trainings in the field. The sample consisted of two itinerant teachers working in regular schools, three teachers from resource centres, and one ‘supporting teacher’ from a regular school. Data Collection Instrument In-depth interviews were used to generate information from the key informants. The following questions made up the core of the interview: 1. How do you define/understand inclusive education? 2. Which laws and pedagogical documents support you in implementing inclusive education? To what extent are these laws harmonised to allow for the implementation of inclusive education? 3. What are the effects of inclusive education for children with special educational needs? 4. What are the positive/negative effects of inclusive education in general? 5. What are the challenges in implementing inclusive education? What is your perspective in terms of the Kosovo context? The interviews were all recorded and varied in length from 1 hour to 1 hour and 45 minutes. They were conducted in an informal, conversational style and all of the questions were open-ended. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Research design Qualitative research methodology suggests that the experience of researchers is important, especially with regard to the context, particularly contextual factors. Every study is therefore unique in this sense. According to qualitative approaches, the researcher generates new hypotheses and theories based on collected data (Lichtman, 2006). In order to develop theories rather than generalise conclusions, the data were therefore gathered through in-depth interviews with teachers. This method provides an opportunity for free expression and deeper questioning of the topic (Cohen & Manion, 1990), and reflects an explanatory and exploratory research study (Matthews & Ross, 2010). Moreover, content analysis allowed the researchers to compare basic concepts identified in the literature with the perspectives of teachers interviewed in this study, in order to determine similarities and differences and then code relevant data for future use, according to the grounded theory approach (Matthews & Ross, 2010). Data analysis The study was designed so that the themes were not imposed by the research, but rather generated by the interviewees. The interviews were recorded and transcribed, and then analysed, coded and categorised based on elements found in the responses and compared to the literature. This information was interpreted and conclusions were derived via rigorous detailed analyses. Results Understanding inclusive education from the teacher’s perspectives (rights based on legislation) According to the study participants, inclusive education involves “equal participation” of everyone, and the implementation of inclusive education requires that the curricula is adapted for all students. Inclusive education implies the inclusion of students with special needs in a supportive environment that provides equal opportunities. Inclusive education is understood as a process that implies the inclusion of all children in education guaranteed by the right to education regulated and supported by necessary legislation and policies. “Inclusive education is a broad term that implies the inclusion of all children in the learning process – not only children with disabilities, but all children – by adapting the learning outcomes to psycho-physical skills and not just physical or social involvement.” (Itinerant Teacher) 129 130 the understanding of inclusive education in kosovo “Inclusive education is education for all in a school that guarantees the right to all children regardless of age, gender, race and ethnicity. Education in the nearest school, regardless of physical injuries, socioeconomic aspects, together with other children.” (Teacher, grade 1–5) On the other hand, the findings indicated that, among the teachers who did not have any – or had very little – formal (and informal) training about inclusive education, many respondents did not understand the essence of inclusive education. Some of this group viewed inclusive education very superficially, more like “physical integration” or passive inclusion in classes based solely on the right to education, rather than on the student’s ability to attain academic achievement or social development. The inclusion of students in regular classes was viewed with more scepticism by this group of teachers. The respondents reported being reluctant to include and work with children with various difficulties. Working with students with special needs was considered more a “humane action” than part of professional responsibility. Resource centre teachers appear to possess good knowledge and experience compared to teachers in regular schools, who seemed to lack knowledge. The latter group considered students with special needs only in terms of physical presence and to some extent in terms of social integration, but not as children who can be supported to realise their academic potential. “They only consider them as part of the classroom where they can play with others without paying attention to the fact that they need to and can also develop their intellectual potentials. They understand it more as physical and social involvement, but not academic.” (Itinerant Teacher) “Colleagues at the resource centre are hesitant, very hesitant about regular schools. They (regular schools) only think about physical integration, but active involvement is hard.” (Chemistry Teacher Grades 6–12) While teachers seem to have a clear understanding of the legal basis and administrative instructions that regulate the issue of the inclusion of children with disabilities in education, the respondents consider it a very challenging task, exacerbated by the fact that teachers may not have institutional support, such as assistants or access to expertise: “Teachers still do not understand that working with children with special needs is a constituent part of their work, but they do it more out of c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 humane reasons. It is very challenging; the large number of pupils in the class doesn’t allow for more quality work. They need professional support within the school.” (Itinerant Teacher) Indeed, all of the participants pointed out that inclusive education is perceived by teachers more as a “humane action” rather than a professional responsibility. When asked why, they referenced Kosovo culture, where support for people in need (because of a lack of institutionalised support) is considered a moral obligation. This seems to be reflected in working with children with special needs, as well. Supporting others is a moral value embedded in Kosovo culture, and moral norms appear to serve as a substitution for the lack of institutional laws and the lack of professional obligation. In this context, it often happens that teachers say, “I work with children with special needs because I feel it is our moral obligation”. Teachers consider it very difficult to work with children who have intellectual or cognitive disabilities, hearing impairments, communication difficulties, or emotional and behavioural disorders, and say that these learners have a place in special classes or schools, but not in regular classrooms or schools: “Teachers of other schools, regular schools, are very afraid of having a child with special needs in the classroom, saying they don’t know what to do with them, and their place is in special schools, special classes. Teachers in resource centres see it as more reasonable for regular school education.” (Teacher Grades 1–5) The respondents noted that laws and pedagogical documentation are grounded in and aligned with international conventions on child rights and other international documents, but there are major shortcomings in their effective implementation. Laws and other documents are adequate and trainings have provided teachers knowledge about them. Likewise, the interviewees said that school principals are not very knowledgeable, or at least are only formally knowledgeable. Teachers know that the law provides for inclusive education, but also consider it a “loss of time” to work with students who have significant learning difficulties. This perception was more indicative of subject teachers from grade six onwards, and was viewed as deriving from the lack of monitoring of teachers, who may be unaware of their performance and motivation for the work undertaken. “The law on pre-university education provides support for inclusion and is in accordance with world documents. Laws and pedagogical 131 132 the understanding of inclusive education in kosovo documents are good, but the problem lies in implementation.” (Itinerant Teacher) “Teachers do not have enough support from the state. There is a lack motivation of teachers.” (Itinerant Teacher) The respondents indicated that teachers have knowledge about the legal rights of pupils to education and that this makes sense, but they view implementation as difficult. Teachers believe that they do not have adequate institutional support or the support of school leaders to implement inclusive education. Effects of inclusion on children with special needs All of the teachers reported that inclusion has no negative effects. They reported positive impacts in the development of social skills, cooperation between students, friendly relationships, and generally good attitudes. On the other hand, the responses indicated that there is also a perception that children have higher academic achievement in special classes/resource centres. The teachers believe that academic aptitudes are lower in inclusive classes, while social skills improve more in regular classes. This is because students socialise more, learn positive behaviours and generally find it easier to model positive behaviours. Positive values ​​of inclusive education of students in regular classes could be found in all of the teachers’ interviews, particularly in regard to social development. “Positive impacts on emotional and social aspects are noted, good cooperation with regular class students, friendly relationships, modelling good behaviour and feeling equal. Even in academic achievements they develop well. I do not see anything negative. Academic achievements are perhaps better in resource centres, as the learning content is taught faster because the teachers are more specifically trained.” (Chemistry Teacher Class 6–12) “The positive aspect is their socialisation; achievements in learning are more evident in resource centres, needs are better identified and are properly evaluated and better planned.” (Itinerant Teacher) “The positive aspect is that the student is educated in the nearest school together with other children; this positively influences their socioemotional development. If the student with special needs in the regular c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 classroom has a dedicated teacher, a professional assistant, then the achievements are better in every respect. Children with minor impairments learn more in regular classes, while children with severe impairments learn more in resource centres.” (Teacher Grades 1–5) Challenges and prospects of implementing inclusive education The implementation of inclusive education as a philosophy, and even more as a strategy, is seen as a major challenge for the future. The immediate concerns are the large number of children per classroom, the lack of adequate training, the lack of classroom assistants, the lack of access to expertise, the poor physical infrastructure, and the limitations of teacher monitoring and performance assessment. Individually and together, these elements pose a challenge to the future of inclusive education. Teachers consider that inclusive education will bring about positive change; however, this will take time. “Inclusive education will require a lot of time; we need to change the culture at the school level, the way of managing schools. It is still thought that a student with special needs ‘breaks’ the class structure; it is still thought that the average grade of the class is the most important thing, and that a good teacher is one who has a high class average.” (Itinerant teacher) “There is no dilemma regarding the need for inclusive education; however, there is a need for wider support for teachers and preparation of systems to support students better.” (Itinerant teacher) In general, teachers are in favour of inclusive education and are realistically optimistic for the future of inclusive education; however, a significant amount of change is needed to achieve this goal. Discussion The results of the present study can inform current and ongoing efforts in Kosovo to move towards more effective inclusive practices in its primary and secondary schools. The scholarly literature in this area provides a variety of definitions and interpretations. Interestingly, while numerous definitions of inclusion exist among educators and policymakers (both within and between nations), the term also incorporates a variety of contradictory ideologies and practices (Alur & Timmons, 2009). The definitions provided by the teachers in 133 134 the understanding of inclusive education in kosovo this study are similar to those of various scholars who publish in this area. We found that they were largely based on existing legal arguments, the right to education, and the right to access to the nearest school, regardless of disabilities or differences (Braunsteiner & Lapidus, 2014; Mitchell, 2005, 2014; Thomas, 1997; Volpe, 2016). We also found that the teachers involved in the study understood the essence of inclusive education and are aligned with current thinking about the moral basis of inclusion. Positive effects of inclusive education were clearly indicated by the teachers. This was similar to our analyses of literature and empirical studies, which tend to suggest that inclusive education has more advantages when compared to segregation, both in terms of academic as well as social benefits. One interesting finding in this study is the fact that achievement is seen to be greater in terms of skills development rather than academic achievement. While different studies have shown that academic achievements are greater than social outcomes, the present research suggests the opposite. However, we note that this finding is consistent with Ruijs and Peetsma (2009), who found that reaching conclusions on the effects of inclusive education is impossible. In the Kosovo context, teachers have traditionally used one lesson plan for all students in a given class, and the teaching is still largely oriented towards average students, ignoring individual students’ needs. There is no differentiated instruction. As such, in classrooms where planning ignores the strengths and needs of individuals, students with special needs are less likely to benefit academically, although these students may still be benefiting socially. In the pedagogical tradition and in Kosovar culture, people with special needs are more often perceived as “cases in need”, as people who need to be assisted in order to live and be accepted in society. Similarly, teachers consider work with children with special needs as philanthropic work (Lily Family School of Philanthropy, 2014) instead of as part of their professional responsibility. In this context, teachers who lack knowledge and experience in working with children with special needs may consider this work more like a volunteer job rather than a professional responsibility that is an integral part of their job. Other studies have also found that some teachers consider working with children with special needs as a humane and moral act (Freire, 2014; Mohan & Subashini, 2016). The challenges to the implementation of inclusive education in Kosovo are more of a practical nature, related to physical and logistical infrastructure. The future of inclusive education is seen as feasible, but it also requires time and significant support to increase the level of inclusive culture in general. “Schools and school districts need to provide support at the administrative level and c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 classroom level, and provide time for training, and an ongoing commitment from the government” (Hicks-Monroe, 2011, p. 68). Inclusive education requires cohesion among administrators, parents and students, and sensitisation to the needs of students with disabilities (Hunter-Johnson et al., 2014). Given current socio-political contexts and the overall importance of inclusive education, we suggest that sustained work over the next 15 to 20 years will be necessary (Cigman, 2007; Norwich, 2007). Conclusion In conclusion, the present study uncovered rather clear answers to its driving research questions. What emerged is that trained special educators understand inclusion in ways that are similar to those found in the published literature. On the other hand, this shared understanding is not seen in regular class teachers and those working in resource centres. Furthermore, this was regardless of the practitioner’s prior education, suggesting that practical work with children with special needs in inclusive settings may influence how teachers understand inclusive education. This work has implications for both teacher education programmes and capacity building efforts. Specifically, we recommend that practical training is needed in addition to more theoretical approaches to understanding inclusion. However, we note that this study focused on the experiences of only six teachers. As such, we recommend more rigorous studies be conducted to explore the relationship between practical/direct work with children in inclusive settings and how practitioners understand inclusion. Finally, we were very encouraged that all of the teachers in this study perceived inclusion to have only positive effects on students with special needs. Respondents perceived that children can achieve more in terms of socialisation, are more socially accepted, and learn appropriate behaviours from their peers through modelling; however, academic achievement was not viewed with similar optimism. Although there are studies suggesting both social and academic gains for students with special needs who are served in an inclusive setting, we recommend that future research, both quantitative and qualitative, be conducted in the broader Kosovo context. Such studies should explore how different instructional methodologies, techniques and innovations are associated with improved academic achievement in inclusive classrooms in Kosovo. The participants in the present study all agree that effective cooperation between relevant actors, along with sustainable institutional support for teachers, parents and children, could make inclusive education successful in Kosovo. This indicates the need to develop community programmes that strengthen 135 136 the understanding of inclusive education in kosovo collaboration between schools, families and children, as well as initiatives that bring together policymakers and civil institutions, such as health, child welfare and mental health institutions, to build and increase institutional support for the implementation of inclusive education throughout Kosovo. In addition to the small sample size, a primary limitation of this study is the relatively short period that inclusive education has been considered in Kosovo. It is a new state, only twelve years old, and its educational infrastructure is also relatively new. The level of awareness of inclusion is generally low, and successful experience of actually implementing inclusion is even lower. Another limitation is that this particular study was based on the experiences of teachers who have adequate preservice and in-service training in the field of education, while the itinerant teachers included in the study also have a good knowledge of the understanding of other teachers regarding inclusive education. The researchers plan to continue the efforts initiated with this study by employing a more quantitative approach including a larger number of participants. This next study will examine variables related to teacher experience, quality of work, professional training, etc. A third study is also being planned that will examine the experiences of children and parents with inclusive education in Kosovo. We know that the results of studies like these are essential to identify the strengths and gaps in the Kosovar education system and to encourage the implementation of effective inclusive education. 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(2003). From integration to inclusion: focusing global trends and changes in the western European societies. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 18(1), 17–35. Volpe, V. D. (2016). What about inclusive education and ICT in Italy: A scoping study. European Scientific Journal, 12(25), 26–36. Winter, E., & O’Raw, P. (2010). Literature review of principles and practices relating to inclusive education for children with special educational needs. National Council for Special Education: ICEP. https://ncse.ie/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/NCSE_Inclusion.pdf Zabeli, N. (2010). Edukimi inkluziv [Inclusive Education]. WUS – Austria & Universiteti i Prishtinës. Zabeli, N., & Behluli, L. (2014). Index for inclusion – Facts and opinions. Save the Children. Biographical note Naser Zabeli, PhD, is an associate professor in the field of Inclusive Education and Effective Learning and Teaching in the Department of Pedagogy at the Faculty of Education, University of Pristina in Kosovo. His research interests are mainly in the inclusive education and contemporary teaching. Blerta Perolli-Shehu, PhD, is teaching assistant at the Faculty of Education, University of Prishtina covering subjects of child development, inclusive education and research methodologies. Her research interests are mainly on child development (typical and atypical), early childhood development, social competence development in marginalized children, and inclusive education. Jeffrey A. Anderson, PhD is professor in the Indiana University School of Education. He teaches topics in Special Education research and Curriculum and Instruction. His research interests are mainly Special/Inclusive Education and research topics on students with emotional and behavioral disabilities and students with learning disabilities. 139 140 c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 doi: 10.26529/cepsj.746 Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Based on Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Primary School Pupils Nataša Vlah*1, Tena Velki2 and Emina Kovačić3 • Both the quality and quantity of teachers’ experiences of self-competence in dealing with pupils with symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder have been the subject of a great deal of research. The permanent monitoring of the levels at which teachers accomplish such competencies, which have a positive effect on the improvement of teaching, is one of the tasks of educational science. The present paper determines how teachers self-assess their efficacy in teaching pupils with behavioural difficulties based on the pupils’ symptoms of attention disorder and hyperactivity. Primary school teachers from 12 counties of the Republic of Croatia participated in the research. The teachers provided data for a total of 1,383 pupils in whom they subjectively detected behavioural difficulties. The research reveals that the characteristics of the pupil best predict the teacher’s self-efficacy. More time spent in the classroom with the teacher, better academic achievement, and a lower school grade indicate higher self-efficacy in teachers. Keywords: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), primary school pupils, self-efficacy of teachers 1 2 3 *Corresponding Author. Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka, Croatia; natasa.vlah@uniri.hr. Faculty of Education, University of Josip Juraj Strossmayer in Osijek, Croatia. PhD candidate at Faculty of Humanities and Social Studies University of Rijeka, Croatia. 141 142 teachers’ self-efficacy based on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity ... Samoučinkovitost učiteljev pri obravnavi učencev s simptomi motnje pozornosti s hiperaktivnostjo Nataša Vlah, Tena Velki in Emina Kovačić • Kakovost in količina izkušenj učiteljev s samoučinkovitostjo pri obravnavi učencev s simptomi motnje pozornosti s hiperaktivnostjo predstavljata predmet številnih raziskav. Naloga pedagogike je – med drugim – stalno spremljanje stopenj, na katerih učitelji pridobivajo tovrstne kompetence, ki pozitivno izboljšujejo poučevanje. V prispevku je navedena lastna ocena učiteljev glede njihove učinkovitosti pri poučevanju učencev z vedenjskimi motnjami, ki so posledica simptomov motnje pozornosti s hiperaktivnostjo. V raziskavi so sodelovali osnovnošolski učitelji iz dvanajstih okrožij Republike Hrvaške. Učitelji so posredovali podatke za 1.383 učencev, pri katerih so subjektivno zaznali vedenjske motnje. V raziskavi je bilo ugotovljeno, da značilnosti učenca najbolje napovedujejo učiteljevo samoučinkovitost; več časa, preživetega z učenci v učilnici, boljši učni uspeh in nižja šolska ocena so kazalniki večje učinkovitosti učiteljev. Ključne besede: motnja pozornosti s hiperaktivnostjo (ADHD), osnovnošolci, samoučinkovitost učiteljev c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Introduction The quality and quantity of a teacher’s experience of his or her own competencies4 in work with pupils have been the subject of a great deal of research (Jakson, 1990; Kalin, et al., 2017) because, in practice, information about teachers’ self-assessments can be used to improve the quality of their work with pupils. According to the Wing Institute, an independent non-profit operating foundation dedicated to the promotion of evidence-based education policies and practices in K-12 education, instructional delivery, classroom management, formative assessment and personal competencies (soft skills) are the fundamental competencies of a teacher, distinguishing an effective teacher from an ineffective one. We believe that permanent monitoring of the level at which teachers accomplish these competencies is one of the tasks of educational science. In the context of improving inclusive theory and practice, it is particularly useful to monitor and analyse the effectiveness of teachers in teaching pupils who manifest a lack of attention or impulsivity/hyperactivity (Al-Omari et al., 2015; Merrell & Tymms, 2013; Vlah et al., 2018; Yada & Savolainen, 2017), as such pupils have special needs for which the teacher should be additionally motivated and trained. In the present paper, we try to determine how teachers assess their effectiveness in teaching pupils with behavioural disabilities based on their symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The term self-efficacy is derived from Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1977) and was initially defined as “the belief in one’s capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action requiring the management of prospective situations”, as explained by Bandura (1997). The Teachers’ Sense of Teacher Efficacy Scale (TSES), which was initially constructed and studied as the Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale (OSTES), was finally derived following several improvements and verifications (Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998; Tchannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). As Tchannen-Moran & Hoy (2001) constructed the TSES to measure this construct, numerous authors validated its characteristics on different samples (Alcaraz-Ibsnez et al., 2018; Arata & Soto, 2012; Bakar & Mohamed, 2009; Bašić, 2008; Chang & Engelhard, 2016; Ekici & Güngör, 2014; Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008; Fives & Buehl, 2009; Ghonsooly et al., 2014; Gurcay, 2015; Koomen et al., 2016; Lu & Manzar-Abbas, 2015; Maniadaki et al., 2006; Sariçoban, 2010; Ruan et al., 2015; Valenčić Štembergar & Lepičnik Vodopivec, 2016; Yada & Savolainen, 2017). According to various 4 Competencies are the knowledge and skills that give teachers the tools to be quality teachers with the goal of optimising pupil learning. Therefore, teachers have to be experts in wide array of competencies in an exceptionally complex environment, where hundreds of critical decisions are required each day (Jackson, 1990). 143 144 teachers’ self-efficacy based on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity ... international studies, the TSES measures three constructs that are recognised as essential teacher competencies: efficacy in pupil engagement, efficacy in instructional strategies, and efficacy in classroom management. One of the most influential studies was conducted by Fackler & Malmberg (2016). The authors analysed 44,000 teachers in 2,800 schools in 14 OECD countries based on the 2008 Teaching and Learning International Survey and found that the principal’s work experience and leadership style were significant predictors of teachers’ self-efficacy. Teacher efficacy has been proven to be strongly related to many meaningful educational outcomes, such as teachers’ persistence, enthusiasm, commitment and instructional behaviour, as well as pupil outcomes such as achievement, motivation and self-efficacy beliefs. For example, there is a positive and moderately strong relationship between the perception of self-efficacy with regard to the teaching process and the perception of responsibility for pupil achievement (Kurt et al., 2014). The number of years of work experience was not relevant for the TSES, but emotional exhaustion was (Chang & Engelhard, 2016), much like self-efficacy, which was explained by the intrapersonal dimension (Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008). There is a positive correlation between teacher self-efficacy and the use of metacognitive strategies (Ghonsooly et al., 2014), while the same authors found that gender is not relevant to teacher self-efficacy. Manzar-Abbas & Lu (2015), however, showed that female teachers have a higher sense of self-efficacy than their male colleagues. Most studies show that the teachers’ sense of self-efficacy is generally moderate to high (Bakar & Mohamed, 2009; Bašić, 2008; Chang & Engelhard, 2016; Gurcay, 2015; Kurt et al., 2014; Vlah, 2017), except in teaching pupils with behavioural difficulties in Japan (Yada & Savolainen, 2017) or Australia (Maniadaki et al., 2006). In Slovenia, preschool teachers also assessed themselves as moderately self-efficient in teaching, while more highly educated and less experienced preschool teachers considered themselves more self-efficient than preschool teachers with a lower education level but more work experience (Valenčić Štemberger & Lepičnik Vodopivec, 2016). Bašić (2008) first translated and verified the TSES in Croatia by applying it to preschool teachers. Based on Bašić’s (2008) translated and verified items in the Croatian cultural context, Vlah (2017) modified the TSES so that each teacher assessed his or her self-efficacy with regard to a specific child. In a preliminary study (Vlah, 2017), preschool teachers demonstrated high assessments of their self-efficacy (pupil engagement, classroom management and instructional strategies), but there was no relationship between the assessed self-efficacy and age, years of work experience, level of education or the need c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 for additional professional assistance. The length of working with a child was, however, positively linked to effective involvement and individualisation. In the present study, we attempted to use the modified TSES (Vlah, 2017) by applying it to primary school teachers, who assessed their pupils with moderate and/or high emotional-behavioural disorders (EBD). A similar use of the TSES is known from a study carried out by Zee et al. (2016), where the TSES was part of research in which the authors found one higher-order factor (Overall TSE) and four lower-order factors (Instructional Strategies, Behaviour Management, Pupil Engagement and Emotional Support). The present research was carried out as part of a project5 whose general objective was to explore the proficiency of teachers in Croatia for the educational inclusion of pupils with emotional-behavioural difficulties (EBD). In the pre-research phase of the project, it was determined (Družinec et al., 2019) that, in Croatia, teachers of both genders consider themselves competent to work with pupils with EBD. They regard themselves as equally effective in dealing with boys and girls in two dimensions (classroom management and instructional strategies) but not in the dimension of pupil engagement, in which they find themselves to be more effective in working with girls. They also consider themselves to be more effective in providing instructional strategies in their work with younger pupils. Furthermore, when compared to their younger colleagues, older teachers consider themselves to be more effective. Purpose of the study The research aims to verify whether the ADHD symptoms (hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention) of primary school pupils with behavioural difficulties could predict the lower self-efficacy of their teachers. The characteristics of the teachers and the school (gender, work experience, school size, years of knowing the pupil), as well as of the pupil (gender, grade, academic achievement and the weekly number of classes the pupil spends with the teacher), were taken into consideration. It is hypothesised that the symptoms of ADHD, along with the partialisation of the expected contributions of the teacher, school and pupil characteristics, are significant predictors of a teacher’s self-reported self-efficacy. 5 This paper was written under the full auspices of the University of Rijeka, as part of the project under the grant number uniri-drustv-18-98 1233. 145 146 teachers’ self-efficacy based on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity ... Method Participants Primary school teachers from 12 counties of the Republic of Croatia (Koprivnica-Križevci County, Sisak-Moslavina County, Varaždin County, Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, Međimurje County, Osijek-Baranja County, Vukovar-Srijem County, Brod-Posavina County, Lika-Senj County, Split-Dalmatia County, Zagreb County) and the City of Zagreb took part in the research. The teachers provided data for a total of 1,383 pupils in whom they subjectively detected behavioural difficulties. The average age of the teachers was M = 43.16 years (SD = 10.06) and the average internship M = 17.52 years (SD = 10.80). Most of them were female (86.3% female and 13.7% male teachers). Only a small number of the teachers worked in a small school (8.4% worked in schools with fewer than 200 pupils), while most of them worked in a middle-sized (43.8% in schools with 200 to 500 pupils) or large school (47.8 % in schools with over 500 pupils). Table 1 shows the number of years that the teacher providing the assessment had known the assessed pupil. Table 1 Length of time the teacher had known the assessed pupil Length of time N % Less than one year 161 11.9 1 year 277 20.4 2 years 329 24.3 3 years 303 22.3 4 years 235 17.3 More than 4 years Total 51 3.8 1,356 100.0 The teachers also provided basic information about the pupils they assessed. The criterion of pupil selection for the assessment was that the pupil shows behavioural difficulties. At the time of the assessment, the teachers were the pupils’ homeroom teachers. They judged that the pupils had behavioural difficulties that were demonstrated during regular classes, breaks, leisure activities and in similar situations. Therefore, the homeroom teachers were asked to determine whether they had one or more such pupils in their classroom and to provide self-assessments of their self-efficacy concerning those pupils. Of the assessed pupils, 87% were boys and only 13% were girls. All age groups were c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 equally affected (10% to 15%), as can be seen in Table 2. On average, teachers spent M = 11.23 hours per week (SD = 8.31) during class with the specific pupil. Table 3 shows the academic achievement of the pupils with regard to the grade. Table 2 Distribution of the assessed pupils by grade Grade N % First 149 11.1 Second 191 14.2 Third 204 15.2 Fourth 199 14.8 Fifth 131 9.8 Sixth 174 13.0 Seventh 162 12.1 Eighth Total 132 9.8 1,342 100.0 Table 3 Academic achievement of the pupils for whom the teachers provided data Academic achievement N % Fail 26 2.0 Acceptable 94 7.3 Good 503 39.2 Very good 496 38.6 Excellent 165 12.9 1284 100.0 Total Instruments The measuring instruments used for this research were the Pupils’ Behavioural Symptoms Scale (Sekušak-Galešev, 2005) and the Self-Estimated Self-Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk-Hoy, 2001; adapted by Bašić, 2008, according to Vlah, 2017). The Pupils’ Behavioural Symptoms Scale (Sekušak-Galešev, 2005) The Pupils’ Behavioural Symptoms Scale, which measures the frequency of ADHD symptoms, was created based on the translation and adaptation of the D4 NICHQ-Vanderbilt Assessment Scale – Teacher Questionnaire (Wolraich, 147 148 teachers’ self-efficacy based on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity ... 2002). It consists of 35 items divided into four subscales: Impulsivity-Hyperactivity (k = 9), Emotional Problems (k = 7), Inattention (k = 9) and Antisocial Behaviour (k = 10). The participant’s task is to assess on a four-point Likert scale how often certain behaviours have occurred in the pupil since the beginning of the school year by circling the appropriate number in front of a statement: 0 – never, 1 – occasionally, 2 – often, and 3 – very often. The result is obtained with the arithmetic mean of the selected items. The principal component analysis, with oblimin rotation, confirmed the four-factor solution. According to Guttman-Kaiser’s criterion, six factors accounted for 65.47% of the variance, but the last two factors explained less than 4% of the variance and were not interpretable. According to the Scree Test criteria, four factors were segregated and explained 58.71% of the total variance, with the item layout being almost the same as in the original questionnaire. The internal reliability in the conducted research for the impulsivity-hyperactivity subscale was Cronbach α = .93, with the subscale α = .88 for emotional problems, the subscale α = .86 for inattention, and the subscale α = .92 for antisocial behaviour, indicating high reliability. The Self-Estimated Self-Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & WoolfolkHoy, 2001; adapted by Bašić, 2008, according to Vlah, 2017). Bašić (2008) translated and published this scale as a general self-assessment of preschool teachers, and Vlah (2017) adapted the items so that the efficacy is self-estimated, specifically when dealing with a specific subject, rather than reflecting the broad experience of self-efficacy in work situations. Furthermore, Vlah argued that this is a three-factor structure of the scale, whereby three reliable dimensions measuring pupil engagement (k = 4, α = .83), instructional strategies (k = 4, α = .84) and classroom management (k = 4, α = .80) stand out. This adapted and adjusted scale, in which the pedagogical employee assesses his or her performance concerning a specific pupil, was applied in the conducted research. The scale measures the experience of one’s professional efficiency, i.e., the level of perceived self-efficacy of the teacher. It consists of 12 items, which teachers use to assess themselves and their efficacy in working with a child by circling the number reflecting the level of agreement with the particular statement: 0 – never, 1 – almost never, 2 – sometimes, 3 – almost always, and 4 – always. The result is obtained by the arithmetic mean of the selected items. The original scale shows a three-factor structure, although it can be used as a single-factor scale. Principal component analysis with oblimin rotation, in accordance with the Guttman-Kaiser’s criterion, confirmed a threefactor structure in the conducted research, which explained 64.60% of the variance, although two items had higher factor loadings on other factors than c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 the theoretical ones. The internal reliability in the conducted research of the one-factor solution was Cronbach α = .89, and the internal reliabilities for the three-factor solutions was satisfactory: pupil-engagement6 α = .77, instructional strategies7 α = .83 and classroom management8 α = .76. Data collection procedure Students enrolled in Teacher Education studies took part in the data collection as a part of their master thesis research in all of the counties except in Zagreb (where researchers were employed). The principals of the selected primary schools were contacted before the implementation of the research. After obtaining their consent, the purpose and procedure of the research were explained to the principals, teachers and the professional service, and it was made clear that they could opt out of the research at any time. Official correspondence was sent to the school principals who had agreed to participate in the study. After the principal’s consent was obtained, an interview was carried out with the school’s professional service, whose purpose was to encourage the teachers to co-operate and to ensure coordination between teachers and researchers. The questionnaires were handed out in envelopes to teachers who had pupils with behavioural difficulties in their classroom and the research purpose was presented to the teachers. The completion of the questionnaires was voluntary and the anonymity of the respondents was emphasised. After the coordinator was informed that all of the submitted questionnaires had been completed and returned inside envelopes to ensure the anonymity and confidentiality of the responses, thus reducing the number of socially desirable responses, the student-researcher collected them in person. Results Descriptive statistics were calculated for all of the measured variables before proceeding with data analysis (Table 4). Testing the distribution normality revealed that the distribution of the research variables does not deviate significantly from the normal distribution. Asymmetric indices did not exceed values higher than +/- 2.00 and parametric statistics were applied. 6 7 8 Pupil engagement (SE) factor (items: get pupils to believe they can do well in schoolwork, motivate pupils who show low interest in schoolwork, help pupils to value learning). Instructional strategies IS (use a variety of assessment strategies, implement alternative strategies in your classroom, provide an alternative explanation or example when pupils are confused, families in helping their children do well in school (SE)). Classroom management CM (control disruptive behaviour in the classroom, get children to follow classroom rules, calm a pupil who is disruptive or noisy, establish a classroom management system with each group of pupils). 149 150 teachers’ self-efficacy based on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity ... Table 4 Descriptive statistics for the measured variables Variable N Min Max M SD Skewness Kurtosis 1382 1.00 4.00 3.36 .73 -1.174 1.549 Internship at school 1291 .00 46.00 17.52 10.80 .384 -.862 Knowing the pupil 1356 .00 5.00 2.24 1.37 .039 -.899 Enrolled grade 1342 1.00 8.00 4.34 2.21 .125 -1.183 Time spent with the teacher 1305 1.00 40.00 11.23 8.31 .246 -1.036 Academic achievement 1284 1.00 5.00 3.53 .88 -.293 .144 Inattention 1378 .00 3.00 1.90 .60 -.264 -.310 Impulsivity-hyperactivity 1378 .00 3.00 1.57 .82 -.148 -.935 Self-efficacy 1378 .58 4.00 3.07 .55 -.512 .700 Efficacy for instructional strategies 1377 .00 4.00 3.02 .663 -.679 .996 Efficacy for classroom management 1378 .50 4.00 3.09 .61 -.434 .033 Efficacy for pupil engagement 1378 .50 4.00 3.10 .65 -.614 .315 School size Note. Min – minimum score; Max – maximum score All of the preconditions for conducting a regression analysis were met; therefore, the data were analysed using hierarchical regression analysis (Table 5). In the first step, the characteristics of the school and teacher were kept under control (school size, teacher’s gender, work experience, years of knowing the pupil) and, in the second step, the characteristics of the pupil (time spent with the teacher, pupil’s gender, grade, academic achievement) were examined. In the third step, ADHD symptoms (impulsivity-hyperactivity and inattention) were introduced as predictors of a poorer self-efficacy of teachers. All of the analyses were carried out four times with the same predictors, for four different criteria (Self-efficacy of teachers, Efficacy for instructional strategies, Efficacy for classroom management and Efficacy for pupil engagement). c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 151 Table 5 Results of the regression analysis Criterion Self-efficacy of teachers Efficacy for instructional strategies Efficacy for classroom management Efficacy for pupil engagement Predictors β β β β School size -.023 -.016 -.027 -.018 .040 .069* -.006 .035 .093** .101** .041 .098** Teacher’s gender Internship at school Knowing the pupil .046 .035 .021 .060* Regression model R=0.122; R2=0.015; 2 R kor=0.011; F(4,1109)=4.14 p< .01 Cohen’s f2=0.02 R=0.136; R2=0.018; 2 R kor=0.015; F(4,1109)=5.18 p< .01 Cohen’s f2=0.02 R=0.057; R2=0.003; 2 R kor=0.011; F(4,1109)=0.88 p> .01 Cohen’s f2=0.00 R=0.131; R2=0.017; 2 R kor=0.014; F(4,1109)=4.84 p< .001 Cohen’s f2=0.02 School size -.007 -.001 -.019 .000 Teacher’s gender -.033 .006 -.053 -.043 .019 .032 -.008 .024 .086* .081* .047 .092** Internship at school Knowing the pupil Time spent with the teacher .175** .157** .119* .174** Pupil’s gender .068* .084** .015 .070* Grade -.087 -.099 -.059 -.066 Academic achievement .087** .024 .050 .148** R=0.307; R2=0.095; R2kor=0.088; F(8,1109)=14.37 p< .001 ΔR2=0.08; Cohen‘s f2=0.08 R=0.286; R2=0.082; R2kor=0.075; F(8,1109)=12.28 p< .001 ΔR2=0.06; Cohen‘s f2=0.09 R=0.188; R2=0.035; 2 R kor=0.025; F(8,1109)=5.06 p< .001 ΔR2=0.035; Cohen‘s f2=0.04 R=0.333; R2=0.111; R2kor=0.104; F(8,1109)=17.17 p< .001 ΔR2=0.094; Cohen‘s f2=0.11 School size -.006 .000 -.017 .000 Teacher’s gender -.024 .010 -.040 -.035 Regression model Internship at school .020 .033 -.006 .025 Knowing the pupil .092** .084* .055 .097** Time spent with the teacher .181** .159** .128** .180** Pupil’s gender .049 .074* -.010 .055 Grade -.105* -.108* -.082 -.081 Academic achievement .088** .034 .051 .139** Inattention -.023 .010 -.032 -.042 Impulsivity - hyperactivity -.123** -.081* -.162** -.078* Regression model (final solution) Note. * p< .05; ** p< .01. R=0.334; R=0.296; R=0.256; R2=0.112; R2=0.088; R2=0.066; R2kor=0.104; R2kor=0.079; R2kor=0.057; F(10,1109)=13.83 F(10,1109)=10.55 F(10,1109)=7.71 p< .001 p < .05 p< .001 ΔR2=0.017; ΔR2=0.004; ΔR2=0.031; 2 2 Cohen’s f =0.02 Cohen’s f =0.00 Cohen’s f2=0.03 Cohen’s f2=0.13 Cohen’s f2=0.10 Cohen’s f2=0.07 (for whole model) (for whole model) (for whole model) R=0.348; R2=0.121; R2kor=0.113; F(10,1109)=15.12 p< .01 ΔR2=0.002; Cohen’s f2=0.00 Cohen’s f2=0.14 (for whole model) 152 teachers’ self-efficacy based on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity ... The results of the regression analysis show that the selected predictors explain only a small proportion of the teacher self-efficacy variance (about 10%), while the effect size for the whole model is moderate (Cohen’s f2 = .13, according to Kolesarić & Tomašić Humer, 2017). The characteristics of the pupil best predicted teacher self-efficacy. More time spent with the teacher, better academic achievement and a lower grade better predict the self-efficacy of the teachers. The pupil’s characteristics explain a total of 8% of the teacher self-efficacy variance, which is not a large proportion, and the effect size is small (Cohen’s f2 = 0.08). Furthermore, the characteristics of teachers and schools explain only about 1% of the variance, in the sense that teachers who believe they know their pupil better also assess their self-efficacy higher and the effect size is almost insignificant (Cohen’s f2 = .02). This, in turn, speaks in favour of the fact that the characteristics of teachers and schools are not essential for predicting teacher self-efficacy. ADHD symptoms, i.e., impulsivity-hyperactivity, have been shown to be significant in predicting teacher self-efficacy. A higher level of impulsivity-hyperactivity predicts a lower self-efficacy of the teacher and explains an additional 1.7% of the variance. Despite being a significant predictor, it has a small effect (Cohen’s f2 = .02). Interestingly, inattention did not prove a significant predictor, but it should be taken into account that, in their selection of pupils for whom they made their assessments, the teachers first detected those pupils with behavioural problems, so that additional attention problems (as part of behavioural problems) did not prove to be significant. For the overall model, almost the same result was obtained with regard to the observed variance. The overall variance of pupil engagement was best explained (about 12%), followed by instructional strategies (about 9% of explanation of the overall variance), and classroom management (only about 7% of explanation of the overall variance), while the effect sizes for the whole models were small (classroom management) to moderate (pupil engagement and instructional strategies). For pupil engagement, some predictors were significant for overall teacher self-efficacy. The characteristics of the pupil best predict the efficacy for pupil engagement. More time spent with the teacher and better academic achievement predict better teacher efficacy for pupil engagement. The pupil’s characteristics explain a total of 10.4% of the variance, which is not a large proportion, and the effect size is modest (Cohen’s f2 = .09). Furthermore, the characteristics of teachers and schools explain only about 1% of the variance, in the sense that teachers who believe they know their pupils better also assess the efficacy for pupil engagement more highly, and the effect size is almost insignificant (Cohen’s f2 = .02). ADHD symptoms, i.e., impulsivity-hyperactivity, are significant c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 in predicting the efficacy for pupil engagement of teachers. A higher level of impulsivity-hyperactivity predicts lower efficacy for instructional strategies of teachers and explains an additional 0.2% of the variance. Despite being a significant predictor, the effect size is insignificant (Cohen’s f2 = .00). For teacher efficacy for pupil engagement, only the pupil’s characteristics are important. For instructional strategies, the characteristics of the pupil also best predicted teacher efficacy. More time spent with the teacher, a lower grade, and the female gender predict a higher efficacy for instructional strategies of teachers. The pupil’s characteristics explain a total of 6% of the variance, which is not a large proportion, and the effect size is moderate (Cohen’s f2 = .11). Furthermore, the characteristics of teachers and schools explain only about 2% of the variance, in the sense that teachers who believe they know their pupil better also assess the efficacy for instructional strategies more highly, and the effect size is almost insignificant (Cohen’s f2 = .02). ADHD symptoms, i.e., impulsivityhyperactivity, are significant in predicting the efficacy for instructional strategies of teachers. A higher level of impulsivity-hyperactivity predicts a poorer efficacy for instructional strategies of teachers and explains an additional .4% of the variance. Even though it is a significant predictor, the effect size is insignificant (Cohen’s f2 = .00). For teacher efficacy for instructional strategies, only the characteristics of pupils are important. For classroom management, the characteristics of teachers and schools were not significant predictors. Only one pupil characteristic, more time spent with the teacher, predicts a higher efficacy for classroom management of teachers, explaining 3.5% of the variance, with a modest effect size (Cohen’s f2 = .04). ADHD symptoms, i.e., impulsivity-hyperactivity, are significant in predicting the efficacy for classroom management of teachers, explaining an additional 3.1% of the variance, and the effect size is small (Cohen’s f2 = .03). For teacher efficacy for classroom management, only the time spent with teachers and symptoms of impulsivity-hyperactivity are important. Discussion The problem and aim of this research was to explore whether ADHD symptoms (hyperactivity-impulsiveness and inattention) of primary schoolaged pupils with behavioural difficulties predict a poor self-efficacy of teachers. The hypothesis, which stated that the symptoms of ADHD, with the partialisation of the expected contributions of the teacher, school and pupil characteristics, are significant predictors of the teacher’s self-reported self-efficacy, has been partially confirmed. 153 154 teachers’ self-efficacy based on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity ... Considering the characteristics of the teacher and the school (gender, work experience, school size and years knowing the pupil) as well as of the pupil (gender, grade, academic achievement and the number of classes spent with the teacher per week), it was found that there is a moderate predictive contribution to teacher self-efficacy. With a small effect size, pupils’ characteristics could explain teacher self-efficacy. Although there is a contribution of the teacher’s assuredness in the degree to which they know their pupils better, because of its very small effect size we have to infer that the characteristics of teachers and schools are not essential for predicting teacher self-efficacy. However, it is evident that ADHD symptoms, i.e., impulsivity-hyperactivity, are significant in predicting the self-efficacy of teachers, even though neither of these has a major contribution effect. Inattention did prove to be a significant predictor, as has already been described. There are few studies on teachers’ self-assessed efficacy in their work with pupils with behavioural difficulties; therefore, the results obtained in this research are interesting as an orientation for possible future research. Specifically, it was found that, in the area of expected ​​ predictors (ADHD symptoms, teacher and school characteristics and pupil characteristics), some relevant indicators could be identified for a lower sense of efficacy in working with pupils with behavioural difficulties. Thus, the obtained results may indicate areas of support for those teachers who work with this challenging pupil population in the regular education system. Of course, it should be noted that the effects of the predictive contribution in all of the obtained relationships were very weak. In this sense, we should be aware that, in the future, it will be necessary to explore other potential predictors that contribute to the self-assessed efficacy of teachers in teaching pupils with behavioural difficulties. The basic finding of our research suggests that more time spent with the teacher, better academic achievement and a lower grade better predict the selfefficacy of teachers. Moreover, teachers who believe in having a better knowledge of their pupils assess their self-efficacy in work with such children more highly. When these predictive influences are isolated, it may be implied that higher hyperactivity-impulsivity in pupils with behavioural difficulties is additionally significant for poorer assessments of efficacy among teachers. What do these findings mean for understanding and improving the everyday practice in inclusive classrooms in which pupils with behavioural difficulties are taught? Contemporary research on the quality of the teacher-pupil relationship suggests that, in the efficient and quality teaching of pupils with behavioural difficulties, the establishment and maintenance of positive and supportive relationships is one of the key characteristics of pupils’ attachment to the school, c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 better academic success, and the overall optimal psychosocial maturation of the pupil and the preservation of mental health (Granot, 2014; Posavec & Vlah, 2019). In Croatian schools, in homeroom teaching, there are more opportunities to establish and maintain relationships due to the higher number of classes that a pupil spends with the teacher. This, however, is more challenging to achieve in subject teaching due to fewer weekly classes and (too) many subjects. One question to consider in future research might be whether some pupils with behavioural difficulties may benefit from being taught more classes by fewer teachers. Interestingly, the length of knowing a pupil did not prove significant for better efficacy only in classroom management (while it is significant in instructional strategies and pupil engagement). In other words, knowing a pupil for a longer period of time did not prove to be relevant for the more effective calming down of a disruptive or noisy pupil, establishing a group management system when that pupil is present, controlling the disruptive behaviour of that pupil when necessary, and making him or her follow the rules of the game. It is relevant to effectively design different activities for such a pupil, fit different alternative strategies into the work with him or her, use different strategies to track his or her progress, provide additional explanations and examples when the pupil requires them, assist parents in helping the pupil to master various skills, support the pupil to believe that he or she can do well in schoolwork, motivate the pupil to participate in various activities when needed, and help the pupil to assess his or her own work. Why is this so? Instructional strategies and pupil engagement are probably the skills that require a deeper relationship of trust with the pupil, which is a prerequisite for knowing the pupil longer and spending more time with him or her. Another possible reason, of a methodological nature, is that homeroom teachers (who spend more time with pupils) have different criteria for self-assessing classroom management in terms of class discipline, and thus provided lower self-assessments. Hyperactivity-impulsivity is a significant predictor that makes teachers in Croatia feel less effective in dealing with pupils with behavioural difficulties. Previous research has confirmed this finding. Thus, one study showed that the teacher’s positive attitudes, motivation and education contribute to a better involvement of pupils with developmental difficulties in the educational process itself (Vlah et al., 2017). Moreover, this research further emphasises the need for better teacher education for working with pupils who demonstrate impulsive behaviour or hyperactivity during class. Similar results were obtained by Vlah & Kovačić (2017). In their research, it was shown that teachers almost always implement positive reinforcement of their pupils and very often use inclusive communication in their work with pupils with attention difficulties. They apply 155 156 teachers’ self-efficacy based on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity ... the lowest number of didactic-methodical methods, i.e., they apply them rarely. The authors imply that teachers are educated through lifelong learning; therefore, it is necessary to change the curricula and enable collaboration between professional associates and teachers, so that the strategies can be effective and timely. Research has also shown that more knowledge for working with children with emotional difficulties and behavioural problems is gained through independent work and additional education (Valenčić Štembergar & Lepičnik Vodopivec, 2016). The research results point to the need for further improvement of preschool teachers to promote healthy child development and the prevention of risk behaviour and behavioural disorders in preschool children (Bašić, 2008). Conclusion Outcomes of the study The research aimed to explore whether ADHD symptoms (hyperactivity-impulsiveness and inattention) of primary school pupils with behavioural difficulties predict the poor self-efficacy of teachers. The research showed that the characteristics of the pupil best predict teacher self-efficacy. More time spent in the classroom with the teacher, better academic achievement and a lower grade better predict the self-efficacy of teachers. Furthermore, the research showed that those teachers who believe they know their pupil better also assess their self-efficacy more highly. The magnitude of the effect is almost insignificant, suggesting that the characteristics of the teacher or the school are not crucial when predicting teacher self-efficacy. A higher level of impulsivityhyperactivity predicts a lower self-efficacy of teachers and explains a very small proportion of the variance. Limitations and suggested future lines of research based on the findings reported in the manuscript The methodological limitations of the research are reflected in the teachers’ subjectivity in the self-assessment of their self-efficacy. These limitations may be overcome in future research with objective assessments by the users of the educational service (e.g., pupils with EBD and/or their parents) or observations by a co-teacher as a critical friend, i.e., by the researcher applying a non-participatory monitoring methodology. Moreover, one methodological weakness of the research, the prevalence of which may provide an accurate answer to our research questions in future research, is the selection of participants c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 based on the subjective impression of their homeroom teacher that they have EBD. Future research should perhaps examine self-efficacy only in relation to teaching pupils with EBD who have also been diagnosed with ADHD based on objective diagnostic interdisciplinary procedures and hold a certificate recommending special education provision. It would be interesting to analyse the teacher’s self-efficacy in such a subgroup of participants, either on the subjectively assessed or the objectively measured level. Regardless of the possible limitations of the study, there are few studies in Croatia on the self-assessed efficacy of teachers in their work with pupils with difficulties, which makes the results obtained in this research interesting as an orientation for possible future research. The authors hope that the obtained results will be verified on a larger scale and sample. Application of the conclusions in practice The purpose of the present paper was to reflect on teachers’ efficacy in teaching pupils who exhibit inattention or impulsivity/hyperactivity behaviours in the context of improving the inclusive theory and practice in working with pupils with EBD. In this respect, the findings of the research may imply some specific recommendations for practice (which, among other things, should be monitored to analyse teachers’ efficacy in dealing with this vulnerable group of pupils). In this regard, the authors of the paper conclude that, based on the results obtained, well-known general recommendations for the improvement of educational practice can be confirmed, such as: 1) the need for the availability of lifelong education for teachers, 2) the availability of a multidisciplinary approach to working with this population, and 3) the greater availability of knowledgeable foundations. Specifically, the implications for improving the education and care of pupils with behavioural difficulties in Croatia, i.e., improving the current day-to-day practice in schools, are as follows: • Schools as public institutions and the Education and Teacher Training Agency, which is responsible for the lifelong learning of teachers, should assume the responsibility of enhancing their teachers’ competences in becoming familiar with their own pupils and understanding the pupils’ developmental characteristics of biological developmental difficulties (such as impulsivity or hyperactivity) that may interfere with teacher-pupil interaction in the teaching process. • For pupils showing EBD characteristics, schools and the local community need to provide additional professional assistance in reducing and overcoming these difficulties in order for the teacher to have the opportunity in his or her everyday educational work to socially integrate 157 158 teachers’ self-efficacy based on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity ... • pupils with EBD and support their optimal psycho-social maturation through regular inclusive teaching. Teachers with low self-assessed pupil engagement, instructional strategies, and classroom management of their work with pupils with EBD should, with the encouragement and support of the school and the principal, have more joint time allocated to teaching activities. These recommendations, which can increase the teacher’s self-efficacy experience, are especially relevant for subject teachers in upper primary school grades, given that teachers have fewer opportunities to spend more hours with their pupils in general and fewer opportunities to better understand their behaviour. The above recommendations relate to teachers in Croatia who have agreed to participate in the research and are likely to be interested in improving their education and care. Therefore, the results obtained, given their aforementioned methodological limitations above, may be considered as valuable communication of the participants aimed at the decision-makers of education policies. 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M. (2016). Teachers’ self-efficacy in relation to individual pupils with a variety of social–emotional behaviors: A multilevel investigation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(7), 1013. Yada, A., & Savolainen, H. (2017). Japanese in-service teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive education and self-efficacy for inclusive practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 64(6), 222–229. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Biographical note Nataša Vlah, PhD, is an associate professor in the field of special education, branch of behavioural problems on the Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka. She has 14 years of experience of practical clinic work with children and adolescents. Her field of research are (1) social and educational inclusion of children and families with social integration difficulties, and (2) professional training of preschool and schoolteacher for education of children with behavioural problems. Tena Velki, PhD, is an associate professor in the field of psychology on the Faculty of Education at University of Josip Juraj Strossmayer in Osijek, Croatia. Her main areas of research are developmental psychology, especially inclusion of children with developmental disabilities, ADHD, bullying, and more recently online risky behaviour and awareness of information-communication technology users. Emina Kovačić, educational rehabilitator, PhD student - Faculty of Humanities and Social Studies University of Rijeka, Croatia. Her research interests include student with disabilities, ADHD, autism, inclusion, and early intervention. 161 162 c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 doi: 10.26529/cepsj.708 Translation and Validation of the Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale on a Croatian Sample of Early Childhood and Preschool Education Students Marijana Županić Benić1 • The current literature describes creativity as a domain-specific phenomenon. According to Kaufman’s five-factor model, creativity can manifest in the following distinctive domains: Self/Everyday, Scholarly, Performance, Mechanical/Scientific and Artistic. The purpose of the present study was to validate the Croatian version of the Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale. The scale was administered to a sample of early childhood and preschool education students (N = 222). The results of the exploratory factor analysis showed that certain Self/Everyday tasks did not load on any of the scales, whereas some music-related tasks separated from other Performance tasks into a separate factor. These results could be explained by the characteristics of the convenience sample recruited for the study. The confirmatory factor analysis of the five-factor model and goodness-of-fit tests yielded results that are as satisfactory and consistent as previous validations. The Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale is therefore considered to be a potentially feasible scale for assessing creativity as a domain-specific phenomenon. Additional research is needed to confirm the validity of the Croatian version of the scale with a representative random sample. Keywords: creativity self-assessment, domains of creativity, factor analysis, Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale, scale validation 1 Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb, Croatia; marijana.z.benic@gmail.com. 163 164 translation and validation of the kaufman domains of creativity scale on .... Prenos in potrditev Kaufmanove lestvice ustvarjalnih področij na hrvaškem vzorcu učencev v zgodnjem otroštvu in predšolskih otrok Marijana Županić Benić • Sodobna literatura opisuje ustvarjalnost kot področno specifičen pojav. Po Kaufmanovem petfaktorskem modelu se lahko ustvarjalnost izrazi na naslednjih specifičnih področjih: osebnem/medosebnem, študijskem, izvedbenem, tehnično/znanstvenem in umetniškem. Cilj raziskave je bil potrditev hrvaške različice Kaufmanove lestvice ustvarjalnih področij, ki je bila uporabljena na vzorcu učencev v zgodnjem otroštvu in predšolskih otrok (N = 222). Rezultati eksploratorne faktorske analize so pokazali, da nekatere naloge osebnega/medosebnega področja niso bile prisotne na nobeni lestvici, medtem ko so se nekatere naloge v povezavi z glasbo ločile od preostalih nalog izvedbenega področja v ločen dejavnik. Tovrstne rezultate je mogoče pojasniti z značilnostmi slučajnega vzorca, uporabljenega v raziskavi. Rezultati konfirmatorne faktorske analize petfaktorskih modelov in testov skladnosti so enako zadovoljivi in konsistentni kot pri prejšnjih validacijah, zaradi česar se Kaufmanova lestvica ustvarjalnih področij uvršča med potencialno izvedljive lestvice za ocenjevanje ustvarjalnosti kot področno specifičnega pojava. Za potrditev veljavnosti hrvaške različice lestvice so potrebne dodatne raziskave z reprezentativnim naključnim vzorcem. Ključne besede: samoocena ustvarjalnosti, ustvarjalna področja, faktorska analiza, Kaufmanova lestvica ustvarjalnih področij, potrditev veljavnosti lestvice c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Introduction Creativity is often associated with the arts because people can observe it and experience it immediately through artwork and performances. Although the term creativity is often used as a synonym for art, researchers frequently study creativity and its manifestation in multiple domains (Kaufman, 2012). Contemporary trends in education also recognise the importance of developing creativity through different approaches, including creativity-oriented pedagogy (Cheung & Mok, 2018), the development of divergent thinking (Guilford, 1956; Sternberg & Lubart, 1993) and the application of new, creative teaching strategies (Craft, 2003; Feldhusen, 1994; Zoglowek, 2018). The ability to improve creativity through all subjects across the curriculum, not just the arts, has been demonstrated and discussed by numerous authors (Craft, 2003; Haylock, 1987; Robinson, 2015). However, schools often use outdated practices in teaching that have been reported to have a negative effect on creativity (Beghetto, 2005a, 2005b; Robinson, 2015). More importantly, teachers’ dedication to lifelong learning and improvement of their own creativity is essential for developing their students’ creativity through education (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Sanders & Rivers, 1996). Teachers’ perceptions of creativity determine how they define and understand creative thinking and creative behaviours, as well as the role of the classroom environment in supporting creative development (Maksić & Spasenović, 2018; Runco, 1999). Most teachers do not consider themselves to be creative (Pendergast et al., 2011), so they are unable to achieve one of the most important goals of contemporary education, which is to teach students how they can creatively solve problems on their own (Sekulić-Majurec, 2007). Since creativity can manifest in almost every task, the phenomenon of creativity in the literature is often conceptualised and studied according to the four P’s: “Person: Who is creative?; Process: How are we creative?; Product: What is creative?; Press or Place: Where are we creative?” (Kaufman, 2016, p. 16). Plucker et al. (2004) describe creativity as the production of something useful and novel as a result of the interaction between aptitude, process and environment. Another description of creativity in contemporary literature distinguishes between little-c creativity as creativity in daily life and big-C creativity as the result of genius that will be remembered for generations to come (Csikszenmihalyi, 1998; Simonton, 2013). As an extension of that definition, Kaufman and Beghetto (2009) proposed the concept of four C’s that are consistent with creativity over different stages of life, which would make little-c the type of creativity that emerges during early childhood and is shaped by the 165 166 translation and validation of the kaufman domains of creativity scale on .... environment, i.e., parents and teachers through education. Domain-specific factors that determine what creativity is can vary across fields and activities, so there is no universal agreement on the general definition of creativity, with numerous authors providing different definitions of creativity (Amabile, 1996; Beghetto, 2010; Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Feist, 2004; Feldhusen & Goh, 1995; Gardner, 1993; Guilford, 1950; Ivcevic & Mayer, 2009; Kaufman & Sternberg, 2006; Runco, 2014; Sternberg & Lubart, 1999; Stein, 1953). For example, Guilford (1950) uses a structural intelligence model as a basis for defining creativity as a new and effective method for solving problems. Gardner (1993) conceives creativity as a process that is determined by personality, environmental support and multiple intelligences, so creativity is also a multidimensional concept that can manifest in different domains depending on a person’s dominant type of intelligence. Stein (1953) explains creativity as a process of creating original and effective ideas or products that a group or society in general find applicable, useful and sustainable in practical situations during a certain period. Csikszentmihalyi (1996) defines creativity as a phenomenon determined by personal factors, domains and environmental support. For Fiest (2004), creativity is thinking or acting in a manner that produces an original and useful product, and creative expression is specific in different domains, such as psychology, physics, biology, mathematics, linguistics, music and aesthetics. Ivcevic and Mayer (2009) also emphasise the importance of original and practical products or ideas as results of creativity, but their classification of the domains of creativity includes the everyday domain (e.g., handcrafts, relationships), the artistic domain (e.g., visual arts, music) and the intellectual domain (e.g., science, technology). Based on these definitions, it is evident that researchers tend to agree with the standard definition, which states that creativity is a process that produces an original and effective product or idea (Runco & Jaeger, 2012; Stein, 1953). An example product of creativity according to the standard definition would be innovative solutions to problems that are not obvious and that have value in practical situations (Boden, 2004; Bruner, 1962; Feldhusen & Goh, 1995; Simonton, 2012; Sternberg & Lubart, 1999). However, there are multiple different classifications of domains in which creativity depends on the relative importance of domain-specific factors. Kaufman (2012) developed the Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale (K-DOCS) and proposed a five-factor model of creativity dimensions based on the results of validation analysis. The dimensions are Self/Everyday, Scholarly, Performance, Mechanical/Scientific and Artistic. Each dimension of creativity is associated with tasks that people can encounter and solve in creative ways. The Self/Everyday domain consists of all tasks that people can encounter in c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 daily life, such as finding the best solution to a problem or helping other people in a creative way. The Scholarly domain includes activities that involve analysing and discussing topics or conducting other activities related to academia, such as providing constructive feedback on a scientific paper. Activities in the Performance domain can be performed in front of an audience or shared with an audience, such as playing an instrument, writing a poem, dancing and other forms of public performance. The Mechanical/Scientific domain includes activities that require interest in and knowledge of STEM disciplines, such as computer programming, building something mechanical, etc. Finally, activities such as sketching people or objects and making a sculpture belong to the Artistic domain. Previous validations of the K-DOCS instrument have been conducted on samples from different cultural backgrounds, and goodness-of-fit tests support the five-factor model of creativity domains, which is also a good indicator of the instrument’s potential for cross-cultural applications (Awofala & Fatade, 2015; McKay, Karwowski, & Kaufman, 2017). The purpose of the present study was to validate the Croatian version of the K-DOCS. Two aims were addressed: (a) to identify the optimal number of factors and perform an exploratory factor analysis using this information, and (b) to examine the five-factor model’s goodness-of-fit based on the responses obtained from a convenience sample of Croatian students. Method Participants A convenience sampling strategy was used to recruit 222 students enrolled in the Early Childhood and Preschool Education programme at the Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb. The majority of the participants, 215 (96.85%), were female. The age of the participants ranged from 19 to 33 years, but 196 (88.29%) of them were between 19 and 22 years of age. Prior to attending university, most of the participants had graduated from a grammar school or a vocational school, 143 (64.41%) and 75 (33.78%) of the participants, respectively. Only four of the participants (1.80%) had graduated from an art school. In addition to mandatory education, 88 (39.64%) of the participants had attended after-school additional art education programmes. 167 168 translation and validation of the kaufman domains of creativity scale on .... Instrument The Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale (K-DOCS) (Kaufman, 2012) was translated into Croatian and administered along with a demographic questionnaire to the participants. The K-DOCS consists of 50 items that measure the respondents’ self-reported ability to creatively perform certain tasks from the five domains of creativity: Self/Everyday (e.g., “Teaching someone how to do something”), Scholarly (e.g., “Debating a controversial topic from my own perspective”), Performance (e.g., “Playing music in public”), Mechanical/scientific (e.g., “Taking apart machines and figuring out how they work”), and Artistic (e.g., “Coming up with my own interpretation of a classic work of art”) (Kaufman, 2012). Respondents are asked to compare their ability to creatively perform a task to other people of similar age and experience, and their responses are registered on a 5-point Likert scale, as follows: 1 = much less creative, 2 = less creative, 3 = neither more nor less creative, 4 = more creative, and 5 = much more creative. The respondents are instructed to estimate their creativity on tasks they have never performed based on their experiences with similar tasks. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients reported by Kaufman (2012) were above .80 for all five scales on the total sample. The alpha coefficients for the present sample were .78, .89, .87, .87 and .83 for the Self/Everyday, Scholarly, Performance, Mechanical/Scientific and Artistic scales, respectively. The values of Cronbach’s alpha coefficients in the present study indicate good internal consistency and are consistent with the coefficients reported in previous studies (Awofala & Fatade, 2015; Kaufman, 2012). Results and Discussion The K-DOCS (Kaufman, 2012) instrument was translated and administered in a cultural setting that is different from the one in which the instrument was constructed and validated, so an exploratory factor analysis was first conducted to compare the factors and item loadings with the results of studies conducted with participants from different backgrounds. The scree plot shown in Figure 1 indicates that five factors are expected to be optimal, which is consistent with Kaufman’s (2012) choice for creating the original five-factor model of creativity domains, and with the results reported by Awofala and Fatade (2015). c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Figure 1 Scree plot The results of the exploratory factor analysis with varimax rotation are shown in Table 1. The items “Finding something fun to do when I have no money”, “Helping other people cope with a difficult situation” and “Mediating a dispute or argument between two friends” did not load on any of the five factors. This outcome could be attributed to the characteristics of the convenience sample, which consisted mostly of female participants between 19 and 22 years of age. Kaufman (2012) conducted the exploratory factor analysis of the K-DOCS on a sample that also consisted mostly of female participants, but the participants of that study were between 18 and 66 years of age. In a subsequent confirmatory analysis, the instrument was administered to an international sample of adults between the ages of 18 and 73, as well as a sample of adults between 26 and 46 years of age from Poland, with male and female participants equally represented in the two samples (McKay et al., 2017). Awofala and Fatade (2015) administered the survey to a sample of students in Nigeria, but the sample had an equal representation of male and female participants and comprised students between 16 and 33 years of age and engaged in different fields of study. Since the present sample consisted mainly of young female adults with similar interests and backgrounds, it is possible that the outcome of the analysis was influenced by experiences with everyday tasks and attitudes towards those tasks that are typical for that demographic group. 169 170 translation and validation of the kaufman domains of creativity scale on .... Table 1 Exploratory factor analysis results Item 1 Finding something fun to do when I have no money - Helping other people cope with a difficult situation .41 Maintaining a good balance between my work and my personal life .42 Understanding how to make myself happy .46 Being able to work through my personal problems in a healthy way .69 Thinking of new ways to help people .48 Choosing the best solution to a problem .58 Planning a trip or event with friends that meets everyone’s needs .43 Getting people to feel relaxed and at ease 3 - Teaching someone how to do something Mediating a dispute or argument between two friends 2 .40 Writing a nonfiction article for a newspaper, newsletter or magazine .65 Writing a letter to the editor .67 Researching a topic using many different types of sources that may not be readily apparent .57 Debating a controversial topic from my own perspective .71 Responding to an issue in a context-appropriate way .46 Gathering the best possible assortment of articles or papers to support a specific point of view .48 Arguing a side in a debate that I do not personally agree with .69 Analysing the themes in a good book .59 Figuring out how to integrate critiques and suggestions while revising a work .61 Being able to offer constructive feedback based on my own reading of a paper .61 Coming up with a new way to think about an old debate .55 Writing a poem .61 Making up lyrics to a funny song .75 Making up rhymes .76 Composing an original song .79 Learning how to play a musical instrument .48 .44 Shooting a fun video to air on YouTube .49 Singing in harmony .42 Spontaneously creating lyrics to a rap song .75 4 5 c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Item Playing music in public Acting in a play 1 .40 2 3 4 .38 Carving something out of wood or similar material Figuring out how to fix a frozen or buggy computer 5 .48 .50 .60 Writing a computer program .72 Solving math puzzles .54 Taking apart machines and figuring out how they work .78 Building something mechanical (like a robot) .81 Helping to carry out or design a scientific experiment .68 Solving an algebraic or geometric proof .70 Constructing something out of metal, stone or similar material .46 .48 Drawing a picture of something I’ve never actually seen (like an alien) .58 Sketching a person or object .64 Doodling/drawing random or geometric designs .73 Making a scrapbook page out of my photographs .53 Taking a well-composed photograph using an interesting angle or approach .47 Making a sculpture or piece of pottery .59 Appreciating a beautiful painting .58 Coming up with my own interpretation of a classic work of art .49 Enjoying an art museum .44 Note. 1 = Self/Everyday; 2 = Scholarly; 3 = Performance; 4 = Mechanical/Scientific; 5 = Artistic. Adapted from Kaufman, 2012. The items “Learning how to play a musical instrument” and “Playing music in public” loaded on two factors: the Performance and Self/Everyday domains. In order to better understand this outcome, the analysis was repeated with six factors, and the aforementioned items loaded on the sixth factor along with the item “Singing in harmony”. The separation of these items into a new factor could be explained by the characteristics of the sample, as the majority of the participants had extensive experience in the arts. Approximately 40% (n = 88) of the participants had some form of additional, after-school art education, such as music, dancing and folklore as a combination of the two. Therefore, participants with experience in the arts and public art performances could be less likely to generalise their abilities to different types of arts than the general population. In other words, the participants of the present study do not, for instance, generalise their ability to play a musical instrument to acting in a play or the other way around. In addition to previous experiences in the arts, the 171 172 translation and validation of the kaufman domains of creativity scale on .... participants are enrolled in the study programme Early Childhood and Preschool Education as part of their initial teacher education. Many of their courses are associated with the arts (i.e., singing, dancing, music) in order to prepare them for performing these activities with children. As a result of their previous experiences in the arts and participation in the arts through initial teacher education, they understand the nuances of different artforms better than the general population, as well as their own abilities in different art forms, so they assess their creativity accordingly. It is also interesting to note that the items “Carving something out of wood or similar material” and “Constructing something out of metal, stone or similar material” loaded with higher coefficients on the Artistic domain than on the Mechanical/Scientific domain. This result is not unusual, as creating something in both cases can imply both a mechanical approach to reproducing a blueprint or a creative approach to making something new from the imagination. Since most of the participants were either involved in the arts through after-school programmes or required to participate in arts activities through their study programme at college, it is possible that they interpreted the tasks as artistic and creative rather than mechanical. These two items are the only items on the Mechanical/Scientific scale that describe tasks focused on creating something with physical materials instead of working on abstract tasks such as “Solving math puzzles” or “Writing a computer program”. Items that describe abstract tasks in fields of mathematics and computer science are less likely to be considered creative by participants who focus on arts in their education and do not have a strong enough background in fields such as mathematics or computer science to be creative in those types of tasks. On the other hand, carving and constructing something material can instead be considered artistic, as the participants would be working with tangible materials to create a physical product, much like a sculpture or a puppet that they are required to create as part of their initial education. It is also important to consider how the neglect of divergent thinking in education can contribute to these perceptions. Haylock (1987) demonstrated the ability to develop divergent thinking through mathematics, and several authors have elaborated on the feasibility of integrating the arts and STEM disciplines to promote creativity across the curriculum (Conradty & Bogner, 2018; Henriksen, 2014). However, due to the current teaching practices in education, students often associate creativity with the arts and are not familiar with the ability to produce multiple correct solutions or use different methods to solve a problem in STEM disciplines. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis are shown in Table 2. The five-factor model developed by Kaufman (2012) was used. Overall, the c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 coefficients are moderate and strong, greater than .40, with the exception of the item “Mediating a dispute or argument between two friends” in the Self/Everyday domain, which is .25. This is an expected outcome given the factor loadings on the Self/Everyday scale observed in the exploratory factor analysis, in which the aforementioned item failed to load. Table 2 Confirmatory factor analysis results Items 1 Finding something fun to do when I have no money .51 Helping other people cope with a difficult situation .41 Teaching someone how to do something .57 Maintaining a good balance between my work and my personal life .45 Understanding how to make myself happy .46 Being able to work through my personal problems in a healthy way .59 Thinking of new ways to help people .64 Choosing the best solution to a problem .68 Planning a trip or event with friends that meets everyone’s needs .51 Mediating a dispute or argument between two friends .25 Getting people to feel relaxed and at ease .48 2 Writing a nonfiction article for a newspaper, newsletter or magazine .75 Writing a letter to the editor .75 Researching a topic using many different types of sources that may not be readily apparent .66 Debating a controversial topic from my own perspective .71 Responding to an issue in a context-appropriate way .52 Gathering the best possible assortment of articles or papers to support a specific point of view .56 Arguing a side in a debate that I do not personally agree with .66 Analysing the themes in a good book .62 Figuring out how to integrate critiques and suggestions while revising a work .64 Being able to offer constructive feedback based on my own reading of a paper .67 Coming up with a new way to think about an old debate .64 3 Writing a poem .66 Making up lyrics to a funny song .83 4 5 173 174 translation and validation of the kaufman domains of creativity scale on .... Item 1 2 3 Making up rhymes .83 Composing an original song .81 Learning how to play a musical instrument .40 Shooting a fun video to air on YouTube .55 Singing in harmony .40 Spontaneously creating lyrics to a rap song .72 Playing music in public .43 Acting in a play .47 Carving something out of wood or similar material 4 5 .42 Figuring out how to fix a frozen or buggy computer .63 Writing a computer program .69 Solving math puzzles .53 Taking apart machines and figuring out how they work .82 Building something mechanical (like a robot) .84 Helping to carry out or design a scientific experiment .76 Solving an algebraic or geometric proof .71 Constructing something out of metal, stone or similar material .57 Drawing a picture of something I’ve never actually seen (like an alien) .58 Sketching a person or object .63 Doodling/drawing random or geometric designs .73 Making a scrapbook page out of my photographs .52 Taking a well-composed photograph using an interesting angle or approach .60 Making a sculpture or piece of pottery .62 Appreciating a beautiful painting .63 Coming up with my own interpretation of a classic work of art .59 Enjoying an art museum .41 Note. 1 = Self/Everyday; 2 = Scholarly; 3 = Performance; 4 = Mechanical/Scientific; 5 = Artistic. Adapted from Kaufman, 2012. The goodness-of-fit was assessed using the chi-square test, as well as the following goodness-of-fit indices: the comparative fit index (CFI), the TuckerLewis index (TLI), the root mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) and the standardised root mean-square residual (SRMR). The results of the assessment from the Croatian sample are shown in Table 3 along with the results reported by previous K-DOCS validation studies for reference. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 Table 3 Goodness-of-fit comparisons between samples Sample χ2 df CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR Croatian 2404.33 1165 .72 .71 .07 .09 Polish (McKay et al., 2017) 3822.58 1165 .77 .76 .07 .07 Nigerian (Awofala & Fatade, 2015) 1273.41 306 .95 .95 .04 n/a International (McKay et al., 2017) 5214.57 1165 .80 .79 .07 .06 Note. CFI = comparative fit index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis index, RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardised root mean residual. Lower results of the chi-square test are associated with better goodnessof-fit, χ2(1165) = 2404.33, p < .001. CFI and TLI indicate better goodness-of-fit as their value approaches 1.00, whereas RMSEA and SRMR approach 0.00 as goodness-of-fit improves. The goodness-of-fit of the five-factor model observed in the present study is comparable to the results reported by McKay et al. (2017), with better goodness-of-fit according to the results of the chi-square test and lower goodness-of-fit according to CFI and TLI. Awofala and Fatade (2015) reported better goodness-of-fit than any other study validating the K-DOCS. The five-factor model shows consistent goodness-of-fit estimates when the scale is administered to participants with different demographic characteristics, so it is possible to suggest that creativity could be defined as a domain-specific phenomenon that can be applied in the following domains: Self/Everyday, Scholarly, Performance, Mechanical/Scientific and Artistic (Kaufman, 2012). The characteristics of the sample can affect the results of the factor analysis, so the results of the exploratory factor analysis in the present study showed that the Scholarly domain accounted for the greatest proportion of total variance (.25), followed by the Performance domain (.21). Kaufman (2012) found that the Self/Everyday domain had the highest variance, whereas Awofala and Fatade (2015) reported that the Mechanical/Scientific domain accounted for most of the variance, possibly because students from mathematical and technical disciplines were well represented in their sample. Given the age of the participants in the present study, as well as their experience with additional after-school art education, their formal secondary school education backgrounds and the activities they have to complete as part of their initial teacher education, it is possible that their previous experiences in the Scholarly and Performance domains gave them greater confidence in their creative abilities in these domains as opposed to other domains. According to Kaufman (2012), such variations are expected because “if the K-DOCS is a valid instrument, 175 176 translation and validation of the kaufman domains of creativity scale on .... then specific populations should score higher on different domains (i.e., scientists should score higher on Mechanical/Scientific)” (p. 304). The results of this and previous studies confirm that sample characteristics can influence scores, which supports the validity of the scale, but more validations are necessary to establish the correlation between the self-reported assessment of creativity and objective tasks that measure creativity. In the present study, the participants were asked to self-assess their ability to perform tasks, but correlating an objective measurement of creativity on performing a certain task with self-reported values could further improve the validity of this study. The Croatian version of the scale should also be validated in a future study, but with a random sample that is representative of the general population. Although the results of the confirmatory factor analysis are consistent with previous studies and lend support to the K-DOCS as a valid instrument for measuring the five domains of creativity, the findings of the exploratory analysis can be generalised only as far as the sampling strategy permits. Conclusion The purpose of the present study was to validate the Croatian version of the K-DOCS instrument, a scale for measuring creativity in five different domains, on a sample of 222 Croatian early childhood and preschool education students. The participants considered themselves to be less creative in tasks that were associated with abstract thinking in the fields of mathematics and computer science than in tasks associated with other fields. In terms of practical implications for teacher education, it is important to consider how students can be encouraged to develop a creative approach in all fields so that they can one day encourage their students to develop creative thinking in those fields as well. The results of the exploratory factor analysis were mostly consistent with previous studies, but some variations were observed, which could be attributed to the characteristics of the convenience sample. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis were consistent with previous validation studies, so the Croatian version of the K-DOCS is a potentially feasible scale for assessing creativity as a domain-specific phenomenon. 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Her areas of scientific interest are the visual art teaching methodology, arts based research, creativity, competences of teachers and educators, puppetry and performing arts, various pedagogical directions and approaches in encouraging and developing visual arts among children. 179 180 reviews c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 doi: 10.26529/cepsj.1275 Milena Valenčič Zuljan and Jana Kalin, Instructional Methods and the Teacher’s Methodical Competence (In Slovene: Učne metode in razvoj učiteljeve metodične kompetence), Pedagoška fakulteta UL: 2020; 232 pp.: ISBN: 9789612532628 Reviewed by Romina Plešec Gasparič1 The monograph Učne metode in razvoj učiteljeve metodične kompetence (Instructional Methods and the Teacher’s Methodical Competence, Valenčič Zuljan and Kalin, 2020) is 232 pages long and divided into nine chapters, a subject index and an author index. It consists of two parts. In the first part, the authors theoretically define instructional methods and focus on the methodical competence of the teacher, while the second part offers an insight into the practical experiences of thirteen teachers: their planning, implementation and evaluation of instructional methods in everyday school life. In the introduction, the authors explain the purpose of the monograph, which is to contribute to critical reflection on teachers’ own planning, implementation and evaluation of instructional methods. In the first chapter, the authors deal with the definition of the central concept. Their starting point is Poljak’s (1974) statement that there is no other didactical field that has as many divergences as the field of instructional methods. Poljak (1974) demonstrates that the terminological and conceptual confusion in didactics arises because “the definition of instructional methods is often identified with many other issues of instruction, i.e., sources of knowledge, cognitive functions, sociological forms of grouping, different methodical concepts of instruction of a particular subject, etc.” (p. 87). Similarly, Lavrnja (1996) problematises both the terminology and the definition of instructional methods. Valenčič Zuljan and Kalin (2020) provide an overview of national and international classifications, which are synthesised in the second chapter, and 1 Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Romina.Plesec@pef.uni-lj.si. 181 182 milena valenčič zuljan and jana kalin, instructional methods and the teacher’s ... agree with Poljak (1974) and Lavrnja (1996) regarding the aforementioned divergence. The authors present various classifications in their book, on the basis of which they develop their own classification, drawing from both traditional and contemporary teaching premises. Additional visual support is provided by a scheme that clearly presents their classification (Valenčič Zuljan and Kalin, 2020, Figure 1, p.16). The text is underpinned with important domestic and foreign sources and research findings, from the “pioneers” of didactics (e.g., Komensky, Bloom; Slovenian author Šilih), to the most contemporary researchers of the field. The latest research connected with instructional methods and emphasising the factors of effective teaching give the text a special breadth; traditional didactic thinking is constantly met with modern concepts of teaching. In the third, main chapter of the monograph, the authors introduce each instructional method, defining it in detail at the beginning of each subchapter. They present its use, advantages and limitations, connecting it to instructional objectives, instructional principles, instructional phases and the grouping of students, thus constantly drawing attention to the interconnectedness of factors and the complexity of instruction. Each individual method is discussed in its instructional context, providing an insight into its specificity, while also shedding light on the web that a particular instructional method weaves with other instructional methods and with other didactic elements of instruction. Instructional methods are presented as a concept that is sharply delineated and does not allow for the addition of methods, but is nonetheless open to the possibilities of information and communication technologies, to the changing relationship between teachers and learners, and to contemporary notions of effective instruction. In Chapter 4, the authors introduce instructional methods in the function of differentiation and individualisation as one of the ways to adapt instruction. They define the terms differentiation and individualisation in detail and explain their applicative value, emphasising that their application is a complex skill that requires the teacher to have a thorough understanding of the content and the characteristics of the students, as well as excellent teaching skills and a firm grasp of teaching approaches and strategies (p. 105). Chapter 5 highlights the teacher’s professional development in methodical competence, which is first defined and explained. The authors then systematically present the contextual knowledge necessary for the development of methodical competence. In Chapter 6, Valenčič Zuljan and Kalin (2020) contrast the concepts of instructional method, instructional strategy and didactic strategy, and discuss c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 their mutual connections. Terminologically and conceptually, it is very valuable to be introduced to some didactic strategies: traditional, inquiry, project-based, problem-based, programme-oriented, work-based and team-based instruction. The authors conclude the chapter with a review of research findings on these didactic strategies. In the theoretical section, the text goes into depth, but also provides cognitive support through numerous concrete and practical examples of the application of each instructional method. These examples are from different subject areas, different subject content and different instructional situations, enabling the authors to address a wide range of readers. In the monograph, the authors share their personal approach to each problem, encouraging critical reading and finding adequate solutions. Through their reflection, they always acknowledge the importance of the “old” school and traditional instruction, while also emphasising the possibilities of modern instruction. In doing so, they enhance the work of their predecessors and enrich it with new dimensions. In the notes, the more sophisticated reader can find additional detailed explanations of some terms, comparisons of the ideas of different authors, and references to additional reading and research reports. The theoretical part of the monograph is enhanced by teachers’ experiences, which occupy a special place in the monograph: the authors emphasise the autonomy of teachers when it comes to method modification, as each instance of instructional method implementation is creative and inimitable, and together with other didactic elements (student grouping, instructional phases, instructional objectives and instructional principles) forms a unique instructional situation. The experiences shared by the teachers make visible the processes of planning, implementing and evaluating lessons, and allow the reader with previous pedagogical experience to identify with the teachers’ experiences. Above all, such readers will identify with the professional development described by the teachers, reflect on their own teaching practice, perhaps come to terms with the difficulties they struggled with themselves as novices, and gain confirmation that the stages of professional development are similar for most teachers, regardless of the educational level at which they teach. The authors summarise their theoretical reflections and research findings in the final chapter. In their reflections, the authors point out dilemmas and pitfalls that are usually not fully accessible to us because of our habitual perspective and routine. They draw particular attention to a mono-method approach, on the one hand, and to method clustering, on the other, which can result from our desire 183 184 milena valenčič zuljan and jana kalin, instructional methods and the teacher’s ... for variety. The authors emphasise thoughtful selection and thorough preparation for every implementation of instruction. The common thread throughout the text is the authors’ constant emphasis on the importance of method modification and the mutual combination of methods. Special importance is ascribed to constant professional reflection on one’s own teaching and the development of methodical competence. Focusing primarily on instructional methods, the monograph was necessary and expected, as it helps us understand the breadth, depth and importance of instructional methods. It is also a guidepost when deciding between different methods: the ways or paths that will lead us to the established instructional goals. One of the main merits of the book is that it appeals to a wide range of readers. In educational settings, it will be indispensable for school leaders who observe and care about the quality of instruction. It will also assist school counsellors when they need to find ways to help teachers and students with diverse learning needs. The book will be a fundamental resource for all university students of education in their early stages of acquiring methodical competence. The book is no doubt primarily intended for teachers at all levels of education – from preschool to university – as it provides support, presents practical experiences and, through personal narratives of teachers, gives all teachers autonomy in implementing instructional methods. There are several reasons why translations of didactic terms are problematic, including different academic, scientific and research starting points (Protner & Wakounig, 2007; Skubic Ermenc, 2014) and the accessibility of international scientific literature. Translation is particularly problematic in the area of instructional methods; in the Anglo-Saxon world, the common term “teaching methods” is quite loose, if not all-encompassing, and does not achieve the precision of the definition of instructional methods that we know (and aspire to). This is one of the reasons we decided to use the term “instructional” instead of “teaching” methods in this book review. Despite the fact that instructional methods are defined and delineated, they are still a dynamic concept that depends on many influencing factors, so they will certainly be a topic of ongoing discussion in the future. The book Instructional Methods and the Teacher’s Methodical Competence (2020), written by renowned Slovenian didactics experts, Prof. Dr Milena Valenčič Zuljan and Prof. Dr Jana Kalin, is an important milestone in the development of contemporary didactics in Slovenia and elsewhere, enabling us to approach greater terminological and conceptual clarity in this field. Moreover, we are reminded that despite the innovation of instruction and the ever greater use of ICT, instructional methods remain one of the main factors influencing the quality of instruction. c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 References Lavrnja, I. (1996). Poglavlja iz didaktike [Chapters from didactics]. Pedagoški fakultet u Rijeci. Poljak, V. (1974). Didaktika [Didactics]. Državna založba Slovenije. Protner, E., & Wakounig, V. (2007). Podobe reformske pedagogike [Images of reform pedagogy]. Sodobna pedagogika, 4(58), 6–22. Skubic Ermenc, K. (2014). Prevajanje pojma “pedagogika” v angleški jezik in primer primerjalne pedagogike [Translation of the term “pedagogy” into English and the case of comparative pedagogy]. Sodobna pedagogika 1(65), 56–71. Valenčič Zuljan, M., & Kalin, J. (2020). Učne metode in razvoj učiteljeve metodične competence [Teaching methods and development of teachers’ methodical competence]. Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta. 185 186 c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 doi: 10.26529/cepsj.1276 Vesna Leskovšek, Tadeja Kodele and Nina Mešl (Eds.), Child Protection from Violence and Neglect in Slovenia (In Slovene: Zaščita otrok pred nasiljem in zanemarjanjem v Sloveniji), Fakulteta za socialno delo UL: 2019; 278 pp.: ISBN: 9789616569712 Reviewed by Mija Marija Klemenčič Rozman1 This book on child protection from violence and neglect in Slovenia represents an answer to the needs in practice, explain the editors in the preface. They argue that despite the progress in legislation, the advancement of reporting violence, and collaboration between institutions in Slovenia, there are still difficulties when it comes to the actual procedures. Acknowledging the complexity of the procedures and the knowledge needed to comprehend this phenomenon, the thirteen contributing authors emphasise the importance of an interdisciplinary approach, which they demonstrate by collaborating in different combinations of two to three co-authors in the majority of the chapters. The book consists of eight chapters besides the preface and concludes with two reviews. Following a line from general to specific, the content is structured in two parts, each consisting of four chapters. In the beginning of the first chapter, Jasna Podreka and Veronika Tašner present a historical overview of the concept of the child in the European and Slovenian context and demonstrate its development into the modern conceptualisation. They place the concept of the child in a legislative framework and elaborate questions on systemic protection of the child’s best interests. In the discussion, they integrate the term ‘child’s voice’ as a key term in forming the highest degree of child protection in theory and practice. The authors analyse this term in the area of divorce as a civil procedure, stating that this area represents the foundation of child protection. Their findings show that in practice the interest of the child is (too) often in conflict 1 Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Mija-Marija.Klemencic@pef.uni-lj.si. 187 188 vesna leskovšek, tadeja kodele and nina mešl (eds.), child protection from ... with the interest of the parents, even in cases where it is clear that the parents are not able to work in the (best) interest of the child. This topic is further elaborated in the second chapter, in which Katja Filipčič integrates the child’s interest in legal terms and legislative rules and explicates the state’s jurisdiction in the area of protecting the child facing violence. The author demonstrates the fragile balance between the state’s responsibility to intervene within the family while avoiding interventions that are too intensive or too fast. She gives a detailed presentation of the duty to report and the legislative procedures for child protection, with special insight into the restraining order. The author shows the role of the child who appears as a witness in criminal proceedings, and reveals that the chances of secondary victimisation of such children have decreased since some major steps were undertaken in the implementation of certain legal institutes in Slovenia. Nevertheless, she adds, Slovenia is still facing parallel and unconnected legal procedures that create situations in which the child gets lost within them. In the third chapter, Gordana Čižman presents the area of assessing and defining the interest of the child in protection procedures in social work centres. The author emphasises the complexity of this professional duty due to various reasons. One is the lack of clearly defined measures of the notion the child’s (best) interest and the extreme lack of research on this topic, which offers professionals the discretionary right to determine the child’s best interest by themselves. The only indirect guideline is court practice. Another reason is clearly the complexity of situations, which leads to similar circumstances having a different degree of importance for the child’s interest in different cases. It is therefore crucial that the social worker uses dialogical work to thoroughly investigate the child’s world and interests. The third reason concerns the professional conditions for undertaking this task. Often social workers in social work centres are informed about the child’s circumstances far too late to be able to work gradually from prevention towards more intrusive procedures. The author argues that it is crucial for other services (medical services, school) to acquire the knowledge to recognise the risks within the family and connect with social services, as well as to develop sensitivity towards violence in society in general. In the next chapter, Darja Zavrišek, Ksenja Domiter Protner and Maja Drobnič Radobuljac discuss two preconditions that must be satisfied in order for professionals to recognise, prevent and support children facing violence: interdisciplinarity and intersectionality. The interdisciplinary perspective helps to overcome the limits of a specific discipline and to connect knowledge, which leads to enhanced flexibility when thinking about specific problems, while the c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 intersectionality perspective helps to understand how different social categories overlap and thus create new forms of inequalities where risks are piling up. The authors clearly illustrate this with examples of children and their life situations. These examples not only punctuate the theory, but also indicate the meaning of intersectionality when working in the area of child protection. Moreover, they show the role of each of the professionals (teacher, social worker, counsellor, policeman, doctor, etc.) included in cases of child protection and the extensive impact that each of them has when (not) accomplishing his/her professional duties. To sum up, there are two main topics of the first part of the book. One is the aforementioned diversity of the characteristics of children’s contexts and therefore risks, while the other is the understanding that the child should not be a by-stander in procedures that determine his/her future. Understanding the variety of circumstances and enabling the child’s active participation when it comes to understanding her/his best interests represent the ground on which to construct the viewpoints on the procedural implementations that comprise the second part of the book. Danijela Frangež, Maja Drobnič Radobuljac and Tadeja Kodele open the second part with a chapter on revealing violence against and neglect of children. They review the forms and signs of violence and neglect, examine the differences that arise depending on whether the child or the adult reveals this violence and neglect, and describe the continuum of reactions of all of the parties involved (parents, perpetrators, professionals, environment). The authors conducted a qualitative study to gain a better insight into how professionals recognise violence, how it affects them and how they react to it. The findings show that physical violence is detected most frequently, that it is important for professionals to be trained to recognise violence (and since most professionals obtain this training outside the institutions in which they work, this calls for extra financial resources for institutions), and that these situations are emotionally demanding. In the conclusion, the authors suggest some important strategies for the further development of this area and draw a distinct line of difference between revealing abuse and reporting it. The latter is a central theme of the next chapter by Vesna Leskošek, Neža Miklič and Sanja Sitar Surić, in which the authors start from the premise that reporting violence is the key point for legal prosecution and for enabling violent acts to be proven. They describe the reporting procedure that professionals in different institutions perform and their further ex officio actions. In Slovenia, there is a need to decrease the number of cases where children are requested to recount the experienced violence many times throughout the procedures. With this in mind, the authors present the conditions and characteristics of 189 190 vesna leskovšek, tadeja kodele and nina mešl (eds.), child protection from ... conversation with the child at the police and the social work centre, with special attention devoted to helping the child feel safe during the procedures. They also present the programme of the House of Children (an implementation of Iceland’s Barnahus model), which is in the process of implementation in Slovenia with the main object of providing all of the initial parts of the procedures subsequent to the report in one place. Such an approach is more than necessary for children who have experienced violence and neglect, because these are children who, in many or most cases, have experienced trauma, as Nina Mešl and Maja Drobnič Radobuljac point out in the seventh chapter of the book. The authors align many perspectives of conceptualising trauma in order to grasp its contemporary definition. The issue of children very often experiencing violence from the same person(s) who should be the caring figure(s), which results in developmental trauma, is specifically addressed. In order to avoid (re)traumatisation by institutional policies, practices and procedures, the authors present a trauma-informed approach and the necessity of its implementation in practice, illustrating it with the results of five interviews with children included in protection procedures. The book concludes with a chapter on interinstitutional cooperation, its problems, challenges and good practices by Ksenja Domiter Protner, Vesna Leskošek and Danijela Frangež. The authors first define interinstitutional cooperation as professional actions in the child’s best interest, and present models of such cooperation with an understanding of the child’s position in it. They then review the legislative framework of interinstitutional collaborating, especially in the area of sexual exploitation and abuse, children with special needs, and migrant children, refugees and asylum seekers. They conclude the chapter with a presentation of the experiences of coordinators for violence at social work centres in the field of interinstitutional teams. I would like to emphasise one specific quality of the present book. Besides extensive theoretical insight, often supported with their research projects, the authors offer significant examples from the practical field. The cases presented act as compendium of warning signs of professional mistakes, showing the way towards examples of good practice and institutional practices that actually enable children who have faced violence or neglect in their life history to (re)gain safety. From this perspective, the book has achieved its aim of acting as an invitation for the readers/professionals in the field of child protection to collaborate and combine their knowledge, experience and expertise to act in the child’s best interest. When thinking about readers of presented work, I agree with the editors that the first cohort consists of professionals who work with children who share c e p s Journal | Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 the aforementioned experience of mishandling in their life history. Needless to say, this includes all children, because sometimes – or, unfortunately, often – neglect and abuse are well hidden, and are embedded in every social class, nationality, religion, etc. (UNICEF, 2014). Following the idea of intersectionality, the professionals of interest are not only those who work directly in the area of protecting the victims (in Slovenia, this includes social workers, judges, lawyers, policemen, criminologists, psychologists, social pedagogues, etc.), but also all professionals who work with these children in other contexts of their lives (such as teachers in schools, nurses and doctors in hospitals, coaches in sport teams, teachers in music schools, etc.). The present book also aims to reach policymakers in the area of child protection. Moreover, it is an important source of study for all students who are following the path to become professionals who will work with or have contact with children in some part of the children’s lives. It can be a valuable support for the knowledge of volunteers in child and youth work, and all other non-professionals interested in this phenomenon. If it were written in English, it would be interesting reading for nonSlovenians to gain an insight into the state of the art in Slovenia; on the other hand, that would necessarily decrease the number of the readers in Slovenia, who are in fact the target group. In the end, it is inevitable to mention the underlying message of the book, which is in line with the basic dynamics of violence as an phenomenon experienced by an individual, by social groups or by societies in general. It is traumatic to experience violence and potentially traumatic to reveal it. As such, throughout history, as well as in modern times, humankind has often failed to address violence, trying to push it to the unknown, to deny and forget it, as Lewis Herman (2010) postulated decades ago. The reviewed book speaks about this topic, helping not only to talk about it, but also to address it correctly in the case of different institutions and their professionals in Slovenia, and to offer guidelines for further development. References Herman Lewis, J. (2010). Trauma and recovery. Pandora. United Nations Children’s Fund. (2014). Hidden in plain sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children. UNICEF. 191 Editor in Chief / Glavni in odgovorni urednik Iztok Devetak – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Associate Editors / Področni uredniki in urednice Slavko Gaber – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Janez Krek – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Karmen Pižorn – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Veronika Tašner – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Editorial Board / Uredniški odbor Michael W. Apple – Department of Educational Policy Studies, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, usa Branka Baranović – Institute for Social Research in Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia Cesar Birzea – Faculty of Philosophy, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Vlatka Domović – Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia Grozdanka Gojkov – Serbian Academy of Education Belgrade, Serbia Jan De Groof – College of Europe, Bruges, Belgium and University of Tilburg, the Netherlands Andy Hargreaves – Lynch School of Education, Boston College, Boston, usa Tatjana Hodnik – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Georgeta Ion – Department of Applied Pedagogy, University Autonoma Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Milena Košak Babuder – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Mojca Kovač Šebart – Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Bruno Losito – Department for Educational Sciences, University Studi Roma Tre, Rome, Italy Lisbeth Lundhal – Department of Applied Educational Science, Umea University, Umea, Sweden Sunčica Macura – Faculty of Education, University of Kragujevac, Serbia Ljubica Marjanovič Umek – Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Silvija Markić – Ludwigsburg University of Education, Institute for Science and Technology, Germany Mariana Moynova – University of Veliko Turnovo, Veliko Turnovo, Bulgaria Hannele Niemi – Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Jerneja Pavlin – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Mojca Peček Čuk – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Аnа Pešikan-Аvramović – Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Tina Pirc – Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Igor Radeka – Departmenet of Pedagogy, University of Zadar, Zadar, Croatia Špela Razpotnik – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Pasi Sahlberg – Harvard Graduate School of Education, Boston, usa Igor Saksida – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Mitja Sardoč – Educational Research Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia Blerim Saqipi – Faculty of Education, University of Prishtina, Kosovo Michael Schratz – School of Education, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria Jurij Selan – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Darija Skubic – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Vasileios Symeonidis – Institute of Education Research and Teacher Education, University of Graz, Austria Marjan Šimenc – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Keith S. Taber – Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Shunji Tanabe – Kanazawa Gakuin University, Kanazawa, Japan Jón Torfi Jónasson – School of Education, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland Gregor Torkar – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Zoran Velkovski – Faculty of Philosophy, SS. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Janez Vogrinc – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Robert Wagenaar – Faculty of Arts, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands Pavel Zgaga – Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Focus issue editors: Vol.11, No3, Year 2021 / Urednika številke: Blerim Saqipi and Janez Vogrinc Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal issn 2232-2647 (online edition / spletna verzija) issn 1855-9719 (printed edition / tiskana verzija) Publication frequency: 4 issues per year Subject: Teacher Education, Educational Science Published by / Založila: University of Ljubljana Press / Založba Univere v Ljubljani / For the publisher: Gregor Majdič, The Rector of the University of / rektor Univerze v LjubljaniLjubljana / Issued by: Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana / For the issuer: Janez Vogrinc, The dean of Faculty of Education / dekan Technical editor: Lea Vrečko / English language editor: Terry T. 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Naklada tiskane izdaja: 150 izvodov Več informacij lahko preberete na spletni strani http://cepsj.si/. c e p s Journal Editorial The Contexts and Processes of Shaping Teacher Identity — Blerim Saqipi and Janez Vogrinc Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Vol.11 | No3 | 2021 http://cepsj.si VAR IA The Understanding of Inclusive Education in Kosovo: Legal and Empirical Argumentation Razumevanje inkluzivnega izobraževanja na Kosovu: pravna in empirična utemeljitev — Naser Zabeli, Blerta Perolli Shehu and Jeffrey Anderson Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Based on Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Primary School Pupils Samoučinkovitost učiteljev pri obravnavi učencev s simptomi motnje pozornosti s hiperaktivnostjo — Nataša Vlah, Tena Velki and Emina Kovačić Translation and Validation of the Kaufman Domains of Creativity Scale on a Croatian Sample of Early Childhood and Preschool Education Students Prenos in potrditev Kaufmanove lestvice ustvarjalnih področij na hrvaškem vzorcu učencev v zgodnjem otroštvu in predšolskih otrok — Marijana Županić Benić B O OK R EVI EW Milena Valenčič Zuljan and Jana Kalin, Instructional Methods and the Teacher’s Methodical Competence (In Slovene: Učne metode in razvoj učiteljeve metodične kompetence), Pedagoška fakulteta UL: 2020; 232 pp.: ISBN: 9789612532628 — Romina Plešec Gasparič Vesna Leskovšek, Tadeja Kodele and Nina Mešl (Eds.), Child Protection from Violence and Neglect in Slovenia (In Slovene: Zaščita otrok pred nasiljem in zanemarjanjem v Sloveniji), Fakulteta za socialno delo UL: 2019; 278 pp.: ISBN: 9789616569712 — Mija Marija Klemenčič Rozman issn 1855-97 19 c e p s Journal c e p s Journal Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021 c o n t e n t s F O C US Teacher Educators’ Professional Identity in English-Medium Instruction at a Finnish University Poklicna identiteta izobraževalcev učiteljev pri pouku v angleškem jeziku na finski univerzi — Sotiria Pappa and Josephine Moate Building professional identity during pre-service teacher education Oblikovanje poklicnih identitet v okviru izobraževanja učiteljev — Gemma Torres-Cladera, Núria Simó-Gil, Laura Domingo-Peñafiel, and Vanesa Amat-Castells The Impact of External Contextual Factors on Teaching Candidates Vpliv zunanjih kontekstualnih dejavnikov na študente, ki se izobražujejo za učitelje — Alexander S. Butler The Conceptual and Methodological Construction of a ‘Global’ Teacher Identity through TALIS Konceptualno in metodološko oblikovanje »globalne« identitete učitelja s pomočjo TALIS — Armend Tahirsylaj, William C. Smith, Gulab Khan and Wieland Wermke Music Teachers’ Perception of Music Teaching at the Stage of Early Adolescence Stališča učiteljev glasbe do glasbenega poučevanja v obdobju zgodnje adolescence — Petra Brdnik Juhart and Barbara Sicherl Kafol Vol.11 | No3 | Year 2021